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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

Universal Dictionary

OF

ARTS, SCIENCES, AND LITERATURE.

VOL. XX.

Be ia ig : (ices eam ae
TT ee Ie ee eS, eS
KIGRIOIOYO *
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THE

CYCLOPADIA;

OR,

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Arts, Sciences, and Literature.

BY

ABRAHAM REES, D.D. F.R.S. F.L.S. S. Amer. Soc.

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF

EMINENT PROFESSIONAL GENTLEMEN.

$$

ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS,

BY THE MOST DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS.

$$
IN THIRTY-NINE VOLUMES.
VOL. XX.

——

LONDON:

Printsp FoR LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, & BROWN, Parernoster-Row,

F.C. AND J. RIVINGTON, A.STRAHAN, PAYNE AND FOSS, SCATCHERD AND LETTERMAN, J. CUTHELL,
CLARKE AND SONS, LACKINGTON HUGHES HARDING MAVOR AND JONES, J- AND A. ARCH,
‘CADELL AND DAVIES, S&S. BAGSTER, Je MAWMAN, JAMES BLACK AND SON, BLACK KINGSBURY
PARBURY AND ALLEN, R.SCHOLEY, J. BOOTH, J. BOOKER, SUTTABY EVANCE AND FOX, BALDWIN
CRADOCK AND JOY, SHERWOOD NEELY AND JONES, R. SAUNDERS, HURST ROBINSON AND CO.)
J. DICKINSON, J. PATERSON, E. WHITESIDE, WILSON AND SONS, AND BRODIE AND DOWDING.-

1819.

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OR, A NEW

UNIVERSAL DICTIONARY

OF

Ou ee ae! Se Pie Nn’ CES:

K.. LN.

ILN, in Agriculture, a kid of oven or flove for ad-
mitting heat, in order to dry fub{tances of various kinds,
as corn, malt, hops, &c. It alfo fignifies a fabric or build-
ing conftruéted for the purpofe of burning lime-ftone,
chalk, and other calcareous ftones, into lime. Kilns are of
‘different kinds, and formed in different ways, according to
the purpofes for which they are defigned.
Kitn-dfhes, the afhes made in kilns where wood, ftraw,
furze, &c. are burnt.
for almoft any kind of foil, but efpecially fuch as poffefs
much vegetable matter. In the weltern diftri€ts, the farmers
fift them over their corn and grafs; but this muft not be
done in windy weather, becaufe they are fo very light, that
they would eafily be blown away and loft. They are found
to fucceed beft when laid on juft before rain falls. See
ASHES. '
Kirn, Brick. See Bricx-Kiln and Brick.
Kiiy, Hop, a ftove or kiln conftruéted for the purpofe
of drying or {toying hops. See Hop and Oasr.
Kin, Lime, a fort of kiln conftruéted for the purpofe
of burning various kinds of calcareous fubftances, fuch as
lime-ftone, chalk, fhells, &c. into lime. They are built of
, different forms or fhapes, according to the manner in which
they are to be wrought, and the kinds of fuel which are
to-be employed. It has been remarked, in a work on landed
property, that, in places where materials are dear, from their
being fetched from a. diltance, and where the fuel is coals,
,and alfo expenfive, the form of a kiln is moftly that of an
inverted cone, a form which has its inconveniencies ; but
in diftricts where the art of burning lime is practifed with
fuperior attention and correCtnefs, the form has of late
years been gradually changing from conical to elliptical.
But, in his opinion, the bet form of a lime furnace, in
Vor. XX.

Strahan and Prefton,
[PS _ * . >.

Thefe afhes are ufeful as manure

the eftablifhed praétice of the prefent day, is that of the
egg placed upon its narrower end, having part of its
broader end {truck off, and its fides fomewhat compreffed,
efpecially towards the lower extremity ; the ground plot
or bottom of the kiln being nearly an oval, with an eye, Or
draft-hole, toward each end of it.” It is fuppofed that
“ two advantages are gained, by this form, over that of the
cone. By the upper part of the kiln being contracted, the
heat does not fly off fo freely as it does out of a {preading
cone. On the contrary, it thereby receives a degree of
reverberation, which adds to its intenfity."" But the other,
and {till more valuable effe £t is this: ‘* when the cooled lime
is drawn out at the bottom of the furnace, the ignited mafs,
in the upper parts of it, fettles down, freely and evenly,
into the central parts of the kiln; whereas, in a conical
furnace, the regular contraétion of its width, in the upper
as well as the lower parts of it, prevents the’ burning
materials from fettling uniformly, and levelling downward.
They ‘¢ hang” upon the fides.of the kiln, and either form
a dome at the bottom of the burning mafs, with a void {pace
beneath. it, thereby endangering the ftruéture, if not the
workmen employed; or, breaking down in the centre,
form a funnel, down which the under-burnt {tones find
their way to the draft-holes.’’ And ‘ the contraGtion of
the lower part of the kiln has not.the fame effe&t ; for, after
the fuel is exhaufted, the adhefion ceates, the mafs loofens,
and, as the lime cools, the lefs roomit requires: It theres
fore runs down freely to the draft-holes, notwithRanding
the quick contraction of the bottom of tbe kiln or fur
nace.””

And, laftly, that, <* with refpect to the lime-furnace
(which is, he thinks, entitled to the moit fedulous attention
ef agricultural chemiftry), the fire requires to be furnifhed

B with,

KILN.

with a regular fupply of air. When a kiln is firft lighted,
the draft-holes afford the required fupply. But after the
fire becomes ftationary, in the middle, or towards the upper
part of the kiln (efpecially of a tall kiln), while the {pace
below is occupied by burnt lime, the fupply from ordinary
draft-holes becomes infufficient. If the walls of the kiln
have been carried up dry or without mortar, the air finds
its way through them to the fire. In large deep kilns that
are built with air-tight walls, it is common to form air-
holes in their fides, efpecially in front, over the draft-holes.
But thefe convey thé air, in partial currents, to one fide of
the kiln only, whereas that which is admitted at the draft-
holes paffes regularly upward to the centre, as well as to
every fide of the burning mafs; and, moreover, tends to
cool the burnt lime in its paflage downward, thereby con-
tributing to the eafe and health of the workmen. Hence
he is of opinion, that the fize of the draft-holes ought to
be proportionate to that of the kiln, and the fize of the
ftones taken jointly (air paffing more freely among large
than among {mall ftones), and that the required fupply of
air fhould be wholly admitted at the draft-holes. By a
fliding or a fhifting valve, the fupply might be regulated,
and the degree of heat be encreafed or diminifhed, at plea-
fure,’’ according to circumitances.

The moit ancient kind of lime-kiln is probably that
which is made by excavating the earth in the form of a cone,
of fuch a fize as may be neceffary ; and afterwards building
up the fides, or not, according to the circumftances of the
cafe: the materials being then laid in, in alternate layers of
fuel and ftone, properly broken, until the whole is filled
up. ‘The top is then covered with fods, in order that the
heat may be prevented from efcaping ; and the fire lighted
at the bottom, and the whole of the contents burnt, in a
greater or lefs {pace of time, in proportion to the nature of
the ftone, and the quantity that is contained in the kiln.
From the circumftance of the top parts of thefe kilns, in
fome diftriéts, being covered over, and the fides fometimes
built up with fods, they are termed /od-silns, in order to
diftinguifh them from the other forts. When the whole of
the contents of fuch kilns are grown cold, they are drawn
or taken out from the bottom ; and the kiln again filled, if
neceflary. Thefe kilns are obvioufly intended for burning
only one kiln-full at atime. But as the burning of lime in
this way is tedious and uneconomical, other methods and
forms of kilns have been had recourfe to. Where lime is
much wanted, either for agriculture or other purpofes, they
therefore ufe perpetual kilns, or ‘what are more generally
known by the name of draw-kilns. 'Thefe, as all lime-kilns
ought to be, are, the author of Modern Agriculture fays,
fituated by the fide of a rifing bank, or fheltered by-an arti-
ficial mound of earth. They are generally built either of
ftone or brick ; but the latter, as being better adapted to
ftand exceffive degrees of heat, is confidered as preferable.
The outfide form of fuch kilns is fometimes cylindrical, but
more generally {quare. The infide fhould be formed in the
thape‘of a hogfhead, or an egg, opened a little at both ends,
and fet on the fmalleft ; being fmall in circumference at the
bottom, gradually wider towards the middle, and then con-
trating again towards the top. In kilns conftruéted in this
way, it is obferved, fewer coals are neceffary, in confe-
quence of the great degree of reverberation which is created,
above that which takes place in kilns formed in the fhape of
a fugar-loaf reverfed. Near the bottom, in large kilns, two
or more apertures are made: thefe are {mall at the infide of
the kiln, but are floped wider, both at the fides and the top,
as they extend towards the outfide of the building. The

ufes of thefe apertures are for admitting the air neceffary for
{upplying the fire, and alfo for permitting the labourers to
approach with a drag and fhovel, to draw out the calcined
lime. From the bottom of the kiln within, in fome cafés,
a {mall building, called a horfe, is raifed in the form of a
wedge, and fo conftruéted as to accelerate the operation of
drawing out the burned lime-{tone, by forcing it to fall into
the apertures which have been mentioned above. In other
kilns of this kind, in place of this building, there is an iron
grate near the bottom, which comes clofe to the infide wall,
except at the apertures where the lime is drawn out.
When the kiln is to be filled, a parcel of furze or faggots is
laid at the bottom ; over this a layer of coals; then a layer
of lime-ftone, which is previoufly broken into pieces, about
the fize of a man’s fift; and fo on alternately, ending with
a layer of coals, which is fometimes, though feldom, covered
with fods or turf, inorder to keep the heat as intenfe as pof-
fible. ‘The fire is then lighted in the apertures; and when
the lime-{tone towards the bottom is completely calcined, the
fuel being confiderably exhaulted, the lime-ftone at the tep
fubfides. The labourers then put in an addition of lime-
ftone and coal at top, and draw out at bottom as much as
they find thoroughly burned ; and thus go on, till any quan-
tity required be calcined. "When lime-itone is burned with
coals from 24 to 34 bufhels, on a medium, 3 bufhels of cal-
cined lime-ftone are produced for every buthel of coals ufed
in the procefs. :

A lime-kiln of this fort is defcribed in count Rumford’s
Effays, which is in poffeffion of the Dublin Society, as well
as the principal objeéts that ought to be had in view in con-
itruting of the kiln pointed out; the firlt of which is, * to
caufe the fuel to burn in fuch a manner as to confume the
fmoke, which has here been done by obliging the fmoke to
defcend and pafs through the fire, in order that as much
heat as poffible might be generated. Secondly, to caufe the
flame and hot vapour, which rife from the fire, to come in
éontaét with the lime-itone by a very large furface, in order
to economize the heat, and prevent its going off into the at-
mofphere ; which was done by making the body of the kiln
in the form of a hollow truncated cone, and very high in
proportion to its diameter ; and by filling it quite up to the
top with lime-ftone, the fire being made to enter near the
bottom of the cone.

“ Thirdly, to make the procefs of burning lime per-
petual, in order to prevent the waite of heat which una-
voidably attends the cooling of the kiln, in emptying and
filling it, when, to perform that operation, it is neceffary to
put out the fire.

«¢ And, fourthly, to contrive matters fo, that the lime
in which the procefs of burning is juft finifhed, and which
of courfe is ftill intenfely hot, may, in cooling, be made to
give off its heat in fuch a manner, as to affift in heating the
refh quantity of cold lime-ftone with which the kiln is re-
plenifhed, as often asa portion of lime is taken out of it.

« To effe€tuate thefe purpofes, the fuel is not mixed with
the lime-ftone, but is burned in a clofe fire-place, which
opens into one fide of the kiln, fome diftance above the bot-
tom of it. For large ime-kilns on thefe principles, there
may be feveral fir>-places all opening into the fame cone, and
fituated on different fides of it; which fire-places may be
conitruéted and regulated like the fire-places of the furnaces
ufed for burning porcelain.

« At the bottom of the kiln there is a door, which is
occafionally opened to take out the lime.

“When, in confequence of a portion of lime being
drawn out of the kiln, its contents fettle down or pry

the

KI

the empty fpace in the upper part of the kiln, which is oc-
eafioned by this fubtraétion of the burned lime, is immedi-
ately filled up with frefh lime-{tone.

« As foon as a portion of lime is taken away, the door
by which it is removed mutt be immediately fhut, and the
joinings well clofed with moift clay, to prevent a draft of
cold air through the kiln. A {mall opening, however, mutt
be left, for reafons which are explained below.

* As the fire enters the kiln at fome diftance from the
bottom of it, and as the flame rifes as foon as it comes into
this cavity, the lower part of the kiln (that below the level
of the bottom of the fire-place) is occupied by lime already
burned; and as this lime is intenfely hot, when, on a por-
tion of lime from below being removed, it defcends into this
part of the kiln, and as the air in the kiln, to which it com-
municates its heat, nvuft arife upwards in confequence of its
being heated, and pafs off through the top of the kiln, this
lime, in cooling, is by this contrivance made to affift in
heating the frefh portion of cold lime-ftone, with which the
kiln is charged. To facilitate this communication of heat
from the red-hot lime juft burned to the lime-ftone above in

ythe upper part of the kiln, a gentle draft of air through the
/ kiln, frem the bottom to the top of it, muft be eftablifhed,
by leaving an opening in the door below, by which the cold
air from without may be fuffered to enter the kiln. This
opening (which fhould be furnifhed with fome kind of a
regifter) muft be very fmall, otherwife it will occafion too
ftrong a draft of cold air into the kiln, and do more harm
than good ; and it will probably be found belt to clofe it en-
tirely, after the lime in the lower part of the kiln has parted
with a certain proportion of its heat."’

The height of the kiln, which is reprefented in Plate (Kiln)
Agriculture, fig..is ona {cale of 15 feet: its internal diameter
below, two feet; and above, nine inches. In order more
effeétually to confine the heat, its walls, which are of brick,
and very thin, are double, and the cavity between them is
filled with dry wood-athes. To give greater ftrength to the
fabric, thefe two walls are connected in different places by
horizontal layers of brick, which unite them firmly: a is
the opening by which the fuel is put into the fire-place :
through this opening the air defcends which feeds the fire.
The fire-place is reprefented nearly full of coals, and the
flame pafling off laterally into the cavity of the kiln, by an
opening made for that purpofe at the bottom of the fire-
place. The opening above, by which the fuel is introduced
into the fire-place, is covered by a plate of iron, moveable
on hinges; which plate, by being lifted up more or lefs by
means of a chain, ferves as a regilter for regulating the fire.
# feGtion of this plate, and of the chain by which it is fup-
ported, are fhewn in the figure: 6 is an opening in the
front wall of the fire-place, which ferves occafionally for
cleanfing out the fire-place, and the opening by which the
flame paffes from the fire-place into the kiln. ° This open-
ing, which mufl never be quite clofed, ferves likewife for
admitting a {mall quantity of air to pafs horizontally into
the fire-place. A {mall proportion of air, admitted in this
manner, has been found to be ufeful and even neceflary in
fire-places, in which, in order to confume the fmoke, the
flame is made.to defcend. Several {mall holes for this pur-
pofe, fitted with conical ftoppers, may be made in different
parts of the front wall of the tire-place.

The bottom of the fire-place is a grate conftruted of
bricks placed edgeways, and under this grate there is an afh-
pit; but as no air muft be permitted to pafs up through
this grate into the fire-place, the afh-pit door, c, is kept
cunttantly clofed, being only opened occafionally to remove

the afhes 1d is the opening by which the lime is taken out

LN.

of the kiln; which opening muft be kept well clofed, in
order to prevent a draught of cold air through the kiln.
As only as much lime muft be removed at once as is con-
tained in that part of the kiln which lies below the level of
the bottom of the fire-place, to be able to afcertain when
the proper quantity is taken away, the lime, as it comes out
of the kiln, may be direéted into a pit funk into the ground
in front of the opening by which the lime is removed ; this
pit being made of a proper fize to ferve as a meafure for it.
And while the lime is removing from the bottom of the
kiln, frefh lime-ftone fhould be put into it above ; and dur-
ing this operation, the fire may be damped by clofing the
top of the fire-place with its iron-plate. Should it be found
neceflary, the fire, and the diftribution of the heat may,
in burning the lime, be further regulated by clofing more
or lefs the opening at the top of the lime-kiln with a flat
piece of fire-itone, or a plate of caft-iron. The double
walls of the kiln, and the void {pace between them, as alfo
the horizontal layers of bricks by which they-are united,
are clearly and diftinétly expreffed in the figure in the
plates.

This method of conftru€ting lime-kilns, though ingenious
and philofophical, is probably much too expenfive for ge-
neral ufe.

It is a common praétice to burn lime-{tone with furze in
fome places. ‘The kilns which are made ufe of in thefe cafes
are commonly known by the denomination of flame-kilas,
and are built of brick ; the walls from four to five feet
thick, when they are not fupported by a bank or mound of
earth. The infide is nearly fquare, being twelve feet by
thirteen, and eleven or twelve feet high. In the front wall
there are three arches, each about one foot ten inches wide,
by three feet nine inches in height. When the kiln is to be
filled, three arches are formed of the largeft pieces of lime-
ftone, the whole breadth of the kiln, and oppofite to the
arches in the front wall. When thefe arches are formed, the
lime-{tone is thrown promifcuoufly into the kiln to the
height of feven or eight feet, over which are frequently laid
fifteen or twenty thoufand bricks, which are burned at the
fame time with the lime-ftone. When the filling of the kiln
is completed, the three arches in the front wallare filled up
with bricks almoft to the top, room being left in each fufhi-
cient only for putting in the furze, which is done in fmalk
quantities, the object being to keep up a conftant and re-
gular flame. Inthe fpace of thirty-fix or forty hours, the
whole lime-flone, about one hundred and twenty, or one hun-
dred and thirty quarters, together with the fifteen or twenty
thoufand bricks, are thoroughly calcined. Kilns conftru@ed:
in this way may be feen near Wellingborough, in North-
amptonhhire, and other places in the northern parts of the
kingdom. And in many of the northern counties of Scot-
land, which are fituated at a great diftance from coal, it is
alfo a common practice to burn lime-ftone with peat ; and,
confidering the rude ill-conftru€@ted kilns which are ufed for

he purpofe, it is aftonifhing with what fuccefs the operations

are performed. In fome of thefe diftriGs, it is ftated that
lime-ftone is fufficiently calcined with peats, laid fratum:
Juper fratum, in kilns formed of turf; but, owing to the
quantity of afhes which fall from the peat, the quality of
the lime is confiderably injured ; and from the open and
expofed fituation of many of thefe kilns, the wafte of fuel
is immenfe. But the moft common method of burning
lime-ftone with peat, is in kilns conltructed fomewhat fimilar
to thofe in the diftri€ts where furze is ufed as the only fuel:
There are in general only two arches, or fire-places, and the
peats are thrown into the bottom of thefe archse, the fronts
of which are feldom clofed up, by which means tlie wind has.
Ba often:

KILN.

eften great influence in retarding the operation, and fre-

uently prevents the complete calcination of the lime-ftone.
Kn improvement might, it is fwppofed, be made on thefe
kilns at a very trifling expence: if an iron grate were laid
acrofs the bottom of the arch, with a place below for the
athes to fall down, and the front of the arch clofed up by a
door made of cait-metal, one-third of the fuel might be
faved, and the operation performed in a fhorter time, and
with a much greater certainty, than by the method now
praétifed in fuch kilns.

In the.Communications to the Board of Agriculture,
Mr. Rawfon afferts, that he has produced a confiderable
faving in the burning of lime, by conftructing his kiln in the
manner fhewn at fig. 2. “ It is made twenty feet in height ;
at the bottom a metal plate is placed one foot in height,
intended to give air to the fire; over this plate the fhovel
that draws the lime runs. ‘The floped fides are fix feet in
height, the breadth at the top of the flope is eight feet, the
fides are carried up perpendicular fourteen feet, fo as that
every part of the infide, for fourteen feet, to the mouth, is
exattly of the fame dimenfions, On the mouth of the kiln
a cap is placed, built of long ftones, and expeditioufly con-
tracted, about feven or eight feet high. In the building of
the cap, on one fide of the flope, the mafon is over the
centre of the kiln, fo that any thing dropping down will
fall perpendicularly to the eye beneath. He is here to
place an iron door of eighteen inches {quare, and the re-
mainder of the building of the cap is to be carried up,
until the hole at the top be contracted to fourteen inches.
The kiln is to be fed through the iron door, and when
filled, the door clofe fhut. The outfide wall mutt be three
feet at the bottom to batter up to two feet at top, and
made at fuch a diltance from the infide wall of the kiln,
that two feet of yellow clay may be well packed in be-
tween the walls, as every kiln built without this precaution
will certainly {plit, and the ftrength of the fire be thereby
exhaufted. Ateight feet high from the eye of the kiln,
two flues fhould be carried through the front wall, through
the packed clay, and to the oppofite fides of the kiln, to
give power to the fire.’’ It is obferved, that with this
kiln, he has produced one-third more lime from a given
quantity of fuel; and ftones of bad quality will be here
reduced into powder, and may be put into the kiln without
the neceffity of being broken fo fmall as is ufual. As many
fituations will not admit of building a kiln twenty feet high,
while other fituations may allow of its being built thirty or
even forty feet (for it cannot be made too high), the dia-
meter of the kiln fhould be proportioned to the height to
which it is carried up.

And it is further ftated, as another application of this
fort of contrivance, that ‘¢ for feveral years he has made
nfe of a {mall kiln in an outfide kitchen, the height nine feet,
the diameter three %et and a half. In the fide of the kiln
next the fire, he had three fquare boilers placed, one of them
large, containing half a barrel, with a cock, which fupplied
the family with conftant boiling water ; for the two others,
he had tin veffels made to fit the infide with clofe covers,
in which meat and vegetables with water were placed and
put into the two {maller boilers, which never had any water,
but had clofe covers. The tin boilers were heated fooner
than on the ftrongeit fire, and when the meat, &c. were
fufficiently dreffed, the whole was taken out of the metal
boilers. At one fide he had an oven placed for roafting and
boiling meat; the bottom was metal of twenty-fix inches
diameter, and one inch and a half thick, a flue from the
fire went underneath. _ Even with the bottom of the oven,
@ grating nine inches {quare was placed, which opened a

7

communication between the oven and the hot fire of the
kiln. The height of the oven was fourteen inches, fhut
clofe by a metal door of eighteen inches fquare, and the
top, level with the mouth of the kiln, was covered by an-
other metal plate of half an inch thick, on which was
placed a fecond oven; the heat which efcaped through the
half-inch plate, though not near the fire, was fufficient to
do all {mall puddings, pies, breakfaft-cakes, &c. &c. The
meat in the large oven was placed on an iron frame which
turned on a pivot and ftood ona dripping-pan, and was
turned by the cook each half hour. And over the kiln he
had a tiled ftage for drying corn, and a chimney at one fide,
with a cawl on the top, which carried off ali fteam and
fulphur : a large granary was attached to the building. It
is added, that the lime, if fold, would more than pay for
fuel and attendance ; and he has frequently had dinner
dreit for fifty men, without interfering with his family bu-
finefs in any great degree.

There is another form of lime-kiln, which anfwers ex-
tremely well for general ufe, reprefentad at fig. 3. in the
fame plate. This is capable of being built without any very
confiderable expence.

It has been found, by experience, in fome of the northern
diftri&ts, that lime-kilns are rendered much lefs liable to crack
and burft by having the outtide walls carried up in a fquare
manner, than on the ufual circular plan.

Kirin, Malt, a fort of kiln contrived for the purpofe of
drying malt or any kind of grain upon. In the conftruc-
tion of kilns of this fort many improvements have lately
been made. A defcription of a kiln of this kind by Mr.
Pepper, of Newcaftle-under-Line, has been given, in which
Jig. 4. is the ground plan, fuppofed to be twenty feet fquare,
but, if required larger or fmaller, by following the fame
proportion, it may be made to any fize or fituation. .The
dark fhaded walls rife four feet high, to put the reflector
upon over the fire, and alfo what the fide arches ftand upon,
the brick piers, that carry the {park-ftone, and bearers
that the tiles lie upon. Letter a, the fire-grate, which lies
nine inches below the bottom edge of the reflector; 4,
bottom edge of the reflector; ¢,¢,¢,¢, brick pillars nine
inches {quare. that carry the fpark-ftone ; d,d,d,d,d,d, brick
pillars nine inches fquare, that carry the bearers for the
floor tiles to lie upon ; e, fhews the bottom of the fide arches
on each fide of the kiln; f, exhibits the {pace between the
fire-place and the fide arches, for the man to. go round te
clean the kiln; g, the wall on each fide of the kiln, that
the fide arches ftand upon. Fig. 5. is a fection of it; 8,
fhews the feGion of the wall which the fide arches ftand
upon ; 4, the door to go to the fire-place ; 7, the reflector,
of caft iron that covers the fire; 4%, fmall door in the re-
fleGtor to feed the fire; /,/, the ears of the refleGtor that
the iron pipes are fitted upon, which convey the {moke, &c,
from the refletor round the kiln, to the chimney ; m, what
is commonly called the fpark-ltone ; it prevents the kila
from being too hot in the middle, and aflifts in fpreadmg
the heat to the outfides; 2, bearers of cafl-iron or wood,
that carry the kiln floor; 0,0, fhew the ends of the ribs
that carry the tiles; /, the kiln tiles, that the malt lies
upon; g, the fteam-pipe that conveys the fteam from the
“malt ; ¢,c, brick pillars nine inches fquare, that carry the
{park-ftone; d,d, brick pillars nine inches fquare, that
carry the bearers for the floor tiles to lie upon ; ¢,e, fhew
the arches on each fide the kiln; ww, denotes the fituation
of the pipes under the floor. And fg. 6. is a plan of the
kiln floor, and fhews the ribs that the kiln-tiles lie upon ;
0, 0, the caft iron or wood ribs that the tiles lie upon ; 2, a,
the bearers that carry the ribs; d,d, the tops of the bsick

pillars

KILN.

pillars that carry the bearers, &c.; 5, the reflector that
covers the fire, which is of caft iron, about an inch thick,
hollow, and on a femicircular plan, as fhewn in the figures ;
r,r, the iron pipes that convey the fmoke and heat from the
refle€tor, round the kiln, to the chimney, which lies about
three feet under the kiln floor, and about the fame diftance
from the fide walls, which are fupported by iron ftays from
the fide arches ; /, f, the ends of the iron pipes that go into
the chimney ; ¢, ¢, regilters to regulate the draught and heat
of the kiln; and fig. 7. is a fection of the chimney.

It is noticed that in the plate the pillars, bearers, &c. that
belong to the fame thing, are marked with the fame letters
in all the different figures.

» Another kiln of the fame fort, invented by Mr. Jofeph
€opping«r, of Harbour View, near Cove, Ireland, is re-
prefented at fig. 8. Thisis tated to be particularly adapted
to the ufe of farmers, who, in wet feafons, often lofe quan-
tities of grain for want of fuch convenience. The advan-
tages it appears to poffefs above the kilns now in common
ufe, are many ; firlt, it may be ere&ted for one-tenth of the
expence, if the value of the feparate buildings be taken in,
which are now almoft invariably allotted for this purpofe ;
fecondly, any kind of fuel may be ufed without prejudice
to the malt cr corn to be dried in it: thirdly, the heat (by
the conftruction of the flues) will be more regularly and
evenly diftributed without any waite, as at prefent : fourthly,
the health of the people attending, will not, as at prefent,
be expofed to certain injury, by always breathing and fleep-
ing in a heated and unwholefome atmofphere, as their beds
will be placed in a fhed on the outfide of the building.
This, in his mind, is the moft important part of the plan, and
highly worthy the attention of every humane and confider-
ate employer in this way: fifthly, this conftruction of a
kiln may be ereéted on a loft or ground floor. If in the
latter fituation, fufficient elevation fhould be given to the
fire-place, fo as not to impede the draught. Thefe are the
principal advantages that occur to the writer. If the ex-
perience of others confirm them, he will be highly gratified :
a, the main walls ; 4; the flues; c, the chimnies ; in each of
which may be placed a metal damper to regulate the heat.
_ It isrecommended, in the cafe of anew building, to carry
up the flues of the chimnies in the thicknels of the walls.
In a houfe already built, they may be carried up either in-
fide or outfide the building: d, the fire-place, which may be
divided, or in one, juft as defired, by which the half or the
whole may be heated, as is moft convenient.

Itis ftated that kiln tiles eighteen inches fquare, and two -

inches thick in the folid, with a lapping of half an inch
broad and one inch deep round the edge of each tile, are
propofed for covering the flues, which, if fairly caft, may
be laid dry, without mortar. If it fhould be>difficult, or
too expenfive, to procure tiles of eighteen inches, nine
inches can be made to anfwer. The flues are propofed to

be divided by a brick, on edge, foas that every eighteen-inch _

tile will cover two flues. The breadth of the flues may be
fix inches and a half, and ten inches high, This proportion,
it is hoped, will be found to anfwer in moft cafes; but it
may be varied according to the better judgment of the party
ereéting. The fides and bottoms of the flues fhould be
plaftered, The platform of this kiln fhould, in all cafes, be
well rammed with earth, aud made perfeGily level before lay-
ing out the flues. Iron grate-doors aré intended to be hung
on hinges, in a recefs, at the mouth of each flue, to pre-
vent them being choked with large pieces of cinder, or other
fubftances. It is alfo intended that thefe doors fhould fhut
and open at pleafure, as may be found neceflary in carrying
on the bulinefs,

Kirn Tiles, in Rural Economy, the name of that fort of
- which are employed in malt and other fimilar forts of

ilns.

Kin for tin-ore. The place where the tin-ore is roafted
in order to burn away the mundic, and other fulphureous
matters that are mixed with it, is called the ¢in-hiln. hisis
of a very plain ftruéture ; its hearth or floor is made of one
large ftone, and this is covered with another, fupported at
fix inches height above it. The uppermott has a hole in the
middle, through which the ore is poured on the under one ;
and when it is diftributed over it in a bed of three or four
inches thick, it is burnt by means of a fire of furze buthes
kept underneath, and communicating with the fpace between
the two ftones by an aperture bebind; the lower itone not
reaching the wall by fix inches.

When the fulphur is all burnt away by the fire, and the
flame is no longer blue, the whole bed of roatted ore is thruft
off the ftone by the rake into the aperture behind, through
which it falls into the open fire. The fre is kept up with
new bufhes, and there isa new bed of ore thrown in at the
hole above. Thus the fire is kept up day and night, and fup-
plies of frefh ore made through the hole by the black tin
brought from the buddles of wafhing troughs. When the
lower part of the furnace is filed up with the ore thrown
into it, there is a hole behind the kiln, through which this
ore, and the coals and afhes, are all raked out together, and
left in the open air to cool ; and the whole mafs thus raked
out, will fometimes be feveral days in cooling, the mixture
of coals among it keeping it red-hot for a confiderable time.
When it is taken away from behind the furnace, it is wathed
again before it is put into the melting furnace. It is, ob-
ferved, that the different ores require for this laft operation a
different proportion, and different fort of fuel. ‘Fhe moor-
tin, that is, fuch ore as is dug up in the moory countries,
melts beft with moor-charcoal charred ; but that dug on the
hills is found to run bett with a mixture of charcoal and peat
in equal quantities. The ftones ufed for the kilns are always
moor-ftone. Phil. Tranf. N° 69.

Kutn, in Ship Building,a convenience for boiling or {teaming
planks to make them pliable. A boiler-kiln is either made
of fheet-copper, bottom and fides rivetted together, or the
bottom of fheet-copper and the fides of lead, rivetted and
foldered together. This is fixed in a body of brick-work,
and under each end, or in the middle, are furnaces to caufe
the water to boil after the planks are in. The upper part,
to preferve the fteam and facilitate the boiling, is inclofed
by fhutters, opening by hinges and {mall tackles.

Dimenfions of a Copper Boiler.

Jeet. in.
Long - 3 - - - 40 0
Broad at theends - - = Tega.
— middle - - 6 6
Deep - = . - 2 10

And weighed s3cwt. 3ft. 14lb.

A fteam-kiln is a trunk compofed of deals grooved and
tongued together edgeways, and is from three to four feet
fquare, and from 4o to 60 feet long, and has a door’ at
each end, It is confined together by bolts driven through
the fides at certain diftances, which anfwer the purpoie
of bearers, whereon the planks reft while fteaming, It is
fupported, about four fect above the ground, upon a ftrone
framing of wood. Underneath it, in the middle, is Axed, in
brick-work, a large copper or iron boiler, or, which is
better, one towards each end; the fteam from the boilers,
iffuing into the trenk wherein it is confined, enters into the
pores of the plank, and renders it very pliable.

BKILONDA,

KIL

KILONDA, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Benguela; 15 miles S. of Benguela.

KILONGO, a province of Loango, the foil of which is
fertile. It was formerly an independent kingdom: the go-
vernor is abfolute, and is elected by the people, without con-
fulting the king of Loango. The chief article of trade is
elephants’ teeth. .Kelingo, the capital, is fituated on the
coalt ; 30 miles N.W. of Loango. S. lat. 4° 25'.

KILPATRICK, O/d and New, two parifhes in the weft
of Scotland, and county of Dumbarton. Old Kilpatrick is
fituated on the banks of the river Clyde, about five miles
ealt from Dumbarton, and within one mile of Bowling bay,
where the great canal, or Forth and Clyde navigation, falls
into the Clyde. It is one of the moft pleafantly fituated
villages in Scotland, being direétly oppofite to the pleafure
grounds of Erfkine-houfe, the refidence of lord Blantyre,
the fuperior of the parifh. The parochial ftipend being
paid in grain is confidered to be one of the beft in Scotland.
The church is a very ancient building of the Gothic kind,
and here are faid to be depofited the remains of the tutelar
faint of Ireland, from whence the village takes its name.
There is an extenfive manufaGory of rolled and malleable
iron conducted here, and there are two large cotton mills in
the neighbourhood, The {pinning of woollen by machinery
was attempted, but did not fucceed. Thofe engaged in
the cotton manufacture are employed from Glafgow and
Paifley. New Kilpatrick is about four miles diftant from
Old Kilpatrick. There is no manufacture of any import-
ance about it, excepting fome large flour mills upon the
river Kelvin, which are the property of fir Ilay Campbell,
of Garfeube, bart. lord prefident of the Court of Seffion.

KILSYTH, a town of Dumbartonfhire, bordering on
Stirlingfhire, in Scotland, about thirteen miles north-eatt
from Glafgow, upon the old or north road from Edin-
burgh to Glafgow, and near the banks of the great canal;
or Forth and Clyde navigation, The country about Kil-
fyth is level to the fouth, eaft, and weft, but very moun-
tainous to the north. The valley is in general fine arable
land, and the cultivation is now extremely good and moft
rapidly improving, for which there are the greatelt facilities
afforded by the inexhaultible fupplies of coal and lime, which
are found in every part of the neighbourhood. Kilfyth
is of no importance as a commercial or manufaturing
place, its chief manufaturing trade being confined to the
labour of operative tradefpeople in weaving, tambouring,
and fewing muflins for the manufacturers of Glafgow.
There are, however, fome extenfive printfields at no great
diftance. Kilfyth gave the title of an earl to an ancient and
noble family of Scotland, but the title and eltate were for-
feited by the rebellion, in the year 1715. Cumbernauld-
houfe, in the neighbourhood, is the refidence of lord Elphin-
ftone, the chief perfon of rank in this quarter, and lord lieu-
tenant of the county. A very great proportion of the
adjoining lands, formerly attached to the earldom, now be-
long to fir Charles Edmonftone, of Dunleath.

KILTZESTI, a town of Walachia, on the Tifmana ;
12 miles $.S.W. of Tergofyl.

KILWARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Rantampour ; 32 miles S. of Suifopour.

KILWINNING, a {mall town and parifh in Ayrhhire,
wpon the coalt, about two or three miles from Irvine. It con-
tains but httle population, and is not remarkable for any par-
ticular art or manufacture. The lands around it are chiefly
the property of the earl of Eglintown, whofe fuperb caitle
is in the inimediate vicinity. Kilwinning is chiefly remark-
able for the attention paid in it to the order of freemafonry,
the lodge of Kilwinning claiming precedency, in peiat of

KIM

antiquity, to every other lodge in Scotland, which, in their
turns, affert their antiquity to be greater than thofe of
England ; the Scottifh mafons afluming the title of ancient
as a mark of their priority, and refuling to acknowledge
or receive thofe whom they denominate modern mafons un-
til they have qualified themfelves to be received, by under-
going certain ceremonies ‘of initiation only known to the
brethren. The claim of the Kilwinning mafons is fo far
admitted, that many of the lodges of Scotland receive
charters of conftitution from them in place of the grand
lodge of Scotland. Thefe lodges generally diltinguith
themfelves by adding the word Kilwinning to the title which
they have aflumed. They are numerous through every part
of the country, and the circumftance alluded to creates no
kind of rivalry or diffention between them and thofe con-
{tituted by the authority of the grand lodge. ‘

KILY Harrovur, a bay on the W. coaft of the ifland
of Celebes. S. lat. 1° 33'. E.long. 119° 20'.

KIMALISHA, an ifland of Ruffian Lapland, lying
‘between the mouths of the rivers Shuya and Soroka, off
the coat of the White fea; where the granite veins of mi-
caceous earth are richly mixed with a beautiful brown, fre-
gueety glandulous, with granites and green tranfparent

orl.

KIMBOLTON, a {mall market town in the hundred
of Leightonttone and county of Huntingdon, England, is
fituated 10 miles from Huntingdon, and 63 from London.
In the population return of 1800, the number of houfes
was {tated to be 2523; of inhabitants 1266. A weekly
market is held on Fridays; and here are two annual fairs.
The only objeét in the town of particular import is Kim-
bolton-caftle, a‘ feat of the duke of Manchetter, which is
of unknown, but very remote origin. Leland fays, ‘the
caftle is double diked, and the building of it metely ftrong:
it longed to the Mandevilles, erles of Effex. Sir Richard
Wingtield built new, fair lodgyns and galleries upon the
old foundation of the caftle. There is a plotte now clene
defolated, not a mile by weft from Kimbolton, called Caftle-
hill, where appear ditches and tokens of old buildings.’?
This cattle was the jointure, and became the retirement, of
queen Catherine, after her divorce from Henry VIII.
Henry, firlt earl of Manchefter, expended large fums in
making it a comfortable refidence ; and his grandfon Ro-
bert, the third earl, made very confiderable alterations and
many additions. It is a quadrangular building ; the infide
is moft fuperbly fitted up, and decorated with numerous
paintings. Beauties of England, vol. vim.

KIMBULA, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of cro-
codile found in the ifland of Ceylon, and of a very beau-
tiful variegation of colours, being mottled all ever with
ica elegant black {pots fhining with the glofs of black
velvet,

KIMCHI, Davin, in Biograpdy, a learned rabbi, who
acquired high reputation as a {cripture commentator, was a
native of Spain, and flourifhed in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries. His father, Jofeph, was a bitter enemy to Chrif-
tians, and wrote fome fevere treatifes againft them, but the
fubject of the prefent article fpeaks of Chriftians with mo-
deration, and he is highly celebrated for his philological
labours, which refle& luftre on his name. His works are
held in the highett eftimation by the Jews, who maintain
that there is no true fcience without Kimchi. Moft of his
commentaries have been incorporated in the great bibles of
Venice and Batil; and Pfeiffer, in the ‘¢ Critica Sacra,’”?
remarks, that his grammar is like the Trojan horfe, from
which crowds of Chriftian grammarians have iffued forth,
of whom thofe have fhewn themfelyes moft learned who

4 have

KIM

have been moft perfeétly acquainted with Kimchi. He
took a decided part in the controverfy concerning the
writings of Maimonides, and fo far moderated the temper
of the contending parties, as to produce a revocation of
the fentences of excommunication on both fides. It is not
known at what particular period he died. His commen
taries extend to the greater number of the books of the
Old Teftament, and from the bibles of Venice and Bafil
have been tranfplanted into the labours of Catholic
and Proteftant commentators, and have unqueitionably af-
forded much valuable affiftance in illuftrating the true fenfe
and meaning of the Hebrew text. Kimchi’s philological
works confift of a Hebrew Grammar, called ‘* The Book of
Perfection ;” and of a Hebrew Di@tionary, intitled ‘ The
Book of the Roots.’’ They were firft publifhed at Con-
ftantinople, but have been feveral times reprinted. Buxtorf
made thefe works the foundation of his ‘ Thefaurus Lin-

ue Hebree,’’ and his “Lexicon Lingue Hebree.’’
Several of Kimchi’s letters may be found in a volume of
«* The Letters of Maimonides,’? publifhed at Venice in the
year 1545.

KIMEDY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
cirear of Cicacole ; 30 miles N.W. of Cicacole.

KIMI. See Kemi.

KIMITO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo; 23 miles S.E. of Abo.

KIMKIM, a town of Walachia; 55 miles N. of Bu-
charett.

KIMLASSA, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
emg 35 miles S. of Chanderee. N. lat. 24° 15'. E. long.
95> 42).

KIMMOO. See Kemmoo.

KIMMOUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Oriffla; five
miles N. of Sonepour.

KIMNIK, a town of Walachia, onthe Alaut; 44 miles
E.S.E, of Tergovitta.

KIMOS, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Olonetz ;
eight miles N.W, from lake Nuk, with which it communi-
cates by a finallfiver. N. lat.64° 45’. E.long, 30° 14'.

KIMOSSES, or Qurmosses, a name given in the lan-
guage of Madagafcar to a race of pigmies, or human beings
of a diminutive fize, who inhabit the interior parts of the
ifland, and there form a confiderable national body. M. de
Commerfon, cited by M. Rochon in his *¢ Voyage to Ma-
dagafcar,’”’ gives the following account of then® ‘ The
natural and diftinGtive character of thefe little men is to be
white, or, at leaft, of a paler complexion than all the dif-
ferent blacks ever known, to have very long arms, fo that
their hands reach below the knee, without bending the
body ; and that of the women, to have {carcely any breaits,
except when they nurfe their infant offspring ; fo that many
of them are obliged to have recourfe to cow’s milk, for feed-
ing their new-born infants. As to intelleftual faculties, the
Kimoffes furpafs all the reft of the Malegafhes, who are
known to be very ingenious and adroit, though abandoned
to the greateft indolence ; but the Kimoffes are more aétive,
and alfo more warlike; fo that their courage being, as it
were, double in proportion to their fize, their neighbours
have not been able to opprefs them, they have attacked them
by a fuperiority of number amounting to 10 to x. Attacked
as they have been by unequal weapons, (for they do not ufe
gunpowder and mufkets, like their enemies,) they have al-
ways fought courageoufly, and fupported their independence
among their rocks, which being difficult of accets, have,
without doubt, contributed to their prefervation. There
they live upon rice, different fruits, vegetables, and roots,
and rear great number of cattle, (bullocks with hunches on

KIM

their backs, and fheep with long, broad, fat tails,) whiclt
ferve them as part of their food. They have no intercourfe
with the different tribes of Malepafhes, who furround them,
neither by trade, nor by any other method, becaufe they
derive all they want from the territory they inhabit. As all
the little flirmifhes or wars which take place between them
and the other inhabitants of the ifland, have no other objeét
than to carry off fome cattle or flaves, the diminutive fize of
the Kimofles exempts them from the latter injury. In order
to compromife the former, they contrive, when from the
fummits of their mountains they perceive preparations for
war in the plain, to take all the fuperfluous cattle they can
{pare, and tie them to the openings of the defiles which muft
be pafled by the enemy in penetrating into their mountains,
of which, they fay, they make a voluntary facrifice to the
indigence of their elder brethren; but they proteft, at the
fame time, to fight to the laft drop of blood, if they fhould
penetrate further into their territories by force of arms.
‘Their arms are the lance and the arrow, which they dart in
the moft mafterly manner. At three days march from fort
Dauphin, the natives fhew, with great complaifance, little
elevations of ground refembling graves, which owe their
origin, as they affirm, to a great maflacre of the Kimoffes,
who were defeated in the open field by ,their anceftors.”? M,
de Commerfon fays further, that he is able to certify, as an
ocular witnefs, that in the voyage which he made to fort
Dauphin, about the latter end of the year 1770, count de
Modeve, the late governor, who communicated to him part
of the preceding obfervations, gave him the fatisfaction of
fhewing to him, among his flaves, a Kimofs woman, about
30 years of age, three feet feven inches high, whofe com-
plexion was one of the cleareft and brighte{t he ever faw
among the natives of the ifland. He remarked, that not-
withftanding her low fize, fhe was very ftrong-limbed, not
refembling a flender diminutive perfon, but rather a woman
of common proportion, her defeét of height excepted ; her
arms were long, and reached, without ftooping, the knee-
pan ; her hair was fhort and woolly ; her phyfiognomy tole-
rably good, and more like that of the Europeans than of the
people of Madagafcar. She feemed conftantly to fmile, her
temper was {weet and complaifant, and fhe feemed, from the
tenor of hef conduét, to be poffeffed of much good fenfe.
Her breafts were flat ; but this circumftance of itfelf is far
from being fufficient to eftablifh an exception from the genee
ral law of nature. The defire of recovering her liberty, as
much as the fear of inftant embarkation, made the little flave
efcape by running away into the woods. This fhortnefs of
fize, as Commerion farther obferves, compared with that of
the Laplander, is almoft graduated in both; the Laplander
and the Kimofs inhabiting the mott frigid zones, and the moit
elevated mountains on the globe. Thofe which form the
retreat of the Kimofles at Madagaicar, are from 16 to 18
hundred fathoms above the level of the fea. The produc-
tions of the vegetable kingdom, which naturally grow or
thefe high mountains, feem to be abortive: e.g. the pine,
the birch, and many other trees, appear like creeping bufhes
or fhrubs. M. de Modeve alfo gives an account of this race
of beings, who inhabit the centre of the ifland, in the 22d
degree of latitude. The middling fize of the men, he fays,
is three feet five inches, and they have a long round beard ;
the fize of the women is fomewhat fhorter than that of the
men. The Kimoffes are thick and ftrong-limbed; the
colour of their fkin is lefs tawny than that of the other
natives, and their hair fhort and woolly. They forge iron
and fteel, of which they make lances and arrows; which are
the only arms they ufe. In other particulars he confirms
the account already given of their mode of felf-defence.

From

KIN

From other reports, he informs us, that the valley of the
Kimoffes is rich in cattle and other provifions, Thefe
dwarfs are laborious, and very good hufbandmen, ‘Their
chief has an authority more abfolute and more refpeéted than
that of the other chiefs of the different diftriéts of Mada-
gafear. ‘The extent of the valley which they inhabit he was
not able to afcertain; but he knew, that it was furrounded
by very high mountains, and that its fituation is 60 leagues
NW. from fort Dauphin, and weltward it is bounded by
the country of Mantanata. Their villages are ere€ted on
little eminences, whofe fteep fides are the more inacceflible,
fince they have multiplied the obitacles which forbid ap-
roach to them.

KIMOZERSKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Olonetz, on the lake Kimos; 88 miles N. of Kemi.

KIMPINA, a town of Walachia; 36 miles S. of Cron-
ftadt.

KIMPOLUNG, a town of European Turkey, in Mol-
davia; 116 miles W.N.W. of Jafly. N. lat. 47° 42’. E.
long. 25’ S'.

KIMPOUR, a town of Bengal; 27 miles E.N.E. of
Purneah.

KIMSLA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; feven
miles $.S.W. of Nordkioping. r

KIM-TCHA, a town of Thibet; 15 miles W.N.W.
of Tchafircong.

KIM-TCHEOU, a town of Chinefe Tartary. N. lat.
44° 3'. E. long. 126° 26'.

KIN, a town of Pevfia, in the province of Segeftan,
fituated at the foot of a chain of mountains near the lake
Zurrah ; the air is pure, and the foil of the environs fertile,
efpecially in fruit; 127 miles W. of Candahar.—Alfo, a
town of Arabia, in the province of Nedsjed; 153 miles N.E.
of Hajar.

Krv-dote, compenfation for the flaughter of a kinfman.
See Bore. 3

KINAKINA Aromatica, in the Maferia Medica, a
name by which fome authors have calied the cortex eleutherii.

KINASKA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk ; 25 miles W. of Nertchinfk.

KINASSO, a town of Africa, in Congo; 30 miles S.E.
of Pango.

KINATJURA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon; 94 miles S.W. of Meaco.

KINBURN, a fortrefs of Ruffia, in the government ' of
Ekaterinoflaf, on a bay of the Black fea, at the mouth of
the Dnieper. It ftands clofe to the frontiers, oppofite the
Turkith fortrefs Otchakov, which being a place of fuperior
ftrength, muit, while it continues in the hands of the Turks,
obftruét, in cafe of a rupture, the navigation of the Dnieper.
Kinburn was intended for the principal corporation of the
merchandize fent from the provinces bordering on the
Dnieper ; but as the harbour, on account of its quick-fand,
affords no fecurity for anchorage, the town of Kherfon’ or
Cherfon is at prefent the great emporium for trade; 16 miles
S.E. of Otchakov. N. lat. 46° 35’. E. long. 31° 36.

KINCARDINE, a town of Perthfhire, Scotland;
is feated on the banks of the river Forth, in a {mall tra@
ef the county, which is nearly furrounded by Clack-
mannanfhire. It was formerly called Welt-Pans, from the
number of falt-pans ufed here. In 1780, there were 15;
but at prefent thefe are reduced to two or three. ‘The
houies are moftly well built, and the ftreets affume a regular
appearance. Here are two weekly markets, and feveral
annual fairs. A valuable falmon-fifhery is eftablifhed on the
Forth, at this place; and here is a commodious harbour:
nearly oppofite the town is an excellent roadftead, where 100

- above the level of the fea.

KIN

veffels, or more, may be anchored in fafety. Ship building
is carried on to a confiderable extent, and veffels from 200 to
300 tons burden are often built here. In the year 1792,
there were 75 veflels belonging to this port, to which were
annexed 300 failors. In 1793, the town contained about
900 inhabitants.

KINCARDINESHIRE, or the county of Mearns, a
diftrict of Scotland, is furrounded by the counties of Aber-
deen, Angus, and the Britifh ocean. The area thus en-
clofed is nearly of a triangular form, and extends along the
coa{t from the bay of Aberdeen, tu the North-Efk river, an
extent of about thirty miles ; and from Dunnottar caftle, to
mount Battack, nearly 20 miles. The fuperficial contents
of lands, are 191,575 Scottith, or 243,444 Englifh miles.
The fea-coait is partly flat, and partly rocky; at the north-
eaftern corner of the county, terminates the chain of Gram-
pian hills. Here they run into the fea, and form what is
called the Girdle-Nefs, which prefent to the fea a bold face
of rock, from 60 to 80 feet high. ‘The northern part of this
county confifts of a mountainous territory formed by the tract
of the Grampians, on the fonth of which is a low diftri&t,
provincially termed the How or Hollow of the Mearns.
On the fouthern fide of the county, the furface is much
diverfified with hill and dale, particulariy on the banks of
the North-Efk, which feparates this county from that of
Angus, on the fouth. Here the continuation of the Sidlaw
hills runs under different names, from the banks of the North-
Efk, to the neighbourhood of Stonehayen,and bounds Strath-
more on the fouth, or fouth-eaft, The line or valley of
Strathmore, was the traét formerly purfued by all the in-
vaders of Scotland, who, on account of the mountainous
ridge between the two kingdoms, muft either have entered
by Berwick on the eaft, or by Dumfries on the weft, where
the mountains terminate before reaching the fea.

Among the Grampians, fome are of very confiderable
height. ‘Chat of the greateft altitude is mount Battack,
in the parifh of Strachan, which is faid to be 1150 yards
Kerlock, in the fame parifli, is
1890 feet high, and Kloachnabane 2370 feet. ‘T’o the north-
ward of the Grampians, only a fmall flripe, or fpots and
glens, of no great extent of cultivated land, are to be found
in this county. The Grampian hills are either covered
with heath or mofs, and afford but very little pafturage.
In the glacis and valltes, and on the fides and towards the
bottoms of the hills, where cultivation has taken place, the
foil is either light or gravelly, and full of {mall ftones ; but
on the banks of the brooks and ftreams, loam commonly
prevails. In the level part of the county, the foil is gene-
rally clay. That ftripe of fine fertile land, lying along the
fea-coaft from North-Efk river, to Stonehaven, is chiefly a
deep {trong loam on a clay bottom, but in fome places obfti-
nate clays occur. The foilin the valley of Strathmore is
fimilar to that along the coaft: but in praétice it is found,
that the clays in Strathmore do not carry beans, even after
being properly limed; although the lands along the coait,
when manured with lime, fea-weeds, or dung from the fith-
ing towns, produce abundant crops; the reafon of which
feems to be, that in the interior part of the county the land
is of a lighter nature, lying upon a cold clay. The coatt
land is a rich loam, fit for wheat and beans.

The mineralogy of this county is of no great importance.
In many places, however, there are lime quarries ; and as
the ftone is of the beft quality, abundance of fuel only is
wanting to render them of great value. They are wrought
in the parifhes of Ecelefcraig, Laurencekirk, and others,
In the parifh of Arbuthnot, and on the fea-fhore near St.
Cyrus, beautiful pebbles and fine jafpers are found. A

great

KIN

great part of the coaft, which is bold and dangerous, con-
fits of rocks of that fingular charaéter called Breccia, or
«« plumb-pudding ftone,”? having the appearance of loofe
ftones bound together by an artificial cement. — In the north-
ealtern part of the county, near Aberdeen, granite quarries
are wrought for exportation. .

In this county is only one royal borough, Inverbervie, or
Bervie; but there are feveral populous villages, of which
Stonehaven, Johnfhaven, and Laurencekirk, are the chief.

The principal rivers conneéted with this county, are thofe
of the North-Efk on the weft and fouth, and the Dee on
the north. The other ftreams, which are but of little note,
are called the Dye, the Cowie, the Carron, the Bervie, and
the Luther.

The moft remarkable remnant of antiquity in Kincardine-
fhire, is Dunnottar caftle. .It ftands on the eaftern coaft, on
a rock projecting into the fea, acceffible from the land on
the weit fide, and that only by a narrow, fteep, and winding
path, over a deep gully, by which it is connected with the
main land, and which ferves as a kind of natural foffe or
ditch, the adjacent rock having been fcarped and rendered
inacceffible by art. Here are various buildings and conve-
niences neceflary for a garrifon; fuch as chapel, barracks,
a bafon or ciftern of water twenty feet in diameter, a bowling-
green, and a forge, faid to have been ufed for calting iron-
bullets. Ona this rock, notwithftanding its difficulty of
accefs, the church and burial-place of the parifh were ori-
ginally fituated ; the building now called the chapel being
ormerly the parifl-church. In this caltle, the regalia of
Scotland, (the crown, f{ceptre, and fword,) were depofited
in the year 1651, to preferve them from the Englifh army,
which overran this country during the civil wars of that
period.

In the parifh of Ecclefcraig, are the ruins of a fortrefs,
formerly a place of great itrength, being ereGted on a per-
pendicular and peninfulated rock fixty feet above the fea.
In the parifh of Fettercairn is a ruined building, called
Fenella’s caftle, faid to be the place where Kenneth III.
was affaffinated. In Fordun parifh a houfe {till remains,
called St. Palladius’s chapel, where the image of the faint
was kept, and to which pilgrimages were performed from
the moit diftant parts of Scotland. In the parifh of Ar-
buthnot, was born the celebrated Dr. Arbuthnot, phyfician
to queen Anne. He formed a diftinguifhed literary trium-
virate with Mr. Pope and Dr. Swift.

In the population return to parliament in the year 1801,
Kincardinefhire was ftated to contain 5990 houfes, and
26,349 inhabitants.

KINCHA, a river of Afia, which rifes in Thibet, paffes
through the Chinefe province of Se-tchuen, and enters the
province of Hou-quang, where it changes its name to Yang-
tfe, after which it crofles the province of Kiang-nan, and
runs into the fea, N. lat. 31° 55’. E. long. 112° 44’.

KINDELBRUCKEN, a town of Saxony, in Thurin-
gia, on the Wipper; 21 miles N.E. of Erfurt. N. lat. 51°
16’. E. long. 11° 10!. .

EKINDERHOOK, 2a poft-town of America, in Colum-
bia county, New York, on the E. fide of Hudfon’s river,
containing 50 dwelling-houfes and a Dutch church; 13
miles N. of Hudfon’s city. The townfhip contains 4248
inhabitants, of whom 483 are flaves. N. lat. 42° 25’. W.
long, 73° 34’.

KINDRED, in Law, are a certain body of perfons of
kin, or related to each other. See ApMINISTRATION, A€-
RATI, CoGNatTi, CONSANGUINITY, and DEGREES.

KINE, in Zoology. See Buin and Cow.
Vou. XX.

|e
KINESCHMA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the

government of Koftrom, on the Volga; 40 miles S.E. of
Koftrom. :

KINETON, or Kineton, a market town and parifh in
a hundred of the fame name, and county of Warwick,
England, was formerly poffefled by the kings of England,
and it is faid that Edward the Confeflor, and William the
Conqueror, held this town and manor. King John kept his
court here, at a caltle N.E. of the town. In the fourth
year of king Henry III. Stephen de Legrave, obtained
the king’s charter for holding a weekly “ Mercate,” or
market here on Tuefdays ; and afterwards the fame king
granted an annual fair for two days. A church was built
here about the beginning of Edward IJ.’s reign. In the
year 1300, the town contained 165 houfes, and 779 inha-
bitants. In the vicinity of Kineton, to the S.E. is Edge
hill, where a fignal battle was fought in the year 1642, bes
tween the armies of Charles I. and thofe of the parliament.
Jago has commemorated the place, and the event, in an in-
terefting poem, entitled, “* Edge-hill.”? Dugdale’s « An-
tiquities of Warwickfhire iiluitrated,’’ fol. 1656. <

KING, a monarch, or potentate, who rules fingly and
fovereignly over a people,

Camden derives the word from the Saxon cyning, which
fignifies the fame ; and that from can, power, or ken, know-
edge, with which every monarch is fuppofed to be invefted. «
The Latin rex, the Scythian reix, the Punic re/eh, the Spa-
nifh rey, the French ray, come all, according to Poftel, from
the Hebrew pyr, rach, chief, head.

Kings, both among the ancient Greeks and Romans, weré
ptielts as well as priuces. Virgil, fpeaking of Anus, king
of Delos, fays,

« Rex Anius, rex idem hominum, Phebique facerdos.””

As to the Romans, Livy and Dionyfius are exprefs ; they
fay, that though Numa inftituted a great number of orders
of priefthood, yet fome he difcharged himfelf, and in perfon.
After the expulfion of the kings, they were obliged to
create a rex /ucrorum, a king of the facrifices, for the admi-
niftration of the prieftly part of the royalty.

Lawyers fay, the king of England is a mixed perfon, a
prieft as well as a prince: at his coronation he is anointed
with oil, as the priefts and kings of Ifrael were, to intimate,
that his perfon is facred.

Among the Greeks, the king of Perfia had anciently the
appellation of the great king ; the king of France lately had
that of the mof Chriffian king, and the king of Spain has
that of Catholic king. See CaTuotic.

The king of the Romans is a title formerly belonging to
the emperor of Germany ; but lately conferred on the infant
fon of Bonaparte.

The kings of England, by the Lateran council, under
pope Julius IT. had the title of Chriffianifimus conferred on
them ; and that of defender of the faith was added by pope
Leo X. though it had been ufed by them fome time before.

The title of grace was firft given to our kings about the
time of Henry IV. and that of maj-/fy firft to Henry VIII.
before which time our kings were called grace, highnefs,
&e.
In all public inftruments and letters, the king ftyles him-
felf nos, we; though till the time of king John, he {poke in
the fingular number.

The Hungarians formerly gave the name king to their
qucen Mary, to avoid the infamy which the laws of that
country calt upon thofe who are governed by women:

accordingly fhe bore the title of king Mary, till her mar-
= riage

KING.

riage with Sigifmund, at which time fhe took the title of
queen.

By our laws the fupreme executive power of thefe king-
doms is vefted ina fingle perfon, the king or queen: for it
matters not to which fex the crown defcends : but the per-
fon entitled to it, whether male or female, is immediately
invefted with all the enfigns, rights, and prerogatives of
fovereign power, as is decbhed by ftatute 1 Mar. ft. 3. c. 1.
(See Quen.) As the executive power of the Englifh na-
tion is velted in a fingle perfon, by the general confent of the
people, manifefted by long and immemorial ufuage, it is
become neceffary to the freedom and peace of the ftate,
that arule, uniform, univerfal, and permanent, fhould be laid
down, in order to make out, with precifion, who is that fingle

erfon, to whom are committed (in fubfervience to the
haw of the land) the care and protection of the community ;
and to whom, in return, the duty and allegiance of every
individual are due. Accordingly our conttitution has not
left the decifion of this important queftion dark or doubtful.
It has marked out the right of fucceffion in charatters fuf-
ficiently obvious. See the article Right of Crown.

The king's title having been afcertained, the next point
of principal importance is the affiflance which the law has
provided for him in the difcharge of his duties, the mainte-
nance of his dignity, and the exercife of his prerogative.
For this purpofe a diverfity of councils has been eftablifhed :
fuch are, the high court of parliament, the peers of the
realm, the judges of the courts of law, and more efpecially
the privy council, generally called, by way of eminence,
*« the council.”” (See PARLIAMENT, Prers, JupGeEs, and
Privy Councit.) The next obje& of confideration will be
the duties incumbent on the king by our conttitution ; with
a view to which his dignity and prerogative are eftablifhed
by the laws of the land: it being a maxim in the law, that
protection and fubjeétion are reciprocal. (7 Rep. 5.) Thefe
reciprocal duties are, according to the ftatement of judge
Blackftone, what were meant by the convention in 1688,
when they declared that king James had broken the original
contraét between king and people. (See Original Con-
tract.) The principal duty of the king is to govern his
people according to law, ‘ Nec regibus infinita aut libera
poteftas,”” was the conftitution of our German anceltors
on the continent. (Tac. de Mor. Germ. c. 7.) And this is
not only confonant to the principles of nature, of liberty,
of reafon, and of fociety, but has always been efteemed an
exprefs part of the common law of England, even when
prerogative was at the higheft. « The king,” fays Bracton,
(li 1. c. 8.) who wrote under Henry III. “ ought not to
be fubject to man, but to God, and to the law ; for the law
maketh the king. Let the king, therefore, render to the law
what the law has invefted in him with regard to others; domi-
nion and power ; for he is not truly king, where will and
pleafure rule, and not the law.” Andagain, (1. 2, c. 16.

) “the king alfo hatha fuperior, namely, God, and
allo the law by which he was madea king.” Fortefcue, alfo
having well diftinzuifhed between a monarchy abfolutely and
defpotically regal, introduced by conqueft and violence,
and a political or civil monarchy, which arifes from mutual
confent, fuch as he fuppofes the government of England to
be, lays it down as a principle, that «the king of Eng-
land muft rule his people according to the decrees of the
laws thereof; infomuch that he is bound by an oath at his
coronation to the obfervance and keeping of his own laws.”
Moreover, it is exprefsly declared by ftatute 12 and 13
W. Ill. c. 2. “that the laws of England are the birth-
right of the people thereof; and all the kings and queens
who fhall afcend the throne of this realm ought to admini-

fter the government of the fame according to the faid laws 3
and all their officers and minifters ought to ferve them re-
{pectively according to the fame ; and therefore all the laws
and ftatutes of this realm, for fecuring the eftablifhed reli-
gion, and the rights and liberties of the people thereof, and
all other laws and ftatutes of the fame now in force, are ra-
tified and confirmed accordingly.”? ‘The terms of the origi-
nal contraét between king and people, the learned judge
apprehends to be now couched in the Coronation OaTn 5
which fee.

In order to enable the king to maintain the executive
power in due independence and vigour, and to difcharge
with honour to himfelf, and benefit to his fubje¢ts, the duties
of his high ftation, the conftitution and laws have inveiled
him with a variety of prerogatives, fome of which are dire
and others incisental. (See PreroGative.) The former, or
dire& and fubftantive prerogatives may be diftributed into
three kinds; fuch as regard, firft, the king’s royal charac-
ter ; fecondly, his royal authority ; and laitly, his royal income.
Thefe are neceffary to fecure reverence to his perfon, obedi-
ence to his commands, and an affluent fupply for the ordinary
expences of government. We fhall refer to the article
Revenue, what relates to the royal income ; and here content
ourfelves with enumerating fome particulars that pertain to
the king’s political chara&ter and authority ; or, in other
words, his dignity and regal power ; to which laft the term
prerogative is frequently reftriled. In order to exhibit and
{upport the royal dignity, the law a‘cribes to the king, in
his high political character, not only large powers and emo-
luments, which form his prerogative and revenue, but like-
wife certain attributes of a high and tranfcendent nature ;
by which the people are led to confider him in the
light of a fuperior being, and to pay him that awful
re{pe&t, which may enable him with greater eafe to carry
on the bufinefs of government. /ir/? of all, the law
afcribes to the king the attribute of /overeignty, or pre-emi-
nence. ‘ Rex eft vicarius,” fays Bra¢ton, * et minilter Dei
in terra. Omnis quidem fub eo elt, ipfe fub nullo nifi tan-
tum fub Deo.” He is faid to have imperial dignity ; and in
chaiters before the conquett, is frequently flyled de//eus and
imperator, the titles refpectively affumed by the emperors of
the Eaft and Weft. His realm is declared to be an empire,
and his crown imperial, by many atts of parliament, parti-
cularly the ftatutes 24 Hen. VIII. cap. 12. and 25 Hen.
VIII. cap. 28, which at the fame time declare the king to
be the fupreme head of the realm in matters both civil and
ecclefiaftical, and confequently inferior to no man’ upon
earth, dependent on no man, and accountable to no man. (See
alfo 24 Geo. II. cap. 24. 5 Geo. III. cap. 27.) Hence it
is that no fuit or a€tion can be brought againit the king,
even in civil matters ; becaufe no court can have jurifdiction
over him. Hence it is likewife, that by law the perfon of
the king is facred, even though the meafures purfued in
his reign be completely tyrannical and arbitrary ; for no
jurifdi€tion on earth has power to try him in a criminal
way; much lefs to condemn him to punifhment. If
any foreign jurifdi€tion had this power, as was formerly
claimed by the pope, the independence of the kingdom
would ceafe ; and if fuch a power were vefted in any domef-
tic tribunal, there would foon be an end of the conftitution,
by deflroying the free agency of one of the conftituent parts
of the fovereign legiflative power. It may be afked, how-
ever, are the fubjets of England totally deltitute of remedy,
in cafe the crown fhould invade their rights, either by pri-
vate injuries, or public oppreffion ? To this, fays judge Black-
flone, we may anfwer, that the law has provided a remedy in
both cafes. As to private injuries; if any perfon has, in _

point

KING.

point of property, a juft demand upon the king, he muft
petition him in his court of chancery, where his chancellor
will adminifter right as a matter of grace, though not upon
compulfion. (Finch. L. 255.) And this is entirely confonant
to what is laid down by the writers on natural law. See
Puffendorff's Law of Nature, b. 8.c. 10. Locke on Gov.
p- 2. § 205.

As to cafes of ordinary public oppreffion, where the vitals
of the conftitution are not attacked, the law hath alfo af-
figned a remedy. For as a king cannot mifufe his power,
without the advice of evil counfellors, and the affiftance of
wicked minifters, thefe men may be examined and punifhed.
The conftitution has therefore provided, by means of indiét-
ments, and pariiamentary impeachments, that no man fhall
dare to affiit the crown in contradiction to the laws of the
Jand. As to fuch public oppreffions as tend to diffolve
the conftitution, and fubvert the fandamentals of govern-
ment, thefe are cafes, which the law will not, out of de-
cency, fuppofe ; being incapable of diftrulting thofe, whom
it has invefted with any part of the f{upreme power; {ince
fuch diftruit would render the exercife of that power pre-
carious and impraCticable. The fuppofition of law, fays
judge Blackitone, is, that neither the king nor either houfe
of parliament (collectively taken) is capable of doing any
wrong ; fince in fuch cafes the law feels itfelf incapable of
furnifhing any adequate remedy. Yor which reafon all op-
preflions, which may happen to fpring from any branch of
the fovereign power, mutt neceflarily be out of the reach of
any flated rule, or exprefs legal provition ; but, if ever they
uifortunately happen, the prudence of the times muft pro-
vide new remedies upon new emergencies. It is found, in-
deed, by experience, that whenever the unconftitutional op-

reflions, even of the fovereign power, advance with gigantic
Rrides and threaten defolation to a ftate, mankind will not
be reafoned out of the feelings of humanity ; nor will facri-
fice their liberty by a {crupulous adherence to thofe: political
maxims, which were originally eftablifhed to preferve it.
And therefore, though the pofitive laws are filent, expe-
rience will furnifh us with a very remarkable cafe in which
nature and reafon prevailed. When king James II. invaded
the fundamental conftitution of the realm, the convention de-
clared an abdication, by which the throne was rendered vacant,
which induced a new fettlement of the crown. After all, it
mutt be left to future generations, whenever neceflity and the
fafety of the whole fhall require it, to exert thofe inherent
(though latent) powers of fociety, which no climate, no
time, no conttitution, no contraét, can ever deftroy or
diminifh.

II. Befides the attribute of fovereignty, the Jaw alfo
afcribes to the king, in his political capacity, abfolute per-
feaion. The king can do no wrong ; by which ancient and
fundamental maxim we are not to underftand, that every
tranfaction of government is of courfe juit and lawful, but
that whatever is éxceptionable in the conduct of public
affairs is not to be imputed to the king, nor is he anfwerable
for it perfonally to his people; and farther, that the pre-
rogative of the crown extends not to do any injury ; it is
created for the benefit of the people, and therefore can-
not be exerted to their prejudice. (Plowd. 487.) In the
king there is no folly or weaknefs ; no injuttice or error ;
and, therefore, if the crown fhould be induced to make an
improper grant of any franchife or privilege, the law de-
clares that the king was deceived in his grant, and there-
upon fuch grant is rendered void, merely upon the founda-
tion of fraud ard deception, either by or upon thofe agents
whom the crown had employed. Yet, notwithftanding this
perfonal perfetion which the law afcribes to the fovereign,

the conftitution has allowed a latitude of fuppofing the con-
trary, in refpeét to both houfes of parliament; each of
which, in its turn, hath exerted the right of remonftrating
and complaining to the king even of thofe aéts of royalty,
which are moft properly his own; fuch as meffages figned
by himfelf, and {peeches delivered from the throne; never-
thelefs, for the fake of freedom of debate, thefe a&ts of
ftate are ufually fuppofed to proceed from the advice of the
adminiftration. In the king likewife there can be no negli-
gence or laches, and, therefore, no delay wiil bar his right :
nullum tempus occurrit regi. (Finch. L. 89. Co, Litt. go.)
In the king alfo there can be no infamy, itain, or corrup-
tion of blood. By his crown he is, ip/o facto, cleared of
all attainder ; no non-age or minority is allowed in him;
and his very grants of lands, though held in his natural
capacity, cannot be avoided by non-age.

III. Nay more, the law afcribes a kind of perpetuity, or
immortality to him. Rex Angle non moritur. Wenry, Ed-
ward, or George, may die; but the king furvives them
all. His death is termed his demife, becaufe the crown is
thereby demifed to another. He is faid not to be liable to
death, being a corporation of himfelf, that lives for ever.
There is no interregnum, but the moment one king dies, his
heir is king, fully and abfolutely without any coronation,
ceremony, &c.

IV. To thefe it may be added, that the law attributes a
kind of ubiquity to the king ; he is in a manner every where,
in all courts of judicature, which he alone has the right of
erecting, and therefore cannot be nonfuited. In the exer-
tion of lawful prerogative, fays judge Blackitone, the king
is and ought to be abfolute; that is, fo far abfolute, that
there is no legal authority that can either delay or refift
him. He may rejeét what bills, may make what treaties,

“may coin what money, may create what peers, may pardon

what offences he pleafes ; unlefs where the conftitution hath
exprefsly, or by evident confequence, laid down fome ex-
ception or boundary ; declaring that thus far the preroga-
tive fhall go and no farther.

Some things there are which the king cannot do; viz. he
cannot diveft himfelf, or fucceflors, of any part of his regal
prerogative, authority, &c. There are feveral things alfo
which he cannot do falvo jure, falvo juramento, F falva con-
feientia fua: in particular, there are two things which he
cannot do without the confent of parliament; viz. make
new laws, or raife new taxes.

In the exertion of thofe prerogatives, which the law has
given him, the king is irrefiitible, and abfolute, according
to the forms of the contlitution, and yet, if the confequence
of that exertion be manifettly to the grievance or difhonour
of the kingdom, the parliament will call his advifers to a
juft and fevere account. Yor prerogative confifling, as Mr.
Locke has well defined it, (On Govern. 2. § 166.) in the
difcretionary power of acting for the public good, where
the pofitive laws are filent, if that difcretionary power be
abuled to the public detriment, fuch prerogative ¥ exerted
in an unconftitutional manner. Thus the king may make a
treaty with a foreign ftate, which fhall irrevocably bind the
nation ; and yet when fuch treaties have been judged per-
nicilous, impeachments have purfued thofe miunifters, by
whofe agency or advice they were concluded.

The king, with regard to foreign concerns, is the dele-
gate or reprefentative of his people; and as fuch, he has
the fole power of fending ambaffadors to foreign ftates,
and receiving ambafladors at home. See Empassapor.

, ‘The king has power, by his prerogative, without any act
of parliament, to make war or peace, to conclude leagues,
treaties, and alliances with foreign itates, and to grant fafe- ~

C2 conducts.

KIN

conducts. The king is confidered as the generaliffimo, or
the firft in military command, within the kingdom: and in
this capacity he has the fole power to give commiffions for
raifing and regulating fleets and armies, as well as for
erecting, manning, and governing forts, and other places
of ftrength, to appoint ports and havens, to erect beacons,
light-houfes, and fea-marks, to prohibit the exportation of
arms or ammunition out of the kingdom, difpofe of maga-
zines, caltles, fhips, public moneys, &c. He convokes,
adjourns, prorogues, and diffolves parliaments; and may
refufe his affent to any bill paffed by both houfes, without
giving his reafons for it.

In domettic affairs the king is confidered as the fountain
of juftice and general confervator of the peace of the king-
dom. However, by the fountain of juitice the law does not
mean the author or original, but only the difributor. Juttice
is not derived from the king, as from his free gift; but he
is the fteward of the public, to difpenfe it to whom it is
due. (Bract. 1. 3. tr. 1. c. 9.) In this capacity the king
alone has the right of erecting courts of judicature; and all
jurifdiGions of courts are either mediately or immediately
derived from the crown; their proceedings run generally in
the king’s name ; they pafs under his feal, and are executed
by his officers. In early times, our kings, probably in per-
fon, often heard and determined caufes between party’ and
party. But by the uniform ufage of many ages, they have
delegated their whole judicial power to the judges of their
feveral courts, which are the grand depofitaries of the fun-
damental laws of the kingdom, and have gained a known
and ftated jurifdiGtion, regulated by certain and eftablifhed
rules, which the crown itfelf cannot now alter but by act of
parliament. (2 Hawk. P.C, 2.) In criminal proceedings it
would be in the higheft degree abfurd, if the king per-
fonally fat in judgment ; becaufe in regard to thefe he ap-
pears in another capacity, that of “ profecutor,” But
though the king is not perforally prefent in his courts of
law ; yet he is underftood to be virtually prefent ; his judges
are the mirror by which the king’s image is reflected; fo
that it is the regal office, and not the royal perfon, that is
always prefent in court, always ready to undertake profecu-
tions, or pronounce judgment, for the benefit and proteClion
of the fubje&. See Court and JuncE.

As the king is the fountain of juitice, the prerogative of
iffuing proclamations is vefted in him alone. (See Procia-
MATION.) The king is likewife the fountain of honour, of
office, and of privilege. Accordingly he is entrufted with
the fole power of conferring dignities and honours, fo that
all degrees of nobility, knighthood, and other titles, are
received by immediate grant from the crown; either ex-
preffed in writing, by writs or letters patent, as in the crea-
tion of peers and baronets; or by corporeal inveltiture, as
in the creation of a fimple knight. And as the king may
create new titles, fo he may create new offices, but with this
reitriction, that he cannot create new offices with new fees
annexed to them, nor annex new fees to old offices; for this
would be a tax upon the fubjeét, which cannot be impofed
but by aét of parliament. (2 Init. 533.) The king has
alfo the prerogative of conferring privileges wpon private
perfons ; fuch as granting place or precedence io any of his
fubjects (4 Inft. 361.) ; fuch is allo the power to enfran-
chife an alten, and make hima denizen. Such is likewife
the prerogative of ereCting carporations ; which fee.

The king is alfo the arbiter of commerce. Under this
branch of the prerogative he has power to eftablifh public
marts, or places of buying and felling; fuch as markets
and fairs, with the tolls belonging to them ; and likewife to
regulate weights and meafures ; to give money, which is the

KIN

medium of commerce, authority, or to make it current ;
and the coining of money is the act of the fovereign power,
and the fettling of the denomination or value for which the
coin is to pafs current. The king may alfo at any time de-
cry or cry down any coin of the kingdom, and make it no
longer current. Among the incidental prerogatives belong-
ing to the king, and which are exceptions, in favour of -the
crown, to thofe general rules that are cltablifhed for the
reit of the community, we may mention the following.
Debts due to hien are always to be fatisfied in the firft
place, in cafe of executorfhip, &c., and till his debt is dif-
charged, he may protect the creditor from the arrefts of
others. He may diltrain for the whole debt on a tenant
that holds but part of the land; is not obliged to demand -
his rent as others are; may fue in what court he pleafes,
and diftrain where he lifts. In all doubtful cafes, /emper
prefumetur pro rege: no ftatute reftrains him, unlefs he be
particularly named. In all cafes where the king is plaintiff,
his officers may enter with an arreft ; and, if entrance be de-
nied, break open a houfe, and feize the party ; though in
other cafes a man’s houfe is his calle, and has a privilege to
protect him againft all arrefts. Moreover no coits fhall be
recovered again{t the king ; and the king can remove a joint-
tenant.

He has alfo cuftody of the perfonis and eftates of idiots
and lunatics; he is u/timus heres regni, and to him revert all
eftates, when no heir appears. All treafure-trove (é. e
money, plate, or bullion, found, and the owners not known)
belongs to him; fo all waifs, eltrays, wrecks, lands re-
covered from the fea, gold and filver mines, royal fifhes,
&c belong to him. See REveNug.

The king is confidered by the laws of England as the
head and {upreme governor of the national church. (26 Hen,
VIII. cap. 1. 1 Eliz. cap. 1.) In virtue of this authority,
he convenes, prorogues, reftrains, regulates, and diffelves,
all ecclefialtical fynods or convocations. See Convoca-
TION.

He has the fupreme right of patronage, called patronage
paramount, over all the ecclefiaitical benefices in England.

From this prerogative of being the head of the church
arifes the king’s right of nomination to vacant bifhoprics,
and certain other ecclefiaftical preferments. As head of
the church, the king is likewife the ‘ dernier refort”? in all
ecclefialtical caufes; an appeal lying ultimately to him in
chancery from the fentence of every ecclefiattical judge ;
which right was reltored to the crown by ftatute 25 Henry
VIII. c. 19. The king. can-unite, feparate, enlarge, or
contrat the limits of bifhoprics, or ecclefiaitical benefices,
and by his letters ere€t new bilhoprics, colleges, &c. See
REGALIA.

He can difpenfe with the rigour of the ecclefiaftical
laws, except thofe which have been confirmed by aét of
parliament, or declared by the bill of rights ; as, for a
baftard to be a prieft, for a bifhop to hold a benefice in
commendam, &c. He has alfo power to difpenfe with
feveral a€&ts of parliament and penal ftatutes, by a non-
obitante, where himfelf alone is concerned; to moderate
the rigour of the law, according to equity ; to pardon a
man condemned by law ; except in appeals of murder, and
in cafe of impeachments by the houle of commons ; and
to interpret by his judges, in {tatutes and cafes not defined
by law.

Kine, Champion of the.

Kine, Charters of the. See CHarrer.

Kine, Committee of the. See COMMITTEE:

Kine's Councils, See Kine, fupra,.

Kine’s Counfeh See Counsnn.

See CHAMPION.

Kins’s

KIN

Krvc's Courts. See Court.

Kina’s Death, Compaffing the. See Trrason.
Kine, Peace of the. See Peace.

Kine, Quarantain of the. See QUARANTAIN.

Kine, Revenue of the. See Revenue.
Kine, Succeffion of the. See Crown, Right of.

Kine, Tenant of the. See Tenant.

Kine, Widow of the. See Winow.

Kine of the Romans. See Romans. :

Kuve, among the Hebrew Grammarians, is an appellation
‘given to a fpecies of accents anfwering to our colon. See
ACCENT.

Kine of the Mullets. See Mutxus imberbis.

Kine of the Quails. See RAtuus crex.

Kine of the Sacrifices, rex facrificulus, or facrorum, was a
title of an ancient prielt, or minilter of religion, at Rome ;
who was fuperior to the flamen dialis, but inferior to the
pontifex maximus.

He was created at the comitia centuriata, or aflembly of
the centuries, and was at firft chofen out of the number of
the patricians. He could not, during his office, hold any
magiftracy, nor harangue the people. He prefided at all the
facrifices, proclaimed the fealts, &c.

His wife bore the title of queen of the facrifices, regina
Jacrorum ; and had herfelf a part in the facred ceremonies.

Kine at Arms, or of Arms, is an officer of great antiquity,
and anciently he was of great authority ; his bufinefs is to
direét the heralds, prefide at their chapters, and have the
jurifdiction of armory.

The origin of this title is doubtful. Some of the French
writers imagine that it was given to heralds becaufe they
attended upon and regulated military ceremonies. Others
attribute to them the ftyle of kings, becaufe they governed
and prefided in ceremonies of tournaments, in like manner
as the maiter of the ceremonies at Athens was ftyled Bassaex.
Others again afcribe the title to them, becaufe in affigning

‘arms, as expreflions of honour to any perfon, they re-

fembled the kingly prerogative. But this fuppofes that the
cuftom of granting arms by the kings of heralds is as an-
eient as their titles: whereas Mr. Edmondfon obferves, in
his * Complete Body of Heraldry,’’ that it doth not any
where appear that thefe kings had anciently the addition
armorum given to them, they being then called, a3 they truly
were, reges heraldorum ; which for the moft part continued
till about the reign of Henry IV., when they began to be
entitled reges armorum, although their primitive appellation
was alfo ufed for fome ages. The latter title of reges armo-
rum was attributed to them before fuch times as thofe officers
made any grant of arms. :

Sir Henry Spelman is of opinton, that the title of king of
arms was attributed to fuch officers in England as belonged
immediately to the king’s majeity ; whillt thofe who apper-
tained to princes of the blood royal, or to the nobility, were
ftyled fimply heralds. The moft probable conjecture is, that
this denomination “* king of heralds,’’ of later times called
“king of arms,’? was given to that perfen who was the
chief, or principal officer prefiding over the heralds of any
kingdom, or of any particular province, ufually termed by
heraldic writers “ the marches,’’ or of any order of knigit-
hood ; and owing its rife probably to the French dialed.
Among the French, the word roy, or king, and from them
in their and our hiftories and records, the Latin word rex
hath been frequently referred to the principal, the governor,
the judge, the vifitor, the fupreme, the prefident, or chief,
of many profeffions, arts, or, communities, In the moft an-
cient writers, thefe officers are ityled merely ‘kings of
heralds,’ without the addition of ay title of office; but

KIN
in courfe of time they became diftinguifhed by the appel-

lations of their different provinces.

In England we have three kings of arms; viz, Garter,
Clarenceux, and Norroy.

Garter, principal King at Arms. See GAnrer.

The two lait are alfo called provincial heralds, becaufe
they divide the kingdom between them into two provinces,
which are feparated by the river Trent.

Thefe, by charter, have power to vilit noblemen’s families,
to fet down their pedigrees, diftinguifh their arms, appoint
perfons their arms, and, with Garter, to dire&t the other
heralds.

Anciently the kings at arms were created, and folemnly
crowned, by the kings of England themfelves ; but cf later
days the earl marfhal has a fpecial commiffion, at every
creation, to perfonate the king. See CLarenceux, and
Norroy.

To thefe may be added Lyon King at Arras, for Scot-
land, who is the fecond king at arms for Great Britain; he
is invefted and crowned with great folemnity. To him be-
long the publifhing the king’s proclamation, marfhalling fu-
nerals, reverfing arms, &c. And alfo Uliter, king of arms,
in Ireland.

Uliter was fubftituted, as fome fay, in the room of Tre-
land king of arms, by Edward VI. ; though the king him-
felf in his journal takes notice of it as a new inftitution.
“© There was a king of arms made for Ireland,” fays he,
* whofe name was Ulifter, and his province was all Ireland ;
and he was the fourth king of arms, and the firft herald of
Ireland.’ The patent paffed under the great feal of
England, with an ample teftimony of the neceffity and dig-
nity of the office. Whether Ulfter was fubftituted in the
room of Ireland king of arms, or elfe was newly ereéted,
fuch an officer of the crown of England, on which Ireland
is dependent, ftill coftinues, and may execute his heraldic
order in this kingdom, though out of his province, in as ex-
tenfive a manner as either Clarenceux or Norroy may do
without the limits of either of their marches. We here
add, that each of the military orders of knighthood efta-
blifhed in England, viz. the Garter and the Bath, give titles
to kings of arms. Garter has been already mentioned.
(See Garver.) Baih king of arms was created in the
eleventh year of king George I. for the government of the
order of the “ Bath,’* then newly created, by virtue of let-
ters patent, bearing date at Weitminiter, May the 18th, in
that year. Jn conformity to the {tatutes pertaining to this
order, he was nominated and created, by the great mafler of
the order, with the ceremonies ufually obferved in the cre-
ation of other kings of arms, to continue in his faid office
during good behaviour, denominated Bars, and enjoined fe-
duoufly to attend the fervice of the order. His habit and
fervice are particulariy prefcribed. In the year 1725, his
majeity, by fign manual, conftituted and ordained, the then
Bath king of arms, “ Gloucefter king of arms, and prin-
cipal herald. of the parts of Wales ;’’ and letters patent
pafled the great. feal, granting to him the faid office of
« Gloucefter,” empowering him to grant arms and crelts
to perfons refiding within the dominions of Wales ; and alfo
perpetually confolidating the office of ‘¢ Gloucefter” with
that of -“ Bath” king of, arms: ordering, moreover, that in
allaflemblies, and at all times, he fhould take precedency above
and before all other provincial kings of arms. See CoLtrcr
of Heralds, and HERAxp. : £

Kine’s Band: in Mufical Hiflory, a royal houfhold eftablifh-
ment. In the reign of king kKdward IVs Mutic, after
leading a vagrant life in our country, and being pafled from
parifh to parifh, feems at length, by the fayour.of this mo-

narchy

KIN

narch, to have acquired a fettlement ; for it appears by his
letters patent, under the great feal of his realm of England,
bearing date the 24th of April, 1469, in the ninth year of
his reign, that this prince did incerporate certain minftrels,
and give them a charter.

The original charter is pre‘erved in Rymer’s Foedera :
and in the eleventh year of Charles I., when that monarch
was petitioned to grant a new patent to the profeffors of
the art and fcience of mufic, the form of that which had
been from Edward IV. was made the ground-work of the
new charter. Fora further account of this infltitution, fee
Cuaret Royal Eftablifhment. ss

The fplendid robes and gorgeous attire of bards and
minitrels at all times are upon record. The flowing veft
of Orpheus in the triple capacity of prieft, legiflator, and
mulician, is {pecified by Virgil; Arion is related by He-
rodotus to have leaped into the fea in the rich veftments he
ufually wore in public; Suidas {peaks of the faffron robe
and Milefian flippers worn by Antigenides; and the per-
formers in the tragic chorus, which ufed to be furnifhed at
the expence of fome wealthy citizen of Athens, wore alfo
a {plendid and coftly uniform.

Indeed the cuftom of prefenting ftate muficians with
fuperb and expenfive dreffes during the fourteenth century,
feems to have travelled into England from the contirent,
and to have continued here till after the eftablifhment of
the king’s band of four-and-twenty performers; part of
their prefent falary being {till paid at the wardrobe-office,
as an equivalent for the annual drefs with which they ufed
to be furnifhed at his majefty’s expence. he children of
the king’s chapel ftill continue to wear the fcarlet uniform
of the original eltablifhment. And the waits, or muficians
who attend the mayor and aldermen of our cities and incor-
porate boroughs, are {till furnifhed with {plendid cloaks. See
Minstrets and Waits.

Kine's Bench. See Court of King’s Bench;

Kine’s Evil, See Evin and Scroruta.

Kine’s Exchange. See EXCHANGE.

Kina’s Houfhold. See Housuotp, GreencLoru, Cor-
FERER, and REVENUE.

Kina’s Library. See Liprary.

Kine of the Minftrels, in Alufical Hiflory. Dr. Plot, in
his Hiltory of Staffordfhire, has minutely related the origin
of an ancient and curious, though barbarous, privilege in
favour of Englifh minftrels, granted by John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancafter, at his caftle of Tutbury, in the year
3391, at the inauguration of the firft king of the minftrels.

Du Cange gives feveral more early initances of minftrels
having arrived at the honour of fovereignty in France :
particularly Jean Charmillons, rex juglatotorum at Troyes,
in Champagne, 1296. Kobert Cavaron, roi des menettriers
du royaume de France, 1338; and others in 1357, and
1362. Copin de*Brequin, roi des meneftriers du royaume
de France. Computum de auxiliis pro redemptione regis
Juhannis, A.D. 1367. Pour une couronne d’argent quil
donna le jour de la tiphaine au roi des meneftriers. And
one about fix years later than John of Gaunt's inftitution is
mentioned in Rymer, tom. vii. p. 55, where John Caunz,
king of the minitrels, condefcends to fupplicate for leave to
vilit foreign countries.

«‘ During the time in which ancient ear!s and dukes of Lan-
eafter, who were ever of the blood royal, great men in their
time, and had their abode, and kept a liberal hofpitality here,
at their honour of Tutbury, there could not but be a general
eoncourfe of people from all parts hither ; for whofe diver-
fion all forts of muficians were permitted likewife to come
to pay their fervices ; among{t whom, being numerous, fome

KIN

quarrels and diforders now and then arifing, it was found
neceflary, after a while, they fhould be brought under rules,
divers laws being made for the better regulating of them,
and a governor appointed them by the name of a Hing,
who had feveral officers under him to fee to the executian
of thofe laws, full power being granted them to apprehend
and arreft any fuch minftrels appertaining to the faid ho-
nour, as fhould refufe to do their fervices in due manner,
and to conftrain them.to do them ; as appears by the charter
granted to the faid king of the minftrels, by John of Gaunt,
king of Caftile and Leon, and duke of Lancatter, bearing
date the 22d of Auguit, in the fourth year of the reign at
king Richard II., entitled * Carta le Roy de Minttralae,”’
which is as follows :

‘© John, by the grace of God, king of Caftile and Leon,
duke of Lancafter, to all them who fhall fee or here thefe
our letters, greeting—Know ye, we have ordained, confli-
tuted, and affigned to our well-beloved the king of the min-
ftrels in our honour of Tutbury, who is, or for the time
fhall be, to apprehend and arreft all the minftrels in our faid
henour and franchife, that refufe to do the fervices and min-
ftrelfy as appertain to them to do from ancient times at
Tutbury aforefaid, yearly on the days of the Affumption
of our Lady; giving and granting to the faid king of the
mintftrels, for the time being, full power and commandment
to make them reafonably to juftify, and to conitrain them
to do their fervices, and minftrelfies, in manner as belongeth
to them, and as it hath been there, and of ancient times
accuftomed. In witnefs of which thing we have caufed
thefe our letters to be madeypatent. Guven under our privy
feal, at our caftle of Tutbury, the 22d day of Auguft, in
the fourth year of the reign of the moft fweet king Ri-
chard-II.’? For a further account of this eftablifhment,
fee Burney’s General Hiftory of Mufic, vol. ii. p. 361,
&c. and the article MrnsTRELs.

Kixe’s Palace. The limits of the king’s palace at Weft-
miniter, extend from Charing Crofs to Weftminiter Hall,
and fhall have fuch privileges as the ancient palaces. (28
Henry VIII.) If any perfon fhall ftrike another in the
king’s palace, he fhall have his right band cut off, be im-
prifoned during life, and alfo be fined. 32 Henry VIIL,
cap. 12.

Kanetd Prerogative. Sce PreroGAtive, and Kive,

Kine’s Privy-conncil. See Privy-council.

Kine’s Seal. See SEAt. ; ‘

Kixe’s Silver, the money due to the king in the court of
common pleas, pro licentia concordandi, in refpect of a licence
there granted to any man for levying a fine of lands, or tene»
ments, to another perfon. See Fine.

Kine’s Spear, in Botany. See AsPHODELUS.

Kine’s Thanes. See THANEs.

Kine’s War. See War.

Kine’s Wardrobe. See WaArpnrose.

Kine-f/f, in Ichthyology. See Oran.

Kine-fjher, i/pida, in Ornithology. See Aucepo ifpida.

KinG-piece, in any Buildings, is a piece of timber ttanding —
upright in the middle, between two principal rafters, and
having ftrutts or braces going from it to the middle of each
rafter.

Kine Cuarces I. in Biography. See CHARLES,

Kine Cuarzes II. See CHARLEs.

Kixe of Pruffia, Freveric. Among German dilettanti
in mufic, his late Pruffian majefty is entitled to the firit place,
in talents as well as rank. This heroic and accomplifhed
prince having had Quantz early in life for his ma{ter on the
German flute and in compofition, played no other pieces

than his own and thofe of his maiter, which were never

allowed

KIN

allowed té be printed. His majefty, during more than forty
years of his bufy reign, when not in the field, allotted four
hours a day to the ftudy, prattice, and performance of
mufic. All the German matters allowed him the firft place
among dilettanti compofers, as well as performers on the
flute. Fifcher, however, who was fome time in his fervice
before he firft came to England, did not feem to like his
mufical produtions, thinking them, even then, fomewhat
dry and old fafhioned. his prince had certainly great
profeffors in his fervice, though he was never partial to
Emanuel Bach, the greateft of them all. His majefty, be-
fides a great number of pieces for the flute, and fome for
the harplichord, compofed fometimes for the voice ; parti-
cularly in the paftoral opera of “ Galatea et Alcides,”’ in
1747, of which the overture and recitatives were Graun’s, and
the airs by the king jointly with Quantz and Nichelmann,
Sometimes, the day before performance, his majefty would
fend a new fong to the maeftro di cappella to be introduced
in an opera, and this was univerfally believed to be his own
production in all its parts. During the laft years of his
life, according to his chapel-matter, Reichardt, his Pruffian
majelty having loft fome of his front teeth, not only difgonti-
nued the pra¢tice of the flute, but his evening concerts, and
became totally indifferent to mufic: a proof that his ma-
jelty’s chief pleafure in the art was derived from his owa
performance.

Kine, Cuartres. Of this choral mufician, fir John Haw-
kins, who feems to have known him perfonally, gives the
following account in the fifth volume of his hiftory :

« Charles King, bred up in the choir of St. Paul’s under
Dr. Blow, was at firft a fupernumerary finger in that cathe-
dral, for the {mall ftipend of 14/. a-year. In the year 1704,
he.was admitted to the degree of bachelor in mufic in the
univerfity of Oxford ; and upon the death of Jeremiah
Clark, whofe filter was his firft wife, was appointed almoner
and mafter of the children of St, Paul's, continuing to fing
for his original ftipend until the 31ft of OG&ober, 1730, when
he was admitted a vicar choral of that cathedral, according
to the cuftoms and flatutes thereof. Befides his places in
the cathedral, he was permitted to hold one in a parifh
church in the city, being organitt of St. Bennet Fink, Lon-
don ; in which feveral {tations he continued till the time of
his death, which happened on the 17th of March, 1745.
With his fecond wife he had a fortune of feven or eight
thoufand pounds, which was left her by the widow of Mr.
Primatt, the chemift, who lived in Smithfield, and alfo in
that houfe at Hampton, which is now Mr. Garrick’s.
But notwithitanding this acceflion of wealth, he left his
family in but indifferent circumftances. King compofed
fome anthems, and alfo fervices to a great number, and
thereby gave occafion to Dr. Greene to fay, and indeed he
was very fond of faying it, as he thought it a witty fen-
.timent, that ‘«* Mr. King was a very /erviceable man.” As
a mufician he is but little efteemed. His compofitions are
uniformly reftrained within the bounds of mediocrity ; they
are well known, as being frequently performed, yet no one
cares to cenfure or commend them, and they leave the mind
jult as they found it. Some who were intimate with him
fay, he was not void of genius, but averfe to itudy ;
which character feems to agree with that general indolence
and apathy which were vifible in his look and ‘behaviour at
church, where he feemed to be as little affeted by the fer-
vice as the organ-blower.’’

Kine, WintiAm, organift of New college, Oxford,
fet to. mufic Cowley’s ‘“ Miltrefs,”? and publithed it with
the following title, ** Poems of Cowley and others,
compoled into Songs and Ayrs, with a Thorough-bafe to

KIN

the Theorbo, Harpficon, or Bafe-violl,”? fol, Oxford, 1668,

Kine, Roser, bachelor in mufic, of Cambridge, 1696,
one of the royal band of William and Mary. He compofed
feveral of the airs that were printed in the “ Tripla Con-
cordia ;”’ as well as many of the fongs that were publifbed
in the *"‘heatre of Mufic.’’

Kixc, Jonn Gurn, an Englifh divine, was born in the
county of Norfolk about the year 1732. He completed
his youthful ftudies at Caius college, Cambridge, where he
took his degrees of B. A. and M. A. in the years 1752 and
1763, and at fubfequent periods he was admitted to the
degree of D. D., and received a member of the Royal
Society, and of the Society of Antiquaries, In 1764, be
obtained the appointment of chaplain to the Englifh factory
at Peterfburg. In this fituation he was led to inquire into
the ceremonies of ‘the Ruffian church, which he continually
faw praGifed, and determined to give a faithful defcription
of the fame in his own language. He accordingly publifhed,
in 1772, in a handfome quarto, illuftrated with engravings,
a work, entitled «* The Rites and Ceremonies of the Greek
Church in Ruffia; containing an Account of its Doétrine,
Worfhip, and Difcipline.”’ In 1778, he wrote and pub-
lifhed a letter to the bifhop of Durham, containing fome
obfervations on the climate of Ruffia, and the northern
countries, with a view of the flying-mountains at Zarfko
Sello, near St. Peterfburg. Soon after his return to his
native country, he was prefented to the reétory of Worm-
ley, in Hertfordfhire, in 1783, and 1786 he purchafed the
chapelry of Spring Garden, in which he officiated as
preacher. While he refided at Peterfburg, the emprefs
of Ruffia had appointed him her medalift, and he was en-
gaged in a medallic work at the time of his death, which
happened Nov. 3, 1787, when he was about fifty-five years
of age. Befides the works already mentioned, Dr. King
was author of * Obfervations on the Barberini Vafe,’?
which are printed in the eighth volume of the Tranfattions
of the Antiquarian Society. Gen. Biog.

Kine, Perer, baron of Ockham, was born in the year
1669, at Exeter, of which city his father was a confiderable
tradefman. He was intended to fucceed in the bufinefs,
but having a ftrong inclination for reading, he purchafed
books, and fpent all the time he could command in improv-
ing hismind. He was related to the celebrated John Locke,
who, difcovering the bent of his inclinations, advifed that he
fhould be fent to Leyden for literary improvement. At this
period his attention was chiefly turned totheology, andin 1691
he publifhed « An Inquiry into the Conftitution, Difcipline,
Unity, and Worfhip of the Primitive Church, that flou-
rifhed three hundred Years after Chrift; faithfully col-
leGted out of the extant Writings of thofe Ages.”’ In the firft
volume, only three of the fubje€ts were treated on, and he
afterwards publifhed a fecond part on worfhip. The chief ob--
ject of this work was to prepare the way for that comprehens-
fion of the diffenters within the pale of the eftablifhed church, ,
which the revolution was fuppofed likely to effe&t.. After’
his return from Leyden, he was perfuaded by Mr: Locke-
to make choice of the law for his profeflion, and he accord-
ingly entered himfelf of the Inner Temple. He now em--
ployed all his powers in acquiring an extenfive knowledge
of the laws and conftitution of his country, and obtained a
reputation which introduced him into the houfe of commons
in 1699. This fituation he held during fix fucceflive par-
liaments, but his legal and political avocations did not-allow
him to abandon his former: theological ftudies ; but ate
been led by his inquiries to examine the oriyin of the Apot-
tles’ Creed, he publifhed, in 1702, a volume, intitled « The
Hiftory of the Apoftles’ Creed, with critical Obfervations:

On

KIN

on its feveral Articles.” Mr. King’s employment as a law-
yer increafed with his general reputation, and in 1708 he
was chofen recorder of London, and about the fame time he
received the honour of knighthood ;: in the following year
he was appointed by the houfe of commons to be one of
the managers on the trial of Dr. Sacheverel, and in 1712 he
boldly appeared as gratuitous counfel for Mr. Whitton, on
his profecution for herefy before the court of delegates,
and, in the end, obliged the bifhops and civilians to defift.
On the acceflion of George I. he was appointed to the lord
chief jufticefhip of the common pleas, and was {worn of the
privy council. In 1725, the judge was raifed to the peer-
age by the ityle and title of lord King, baron of Ockham,
in Surrey, and was created lord-chanceller in the room of
the earl of Macclesfield: the labours of this high office
being too great for his ftrength, in 1733 he refigned the
feals, and in a few months afterwards, viz. July 1734, de-
parted this life, leaving behind him a character of great virtue
and humanity, and of iteady attachment to civil and religious
liberty. Biog. Brit.

Kixe, Wittiam, a mifcellaneous writer, born in Lon-
don about the year 1663, was educated at Weftmintter {chool
under Dr. Bufby, whence he was removed to Chrift-church
college in Oxford. He took his degree of M. A. in 16588,
and in that year made his appearance as an author in a refu-
tation of Varilla’s account of Wickliffe, in his “* Hiltory of
Herefies.”” About this time he began the profeffional ftudy
of the civil law, in which he took a doétor's degree, and
obtained a large practice as advocate in Doétor’s Commons.
In 1694, he publifhed, in anfwer to lord Molefworth’s ac-
count of Denmark, his ‘¢ Animadverfions upon the pre-
tended Account of Denmark,” which were fo highly ap-
proved by prince George of Denmark, that he was appointed
fecretary to the princefs, afterwards queen Anne. In fome
fubfequent years he publifhed feveral works of the humorous
kind, fuch as * A Journey to London,” intended as a bur-
lefque on Dr. Martin Lifter’s journey to Paris; and a
fatire on fir Mans Sloane and the Royal Society. His ha-
bits were now become adverfe to every exertion of regular
indultry, he deferted all his profeffional profpe&ts, and, in
1702, he accepted an offer to gq to Ireland, where he had
feveral appointments under government, by which he might
have been fully employed, and derived wealth and even af-
fluence. He returned to England in 1708, but by no means
improved in his fortune, and retired to his ftudent’s place
in Chrift-church College, where he finifhed his largeft poem
in imitation of Ovid's Art of Love, and compofed feveral
other pieces. He clofely connedted himfelf with the Tory
party, and wrote in defence of Sacheverel. He was con-
cerned in the periodical paper, intitled ‘¢ The Examiner ;”
and fuch were his fervices to his party, that he obtained the
place of gazetteer; but the duties attached to the office
were more than he liked to perform, and he refigned it in
a fhort time. He died on Chriftmas-day, 1712. Asa profe
writer he is forgotten, but his account of ancient mythology
was long a popular book in the fchools. His works have
been colle&ed and publifhed in three vols. Svo., under the
title of “ Original Works in Profe and Verfe."’ Biog.
Brit. John{on’s Lives of the Poets.

Kine, Witiiam, a learned Irifh prelate, was born at
Antrim, in the province of Uliter, in the year 1650. From
the grammar {chool, in which he had made great progrefs, he
was fent to Trinity-college, Dublin, in 1667 ; here he was re-
markable for his attention to the ftudies of the place, and
took his degrees in 1670 and 1673, and in the latter of thefe
years he was ordained deacon. In the following year he
was admitted to prieft’s orders, and was patronized by Dr.

2

KIN

‘Parker, archbifhop of Tuam, who appointed him his chap-
lain in 1676. From this period ecclefialtical honours and
preferments began to flow rapidly upon him, till at length,
in 1688, he was eleG&ed dean of St. Patrick’s. He had
already publifhed three tracts on the controverfy between
the Papilts and Proteflants, and no fooner had the revolu-
tion taken place in England, than the dean became aétive
in promoting the fame eftablifhment in Ireland, both before
and after the landing of king James there in 1689. That
prince, fully fenfible of the dean's influence, and of the
weight of his oppofition, confined him twice in the tower
of Dublin caftle on that account. This did not prevent him
taking the degree of D. D. the fame year; but the Jaco-
bite party continued {fo inveterate againit him, that they
threatened to take away his life, and a€tually made two or
three unfuccefsful attempts for the purpofe. Upon the
flight of king James into France, after the battle of Boyne,
in the year 1690, and the appointment of a day of thankf-
giving for the prefervation of king William’s perfon, the
dean preached the fermon on the occafion, at St. Patrick’s
cathedral, aud, in 1691, his zeal and aétivity in favour of the
revolution were rewarded with the bifhopric of Derry. He
now publifhed “ ‘The State of the Proteftants in Ireland
under the late King James’s Government, &c.’' This
treatife was fo well received, that a third edition of it was
called for in a few months, and bifhop Burnet obferves, that
it was univerfally acknowledged to be as truly as it was
finely written, referring to it, in the “ Hiftory of his own
Time," as a full and faithful account. When public tran-
quillity was reitored, the bifhep applied himfelf very dili-
gently to the immediate duties of his paitoral care, and was
exceedingly defirous of converting the Prefbyterian party
to the epifcopal forms. With this view, he publifhed, in
1694, a treatife, entitled ‘* The Inventions of Men in the
Worfhip of God:"’ this drew him into a controverfy with
Mr. Jofeph Boyfe, a diffenting minilter of Dublin, which ter-
minated without effeGting the obje¢t which the learned pre-
late had at heart. In 1702, bifhop King publifhed at Dub-
lin his celebrated work, entitled «* De Origine Mali,’’ which
was reprinted the fame year at London. ‘The cbje& of this
work is to fhew in what way the feveral kinds of evil with
which the world abounds, are confiftent with the goodnefs of
God, and may be accounted for without the fuppofition of
an evil principle. The bifhop was attacked by Bayle,
Leibnitz, and others, upon different parts of his work ; bat
he did not make any public reply during his life-time, being
tnwilling to enter again into the liits of controverfy. He
was not, however, an inattentive obferver of the arguments
adduced againit him, but left behind him a great number of
MSS., in which he confidered their feveral obje€tions to his
fyitem, and laboured to vindicate it from the leaft cavil : the
fubftance was afterwards given to the public. In 1702,
Dr. King was tranflated to the archbifhopric of Dublin,
and, in 1709, he publifhed a fermon, preached before the
Irifh houie of peers, entitled “* Divine Predeftination and
Fore-knowledge confiitent with the Freedom of Man’s
Will,” in which he maintained that the moral attributes of
God were different from the moral qualities of the fame
name in man. This doctrine was attacked by Dr. John
Edwards and Mr. Anthony Collins, to neither of whom
did the archbifhop reply, though he had prepared anfwers,
which were found among his MSS. at his death. In the
year 1717, archbifhop King was appointed one of the lords
juttices of Ireland, and he held the fame office in the years
1721 and 1723. He died in May 1729, when he had
nearly completed his 7gth year. He was a prelate’ef great
learning, and fteadily attached to the principles of the Re-

volution ;

KIN

yolution; zealous for the profperity of the eflablifhed
church, to which he belonged ; and of an unblemifhed and
exemplary moral charaéter. He was ambitious of the pri-
macy of Ireland, which was refufed him, under the pretence
of his being too old to perform the duties of the office. This
reafon, it is faid, was as little agreeable as the refufal itfelf ;
and when the new primate called upon him after his eleva-
tion, archbifhop King received him in his own houfe, with-
out rifing from his chair, making this apology, in a fort of
fircaltic manner, “ My lord, Iam certain your grace will
forgive me, becaule you know I am too old to rife.’ After
his death, the papers which he left were put into the hands
of Mr. Law, afterwards bifhop of Carlifle, who publifhed
a tranflation of his work ‘«* De Origine Mali,” corrected and
enlarged from the author’s notes, to which were added two
fermons on the Divine Prefcience, and the Fall of Man,
z vols. 8vo. DBiog. Brit. .

Kina, or Kin-yuen, in Geography, a town of China, of
the firlt clafs, in the province of Quang-li. N. lat. 24° 21’.
E. long. 108°.

Kina, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Cacongo ;
40 miles S.E. of Effena.

Kine’s, a maritime county of New York, in the United
States, containing that part of the ftate that is bounded_E.
by Queen's county ; N. by New York county ; W. partly
by Hud{fon river, and partly by the ocean; and S. by the
Atlantic ocean, including Coney iflands. ‘Ihis fertile tract
of land, fituated on the W. end of Long ifland, and feparated
from Staten ifland by the Narrows, ferves very much to
the fupply of the New York market with butter, vege-
tables, fruit, &c. It is divided into fix townfhips, and con-
tains 5740 inhabitants, includjng 1479 flaves. Its chief
towns are Brooklyn, and Flatbufh—Alfo, a county of
Nova Scotia, comprehending the iflands on the S.W, and S.
fides of the bafin of Minas. ‘The rivers Habitant, Canaid,
and Cornwallis, are navigable to fome diftaice. The lands
on thefe rivers afford arable and palture foil; the rivers
abound with fifh; and in the bafin of Minas are fine cod-
fifth, haddock, and different kinds of flat fith.

Krxe’s, or Pearl Zfland, a {mail ifland in the bay of
Panama; belonging to Spain, and famous for its pearl-
fihhery. N. lat.7°12!. W. long. 81° 36'.

Kinc’s Lay, a bay on the S.E. coalt of Nova Scotia.
N. lat. 44° 32'. W. long. 59° 101.

Kixe’s Bridge, a polt-town of New-York, 15 miles N.
of New York city. The bridge conneéts New York ifland
with the main land.

Kuisc's County, a county of Ireland, part of the old diftri&
of Ophaley, which, having been confifcated in the reign
of the firlt Mary, was called the King’s county, and its
chief town Philip’s-town, in compliment to her hutband,
Philip Il. of Spain. It has Weitmeath and Meath on the
N. Kildare and the Queen’s county on the I. ; Tipperary
onthe 5. and S.W.; and part of Galway and Rofcommon
on the W. Its chief natural boundary is the Shannon,
which feparates it from Galway. The little Brofna and
the Barrow ferve, edch of them, to mark its limits for a
few miles. Its breadth, in the northern and broadelt part,
is 32 Irifh miles (39 Enghfh), but it contraéts very much
as it ftretches to the fouthward. Ia this part of the coun-
try it extends 34 Irifh (43 Englifh) miles from N. to S.
It contains 282,200 acres, which make upwards of 440
{quare miles, equal to 453,370 acres, or 707 {quare miles
Englifh. There are 52 parifhes and 25 churches, and, ac-
cording to Dr. Beaufort, a population of about 74,500.
The completion of the grand canal has, however, tended
much to increafe the population of this county. The only

Vou. XX,

KIN

mountains in it are the Sliebh-bloom, in the S,E. which
extend into the Queen’s county. ‘Thefe run ina range of
about 15 miles, having but one pafs, called the gap of
Glendine, which is very difficult of approach, fteep and
craggy, and not five feet wide. The foil in the northern
part 1s moftly argillaceous, and requires a great deal of
lime to make it arable. The rocks are red argiilite and
freeftone, which interfeét each other. In the centre there
are various foils, light fandy loam, ftiff yellow clay, gritty
fhallow gravel, and deep brown earth. In this part of the
range the land is often fertile in pafture, aud grazed
throughout the year with numerous flocks of fheep and
young cattle: limeftone is thickly interfperfed, and the
bottom is a {tiff clay, where abundant crops of corn are
yielded. In another part we find a cold, fpongy clay,
and at the foot, where the declivity vanifhes, a deep ir-
reclaimable bog, which can be approached only in very
dry feafons. The mineral produétions of this mountainous
diftrict have not been yet afcertained. In the arable parts
of the county, we are informed that the foil is not naturally
fertile, and is only rendered fo by manures, and proper
attention to a rotation of crops. The quality of the foil
is either a deep moor, or a fhallow gravelly loam; the
moiit feafon being moft favourable to the produce yielded
by the latter, and the moors very produétive in dry fum-
mers. There is every where abundance of lime-ftone and
lime-ftone gravel, which is found the beft manure. The
pattures, though not luxuriant, are kind and fattening, and
well adapted for fheep-walks, where numerous flocks are
fupported, the wool of which is abundant, and of a very
fine quality. The coarfeft pafture, which is the unreclaimed
moor, is highly nutritious to young cattle. The furface is
rather an uninterrupted flat, unfavourable to dairy huf-
bandry, and the corn crops are principally oats and barley.
In fozne parts, however, improvements i hufbandry are
attended to, in the raifing of green crops, introducing ar-
tificial graffes, and drilling potatoes. Confiderably more
than a third part of the whole county is eccupied by bog
and mountain. The bogs, however, fupply an abundance
of moft excellent fuel, which not only ferves the inhabitants,
but is fent by the canal to Dublin. They alfo yield, when
calcined, an excellent and lafting manure, both for their
own imprevement and that of the high grounds. As there
is a natural fall in many places, thefe bogs are very capable
of being drained and reclaimed by lime-ftone. Such land
is fit for all the purpofes of hufbandry, and will be found
more produétive, either in pafture or tillage, than the ge-
neral run of the beft lands in the county. This reclaiming
of bog is now purfued with much fpirit in many parts ; and
nothing furely can be more gratifying than to behold rich
carpets of white clover and trefoil in {pots which had been
dark and barren moor. Thefe bogs have been lately fur-
veyed by the direction of the commiffioners for the invef-
tigation of bogs, and it is to be hoped that fome extenfive
plan of drainage will be carried into effe&. The mineral
produétions of the county are inconfiderable. Sir C. Coote,
author of the Statiltical Survey, mentions only manyanefe,
iron ores in {mall quantity, ochre, marle, lime-ftone, free-
ftone, and potter’s clay. There is a great fearcity of tim-
ber, except ornamental plantations, though the bogs afford
abundant proof of its having once been an almolt uninter-
rupted foreft. ‘The alder appears to have been a native of
this county, and a few of them ftill rear their venerable tops
ina park at Droughtville. - This county is well watered.
Befides the Shannon and the little Brofna, before men-
tioned, the greater Brofna, after winding through a great
part of it, between pleafant banks, lofes ifelf in the Shan:

D non.

EL

non. ‘There are alfo feveral fmall rivers, and fome lakes,
of which Lough Pallis and Lough Annagh are the largett ;
and the Grand Canal crofles the northern part of the county.
Of the towns, Birr is the moft confiderable ; but Philip’s-
town is the county town. Tullamore is a pretty and
thriving place. The county is reprefented in parliament
by the two knights of the hire only ; the boroughs of
Philip’s-town and Banagher having been disfranchiled by
the Union. Coote’s Statiftical Survey. Beaufort’s Me-
moir.

Kino’s Court, a poft-town of the county of Cavan, Ire-
land ; 39 miles N.W. from Dublin.

Kine’s Creek; a river of Virginia, which runs into the
Chefapeak, N. lat. 37° 20’. W. long. 76° 2'.—Alfo, a
river of North Carolina, which runs into the Cangaree, N.
lat. 35° 8’. W. long. 81° 40’. :

Kiye's J/fland, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near the
W. coatt of Siam, about 51 miles in circumference. N. lat.
12° 18’. E. long. 98°, —Alfo, a {mall ifland in Beering’s
itraits. N. lat. 65° 2'. W. long. 168'.—Alfo, an ifland
near the W. coaft of North America, feparated by Fifher’s
canal from the fouthernmott of Princefs Royal's iflands, and
by Burk’s canal from New Hanover ; fo called by captain
Vancouver, after captain James King, of the Britifh navy.
It is about 33 miles in length, and rather more than fix in
breadth. Point Edward is the farthelt point to the N.
and point Wallertothe S. N. lat. 51° 56’ to52 26. E.
long. 232° 9 to 232° 43’.

Kine’s Keys, ullets and rocks in the Spanifh main, near
the Mofquito fhore. N. lat. 12°42'. W.long. 82° 35/.

Kine's Point, the N.W. extremity of the ifland of Suma-
tra; 15 miles W.of Acheen. N. lat. 5° 30’.

Kine and Queen, a county ef Virginia, on Mattapony
river, which feparates it from king William’s county. It
is about 25 mules long and 20 broad, and contains 4499
free inhabitants, and 5380 flaves. At King and Queen, in
this county, is a polt-ottice.

Kine George, a county of Virginia, between the Patow-
mac and Rappahannock rivers. It is 22 miles long and 14
broad, and contains 2762 free inhabitants, and 3987 flaves.
In the court houfe is a polt-office.

Kine George’s T/lands, two iflands in the South Pacific
ocean, difcovered by commodore Byron in 1765, and vifited
by captain Cook in 1773. The commodore’s landing was
oppofed by the natives, when, a thot or two being fired,
one man was killed, and the re{t fled. The canoes were
eurioufly wrought with planks, ornamented with carving,
and the feams filled up by ftrips of tortoife-fhell. They
were about 32 feet long, very narrow, with bottoms as fharp
asa wedge. ‘Two of them were joined together laterally
by ftrong fpars, fo that between them there was an interval
of about fix or eight feet ; each had a malt, andthe fail was
neatly made of matting. ‘Ihe houfes were low mean hovels,
thatched with branches of cocoa-nut tree; but they were
delightfully fituated in a grove of ftately trees, The cocoa-
nut tree feemed to afford them almoft all the neceflaries of
life ; particularly focd, fails, cordage, timber, and veffels
for holding water. ‘The fhore appeared to be covered with
coral, and the fhells of large pearl oyfters. The ifland was
covered with {curvy-grafs. "Lhe frefh water is good, but
fearce, being furmfhed by very {mall wells, which are foon
emptied, and as foon filied again. In one of the iflands was
a lake or lagoon, in which were obferved two or three
vefiels, one of which had two maits, and fome cordage aloft
to fupport-them. S. lat. 14°35’. W. long. 149° 2!.

Kypse George the Third’s Archipelago, & group of iflands
in the North Pacifie ocean, extending from N. to S. about

KIN

150 miles in length 5 about 15 miles broad towards the N.
and diminifhing to little.more than a mile at the fouthern
extremity. N, lat. 56° 10! to 58’ 18’. E. long. 223° 45°
to 225° gol.

Kin George the Third's Iffand. See Ovaneire.

Kine George the Third’s Sound, a harbour on the S,W
coaft of New Holland, difcovered by captain Vancouver-in

1791. In seg 2 it from the wettward, it is the firlt
opening that appears like a harbour eaftward of Cape Cha-
tham. The Kclipfe iflands are an excellent guide to the

Sound, having between them and Bald-head fome rocks on
which the fea breaks with great violence. The port is -
fafe, and eafy of accefs any where between its outer points
of entrance; Bald-head and Mount Gardner lying N. 62”
E. and S. 62° W., 11 miles diftant from each other. S.
lat. 357.5! |B. longer 18? 19/

Kine George’s Sound, a name given by Captain Cook to
Nootka found. See NoorKa.

Kine William’s Tfland, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea, near the N. coait of the ifland of Poggy. S. lat. 2° 33'.
E. long. 99° 43'.-—Alfo, a {mall ifland in Dampier’s ftrait,
near the S. coa{t of the ifland of Waigoo. S. lat. 0° 32’.
E. long. 130° 51'. — Alfo, a cape on the eaftern extremity
of New Guinea. S. lat. 6°45’. E. long. 1487 5'.

KINGDOM, the dominion of a king. See Kiye and
Monarcny. mr

Kincpom, among Chem ffs, isa term which they apply
to each of the three orders or clafles of natural bodies ; ani-
mal, vegetable, and mineral.

Kincpom of God, or of Heaven, in the Gofpel Hiflory, is
a phrafe, which, according to Dr. Campbell, has a manifett
allufion to the predictions in which this economy was ree |
vealed by the prophets in the Oid Teltament, particularly
by Daniel, ch. ii. 44. vii. 13, 14.3 by Micah, ch. iv. 6, 7 5
and by other prophets. ‘lo thefe predictions there is a
manifelt reference in the title 4 BaciAs2 v2 Ore, OF a7 BexvaN,
or fimply % BaciAue, given, in the New Teftament, to the
religious conftitution which would obtain under the Meffiah.
In moft cafes Bacirna anfwers to the Latin regaum. But
this word is of more extenfive meaning than the Englifh,
being equally adapted to exprefs both our terms reign and
kingdom. The firft relates to the time or duration of the
fovereignty ; the fecond to the place or country over which
it extends. Neverthelefs, though it is manifeft in the
Gofpels, that it is much oftener the time than the place
that is alluded to ; it is never, inthe common verfion, tran{-
lated reign, but always dingdom. Yet the expreffion, fays
Campbell, is often thereby rendered exceedingly awkward,
not to fay abfurd. In order to prevent this mifapplication
of terms, fzcirux ought fometimes to be rendered reign,
and not kingdom. When it refers to the time, it ought
to be rendered reign, and when to the place, Aingdom. There
are, however, a few paflages in which neither of the Englifh
words can be confidered as a tranflation of BasiAna ilrictly
proper. In fome of the parables. ( Matt. xvii. 23.) it evi-
dently means adminiflration, or method of governing ; and.
in one of them (Luke, xix. 12. 15.) the word denotes
royalty, or royal authority, there being a manifeft allufion,
to what had been done by Herod the Great, and his im
mediate fucceffor, in recurring to the Roman fenate in
order to be invefted with the title and dignity of king of
Judea, then dependent upen Rome. Upon the whole, we
may obferve, that the phrales, kingdom of God, and kingdom of
heaven, are fynonymous; and that they fometimes denote
the flate of the blefled, and fometimes the gofpel difpenfa-
tion, Campbell’s Prel. Dill. p. 136, &c. ‘
KING-

KIN

KINGHALE, in Geography, a town of Africa, in Cacon-
0, fituated on the Louifa. S. lat. 5? 20’. E. long. 12° 10’.

KINGHORN, a {mall fea-port town in the county of
Fife, in Scotland, fituated on the north bank of the frith
of Forth, nearly oppofite to the city of Edinburgh and
port of Leith, from the latter of which it is about feven
miles diftant. Kinghorn is principally inhabited by fifher-
men and boatmen employed on the ferry, which is one of
the chief routs of intercourfe between the metropolis and
the counties of Fife and Angus. The boats employed on
the ferry are large, well built decked-boats ; full-decked for
carrying carriages, horfes, and black cattle; and there
are handfome {mall pinnaces for pleafure parties, and paf-
fangers who have no equipage or horfes. The fares are
regulated, and the conduct of the ferrymen fuperintended
by the magiftrates of Edinburgh, who punifh offences and
frauds upon paflengers upon a fummary complaint. In
the middle of the frith is a {mall pleafant ifland, about a
mile in circumference, called Inch-Keith, upon which is
the ruins of an old caltle, which was once a place of fome
firength. About the commencement of the prefent war
fome entrenchments were made, and guus mounted upon
this land for the prote€tion of the fhipping in the Forth
from any furprife, probably from the recolleétion of the
daring but nugatory attempt of Paul Jones, during the
American centeit ; but hitherto there has been no occafion
to employ them. Inch-Keith, we believe, is the property
of the city of Edinburgh. ;

KINGIKSOK, a town of Weit Greenland. N. lat.
61° 55’. E. long..47° 40!.

KING-KI-TAO, a city and capital of Corea, fituated
in the province of King-ki, and the ordinary refidence of the
fovereign. N. lat. 47° 38’. E. long. 126° 41’.

KI-NGNAN, a city of China, of the firlt clafs, in the
province of Kiang-fi, feated on the river Kan, which is dif-
ficult and hazardous of navigation, on account of its nume-
rous rocks and currents, and which requires the affifttance of
perfons provided in this city. The adjoining fields and
vallies are agreeable and fertile ; and the mountains are faid
to contain mines of gold and filver. N lat. 27’ 7’. E.
long. 114° 32’.

KINGROAD, a part of the Severn below Briftol, from
whence the outward-bound fhips from that city take their
departure.

KINGS, Books of, in Scripture Hiffory, two canonical
books of the Old Teitament, fo called, becaufe they contain
the hiitory of the kings of Ifrael and Judah, from the be-
ginning of the reign of Solomon, down to the Babylonifh
cantivity. The firft book of Kings contains the latter part
of the life of David, and his death; the flourifhing ftate of
the Ifraelites under Solomon, his building and dedicating
the temple of Jerufalem, his fhameful defe¢tion from the
true religion, and the fudden decay of the Jewith nation after
his death, when it was divided into two kingdoms: the reft
of the book is taken up in relating the acts of four kings
of Judah and eight of Ifrael. The fecond book, which 1s
* a continuation of the fame hiltory, is a relation of the me-
morable aéts of fixteen kings of Judah, and twelve of Ifrael,
and the end of both kingdoms, by the carrying off the ten
tribes captive into Aflyria by Salmanaflar, and the other
two into Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar.

It is probable that thefe books were compofed by Ezra,
who extraéted them out of the public records, which were
kept of what paffed in that nation. ‘Thefe are the only
books which the Hebrews call “ Malachim or Kings,”
though the two books of Samuel have been alfo mentioned

* general well built.

KIN

under this general title; and authors have enumerated four
books of Kings, thofe of Samuel (which fee) being the firtt
and fecond, ‘The four books contain the hiftory of almoft
600 years.

KINGSBRIDGE, in Geography, a fmall market town
and parifh in the hundred of Stanborough, and county of
Devon, England, is fituated on a branch of the Salcombe
river, and, according to Rifdon, derives its name from the
bridge, which conneéts it with Dodbrooke. The town is in
A free-fchool was founded here by Mr.
Crifpin of Exeter, and has obtained fome degree of reputa-
tion. ‘The parifh was returned, under the population aét of
1800, as containing 155 houfes, and 1117 inhabitants.
Kingfbridge is diltant from Dartmouth 10 miles, from
Exeter 39, and from London 207. It hasa weekly market
on Saturdays, and three annual fairs. David Tolley or
Tolbey, called by Leland Tavelegus, an eminent Greek
and Latin fcholar in the time of Henry VIIL., was a native
of thistown. Beauties of England and Wales. Polwhele’s
Hiftory of Devonthire, folio.

KINGSBURY, atownfhip of America, in the county
of Wafhington, and ftate of New York, fituated on the
bend of Hudfon’s river, on the N.E. fide; containing 165r
inhabitants.

KINGSCLERE, a fmall market town and parifh
in the hundred of the fame name, Hampfhire, England, is
fituated on the edge of a chain of hills, 17 miles-from Read-
ing in Berkfhire, and 55 from London. It is mentioned by
Camden as being a contiderable town, but is now of a mean
appearance, and only remarkable for having been the refi-
dence of the Weft Saxon kings. The church is a {mall
ftuccoed building, with alow tower. This parifh was re-
turned in the year 180r as containing 394 houfes, and 1939
mhabitants, of whom 492 were employed in trade, princi-
pally in the malting line, which produces a confiderable
trafic with London. A weekly market is held on Tuef-
days, and here are three annual fairs. It is probable that
the palace of the Saxon fovereigns was connected with Free-
mantle Park, a fhort diftanee to the fouth, as that is known
to have been a royal refidence in the time of king John, and
was in the poffeffion of the crown fo late as the reign of
queen Elizabeth. The manfion has been lately pulled
down, and the park ploughed up and converted into a farm.
Beauties of England.

KINGSEY, a townfhip of Lower Canada, N.W. of
Shipton, adjoining on both fides of Nicolet river, having
about 30 inhabitants.

KINGSLAND Cnrerx, a river of Virginia, which runs
into James river. N. lat. 37° 24'. W. long. 77° 4o!.

KINGSTON, or Esopus, a poft-town of America, in
New York, in Uliter county, on the weit fide of Hudfon’s
river, fix miles weft of Rhinebeck, and on the eaft fide of
Efopus hill, or creek, In 1777, this town was burned by
the Britifh troops, under the order of general Vaughan. It
has been fince rebuilt on a regular plan, and contains about
150 houfes, a court-houfe, gaol, a Dutch reformed church,
and anacademy, Its fituation is pleafant, being furrounded
by a fpacious plain; 56 miles S. of Albany. N. lat. 41°
56". W. long. 73°56’. The townfhip contains 4615 in-
habitants. —Alfo, a townfhip in Addifon county, Vermont,
containing 585 inhabitants. —Alfo, a poft-town in Plymouth
county, Maffachufetts, on the weftern part of Plymouth
bay, bounded northerly by Duxborough, and containing
1037 inhabitants. It was incorporated in 17073; 38 miles
S.E. of Bofton.—Alfo, a polt-town in Rockingham county,
New Hamphhire, on the road that leads from Exeter to

D2 Haverhill

KIW

Haverhill in Maffachufetts; 6 miles from the former, and
12 from the latter. It was incorporated in 1694, and con-
tains 785 inhabitants. —Alfo, a town, now « Conway-
borough," in Horry diftri&, South Carolina, on the weft
fide of Wakkamaw river, having an epifcopal church, and
about 36 houfes; 41 miles N, by E. from George town. —
Alfo, the chief town of Lenoir county, Newbern diftri@,
in North Carolina. It is a poft-town, fituated on a beauti-
ful plain on the north fide of Neus river, and containing a
court-houfe, gaol, and about 30 houfes; 40 miles W. of
Newbern.—Alfo, a townfhip in Luzerne county, Pennfyl-
yania, containing 752 inhabitants.—Alfo, a town of Upper
Canada, at the head of the river St. Lawrence, on the north
fhore, oppofite to Wolf ifland; occupying the {cite of old
fort Frontinac, laid out in 1784, and now advanced to a
eoufiderable fize. It has a barrack for troops, a houfe for
the commanding officer, an hofpital, feveral itore-houfes,
and an epifcopal church. About Kingiton there are feveral
valuable quarries of lime-ftone, and the country .in general
is rather ftony, though not detrimental to the crops. _ It is
200 miles S. of Montreal, and 150 N. of Niagara. Large
veffels go no farther than this place; thence to Niagara, &c.
flores and merchandize are conveyed in boats.—Alfo, a
townfhip of Upper Canada, being the fourteenth and upper-
moft in afcending the St. Lawrence. It is in the county of
Frontinac, and lies partly open to lake Ontario.—Alfo, the
capital of the ifland of St. Vincent's, in the Weft Indies, and
the feat of government. It lies at the head of a bay of the
fame name, on the fouth-weft fhore of the ifland, in St.
George’s parifh. N. lat. 13° 6!. W. long. 60 .—Alfo, a
town of Jamaica, in the county of Surrey, fituated on the
north fide of a beautiful harbour, and founded in 1693,
when repeated defolations by earthquake and fire had driven
the inhabitants from Port Royal. It contains 1665 houles,
befides negro-huts and warehoufes.
inhabitants, in the year 1788, was 6539; of free people of
colour, 3280; of flaves, 16,659: total number of inha-
bitants, of all complexions and conditicns, 26,475. Itisa
place of great trade and opulence. Many of the houfes in
the upper part of the town are extremely magnificent ; and
the markets for butchers? meat, turtle, fifh, poultry, fruits
and vegetables, &c. are inferior to none, From compara-
tive regifters of mortality it appears, that fince the fur-
rounding country is cleared of wood, this town has been
proved to be as healthful as any in Europe. A fitze courts
are heldevery three months in Kingiton, for the county of
Surrey. N. lat. 18°. W. long. 76° 33'-
‘Kincstox-upon-Hutu. See Hue. .
Kixcston-upon-THAMES, a market town and parifh in
the hundred of Kingfton, and county of Surrey, England,
derives its name from having been a royal refidence ; and the
adjuné&t is affixed to mark its fituation, and diftinguifh it
from other Kingftons. It is feated on the fouthern bank of
the river Thames, at the diftance of 11 miles from- Weft-
minfter-bridge. In the fourth, fifth, and fixth years of
king Edward II., this town fent members to parliament ;
and again in the forty-feventh of king Edward III. The
corporation afterwards petitioned to be relieved from fending
members, and the town then ceafed to be a borough. Se-
veral valuable privileges and immunities were granted to
Kingiton by charters from kings John, Henry III., Ed-
ward IIT., and other fubfequent monarchs. ‘The corpora-
tion now confilts of about fifty members. Here are one
weekly market, and three annual fais. In the year 1769,
an act of parliament was obtained for feparating the parith

of Kingtton and its dependent chapelries of Richmond,

The number of white .

KIN

Moulfey, Thames-Ditton, Peterfham, and Kew, into two
vicarages and two perpetual curacies. In this town is Can~
bury-houfe, a feat of the late lord Dillon, near which is a
very large barn, which has four entrances, four threfhing
floors, and is fupported by twelve pillars: twelve waggons
may be unloaded at once within its walls.

The hiltorical annals of Kingfton relate many interefting
events, as having occurred here. In the year 838, a grand
council was affembled at this place, and was attended b
Egbert, firlt Saxon king of all England, his fon Ethelwolf,
and the principal nobles and bifhops of the land ; at the fame,
the archbifhop of Canterbury prefided. “Other monarchs
were crowned here, of which the following are {pecified by
our ancient hiftorians: Edward the Elder, crowned A.D.
goo}; his fon Athelitan, in 925 ; Edmund, ing4o; Eldred,
or Edred, in 946; Edwy, or Edwin, in 955; Edward the —
Martyr, in 975; and Ethelred, in 978. Previous to the
reign of Henry ITI. a caitle was ftanding here, as that mo-
narch, in the year 1264, marched out of London, and
feized the caftle of Kenington, or King{ton, which then
belonged to Gilbert Clare, earl of Gloucefter, and which is
not mentioned in any fubfequent period, In the civil wars
of the feventeenth century, Kingiton was again a placé of
public celebrity ; for the firft armed force is faid to have
been affembled here under the command of colonel Luusford,
with a troop of 400 or 500 horfe. The colonel was pre-
claimed a traitor, as having levied war againft the parlia-
ment, and was apprehended. Refpecting this event, and
fome other contemporaneous proceedings, the different party
writers are very contradictory. In the month of October
1642, the earl of Effex was in this town with 3000 men
under arms ; and at feveral other times, during the parlia-
mentary civil war, King{ton was poffeffed by both parties :
but the townfmen were moftly in favour of the royalitts,
Leland ftates, that ‘* manv olde monuments be founde yn the
declyving doune from Come-Parke towarde the galoys :??—
alfo, * fundation of waulls of honfes, and diverfe coynes
of braffe, fylver, and gold, with Romayne infcriptions, and
painted yerthen pottes; and yn one, yn cardinal Wolfey’s
tyme, was founde much Romayne money of fylyer, and
plates of fylver to coyne, and maffes to bete imto plates to
coyne, and chaynes of fylver.” ‘I'he bifhops of Wincheiter
formerly had a hall here.

In the market-place is the'town-hall, which was built in
the time of queen Elizabeth. In this are held the Lent
affizes for the county of Surrey; and in a room adjoining,
the corporation hold their courts of affembly.

Adjoining the town is an old manfion, called Ham-houfe,
which was intended for Henry, prince of Wales, fon of
James I. It afterwards belonged to the duke of Lander-
dale, who furnifhed it in a very expenfive and gorgeous
ftyle. In the centre of the houfe is a large hall, furrounded
with an open gallery. Some of the ceilings are painted by
Verrio; and feveral rooms are ornamented with paintings by
the old matters, among which are a few valuable portraits.
In this houfe was born John, duke of Argyle, and his
brother Archibald, who was alfo created duke, and made
lord keeper of Scotland. The church of Kingfton has fome
ancient parts. Onits fouth fide was the chapel of St. Mary,
which fell down in the year 1730, and buried the fexton, his
daughter, and another perfon, in the ruins. The daughter,
however, was refeued alive, and fucceeded her father. In
the church are feveral monumental memorials, fome of which
are for perfons of eminence. Near Kingfton is a bridge
acrofs the ‘Thames, faid, by Mr. Lyfons, ‘ to be the: malt
ancient on the river, except that of London. It is men

tioned

G KIN

aioned in a record of the eighth of Henry III." An a&
of parliament was obtained in the thirteenth year of George,
for lighting and watching this town. In 1800, Kingfton
contained 682 houfes, and 3793 inhabitants. Lyfons’ En-
virons of London, vol. i. gto. 1796.

KINGSTOWN, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Kantor.

KINGSTREE, a poft-town of America, in Williams-
bcrough county, South Carolina; 480 miles from Wath-
ington.

SKING-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in
the province of Hou-quang, feated om the Yang-tfe river.
The diftri& of this town has two cities of the fecond order,
and eleven of the third clafs. It is furrounded with lakes,
which contribute to render the land about it fruitful and
pleafant. It is well-built and populous ; and its trade is
great. A wall divides it into two parts, one of which be-
longs to the Chinele, the other to the T'artars, of which the

arrifon confifts. N. lat. 30° 28’. E. long 111° 37!

KING-TE-CHING, a village belonging to the diftrict
of Jao-tcheou in China, in which are colle¢ted the bett
workmen in porcelain, and as populous as the largett cities
of China. It is reckoned to contain a million of inhabitants,
who confume every day more than ten thoufand loads of
rice. It extends 14 league along the banks of a beauiiful
river, with crowded buildings, and its ftreets are thronged
with inhabitants ; for a great number of whom it furnifhes
employment. “The river in this place forms a kind of
harbour, about a league in circumference, which accom-
modates a great number of barks. ‘This village contains
about 500 furnaces for making porcelain; and to thofe who
approach it at night it appears like a large city on fire.
Strangers are not permitted to fleep here, but they are re-
quired either to fleep in their barks, or with their friends.
N. lat. 29° 25'. E. long. 116° 56’.

KINGTON, or Kyneton, a fmall market town and
parifh in the hundred of Huntingdon, and county of Here-
ford, is fituated on the Black Brook, under Bradnor moun-
tain. A cattle was conftruéted at this plaee, at a former
period, for the detence of the marches; but the who'e is
now deftroyed. The church is a very irregular ftru@ure,
having a detached tower, with a fpire of fingular form.
The town is in general well built, and has a free grammar
fehool, erected and endowed by lady Watkins. The inha-
bitants of this parifh, as afcertained by the a& of 1801,
amounted to 1424; the number of houfes to 311. The
principal manufacture is that of wocllen cloth. Kington is
diftant from Hereford 20 miles, and from London 1 Gs.
Here are four annual fairs, and a weekly market on Weduef-
days. The markets immediately before Eafter, Whitfun-
tide, and Chriitmas, are very confiderable for corn, cattle,
and cloth; and are equal to moft fairs. On the fummit of
Bradnor mountain are the remains of a {quare entrench-
ment.

About two miles eaftward of Kington are the ruins of
Lyons-hall caftle, a very ancient ftruéture, of which fcarcely
any thing now remains but fragments of the outer walls; the
eaftle having been demolithed in the reign of Edward II.
Beauties of England, vol. vi.

KING-TONG, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in
the province of Yun-nan, on the Pa-pien river. It is fur-
rounded with very high mountains, in which, it is faid, there
are filver mines. The adj cent country abounds with rice,
and the vallies are wel watered. WN. lat. 24° 30°. E. long.
100 .

KINGU A, a town of Eaft Greenland, N. lat. 63° 21’.

E. long. 45° 26’.

by the attacks of the Tartars.

KIN
KING-WILLIAM, a county of Virginia, between

Mattapony and Pamunky rivers. It is 47 miles long, and
15 broad, and contains 5744 free inhabitants, and 33114
flaves. At the court-houfe is a poft-office.

KINGWOOD, a townfhip in Huntingdon county,
New Jerfey, containing 2446 inhabitants, of whom 104 are
flaves ; 15 miles S.W. of Lebanon.—Alfo, the name of a
{mall river of New Jerfey.

KING-YANG, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in
the province of Chen-fi. N. lat. 36° 6. E. long. 1077
20’.

KING-YUEN, or Kis-yven, a city of China, of the
firit clafs, in the province of Quang-fi. This city is built
on the banks of a large river, and furrounded with lofty
and craggy mountains. The vallies between thefe moun-
tains are full of villages and forts, and in the rivers is found
gold. Under its jurifdi€tion are two towns of the fecond
order, and five of the third. N. lat. 24° 26". E. long.
108’.

KIN-HOA, a city of the firft clafs in China, in the pro-
vince of Tche-kiang, fituated in the midit of the province,
on the banks of a fine river; formerly diitinguifhed both as
to the extent and beauty of its buildings, but much injured
It has eight towns of the
third order in its diftri@, fituated partly in a level country,
and partly among mourtains. Rice grows plentifully, and
the wine made of it is much efteemed. ‘The inhabitants
carry on a large trade in dried plums and hams, which are
fent into all provinces of the empire. Near it are {mall
fhrubs, refembling jefflamine, which produce tallow, that
make very white candles. N. lat. 29° 16’. E. long. 119°
16’.

KINIC Acin, in Chemi/Iry, is a peculiar fubftance, recently
found in Peruvian bark, where it exilts in combination with:
lime. We are indebted for the difcovery toa Mr. Defchamps,
apothecary at Lyons, who deferibed the falt in the 48th
volume of the Annales de Chimie. He obtained it by ma-
cerating the bark in cold water; afterwards eraporating the
folution, and leaving it to cryftallize. The cryflals pro--
duced were equal to about 7 per cent. of the bark employed.
He did not profecute his inquiry further; and it was not
until fome experiments which were afterwards undertake
upon it by Vauquelin, that the falt in queftion was found to
contain a new acid. The refearches of this excellent che-
milt, however, appear fully to have eftablithed the fa@;
and he has denominated it the kinic acid, from the word
quinguina, which is a name given by the French to the
yellow kind of bark from which the falt defcribed was ex-
trated.

The kinat of lime, obtained by the foregoing procefs, is
of a white colour, and cryftallizes“in plates. It is devoid
of taite, diffolving’ in about five times its weight of water,
at the temperature of 55>. Alcohol exerts no a¢tion upon
it. By expofure to heat it is decompofed, and carbonat
of lime and charcoal are the produéts. Its folutions are not
altered by ammonia; but the fixed alkalis precipitate the
lime. This alfo takes place with the oxalis and fulphuric
acids. It appears to be compofed of go aeid, and 10:

lime.

To procure the free acid, M. Vauquelin precipitated the
lime by an oxalat, and afterwards concentrated the liquid:
by evaporation. It was of a fyrupy confiftence; and on-
being fet afide to cryftallize, was found,. at the end of a
week, to have undergone no change: but the moment he
touched it with a glafs rod, the whole: mafs aflumed the
form of divergent cryitalline plates. The eclour of the aeid
was of a flight brown; oecafioned, probably, by the eva-

poratien

KIN

poration having been carried too far. Its tafte .was ex-
tremely four; and there was alfo a bitternefs in it, which
might be owing to an imperfect feparation of the other con-
ftituents of the bark. Expofure to the air effeGted no al-
teration upon it.

By heat, kinic acid is decompofed, and converted into
charcoal. It combines. with different bafes; and with the
earths and alkalis, produces foluble and cryttallizable falts.
On the nitrats of filver, mercury, and lead, no change is
occafioned by it. Annales de Chimie, t. 59.

KINITS, in Geography, a town of Moravia, in the circle
of Olmutz; 24 miles W. of Olmutz.

KINK-COUGH, in Mediciue. See Perrussis.

KINKS, in the Sea Language. When ropes are new, or
too hard laid, they are apt in toldings to make turns, which
are called kinks, :

KIN-LI, in Geography, a town of Corea; 15 miles
E.N.E. of Cou-fau.

KIN-MEN-LO, an ifland in the Chinefe fea, near the
coalt of China, about 24 miles in circumference, of a tri-
angular form. N. lat. 24° 30’. E, long,118° 20’.

KINNAIRD?’s Heap, a promontory on the eaft coal
of Scotland, forming the fouth boundary of the frith of
Murray ; fuppofed to be the “ promontorium Taixalium’?
of Ptolemy. N. lat. 57° 58'. W. long. 1° 54’.

KINNARAS, or Crynaras, in Hindoo Mythology, are
male dancers in Swerga, or the heaven of Indra.

KINNBACK, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the weft
fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° '. E. long. 21°

30'.
‘ KINNEGAD, a pott-town of Ireland, in the county of
‘Weitmeath, province of Leinfter. A kind of cheefe, of a
very inferior quality, made in this neighbourhood, is called
Kinnegad cheefe, from this town, It is 29} miles. W. by
N. from Dublin.
KINNEL, in Rural Economy, a provincial term fome-
times applied to a powdering tub or falting veffel.
KINNEYETO, in Gengraphy, a confiderable town. of
Africa, in the kingdom of Manding; about 24 miles N.E.
of Kamalia. N. lat. 12? 55'. W. long. 5° 52'.
KINNOR, inthe Jewi/h Antiquities. See Crnyra, and
CHINNOR. ; "
KINO, in Chemiffry, is an aftringent fubflance, of a black
colour; f{uppofed to have been originally introduced into this
country from Africa. It iscommonly called a gum, but very
improperly ; for, as Vauquelin-has remarked, it has neither
the phyfical nor chemical properties charaéteriltic of that
clafs of vegetable produ€ts. According to Dr. Duncan, the
Kino now known inthe fhops is principally imported from
Jamaica; and is an extract from the coccoloba weiftra, or
Seafide grape. Itisnearly wholly foluble in hot water and hot
alcohol, and chiefly confilts of tannin in a particular {tate ;
which has the property of precipitating the falts of iron of
agreen colour, inftead of black. With gelatine it forms a
rofe coloured coagulum. We are indebted to Dr. Duncan
for the firft defcription of its properties ; and he has pub-
dithed the refult of his obfervations in the New Edinburgh
Difpenfatory, p. 242. Vauquelin afterwards took up the
fubjeét ; but the kino that his experiments were made upon,
Dr. Duncan fufpeéts to have been the produét of fome of
the {pecies of eucalyptus, particularly the refinifera; being
the fubftance called Botany Bay gum, a quantity of which
was fome years ago imported into Europe. It differs from
the kino of the coccoloba in being of a much finer quality.
Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. vi. No..24, p. 232—234.
Kino, in the Materia Medica, or « Gummi rubrum
aftringens gambienfe,” the gum refin of a non-defeript

KIN
African tree. Although the tree, from which this refin is
obtained, is not yet botanically afcertained, it is known to
grow on the banks of the river Gambia in Africa. The
firft account of this drug is related by Moor in his “ 'Fra-
yels into the interior Parts of Africa,” ed. 2. p. 113, by
which we learn, that in wounding the bark of this tree, the
fluid kino immediately iffues drop by drop, and by the heat
of the fun is formed into a hard mafs.. This, which was for
fome time confidered as a fpecies of Sanguis draconis, was
afterwards fully explained, and its medical chara¢ter efta-
blithed, by Dr. John Fothergill. (Med. Obf. and Enq.
vol, i.) Mino has a canfiderable refemblance to Catechu, but
redder, and is more firm, refinous, and aftringent. It is now
in common ufe, and is the moft.efficacious vegetable aftrin-
gent, or ftyptic, in the materia medica. The ‘ tinéture
of kino’’ is prepared by macerating three ounces of kino
powdered in two pints of proof {pirit, for 14 days, and
{training it. All the aflringency of kino is included in this
preparation. The dofe is from one fluid-drachm and a half
to two fluid-drachms. The “ compound powder of kino’?
confifts of 15 drachms of kino, half an ounce of cinnamon
bark, and a drachm of hard opium, which are to be reduced
feparately into a very fine powder and then mixed. This af-
tringent powder was firfl introduced into the London Phar-
macopeia of 1809 ; the proportion of opium contained in it
being one in twenty. The dofe is from five gr. to 9j.

KINOGAM, in Geography, a river of Canada, which
runs from lake Wiakwa to the river Saguenay. N. lat.
48° 34!. W. long. 71° 31’.

KINOLI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia, on the
coaft of the Black fea; 16 miles N.W. of Sinob.

KINOSA, Sr., an ifland in the Grecian Archipelago.
N. dat. 362 53/. E. long. 25° 34%.

KINROSS, the chief town of a {mall county of the
fame name, bordering N.E., E., and S. upon Fife, and the
other part on Perth, in Scotland. The number of inhabit-
ants of this county in 1801 was 6725, of whom 888 were
employed in trade and manufa@iures, and 667 in agriculture.
Kinrofs is a {mall town of little confequence, excepting as
a market for the neighbouring country. It is fituated on
the border of Lochleven, a fine frefh water lake, with two
{mall iflands in it, on one of which isa caflle, which was
one of the many places in which the unfortunate Mary
Stewart, queen of Scots, was confined, and from which fhe
effeGted her efeape. The lands near Kinrofs, like thofe of
the adjoining counties of Fife and Stirling, are fertile and
well cultivated. The county returns a member to parlia-
ment alternately with the {mall ifland of Clackmannan.
The town was formerly famous for its cutlery; but the
chief manufa@ture now is Silefialinen. In 1801, the number
of inhabitants was 2124, of whom 394 were employed in
trade and manufa@tures ; 18 miles N.N.W. of Edinburgh.
N. lat. 56° 13°. W. long. 3° 25’.

KINROSS-SHIRE is a {mall inland county in the
northern part of Scotland. The ancient fhire of this name
was divided, about the year 1426, into the two counties of
Fife and Kinrofs; and at the revolution Kinrofs, being
thought too fmall a county as it then flood, was enlarged
by the addition of Orwell, Cleifh, and Tillibole ; which pa-
rifhes, before that period, were part of the county of Fife.
But though thefe are now two ditlin& counties, and are fe-
parately reprefented in parliament, they are both compre-
hended in the theriffdom of Ife. Kinrofs-thire 1s bounded on
the eaft and fouth by Fifefhire, andon the north and weft by
Perthfhire. It extends, from eaft to welt, from Foffaway
church to Auchmore bridge, eleven miles ; and from Kelly-
bridge nearly dae north to Damhead, about nine aor

é a half.

KIN

a half. The general figure of the county is circular, though
the line of its boundary is very irregular. That which
limits with Perthfhire meafures twenty-one miles ; but when
taken ina right line is only about fourteen: the boundary
with Fife meafures nearly twenty-eight miles, buc in a flraight
line does not exceed nineteen. The county contains 78
{quare miles, or about 39,702 Scottifh acres; comprehending
one town, Kinrofs, with fix other parifhes ; and was returned
sunder the population a& of 1801 as containing 1409 houfes,
and 6725 inhabitants. The furface of the county is greatly
varied. The middle portion occupies a fituation compara-
tively low, and may be confidered as a kind of plain flightly
varied with gentle rifing grounds. The boundaries, in every
Gireétion, are hilly, or formed ofa higher land than the laigh
or vale of Kinrofs, with a fingle exception, at the narrow
paflage at the eaftern extremity of the county, where the
river Leven ifues from the celebrated loch of that name.
The Ochil hills form the northern boundary of Kinrofs-hhire ;
the Cleith hills, the fouthern ; and Balneartie hill, with Weft
Lomond, or Bifhop’s hill, as it is called, bound it on the
eait and fouth-eaft quarters. The fides of thefe hills, which
face the central part of the county, are for the moft part ex-
cellent paitures, generally retaining beautiful verdure ;
patches of moorland occurring only near their fummits. In
the interior and hisher part of the Ochils, however, heath
becomes more abundant. The chief variety in the appearance
of the low grounds is produced by the mixture of corn and
grafs-lands, and by a few thriving plantations interfperfed
with villages. Some intervening moraffes, and extenfive
moors, likewife variegate the furface. Even the margin of
Lochleven is ornamented in this way by a common moor of
more than 300 acres, in the vicinity of the town of Kin-
rofs, in the very centre of the county. The afpect of the
whole fhire is open and expofed, there being but a {mall
part inclofed, and many of the inclofures formed not of
hedges but of ftone walls.

Of the waters of this county, the moft remarkable is the
lake called Lochleven, on the weftern banks of which ftands
the town of Kinrois. This lake, though inferior in magni-
tude and grandeur to Lochlomond, is a noble expanfe of
frefh water, about fifteen miles in circumference, including
its angular juttings, and covering nearly 3300 acres. The
furface of the water at its hizheft rife-and loweft fall, varies
about three feet. Lochleven is bounded on the caft by the
Lomond hills, on the fouth by that of Balneartie, and cn
the weft by the plain of Kinrofs. It is remarkable for pro-
ducing trout of a large fize with flefh of a reddifh colour,
nearly approaching to the tafte and appearance of falmon.
Some of them weigh from two to eight, and even ten pounds
each.. The high colour of thefe trout is aferibed to the
great quantity of {mall red fhell-fifh which abounds at the
bottom of the loch; the trouts have often their ftomach full
of them. Lochleven receives the waters of three {mail rivers ;
Gairny, the fouthermoft ftream in the county, South Quech
and North Quech, which both have their rife among the
Ochil hills. Lochleven gives rife to the. river Leven,
which paffes through a confiderable part of Fifefhire into
thefea, forming the largeft water in that county. In Sep-
tember, the eels, which greatly abound in Lochleven, be-
gin to emigrate in great numbers to the fea; but only at-
tempt this paflage during the night. The county con-
tains feveral {mall lakes ;. of thefe a are in the parifh of
Cleith : the largeft is about a mile and a half in circum-
ference : the four cover about 250 acres. The climate in
the higher grounds of this county is cold and wet ; owing
to the elevation of the land, and chiefly to the hills, which
attraé&t the clouds and vapours. Froft fets in earlier, and

KIN

continues longer, than in the adjacent diftri&ts towards the
fouth. ‘The county is well interfeéted with roads, which
are, in general, kept in excellent repair by the ftatute labour.
The carriages and the perfonal duty may be furnifhed in
kind, or commuted, at the option of the perfons chargeable.
The principal turnpike roads are thofe from Perth to Queens-
ferry, and from Stirling to Kinrofs: they are kept in the
highett prefervation.

OF the antiquities of Kinrofs-fhire, thofe conneéted with
Lochleven are the moft remarkable. The caftle of Loch-
leven, now in ruins,’ ftands upon an ifiand of about two
acres inextent. The circvit of the outer rampart is 585
feet. This caftle is faid to have been built by Congal, fon of
Dongart, king of the Picts: but it has been rendered par-
ticulariy confpicuous in Scottifh hiftory, by the confine-
ment of the unfortunate queen Mary. In the largeft ifland
of the lake was formerly fituated a priory dedicated to St.
Serff, or Servanus ; and faitl to have been founded by Brudo,
the laft but one of the Pictith fovereigns.

KINSALE, a fea-port and poft-town of the county of.
Cork, Ireland. It is fituated at the mouth of the river Bandor,
which forms a fine harbour, and is navigable for large floops
near 12 miles above the town, though a bar prevents large
men of war from coming into the bafin. In this port there
was formerly a dock furnifhed with ttores for the ufe of the
navy, but this has lately been removed to the neighbouring
harbour of Cork, where the accommodations are greater,
and which is the chief naval flation in Ireland. The en-
trance of Kinfale harbour is defended by a fort, which hav-
ing been conftruéted in the reign of Charles II- is called
Charlesfort, in which there is always a good garrifon. Kin-
fale is the town which the Spaniards tbe pofleffion of, and in
which they were befieged and taken prifoners, at the latter
end of queen Elizabeth’s reign. The town, which contains
at leaft 10,000 inhabitants, is built at the fide of Compais
hill; the ftreets are narrow and the houfes indifferent, yet in
the bathing feafon it is the refort of much fafhionable com-
pany, and there are at all times many genteel refidents, fo as
to afford good fociety. Kinfale is reprefented by one mem-
ber in the imperial parliament, who is chofen under the influ-
ence of the lord de Clifford, chief proprietor of the town,
It gives title of baron to the defcendant of the famous John
de Courcy, whe procured for himfelf and poferity the pri-
vilege of being covered in the king’s prefence. Kinfale is
136 miles S.W. from Dublin, and about 12 miles S. from
Cork. N. lat. 51° 42’. W. long. 8° 30!.

Kinsare, O/d Head of, a cape of Ireland, projecting a
confiderable way into the fea, and forming a very noted land
mark. N. lat. 51° 37’. W. long. 8° 30!.

Krysace. a poit town of Virginia, 16 miles from Weft-
moreland court-houfe, and 12 from Northumberland court-
houfe. .

KINSOMBA, a town of Africa, 25 miles S.E. of
New Benguela.

KINTAL, or Quiytat,a weight of one hundred pounds,
more or lefs, according to the different ufage of divers na-
tions.

The kintal of Smyrna: is 123. pounds three ounces nine
drachms, or 120 pounds feven ounces 12 drachms ;. but that
of Aleppo is 465, pounds 11 ounces 15.drachms.

KIN-TAM, in Geography, an ifland in the Chineferfea,
near the coait of China, about 24 miles. in. circumference.
N. lat..30° 8/. E. long. raz? 24/.

KINTARRA, atownof Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cicacole ; 10 mi’es N. of Coffimcotta.

KIN-TCHENG, a. town of Corea;.80. miles E. of:
King-ki-tao-.

KIN-

KIN

KIN-TCHIN, a city and capital of the ifles of Lieou-
kieou. This city is fituated in the S.E. part of the large
ifland called ‘ Cheou-!i,’? where the court refides. The
king’s palace, which is reckoned to be four leagues in cir-
cumference, is built ona neighbouring mountain. It has
four gates, which correfpond to the four cardinal points ;
and that which fronts the welt, forms the grand entry.
The view which this palace commands is moft extenfive and
delighiful ; it reaches as far‘as the port of Napa-kiang, at
the diftance of 10 lys, (200 lys making 60 geographical
miles}, tothe city of Kin-tching, and to a great number
of other cities, towns, villages, palaces, temples, monaf{-
teries, gardens, and pleafure-houfes. N. lat, 26° 2'. K. long.
146’ 26!.

“KINTEN, a town of Pruffian Lithuania; 15 miles S.
of Memel.

KIN LORE, a {mall borough town and parifh of Aber-
deenthire, Scotland, in the diitriét of Garrwik, is feated
on the river Don, at the diftance of 15 miles N.W. of the
county town, and 137 N. of Edinburgh. It is faid that
this place obtained a charter at an early period, but the
ouly authentic deed of this defcription was granted by
James V. : its government is velted in a provolt, two bailifis,
a dean of guild, a treafurer, and a council of eight ,other
burgefles. The firft of thefe offices has long been veited in
the earls of Kintore. In this place are a town-houfe and a
prifon ; and in the year 1800 it contained 198 houfes and
$46 inhabitants. In conjunction with Bamff, Cullen, Elgin,
and Invernry, it returns one member to the Britifh parlia-
ment. The parifh of Kintore is about fix miles in length by
eight in breadth, and rifes gradually from the river Don to
a range of hills. Initis Thainttone, the feat of Forbes
Mitchell, efq. and in one part of it are feveral cairns and
tumuli, which are traditionally faid to mark the fcene of an
aétion between Robert Bruce, and the army of Edward I.
Sinclair’s Sratiftical Account of Scotland.

KINTYRE, or Canryre, one of the three diftri&s of
Argylefhire, in Scotland. Of the three diftriéts or divifions
of the county of Argyle, viz. Lorn, Knapdale and Kintyre,
the latter is the mott level and beft adapted to the purpofes
of agriculture. It forms a long narrow peninfula, bordered
by Lochfine and the Firth of Clyde on the eaft fide, and
by the weitern fea on the welt. OF this peninfula, by much
the greatelt part belongs to the duke of Argyle, who has a
chamberlain or factor refident at Campbelltown, for the
fuperintendance of this part of hiseltate. There is alfo a
cultom houfe at Campbelltown, for the regulation of the
colle&tion and prevention of frauds on the revenue, and fome
of the cruizersare generally on this ftation, for the deteétion
and capture of {mugglers. The loch or harbour of Campbell-
town is excellently adapted for this, as from it a veflel of
force can with eafe command the whole fhipping of the
Clyde in moderate weather, and may board, over-haul, and
infpe&t almoft every veffel in the leaft fufpeéted. The ter-
mination of the peninfula is called the Mull or Moyle of
Kintyre.

KINVACA, a town of Africa, in Fooladoo. N, lat.
13° ro!. W. long. 6° 2".

KINURE Porxt, a cape of Ireland} in the county of
Cork, at the entrance of Oytter haven, and about three miles
eaft from Kinfale harbour. -

KINWAT, a town of Bengal; 17 miles S.E. of Cur-
ruckpour.

KINYALOO, a town of Africa, in the town of Man-
ding. N. lat. 12° 5'. W. long. 6° 5!.

KIN-YANG, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the
province of Shen which, being regarded as a barrier

to

KIP

againft the incurfions of the Tartars, is ftrongly fortified in
the Chinefe manner: the adjacent country is very fruitful ;
and produces a kind of herb, called ** Kinfee,’’ i.e. golden
filk, to which is afcribed fome medicinal virtue, and alfo a
kind of bean which is faid to be an admirable {pecific againft
any fort of poifon, This city has in its diltri€t one town of
the fecond order and four towns of the third order. N.
lat. 36° 6’. E. long. 107° 19’.

KINYTAKOORA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Gadou; 36 miles S.W. of Kamalia.

KIOANON Point, called in fome maps Kikelones, is
the.extremity of a large peninfula which projects far into
the S. fide of Lake Superior.

KIO-¥EOU, a celebrated city of China, in the province
of Chang-tong, which was the birth-place of Confucius.
Several monuments are ftill to be feen there, ereGted in ho-
nour of this eminent man.

KIOGE, a fea-port of Denmark, fituated on the ifland
of Zealand, in a bay at the mouth of a river, formerly a
place of confiderable trade, with manufaétures of valuable
tapeftry. In 1659, it was fortified by Charles Guftavus,
king of Sweden, with ditches and ramparts; ro miles
S.S.W. of Copenhagen. N. lat. 55° 28’. E. long. 12° 12!.

KIOLEN, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ;
N.W. of Carlftadt.

KIONGONG, a town of Bengal; 30 miles N.N.E. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 23° 41’. E long. 887 10’,

KIONTONA, an Indian town on Conewango river, in
Pennfylvania ; t1 miles N. from its mouth in the river Al-
leghany.

KIOPING, a town of Sweden, in Weftmanland, ona
river of the fame name, communicating with Malar lake.
It is a place of good trade ; 10 miles W. of Stroemfiolm.
N. lat. 59° 33’. E. long. 16° 43’.

KIORAH, atown of Hindooftan, in Boggilcund; 27
miles N.N.E. of Rewah.

KIOREHVESI, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 56
miles N. of Tavafthus. N, lat. 61° 56’. E. long. 24° 33’.

KIOV. See Kiev.

KIOVA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Congo,
and province of Sogno,

KIOUMZEIK, a well built town of Ava, fituated on
the Irawaddy, and gradually improving. The manufacture
of cotton cloth is the fource of its profperity. A town
called «¢ Hinzaclah’’ near it, is of much greater antiquity ;
76 miles N.N.W. of Rangoon. N, lat. 17° 42/7

KIOZDI, a town of Walachia; 77 miles N. of Bu.
charett.

KIPE, a kind of ozier bafket, wide in the middle, and
narrow at both ends; ufed for taking fifh.

Kier is alfo a game, which confifts in throwing fomething
into a hole, called the kipe-hole.

KIPHANTA, in Geography, atown of European Tur-
key. in the Morea; 20 ole of Mifitra.

TKKIPPER. See Salmon Fisuery.

Kipprr-Jime, a {pace of time between the feftival of the
finding of the Holy Crofs, May the 3d and rzth day;
during which, falmon-fifhing in the river Thames, from
Gravefend to Henley, is forbidden by Rot. Parl, so.
Edw. III.

KIPPIS, Anprew, in Biography, an eminent noncon-
formift minifter of the laft century, was born at Notting-
ham on the 28th day of March, in the year 1725. He was
defcended, both by the father’s and mother's fide, from
ejeCted minifters of the names of King and Ryther, whé are
mentioned with refpeét in Dr, Calamy’s Account of the

Miniltera

40 miles

KIPPIS,

Minifters ejeéted and filenced by the A& of Uniformity.
Upon the death of his father, when he was about five years
of age, he was removed to his grandfather at Sleaford in
Lincelnfhire, where he received his grammatical education.
His talents and application attrafted the peculiar notice of
Mr. Merrivale, who was paftor of a congregation of dil
fenters in that town; and by his advice and encouragement,
his views were direGted to the profeffion of a diffenting mi-
nifter, and to thofe literary purfuits in which he afterwards
fo much excelled. Atthe age of fixteen, he was admitted
to the academy at Northampton, under the care of Dr.
Doddridge ; and in that feminary he profecuted his ftudies
with fuch diligence and improvement, and conducted him-
felf with fuch exemplary propriety, as to conciliate the af-
fetionate efteem and partial attachment of his tutor. Hav-
ing completed his courfe of five years at the academy, he
undertook the charge of a diffenting congregation at Bofton,
in Lincolnfhire, with which he fettled in September 1746.
From Bofton he removed to Dorking in Surrey, in 1750;
and in 1753, he fucceeded Dr. Hughes as pattor to the fo-
ciety in Prince's ftreet, Weltminfter, In the fame year he
married Mifs Elizabeth Bott, the daughter of a refpeétable
merchant at Bolton, in whom he found a fenfible, prudent,
fprightly, and cheerful companion, and by whofe attentions
his mind was relieved from all family concerns; fo that he
was left at full leifure to profecute the various duties which
his numerous engagements devolved upon him. Whether
we confider the literary talents, the minifterial abilities, or
the external accomplifhments of. the fubje€t’ of this article,
no perfon could have been better qualified for the fituation
into which he was introduced than himfelf, His fettlement
with the fociety in Weltminfter laid the foundation of that
celebrity which he afterwards acquired, and of that ex-
tenfive ufefulnefs which diftinguifhed his future life. He
was thus foon introduced into a conneétion with the Prefby-
terian fund, to the profperity of which he was after-
wards very ardently devoted. In June 1762, he became a
member of Dr, Williams’s truft; and this appointment af-
forded him an additional opportunity of being eminently and
extenfively ufeful in a variety of refpects, His connection
with the general body of Proteftant diffenting minifters, be-
longing to the cities of London and Weftmintter, and with
many charitable inltitutions, which the liberality of diffenters
has eftablifhed, gave him frequent occafion to exercife his
talents for the honour and intereft of the caufe, to which,
both by his fentiments and profeflion, he was zealoufly at-
tached.

His literary abilities and attainments were acknowledged
by all who knew him, © It was, therefore, natural to ima-
gine, that when a favourable opportunity offered, he would
be employed in the department of public education. Ac-
cordingly, when the death of the reverend Dr. Jennings
rendered it neceflary to make a new arrangement of tutors
in the academy, fupported in London by the funds of Wil-
liam Coward, efq, the trultees direfted their views to him ;
and in the year 1763, he was appointed claffical and philo-
logical tutor to that inititution, =

In 1767 he received the degree of doéer in divinity from
the univerlity of Edinburgh; an honour, in the unfolicited
grant of which the principal and profeflors very cordially
concurred. No one can dilpute his peculiar claim to fuch a
token of refpeG&. +

In March 1778, he was eleGted a fellow of the Society of
Antiquaries ; and in June 1779, a fellow of the Royal So-
ciety. He was a member of the coungil of the former
fociety from 1782 to 1784, and of that of the latter from

Vou, XX.

1786 to 1784, In bath thefe focieties he was a regular at-
tendant, and a refpetable and ufeful member.

Having, in the year 1784, quitted his conneétion with
Mr. Coward's academy, which, upon the refignation of the
two other tutors, was difcontinued, he cordially concurred
with a very refpeCtable body of diffenters, in 1786, in efta-
blifhing a new inftitution in the neighbourhood of London,
with a view of educating minifters and other young gentle-
men intended for civil life. Dr. Kippis was very afliduous
and aétive in his endeavours to accomplifh this laudable de-
fign ; and though his other engagements rendered it very in-
convenient for him to accept any official connection with it,
he was urged to unite with other perfons, for whom he en-
tertained a peculiar refpe&t ; and h¢ at length, though not
without relu€tance, acquiefced in the appointment to be one
of the tutors of this new inflitution. The diftance of his
refidence from Hackney, where the college was fixed, and
fome other circum{tances which it is unneceffary to recite,
induced him in a few years to withdraw from it, as a tutor:
though he ftill continued to ferve it by a liberal fub{cription,
and by his intereft with opulent friends.

Dr. Kippis continued to profecute his other ufeful labours
without intermiffion ; and till within a fortnight of his death,
his friends had no reafon to imagine that they were fo near
their clofe. In the courfe of the fummer, a few weeks be-
fore his death, he took a long journey on public bufinefs,
and returned, as his fellow travellers apprehended, with re-
cruited fpirits and eftablifhed health ; and they were equally
furprifed and grieved when they heard that he was confined
to his bed with a fever, which baffled the {kill of the moft
eminent phyficians, and which haftily advanced to the fatal
crifis. His diforder was of fuch a nature, that he found
himfelf both difinclined and unable to make any exertion, or
to converfe much even with his mofl conftant attendants.
There is reafon, however, to believe, that in a very early
ftage of his diforder he was not without apprehenfions of its
terminating in his diffolution. The laft public fervice he
performed was on the zoth of September; and on Thurf-
day evening, the Sth of O&tcber, he awoke after a tranquil
fleep of fome continuance, and in a little while expired:
having ferved his generation according to the will of God,
and attained the age of 70 years and 6 months.

It is not eafy to do fufficient juitice to the eminent
talents, the extenfive labours, and exemplary character of
Dr. Kippis.

His mild and gentle temper, his polifhed manners, his
eafy and graceful addrefs, and a variety of external accom-
plifhments, prepoffefied thofe who firft faw him in his fa-
vour, and could not fail to conciliate efteem and attachment
on a more intimate acquaintance. ‘Thefe qualities contri-
buted-very much to recommend him to perfons in the higher
ranks of life, to feveral of whom he had occafional accefs ;
and qualified him, in a very eminent degree, for the fituation
in which he exercifed his minilterial office. But he was no
lefs condefcending, courteous, and affable to his inferiors,
than to thofe who occupied fuperior fiations. Dr. Kippis
had nothing of that autterity and referve, of that haughiti-
nefs and fupercilioufnefs, of that parade and felf-importance,
and oftentatious afleGation of dignity, which forbid accefs,
and which mar the frecdom and the pleafure of all the focial
intercourfes of life. And yet thefe difguitful and odious
qualities fometimes accompany literary men, and efpecially
thofe who have acquired any confiderable degree of emi-
nence and reputation.

The mental abilities of Dr. Kippis were of the fuperior
kind. He poffefled 2 comprehenfive underftanding, a found

B judgment,

REP P 15.

judgment, a retentive memory, a correct imagination, a re-
fined talte, a quicknefs anda facility of exerting his faculties
on any fubjeét or occalion, however fuddenly they might
occur,

The natural powers of his mind were cultivated with an
affiduity and perfeverance of application, in which he had
few fuperiors, and not many equals. They had been ha-
bituated through life to regular and conftant exercife, and
had aequired ftrength and vigour from ufe. » He was never
hurried and diftra&ted by the variety of his literary purfuits ;
and though he had many engagements which required his
attention, and which diverted his mind from the objects of
{tudy to which he was devoted, he never feemed to want
time. Every kind of bufinefs was referred to its proper
feafon. By a judicious arrangement of his ftudies, as_well
as of his other occupations, the number and variety of
which he never oftentationfly difplayed, and by the punétu-
ality of his attention to every kind of bufinefs in which he
was employed, he avoided confufion; he retained on all
occafions the poffeflion of himfelf; and he found leifure for
reading and writing, and for all his literary avocations,
without encroaching on that time which he appropriated to
his profeffional duties and focial conneétions.

Indeed, there have been few perfons, fays his biographer,
who read fo much, and with fuch advantage to themlelves
and others, as Dr. Kippis. Hence he acquired that exten-
five acquaintance with books, and with the literature of
ancient and modern times, and particularly of the lait cen-
tury, which rendered him an inftruétive companion, and
which direéted him where to apply for neceflary informa-
tion on any fubject that employed his own attention or that
of others, But though he read much, he was not one of
thofe who wafte their time in defultory reading, and who
make no addition to their ftock of ufeful knowledge by the
volumes which they turg over for mere prefent amufement.
He read with attention and difcrimination. He formed an
accurate judgment of the intrinfic value of every pablica-
tion, to which he had recourfe: and there have been few
works, in the department of literature with which he was
converfant, that have iffued from the prefs, for many years,
of the f{pecific obje&ts and real merit of which he could not
give a jult and fatisfaétory account.

There is one circumftance, to which it was principally
owing that Dr. Kippis feemed, in the midit of a great
number of engagements, to have time at his own command,
and which enabled him to difpatch much bufinefs without
apparent hurry and confufion.

‘We mention it here, for the direCtion of young perfons,
and efpecially of young ftudents, whofe habits are not
eftablifhed. He had been accuitomed from his youth to
early rifing ; and he thus fecured to himfelf a certain porticn
of time, during which he was not liable to be interrupted
by any foreign avocations. This habit was no lefs con-
ducive to his health, than to the difcharge of his various
literary and profeffional obligations. Providence had bleffed
him with an excellent con{titution. He had preferved it
unimpaired by a courfe of uniform regularity and temper-
ance. He was little interrupted through life by any bodily
diforder in any of the occupations to which he was devoted.
If we except a fever, which laid him afide for fome years
before his death, and a con{titutional cough which was rather
beneficial than injurious, he enjoyed an unufual fhare of health
and {pirits.

Dr. Kippis poffeffed other qualities, befides his mental
abilities, however excellent, however affiduoufly cultivated,
and however ufefully employed, which rendered his charasier

in a ftill higher degree eftimable and praife-worthy. In
private life, his difpolition and deportment were amiable and
exemplary. His piety originated in honourable fentiments
of the perfeGions and providence of God ; and its praétical
influence was uniform and permanent. He exhibited, in all
his conneétions and concerns, a humble, meek, placable,
forgiving, and benevolent temper. ‘The gentlenefs, mild-
nefs, and philanthropy of his difpofition formed very dif-
tinguifhing traits of his charaéter. With thefe virtues, fo
congenial to the f{pirit of the religion he profeffed, fo con-
ducive to the tranquillity of his own mind, and fo powerful
as incentives to aCtivity and ufefulnefs, he united an inflexible
integrity, and an independence of {pirit, which difdained
every thing that was mean, felfifh, and fervile.

If we accompany Dr. Kippis from private and domeftic
life into the various {tations of public ufefulnefs, which Pro-
vidence affigned him, we fhall find him eminently qualified,
and ardently difpofed to ferve his generation according to
the will of God. His knowledge of the world, the reitude
of his judgment, and the mildnefs of his temper, gave him
confiderable influence in various connections to which he
belonged. At the Prefbyterian Board, in Dr. Williams’s
Truft, and in the general body of affociated minillers, his
opinion-always claimed peculiar deference. As he was be-
come the father of feveral focieties of this kind to which
he ftood related, his ase commanded refpe&t ; and his con-
defcending, complying difpofition rendered. it eafy and
pleafant to a&t with him on every occafion. Notwithftanding
the variety of his engagements, be was a cont{tant attendant,
He never pleaded them as an apology for abfence. He
never wifhed to decline any public feryice, whatever per-
fonal inconvenience or trouble might attend it. He pre-_
ferred the concerns of others, who needed his affiftance, to
his own. 7

As a {cholar, the literature of Dr. Kippis was various
and comprehentive. But the ftudies to which he principally
applied, and in which he moft exceiled, were thofe of the
claffics, the belles lettres, and hiflory ; befides thofe which
were immediately conneéted with his profeflion. The hiftory -
of his own country had been the fubje&t of his long and
laboured inveitigation ; and the principles of the Britifh con-
ftitution he had diligently ftudied. To thefe he was zealoufly
attached ; and he ably defended them, though he was not
unapprized of the corruption which time had introduced,
and of the neceflity and wifdom of a f{peedy reformation.
He was a fteady, uniform, and ardent friend to the caufe
of civil and religious liberty; and in the courfe cf his
life he had various o¢cafions of avouching himfelf the ad-
vocate of this caufe. But whillt he deteited tyranny and
oppreffion, he dreaded anarchy and tumult. In the political
contefts, which have lately agitated this country, the mo-
deration of his temper was eminently con{picuous. His
difpofttion was gentle and conciliating. He was an enemy
to every {pecies of violence ; and he thought that calmnefs,
firmnefs, and perfeverance in the purfuit of conftitutional
meafures, were the moft likely means of obtaining a re-
formation of acknowledged abufes, and a termination to
public calamities and evils. ‘Though he thought it moft
prudent to withdraw from fome focieties of a political na-
ture, with which he had been long connected, he never
abandoned the principles upon which his firlt coaneétion
with them was founded ; nor did he ever difguife his fenti-
ments either of men or of meafures, whenever a proper
occafion for declaring them occurred.

In many other focieties of a different kind, that were
eftablifhed for literary improvement or friendly intercourfe,

Dr.

KIPPIs.

Dr. Kippis was a very valuable and ufeful member. Whillt
his modetty prevented his obtruding his fentiments on others,
or afluming the lead, and prefuming to dilate amongtt thofe
who were in various refpects inferior to himfelf, he was al-
ways communicative and entertaining. e never offended
either by an ungracious referve and affected filence, on the
one hand, or by an intrufive and troublefome loquacioufnefs
on the other. His literary charaéter was univerfally ac-
knowledged by perfons of this defcription, with whom his
acquaintance was intimate and extenfive. The courfe of
his ftudies furnifhed him with a variety of anecdotes, that
rendered his converfation, on particular occafions, interelling
and inftruétive. His knowledge of books, and his judg-
ment of their refpective merit, which was always formed
with candour and pronounced with modefty, were very
comprehenfive and accurate ; and he was often appealed to
by thofe who wifhed to obtain information on fubjects of
this nature. In thofe friendly affociations to which he be-
longed, he was always placid and cheerful ; placid without
dulnefs, and cheerful without an unbecoming levity. In him
were invariably united, the knowledge of the {cholar, and
‘the judgment refulting from experience and an attentive ob-
feryation of the courfe of the world, with the manners of the
gentleman, and the decorum belonging to his public cha-
racter asa Chriftian, and his profeffion as a minifter.

Amid{t a variety of other occupations, Dr. Kippis fuf-
tained the office of tutor, for more than 25 years, with
fingular reputation to himfelf, and with great benefit to
the young perfons who were under his care. His lectures
and his general conduG conciliated the efteem, and pro-
moted the improvement of his pupils. They all honoured
and loved him ; for he had a happy talent of attaching their
affection and refpe@. They lamented his removal from this
{phere of public fervice. To young men, and particularly
to young minifters, Dr. Kippis was always attentive and
friendly. He was ready, on all occafions, to affilt them
with his advice in the profecution of their private fludies
and public labours; and to thofe who needed pecuniary
aid, his hand was extended for the diltribution of his own
property, as well as that of others entruited to his dif-
pofal.

Asan author, Dr. Kippis commenced his career in early
life, as many other young men have done, by contributing
to the magazines of the time, particularly the Gentleman's
Magazine. He afterwards became a more con‘tant writer
inthe Monthly Review. Hisarticles were chiefly hiftorical
and theological, with occafional ftri€tures on works of
general erudition. He alfo furnifhed a periodical publi-
cation, called the Library, with feveral valuable papers. He
laid the foundation of the New Annual Regilter ; and fug-
gelted the improved plan upon which that work is con-
dufted. The Hiltory of Ancient Literature, and the Re-
view of modern Books, were, at its firft commencement,
written by him, and continued to the year 1784, inclufive.
He was alfo the author of the «* Review of the TranfaCtions
of the prefent Reign,” prefixed to the Regifter for 1780;
and of the “¢ Hitory of Knowledge, Learning, and Taite,
in Great Britain,” prefixed to the fucceeding volumes, to
the year 1794 inclufive.

During the applicationjof the diffenting minifters to par-
liament, for the enlargement of the AG of Toleration in the
year 1772, to which he devoted much of his time and atten-
tion, he publifhed a valuable pamphlet, vindicating that inea-
fure as to the matter, manner, and time of it. It wasintended
as an anfwer to a pfblication afcribed to a writer who af-
terwards filled a very high ftation in the church, and was

entitled ‘* A Vindication of the Proteflant Diffenting Mi-
nifters, with regard to their late Application to Parliament,"’
8vo.

Soon after his admiffion into the Royal Society, he pub-
lifhed a pamphlet, entitled ‘* Ob(ervations on the late Con-
tefts in the Royal Society,’”’ 1784, Svo.; with a view of
allaying the animofities that fubfilted in that body, which
produced a good effet. His intimate conneétion with fir
John Pringle, bart. who was formerly a very refpe€table and
ufeful prefident of the Royal Society, led Dr. Kippis, after
his deceafe, to republith his Six Difcourfes, delivered at the
affiznment of fir Godfrey Copley’s medal, to which he has
prefixed a valuable life of the author, 1783, 8vo. At the
clofe of the American war he publifhed a political pam-
phlet, formed from materials which were commun’cated to
him by perfons of eminence, and deligned to jultify the
peace, which terminated that unhappy conteft. This pam.
phlet was entitled “¢ Confiderations on ‘he Provifional Treaty
with America, and the Preliminary Articles of Peace with
France and Spain,” He a'fo publifhed feveral fingle dif-
courfes, which were delivered on particular occafions ; fome.
of which are reprinted in his volume of fermons, 1794.
Nor fhould we omit to mention his account of the life and
voyages of captain Cook, 1788, 4to.; his new edition of
Dr. Doddridge’s Leétures, with a great number of. addi-
tional references ; his life of this excellent perfon, prefixed
toa new edition of his Expofition of the New Teltament,
1792; his life of Dr. Lardner (to whofe abilities, character,
and writings he has paid the juft tribute of refpeét) prefixed
to. the complete coilef&tion of his works; in 11 vols. 8vo.
1788: and “ An Addrefs delivered at the Interment of
Richard Price, D.D. F.R.S., &c. 1791 ;"’ and an “ Ordi-
nation Charge,’ 1788, Sve. He alfo affilted ii fele€ting
and preparing ‘A Colle&tion of Hymns and Pfalms, for
public and private Worfhip,” 1795, Svo. und 12mo. which
is ufed in many places of worfhip among Proteftant dif-
fenters, and has paffed through feveral editions. But the
work, to which Dr. Kippis devoted his principal attention
for many of the laft years of his life, and by which he has
acquired fingular reputation, was the Biographia Britannica,
His indefatigable induftry in col'eéting materials for it, his
accefs to the beft fources of information, his knowledge of
men and books, his judgment in feleGting and marking every
circumftance that could ferve to diftinguifh talents and cha-
rater, and the habit which he had acquired by long praétice
of appretiating the value of different works, qualified him, in
a very high degree, for condudting this elaborate performance.
It has been much regretted, that he did nct live to carry on
this edition of the “ Biogranhia,”’ farther than to about a
third part of the fixth volume, which has not yet made its
appearance. :

Notwithftanding the time that mu‘t have been devoted to
the feveral objeCts now recited, and to the corre€tion aud
publication of the works of friends, who refpected his judg-
ment and wifhed to avail themfelves of his affiftance, which
he could never refufe to thofe who requefled it; Dr. Kippis
never neglected the fludies and duties more immediately per-
taining to his chara€ter as a divine, and his profeiiion as
a miniter. His acquaintance with the various branches
of theology, and with fubje&ts fubfervient to his critical
ftudy of the feriptures, was very extenfive. He was in
the daily habit of reading fome portion of the New Tefta-
ment in the original language. He was converfant with the
beft writers on Jewifh and Chriftian antiquities ; and in the
courfe of his reading no work efcaped him, that was de-
figned to illuftrate the evidence, to eftab'ifh the truth and

E2 divine

KI?

divine original, and to inveftigate the genuine doctrines of the
Chrittian Revelation.

He was a believer in Chriftianity upon the matureft exa-
mination and the fulleft convi@tion. No perfon was better
acquainted with the controverfies which Revelation has pro-
duced. He had ftudied them in his earlier and riper years
with great attention ; and though he was ready to allow the
force of every difficulty and objection, yet to the ample pre-
ponderance of evidence his deliberate and impartial judg-
ment fubmitted. Authority, indeed, is not abfolutely con-
clufive in queftions of this-nature. Yet whilft Chriftians can
rank in the number of the advocates of their religion fuch
men as Bacon and Boyle, Newton and Locke, Clarke and
Hoadley, Jortin and Lardner, and many other living writers
of the firft eminence with refpe& both to learning and cha-
rater, who have profeffedly ftudied the evidence of Reve-
lation ; there is no real ground of alarm from the feeble
efforts of avowed infidels, who have acquired popularity in
another way, and to whom a partial attention may be di-
reéted, but who manifeft great ignorance of this fubject,
and who are very reprehenfible on account of their mode of
attacking Chriftianity.

The principles which Dr. Kippis derived from Chrif-
tianity were the direftory of his condué and the fource of
his confolation. By the amiable fenfibility of his heart, as
well as by the fober conviction of his judgment, he was led
to value the difcoveries and hopes of the gofpel; to fubmit
to the practical influence of its doctrines and precepts ; and
to cherifh the pleafing and animating expectations which it
afforded. He had imbibed in a very high degree the mild
and placable and benevolent fpirit of the religion which he
profeffed, and he exemplified this {pirit both in his preaching
and in his pradtice.

Of his fentiments as a divine, and of his abilities as a
preacher, it is hardly neceffary for us to fay any thing on
this occafion. Towards the clofe of his life the inclination of
his mind was to the diftinguifhing opinion of the modern
Unitarians ; though he was far from embracing all the te-
nets that have been adopted by fome perfons who are thus
denominated. However, he difapproved their appropriating
this appellation to themfelves, which he confidered as affum-
ing and exclufive ; and he lamented that excefs of zeal, with
which {peculations, comparatively of {mall importance, are
maintained and propagated. Thofe doctrines and duties
which he thought of principal moment, he feduloufly incul-
cated. Tenets of inferior importance, and that had no im-
mediate influence on rectitude of temper and praétice, he
more generally avoided. Such, indeed, were the meeknefs
and mcderation of his temper, his folicitude to preferve peace
and unity, and his governing defire to guard againit the per-
nicious effects of a controverfial and contentious {pirit, that
he beheld with concern the intemperate eagernefs and ardour
with which difputes of trivial moment have been fometimes
conduéted, and he deprecated the unhappy divifions which
they are likely to oceafion.

Asa preacher, Dr. Kippis was rational and feriptural ;
judicious and infirudtive ; practical and intereiting, efpecially
towards the clofe of his difcourfes ; and he blended the
argumentative and pathetic on particular occafions. His
compofitions were always well {tudied; his voice was clear
and harmonious ; his delivery was natural and unaffected,
and on occafions that required it, animated and impreffive ;
and though he fought not that popularity which depends
more on found and gelture and mechanical exertions, than
on rational and fervent addrefles to the judgment and affec-
tions, and which is generally of no long duration, he re-

KIR

tained the refpeét and efleem of the fociety in Weftmintter
for more than 42 years,

Such are the general outlines of the charaéter and labours
of Dr. Kippis. ‘ The portrait, I am fenfible,*’ fays the
writer from whofe acceunt of him this article is extraéted,
‘js not fufficiently juft to the original. In delineating a
charaéter, which exhibits fo many excellencies and fo few
defeéts, none can fufpeét. me of approaching to adulation.
My refpeét for him was great. I honoured himas a father.
T loved him as a brother. But my affection, L am confident,
has not mifled my judgment. By the favour of Providence,
which marks the bounds of our habitation, I was led in
early life into an intimate connection with him. Our ac-
quantance, as co-tutors and co-adjutors in public bufinefs,
ripened into an eftablifhed friendfhip ; and our friendfhip
continued, without fo much as a momentary interruption,
and with increafing attachment, for more than 32 years, to
the day of his death. It muft have been my own fault, if
I have not derived advantage from his extenfive literary
knowledge, from the wifdom of his counfel, and from the
exemplarinefs of his conduct. No apology, I truft, will
be thought neceffary for introducing myfelf on this occafion,
As it was my ambition to cultivate the friendfhip I enjoyed,
it is my pride to have it publicly known, that J valued that
friendfhip, as one of the chief honours and pleafures of my
life. The friend I have loft cannot be eafily replaced.’’
See Rees’s Funeral Sermon, preached at the Meeting-honfe,
in Prince’s-ftreet, Weitminiter, Ot. 18, 1795.

KIPPURE, in Geography, the name of the higheft
mountains in the chain extending into the counties of Wick-
low and Dublin, about ten miles fouth of the city of
Dublin. he

KIRA, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Engia; nine miles W.
of Engia.

KIRAHIANA, atown of Hungary; 15 miles E.S.E.
of Munkacz. ;

KIRALI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Caramania ;
35 miles W.S.W. of Cogni.

KIRANOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic; -
22 miles N. of Nattam.

KIRANORE, a town of Hindooftan, in Marawar; 20
miles §. of 'Tripatore.

KIRBYE, Georce, in Biography, an excellent Englith
madrigalift on the Italian model ; but who was more remark-
able for fimplicity than tafte and fancy. In1597, he pub-
lifhed his firtt fet of madrigals to 3, 4, 5, and 6 voices ; fe-
veral of which were fuccefsfully revived at the concert of
ancient mufic and the Catch-club, during the firft years of
thofe inftitutions. They are now fuffered again to fleep in
peace, with thofe of Walker, Wilbye, Eft, and Bennet,
our principal madrigalifts, perhaps never to be waked
again. :

KIRCAGATCH, in Geography, atown of Afiatic Tur-
key, about 40 miles N.E. of Magmifi or Magnefia, on the
route to Prufa, which has rifen to confiderable population,
from the cultivation of cotton.

KIRCAJAN, atown of Perfia, in the province of Ker-
man; 117 miles E. of Sirgian.

KIRCALDY, a {mall town of Fife, onthe N. cnaft.of
the Frith of Forth, about three miles eait of Kinghorn,
from which alfo there is a ferry to Leith and Edinburgh.
Befides the ferry and the fifhing, Kircaldy ufed to employ a
confiderable number of fhips, brigs, and other veffels, in the
trade with the eaflern countries of Europe and the Baltic,
but thefe were more frequently chartered or freighted fiom
other ports than their own. It has alfo been long a confider-

able

KIR

able place for the manufature of coarfe goods both of linen
and cotton, and this trade is ftill profecuted toa very con-
fiderable extent. The chief article of their manufaéture
‘confilts in low-priced blue and white checked goods,
ufed for feamens’ fhirts, and for clothing for the negroes
in the Welt Indies. So great has been the demand for
thefe articles at particular times, that fhortly after the cap-
ture of Trinidad by the Britifh, the writer of this article
was requelted by an eminent Weft India houfe in Liver-
pool, to endeavour to procure for them feven thoufand
pieces of thefe checks, or any quantity which could be fup-

lied. Upon application, however, he found the demand

rom other quarters fo great, that only a very {mall propor-
tion of the fupply could be procured. Coarfe low-priced
checked handkerchiefs are alfo manufaétured to avery con-
fiderable extent.

Kircaldy was ereGted into a royal burgh in the -fifteenth
century, and its charter was ratified by Charles I. in 1644,
and is governed by a provoft, bailiff, and council, at which
time it is faid that too fail of fhips belonged to the port : the
chief article of export is coals; and the importation confifts
of corn, flax, flax-feed, linen-yarn, wood, iron, afhes, tal-
low, bark, hides, &c. Kirealdy is united with Dyfart, King-
horn, and Burnt-ifand, in ele&ting a member to ferve in par-
liament. In 1801, the number of inhabitants was 3248, of
whom 700 were employed in trade and manufattures ; 13
miles north of Edinburgh. N. lat. 56° 7'. W. long.

‘g's

KIRCH, Goprrey, in Biography, an able aftronomer,
was born at Guben, a town in Lower Lufatia, in the year
1640. He profecuted his ftudies at Leipfic, where he ac-
quired confiderable reputation by the almanacs which he
publifhed. In 1692, he married Mary Margaret Winckel-
man, who rendered him much ufeful afliftance by making
aftronomical obfervations for the conltruction of his Ephe-
merides. In 1701, on the eftablifhment of the Academy of
Sciences at Berlin, by Frederic I., king of Pruffia, that
- prince invited M. Kirch to be a member of the fociety, and
to take upon himfelf the office of aftronomer in ordinary,
with an honourable penfion for his fupport. He died at Ber-
lin in 1710, at the age of feventy-one years. He had been
in the habit of correfponding with all the learned focieties
of Europe, and publithed a variety of aftronomical treatifes,

which ar2 in confiderable eftimation.
Krrcw, Mary-Marcarer, wife of the preceding, was
daughter of a Lutheran clergyman at Panitzfh, a village
near Leipfic, where fhe was bora in the year 1670. Having
loft her father when fhe was only twelve years of age, fhe
was educated by his fucceffor, and indulged the inclina-
tion which fhe difcovered for the acquifition of knowledge,
and particularly that of aftronomy. This partiality for his
‘favourite purfuit was a recommendation to M. Kirch, who
obtained her hand in marriage, and found her 2 moit va-
luabie afliftant in his fcientific labours. She was not con-
tented, however, with rendering her hufband important
fervices, but fhewed herfelf capable of viewing the hea-
*yens with the eye of a difcoverer, and in 1702, the firft faw
a comet, upon which M. Kirch publifhed his obfervations.
"In 1707, the difcovered a peculiar Aurora Borealis, of which
mention is made in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences
at Paris, for the year 1716. Thefe exertions of her ge-
nius procured her the efteem of the learned at Berlin, not-
withitanding which fhe was in very low circumftances when
her hufband died. She contrived to maintain herfelf and
educate her children, by conitrnéting almanacs, and, in
4711, fhe publifheda differtation, intitled “* Preparations for
obferving the grand Conjunétions of Saturn, Jupiter, &c.”’

KIR

Soon after this the found a patron in the baron de Throfick,
who furnifhed her with apartments in his own houfe, adapted
to the carrying on her aitronomical obfervations. Here
fhe lived ti!l the baron’s death, which happened about two
years afterwards.- She now removed to Dantzic, when
Peter the Great wifhed to engage her to fettle in his em-
pire. She preferred her native country, and, in 1716, ac-
companied her fon to Berlin, where fhe was appointed aftro-.
nomer to the Academy of Sciences in that city. She was
now introduced to the notice of the royal family, and fe-
cured the patronage of fome of the branches of it. She
died in 1720, in her fifty-firft year.

Kircn, Curistian Freperic, fon of the preceding, was
born at Guben, in the year 1694, and difcovered an ear y and
very ftrong bias for fcientific purfuits. He commenced his
ftudies at Berlin, and afterwards continued them at Halle,
whence he made excurfions, for improvement, to Nuremberg,
Leipfic, and Pruffia. He was employed a confiderable time
in the cbfervatory at Dantzic, and during his refidence here
the czar, Peter the Great, offered him an eftablifhment at
Mofcow ; but his attachment to his-mother, who was averfe
from leaving Germany, led him to decline it. In 1717, he
was made member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin,
and, in 1723, he was chofen a correfponding member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, and he fhewed him-
felf worthy of that diltin@tion, by the frequent valuable
contributions which he tranfmitted to them during the re-
mainder of his life. He died in 1740, in the forty-fixth
year of his age. He publithed feveral works conneéted
with aftronomy, which were in confiderable reputation at the
period in which he flourifhed. Moreri.

KIRCHBACH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria; 14 miles S.E. of Gratz.

KIRCHBERG, a town and caftle of Bavaria; 12 miles
N. of Landfhut.—Alfo, atown of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Hohenlohe, on the Jaxt; 28 miles W. of An-
{pach.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg ;
fix miles S. of Zwickau.—Alfo, a town of the principality
of Naflau-Dietz, capital of a bailiwic; five miles S.E. of
Dietz. —Alfo, atown of Auftria; 11 miles S. of St. Pol-
ten.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the Rhine
and Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Simmern. The place contains 772, and the canton 6491 in-
habitants, in 38 communes.

KIRCHEAN Muszum at Rome, was founded by
father Kircher about the middle of the feventeenth century.
This celebrated mufeum is full of ancient paintings, vafes,
genus, intaglios, cameos, and other antiquities, which are there
in fuch abundance, that a fpeétator might fancy himfelf at
Portici; but the curiofities which we were moit eager to
fee and examine, were father Kircher’s mufical inftruments
and machines defcribed in his Mufurgia. They were almoit
ali out of order in 1770, and in decay ; and itis to be feared
that time has not improved them. Their conftruétion was
not only curious, but manifefted the ingenuity as well as
zeal of the learned father, in his mufical enquiries and ex-
periments.

KIRCHEIM-Boutanpen, in Geography, a town of
France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre, and chief
place of a canton, in the diftri@ of Mayence; 28 miles
N.W. of Manheim. The place contains 1872, and the
canton 9465 inhabitants, in 22 communes. N. lat. 49° 39’.
E. long. 7° 50).

KIRCHER, Artnanasivs, in Biography, a celebrated
mathematician and philofopher, was born at Fulda in the
year 1601, and when he was feventeen years of age he com-
menced his noviciate in the fociety of the Jefuits, among

whem

KIR
whom he diftinguifhed himfelf by his vat proficiency in

literacure and {cience. Having finifhed his fludies, he was
feleted by his fuperiors to fill the chair of profeffor, and
taught philofophy, mathematics, the Hebrew and Syriae
languages, in the univerfity of Wirtzburg, in Franconia,
with great fuccefs til the year 1631. During the war be-
tween the emperor Ferdinand II. and Guftavus, king of
Sweden, he withdrew to France, and refided fome time in
the Jefuits’ college at Avignon. After this he was called
to Rome, where, for fix years, he filled the poft of mathe-
matical profeffor in the Roman college, and then undertook
the profeflurfhip of Hebrew. He died in the year 1680,
in the eightieth year of his age. His works amount to
twenty-two volumes folio, eleven in quarto, and three in
octavo. Of thefe the following are mentioned as the prin-
cipal, “+ Prelufiones magnetice ;’’ ‘‘ Primitie gnomonice
catoptrice ;’? “ Ars magna lucis et umbre;”’ ‘ Mufurgia
univerfalis ;”’ ‘* Obelifcus Pamphilius ;”’ « GEdipus Aigyp-
tiacus ;” ‘* Itinerarium extaticum ;”” ‘ Obelifcus A2gyp-
tianus ;”? “ Mundus fubterraneus ;?? “China illuftrata.’’
Kircher was a man of very extenfive erudition, and of inde-
fatigable induftry, but the fubjeGts of his ftudious labours
were more frequently curious than ufeful, and a vilionary
fancy, rather than a cool judgment and accurate enquiry,
too frequently guided his pen. Whatever wore the ftamp
of antiquity fafcinated his attention, and he had a particular
paiflion for decyphering hieroglyphical charaéters, of which,
if he could not difcover the true meaning, he was always
ready to give what he conceived to be a plaufible one. He
had colleéted a rich cabinet of antiquities, curiofities, medals,
mathematical inftruments, rare animals, minerals, &c. for
the mufeum of the Roman college, the arrangement of
which was begun by himfelf, and finifhed by father Bonanni,
who publifhed a defcription of it at Rome in 1709, in-
titled “ Mufzeum Kircherianum, &c.’’ Moreri.

The chief work of Kircher, which we fhall notice here,
is his “ Mufurgia Univerfalis,’’ dedicated to Leopold, arch-
duke of Auftria, afterwards emperor of Germany, who was
not only a patron of mufic, but an excellent performer on
the harpfichord. The Mufurgiais written in Latin, in ten
books, occupying two volumes in folio, of which the firit
contains feven books, and the fecond three.

The fubje&ts which he treats are, chiefly, the following :
—of the propagation of found ;—of the elements of practical
mufic ;—of harmonics, or the ratio of founds;—geometric and
algebraic divifion of the monochord ;—new experiments on
the conftruétion of mufical inftruments ;—of melody, com-
prehending new fecrets for producing every fpecies of can-
tilena s—a parallel between the ancient and modern mulic,
pointing out the dignity of the ecclefiattical canto fermo,
and the means of arriving at the pathetic ftyle;—of compo-
fition, or the combination of founds, and application of me-
lody to poetical numbers and rhythms in all languages;—mu-
fical wonders produced by latent means and new experi-
ments of various kinds;—and laftly, of the various derivations
of mufic and the phyfical and artificial purpofes to which it
is, oc may be, applied.

This work, which undoubtedly contains many curious
and amufing fe¢tions, is, however, difgraced by the author’s
credulity and ill-founded affertions.

Father Kircher has been very truly called “ Vir immenfe
quidem, fed indigeitz eruditionis,’’ a man of immenfe, but
indigetted learning.

He was always carelefs of what he aflerted, credulous,
and inaccurate ; colle&ting, without choice or difcernment,
whatever he found relative to the fubje&t upon which he was

KIR

writing 5 and adopting whatever was offered to him, true
or falle, provided it contained any thing marvellous,

His Mufurgia, publifhed at Rome in 1650, is a large book;
buta much larger might be compofed in pointing out its
errors and abfurdities. Yet with all its imperfeétions, it
contains much curious and ufeful information, for fuch as
know how to fift truth from falfehood, and ufefulnefs from
futility ; for a confiderable portion of which, however, he
was obliged to Pere Merfenne, whofe * Harmonie Univer-
felle’’ appeared in 1536.

Kircner, Conrap, a German Proteftant divine, who was
fettled at Augfburg, and was author of avery learned and
laborious work, of confiderable ufe in illuftrating the ge-
nuine fenfe of the holy {criptures. This work was intitled
« Concordantia veteris Teftamenti Grece, Ebrzis vocibus
re{pondentes zoAvxencls. Simul enim et Lexicon Ebraico-
latinum, &c.”’ printed at Franckfort, 1607, in two volumes,
quarto. This work, which is a Hebrew Di@ionary and
Concordance, is ftrongly recommended by father Simon
when treating of the bell methods to be adopted in under-
taking any new tranflation of the feriptures. It contains _
all the Hebrew words in the Old Teflament, introduced in
an alphabetical order, and underneath is the Greek verfion.
of them from the Septuagint, followed by a colle€tion of
the paflages of {cripture in which thofe words are differently
interpreted. Moreri.

KIRCHHAMB, in Geography, a town of Carinthia, on
the borders of the Tyrol; 16 miles N.N.W. of Greiffen-
burg. sh
Ki RCHHAYN, atownof Heffe Caffel, on the Wohra,
containing more than 400 houfes ; 35 miles 5.S.W. of Cal-
fel.— Alfo, a town of Lufatia, on the Little Elfter; 14
miles S, of Luckau. N. lat. ¢1° 36! IE. long. 13° 35/.

KIRCHHEIM, atown of Wurtemberg, on the Lauter ;
24 miles N.W. of Ulm—Alfo, a. town of Germany, the
capital of a lordthip belonging to the family of Fugger;
25 miles E.S.E. of Ulm.

KIRCHLAUTERN, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg ; 8 miles N.W. of Bamberg.

KIRCHPACH, a town of Auftria; 1o miles W.N.W.
of Horn.

KIRCHPERG, a town of Bavaria; 13 miles N.W. of
Mofburg.—Alfo, a town of Aultria; 8 miles S.W. of Son-
neberg.

KIRCHSCHLAGEN, a town of Auitria, witha me-
dicinal bath ; 10 miles S. of Zwetl.

KIRCHWALSEDE, a town of Germany, in the
county of Verden; 11 miles N.E. of Verden.

KIRCKMAN, Jacos, in Biography, an excellent harp-
fichord-maker from Germany, who came to England about
the year 1740, aud worked with the celebrated ‘abel, as
his foreman and finifher, till the time of his death. Soon
after which, by a curious kind of courtfhip, Kirekman
married his matter’s widow, by which prudent meafure he
became poffeffed of all Tabel’s feafoned wood, tools, and
{tock in trade. Kirckman himfelf ufed to relate the fingu-
lar manner in which he gained the widow, which was not
by a regular fiege, but by ftorm. He told her one fine
morning, at breakfaft, that he was determined to he
married that day before twelve o'clock, Mrs. Tabel, in
great furprize, afked him to whom he was going to be mar-
ried, and why fo foon? The finifher told her, that he had
not yet determined whom he fhould marry, and that, if fhe
would have him, he would give her the preference. The
lady wondered at his precipitancy, hefitated full half an
hour ; but he continuing to {wear that the bufinefs muit be
done before twelve o’clock that day, at length fhe furren-

dered ;

KIR

dered ; and as this abridged courtfhip preceded the mar-
riage aét, and the nuptials could be performed at the Fleet
or May Fair, “ without lofs of time, or hindrance of bu-
finefs,”? the canonical hour was faved, and two fond hearts
were in one united, in the mot fummary way poflible, juit
one month after the deceafe of Tabel.

Kirckman lived long enough to ftock the whole kingdom
with his inftruments, and to amafs great wealth. He had
no children, but as many nephews hovering over him as a
Roman pontiff.

Theodorus, the father of Ifocrates, was a flute-maker,
who acquired wealth fufficient by his employment not only
to educate his children in a liberal manner, but alfo to bear
one of the heavielt public burthens to which an Athenian
citizen was liable ; that of furnifhing a choir or chorus for
his tribe, or ward, av feftivals and religious ceremonies.

Each tribe furnifhed their diftin& chorus ; which confifted
of aband of vocal and inftrumental performers and dancers,
who were to be hired, maintained, and drefled, during the
whole time of the feftival: an expence confiderable in it-
felf, but much increafed by emulation among the richer ci-
tizens, and the difgrace confequent to an inferior exhibition,
The fluctuations of trade and public favour have rendered
the bufinefs of boring flutes far lefs profitable at prefent,
than it was in the time of Theodorus. But our harplichord
maker, Kirckman, who was known to be worth go,000/.
twenty years before he died, doubled the profits of his in-
ftruments, by becoming a pawnbroker anda ufurer ; oblig-
ing young heirs with money as kindly, and with as much
liberality, as a Hebrew.

Ata time when ruin ftared harpfichord-makers in the
face, by the rage with which mufical ladies were feized for
the guitar, in preference to all other inftruments, Kirck-
man hit cn an ingenious expedient which faved himfelf
from bankruptcy, and reftored the harpfichord to all its
former favour. (See Guirar.) He did not live to fee
his excellent double harpfichords of fixty or feventy guineas
price, fold at auctions for twelve or fourteen pounds, and
the original purchafers turn them out of their houfes as ufe-
lefs lumber. Bot fuch are the viciflitudes cf this world,
that our defcendants will, perhaps, know as little about the
pianoforte, as we do now of the lute or lyre. Kirckman is
fuppofed to have died, in 1778, worth near 200,000/.

KIRCUBBIN, in Geography, a poft-town of Ireland, in
the county of Down and province of Ulfter, fituated in the
peninfula of Ardes, and g7 miles N. by E. from Dublin.

KIRCUDERIGHT. See Kiaxcupsricut.

KIRDORF, a town of Upper Heffe ; 34 miles W. of
Caffel.

KIRENSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, on the Lena. N. lat. 57° 40. E. long. 108 14'.

KIRENSKOT, atown of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, on the borders, built in the year 1655, on a fer-
tile foil, but now decaying ;.112 miles W. of Doroninfk.

‘ KIRGANELTA, in Botany, from Kirganeli, a name
in the Hortus Malabaricus for feveral {pecies of Phyllanthus.
Juff. 387. This genus is founded by Jufficu ona fhrub
called in the ifland of Mauritius Bois de demoifzllz, and which
Commerfon, in conformity perhaps to that appellation, def-
tined to commemorate a botanical Neapolitan lady, Maria
Angela Ardinghelli, who tranflated the works of Dr. Hales
into Italian. Our fpecimen from Commerfon is marked
Ardinghelia, and we cannot account for Juffieu’s paffing this
name over in filence, How far the genus is diftin@ from
Phyllanthus, or from Cicca, with which latter its pulpy fruit
nearly accords, we are not furnifhed with materials fufficient
to decide.

-nutely deferibed by Pallas.

KIR
KIRGHISES, Kinrcetses, or Kirgufes, in Geography,

a tribe of Tartars, who occupy about one-half of Indepen-
dent Tartary, in the north, They are alfo called «¢ Kaizaks,”’
and are of undoubted Tartaric origin, fo that they feem to
live in perfeét amity with their fouthern brethren, the Uz-
beks. hefe Kirgufes are divided from Siberia by the
great Stepp, or defert of Iffim, which is interfected by a
river of the fame name. On the weft of the Kirgufes there
ftill remain fome tribes of Kalmuks, though the moft of
them migrated from the Volga in 1770, when they fought
the protection of the Chinefe. The Kirgufes are fuppofed
to derive their name from the founder of their horde; and
from time immemorial! have been clafled under three divifions,
of great, middle, and leffer, though quite unknown to Europe
till the Ruffian conqueft of Siberia, at which time they
nomalifed at the fuperior Yenifley about the Yufs, the
Abakhan, &c. ; andin the year 1606, fome tribes of them
became fubjeét to the Ruffian empire, at the fame time with
the Barabinzes. From that period, by their pufillanimity,
their faithleffnefs, their frequent rebellion, and the fubju-
gation of correlative nations, they have had the character
of anextremely turbulent people. The revolutions which
have thus been produced in their political condition, induced
them to remove from the Yeniffey to the Oby, and gradually
farther to the weft andthe fouth. They at prefent inhabit
the prodigious defert between the Ural and the Irtyth, de-
nominated by the Ruffians the Kirghifian Steppe, and bor-
dering weftward on the Cafpian and the government of
Caucafus, northwards upon the parts about the Ufa and
the Tobol, and eaftwards on the government of Kolhyvan.
The great horde, defended by mountains on the fouth and
ea{t, aflerted their independence in repeated contefts with the
Kalmuks of Soongaria. The middie and little hordes
have acknowledged the Ruffian fovereignty ever fince the
year 17313 but having always been unfaithful allies, and a
very piratical people, the Ruffians have been obliged to con-
ftruét lines of fmall forts along the frontier rivers. Each of
thefe two hordes is eftimated at 30,c00 kibitkies, or fami-
lies ; and feppofing the great horde to contain 60,000, and
each family to conlift of fix perfons, the population of this
wide region may amount to 720,000 ; but it probably does
not exceed half a million. Their manners have been mi-
Their tents are conftru@ted
of a kind of felt; their drink is kumils, made of acidulated
mare’s milk. The great horde is coniidered as the fource
of the two others. Being fettled near the mountains of
Alak, called alfo Ala Tau, this horde has been denomi-
nated the Alatanian Kirgufes. They lead a wandering
life from the borders of the Upper Sirr, or Syrt, near
Tafhkund, to the Steppe of Iffim. Each horde has its
peculiar khan; but the middie horde, when Pallas ap-
proached this country, was contented with a prince, that
acknowledged the khan of the lefler horde; and in 1777,
this khan of the leffer horde, whofe election had been con-
firmed by Ruffia, was called Nur Hali, a fenfible and equi-
table prince. The features of the Kirgufes are Tartaric,
with the flat nofe and firall eyes ; but not oblique like thofe
of the Monguls and Chinefe. They have horfes, camels,
cattle, fheep, and goats. Some individucls in the middle
horde are faid to have 10,000 horfes, 300 camels, 3 or 4000
cattle, 20,000 fheep, and more than 2000 goats; while
fome in the leffer horde were proprietors of 3000 horfes,
and a proportionable number of the other animals. Their
dromedaries furnifhed a confiderable quantity of woolly
hair, which was fold to the Ruffians and Bucharians, being
annually clipped like that of fheep. Their chief food is
mutton, of the large-tailed fort; and fo exquifite is the

; lamb,

KIR

lamb, that it is fent from Orenburg to Peterfburg for the
tables of the palace. The lamb-fkins are the moft cele-
brated after thofe of Bucharia, being damafked as it were
by clothing the little animal.in coarfe linen. But the wool
of the fheep being coarfe, is ufed only in domettic confump-
tion for felts and thick cloths. The fteppes fupply them
with objects of the chace, wolves, foxes, badgers, antelopes,
ermines, weazels, marmots, &c. In the fouthern and
ealtern mountains are found wild fheep, ‘ovis mufimon,”’
the ox of Thibet, “ bos grunniens,’’ which feems to de-
light in fnowy alps; with chanoys, chacalls, tigers, and
wild affes.

« As the Kirgufians regard one another as brethren,
they are obliged to employ flaves, being captives whom
they take in their incurfions, Their drefs is the -com-
mon Tartaric, with large trowfers and pointed boots.
A thin veft fupplies the place of a fhirt, and. they com-
monly wear two fhort robes. The head is fhaved, and co-
vered with a conic bonnet. Their clothes are numerous
and light, fo that if they fall from horfeback, they are fel-
dom hurt ; their faddle-horfes are richly ornamented ;_ but
their riders are fhort in ftature, and their trowfers afcend to
the arm-pits, fo that they refemble a pair of pantaloons on
horfeback. The Jadies ornament their heads with the necks
of herons, difpofed like horns. They appear to be Ma-
hometans, though rather of a relaxed creed.

«¢ The Kirgufians carry on fome trade with Ruffia. The
chief traffic, which is wholly by exchange, is at Orenburg,
but the middle horde proceed to Omfk. Sheep, to the
amount of 150,000, are annually brought to Orenburg ;
with horfes, cattle, lambs, fkins, camels’-wool, and cam-
lets ; fometimes they offer flaves, Perfians or Turcomans.
In return they take manufadtured articles, chiefly clothes
and furniture. From Bucharia, Khiva, and Tafhkund,
they receive arms and coats of mail, which Ruflia refufes,
in return for camels and cattle. They are extremely fond
of the Kalmuk women, who long retain their form and
charms ; and often marry them, if they will adopt the Ma-
hometan relfgion. There is an annual feftival in honour of
the dead, About the beginning of the 17th century this
people, who were formerly Shamanians, became children of
circumeifion, by the exertions of the priefts of Turkiftan ;
but Pallas, in 1769, found them addiéted to forceries and
other idle fuperttitions.’’

This barren country, now inhabited by the Kirgufes,
has been the f{eene of confiderable events: and it is not im-
probable, that its numerous deferts and plains have been for-
merly more fertile, at leaft in pafturage. However this be,
thefe regions have been held by fucceffive nations of high
repute, from the Maflagete of early times to the Turks.
Pallas, cited by Pinkertor in his Geog, vol. ii. Tooke's
View of the Ruffian Empire, vol. i.

KLRIAN, amountain of Thibet.
long. 79° 44!.

KIRIANI, a town of European Turkey, in Livadia;
8 miles S.E. of Athens.

KIRILOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Novgorod ; 52 miles N.W. of Vologda.

KIRIN, or Kinen-Ouca, one of the three grand de-
partments of the country of the Mantchew or Mandfhur
Tartars, or Eaftern Chinefe Tartary, bounded on the N.
by the river Saghalien, on the E. by the fea, on the S. by
Corea, and on the W. by the province of Leao-tong. This
country, which is rendered extremely cold by the number of
forelis that coverit, is fcarcely inhabited ; it contains only
two or three ill-built cities,’ furrounded by plain mud-walls.
The valuable plant “ ginfeng”’ grows here; and the em-

INUiateps Bcnliate Die

KIR

peror fends hither thofe criminals, who are condemned ta
banifhment by the laws. The capital is alfo called Kirin,
or Kerin, and is fituated on the river Songari, called at
this place Kirin, which falls into the Saghalien or Amur,
and was the refidence of the Mantchew or Mandfhur general,
who was invefted with all the powers of a viceroy ; sean
the troops and having authority over all the Mandarins ;
soo miles N.E. of Peking. N. lat. 43° 48’. E. long.
126° 24. -

KIRKBY-Lonspas, a market town and parifh in the
valley of Lonfdale, whence its fecond, or diftin@ive name,
on the bank of the river Lune, at the fouthern edge of the
county. It is 12 miles fouth-eaft of Kendal, and 252 north
of London. In the year 1800, the town contained 260
houfes, and 1283 inhabitants. At this place Kirkby, bifhop
of Carlifle, repulfed the Scots. He was a native of this
town. Over the Lune isacurious bridge of three arches,
and in the market place is a crofs of rather fingular cha-
raéter. Thechurch is a large building, 120 feet in length,
by 102 in breadth. In the church library is the following
infeription ; ** This library, pulpit, and new loft, together
with the fchool-houfe, were founded by Mr. Henry Wilfon,
of Underly, who gave to the colleges 1oco/. befides 35/.
yearly to feven poor fcholars going to Queen’s-college in
Oxford ; and to this church and fchool 240/. ; to the poor
of Kirkby-Lonfdale lordfhip 500/. ; beflides many other gifts
to pious ufes in other places: by all which, he, being dead,
yet fpeaks,’ About two miles from the town, towards
Lonfdale, is Borrow-hall, the feat of Thomas Fenwicke,
efq. It is feated in a narrow dale, and nearly furrounded
by mountains. At Kirkby area weekly market and three
fairs, annually. Nicholfon and Burn’s Hiftory, &c. of
Weftmoreland, 2-vols. 4to. 1777-

Kirksy-MMoorfide, a market town and parifh in that part
of Yorkfhire called the North-Riding, England, as its name
implies, is feated among the moors, or mountains, which
abound in that part of the ifland. This town is 28 miles
N. of York, and 233 from London. In the year 1800,
it contained 287 houfes, and 1396 inhabitants. By the
flatement in Domefday-book the manor of this place, then
called Chirchabi, was one of the heads of the ancient fa-
mily of Stutevilles, one*of whom founded an abbey at
Keldholone, about one mile from this town, On the top of
a hill, to the north-eaft of Kirkby, is the {cite of anancient
building, faid to have been the feat of the abovenamed fa-
mily, who continued to refide here till the reign of Henry
III. The Nevilles, lords, Latimer, had alfo a manor-honfe
here. George Villiers, the diffolute duke of Buckingham,
part of whole eftates lay here, and at Helmfley, where he
had a feat, died in a miferable condition, in a mean houfe
in this town. Pope, in his Moral Effays, has chara@erifed
the place, and feverely reprobated the man in lines of pecu-
liar force and feverity. .

« Tn the wortt inn’s worft room, with mat half-hung,
The floors of platter, and the walls of dung,
» On once a flock-bed, but repaired with ftraw,
With tape-tied curtains, never meant to draw,
The George and garter dangling from that bed,
Where tawdry yellow ftrove with dirty red,
Great Villiers: dies.””
About one mile weft of the town is Kirkdale church, an an-
cient edifice, feated in a moft romantic fituation, and noted
for an infcription over the fouth door. An account of
this was written by Mr. Brooke, for the Society of Anti-
quaries, who publifhed the fame with a print in vol. y,

Archzologia,
+12 KIRKBY-

_buildings.

KIR

Kirxsy-Stephen, a market town and parifh in the county
of Weftmoreland, England, is featedon the weftern bank of
the river Eden, in a mountainous part of the country.
The town confifts of one flreet, running north and fouth,
at the extremities of which are profpects of the Helbec
and Wildbore mountains. Formerly here was a {pacious
area for a market place, which has been nearly covered with
A market is held here every. Monday, and is
chiefly occupied by the manufacturers and dealers in ftock-
ings. This town is four miles from Brough, and 266 north
of London. The parifh church is a large building, and
contains fome old monuments. Adjoining it is a handfome
parfonage-houfe, built by the late Dr. Chaters, prebend of
Durham, to whofe family the living belongs. In the town
is a free grammar-{chool, which has two exhibitions.

Near Kirkby are the ruins of Pendragon-caftle, which was
formerly the feat of the lords Clifford : and about one mile
fouth of the town are Wharton-parks, the ancient feat of
the Wharton family. This place is deferted, and the houfe
fallen to decay. Nicholfon and Burn’s Hiftory, &c. of
Weltmoreland, 2 vols. 4to. 1777.

KIRKCALDY. See Kircatpy.

KIRK-CLISSA, or Kirkrersan, a town of European
Turkey, in the province of Romania; formerly called
«© Teffaraconta Ecclefie,”’ or forty churches; at prefent
it has neither walls nor churches, and but few Chriitian in-
habitants. It isinhabited by many Jews, who are chiefly
employed in making butter-and cheefe, for which they

* have a ready market among their friends at Conftantinople ;

go miles E. of Adrianople.

KIRKCUDBRIGHT, the chief town of one of the ftew-
artries into which the county or fhire of Galloway in Scot!and
is divided. Kirkcudbright is fituated on the Solway Frith,
near the mouth of the river Dee, and, excepting as a market
town for the adjacent diftri@t, is not eminent for any {pecies
of commerce, manufacture, or trade. The harbour is fafe,
with good anchorage, and fheltered from all wieds; but
being a tide-harbour is well fit for veffels that can take the

round. It was anciently a burgh of regality, and held
of the Douglaffes, lords of Galloway, as fuperiors. Onthe
forfeiture of the earl of Douglas, laft lord of Galloway,
in 1455, it was by James II. ereéted into a royal burgh,
and is now governed by a provoit, three bailiffs, and town-
council. In the environs are many traces of ancient camps,
Britifh and Roman. Its caftle, the mounts and dikes of
which are {till remaining, was evidently conftructed to defend
the entrance of the river Dee. In 1801,the number of in-
habitants was 2380; 28 miles S.W. of Dumfries. N. lat.
54°55'. W: long. 4° 5!.

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE, a divifion or county of
Scotland, called the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, forms the
eaitern, and by far the molt extenfive portion of Galloway,
The latter name was anciently applied to an independent
principality, which included the greater part of Ayrfhire
and Dumfriesfhire, but is now hmited to the two counties of
Wigton and Kirkcudbright, ‘The ftewartry is fituated be-
tween 54° 40! and 55° 20! of N. latitude, and contains
852,57 {quare miles, on 449,313 Scotch acres. - It is
bounded on the fouth by the Solway frith, which divides it
from England; by Dumfriesfire and the eltuary of the

_ Nith on the eait, by the fame county and Ayrfhire on the

north, and by the latter, with the fhire of Wigton and the
bay of that name, on the weft. Kirkcudbright has no fub-

divifions, except that four of the moit northerly parifhes,

Cavefairn, Dalry, Kells, and Balmaclellan, are commonly
called the diltrict of Glenkens. The afpect of the country,
Vou. XX.

KIR

however, affords a very natural divifion into two parts. If
a line be drawn from the centre of Irongray parish to the
Gatehoufe of Fleet, all to the weft and north, with little
exception, is fo mountainous, that it may be very properly
termed a Highland diftri&; while the fouth and eaft exhibit
a fine champaign and cultivated country. ‘The parifhes are
28 innumber, the whole population of which, according to
the parliamentary returns of 1800, amounted to 29,211
perfons. Kirkcudbright, Gatehoufe of Fleet, Creetown,
Caltle Douglas, and New Galloway, are the principal
towns. Jelides thefe there are feveral confiderable villages,
which it will not be neceflary to particularize in this place.
Kirkcudbright is the county town, and a royal borough, as
is allo New Galloway. Creetown, which is fituafed at the
upper part of Wigton bay, has lately been conftituted a
borough of barony: fo likewife has Cattle Douglas, 2
thriving village, not much above thirty years old, but which
now contains nearly a thoufand inhabitants, Some attempts
have been made to introduce the cotton manufaCtures here ;
but the high price of coals oppofes an almoft unfurmount-
able impediment to ultimate fuccefs. The fame circum-
{tance operates, in no inconfiderable degree, againit the
eftablifhment of manufaétures, requiring large quantities of
fuel, in every part of the ttewartry. Thofe villages which
are fituated on the coaft, however, being fupplied with coat
from England, have made more rapid progrefs, even in the
manufaCiure of cotten, than could reafonably have been ex-
pected.

Though, as mentioned above, the greater part of this
ftewartry is hilly; yet, upon the whole, it contains few
mountains remarkable for their fize or height. The moft
lofty of thofe in the weftern divifion is that called Cairnf-
muir, within the parith of Minigafl, which rifes 1737 feet
above the level of the fea, and is furrounded by teveral
others of equal altitude, though lefs ftriking to the eye,
from the greater elevation of the circumjacent grounds.
The hill called Cairnbarrow, in the parifhes of Anworth and
Kirkmabreek, is 1100 feet in height, very little encumbered
with rocks, and commanding a very beautiful and extenfive
view, not only of the flewartry of Kirkcudbright and the.
faire of Wigton, but alfo of the Ifle of Man, aud the oppofite
coats of England and Ireland. Crowfell, which terminates
a lofty ridge of hills in the. fouth-eaftern part of the county,
was formerly one of the alarm-potts for giving notice of the
incurfions of the Englifh. The elevation of Douglas-Cairn,
on the fummit of this mountain, is faid to be about 1909
feet,and Knockendoch, which furmouuts the north wings
1500 feet above the level of the fea. From this range of
hilis, the country defcends towards the fhore in the moit re-
gular and beautiful manner, exhibiting a delightful view of
well-inclofed fields in a ftate of excellent cultivation. Im-
mediately upon the fea, the fcene is of a verydifferent de-
{cription: the coaft here being remarkably bold and rocky,
difclofes from the fand, at low water, fome grand and pic-
turefque appearances; tremendous and rugged precipices ;
high and pointed fpires, under the bafes of which are pai-

’ fages refembling the form of rude arches ; large and regular

amphitheatres, leading into caverns, the extent of which no
human being has yet ventured to explore.

At this point, and indeed on almoit every part of the
coaft of this county, a great variety of marine plants are
found. Among thefe the moft remarkable are /amphire,
ufed for preferves or pickles ; and the water polypus, or /es
anemone, which naturaliits confider as the connecting link be-
tween the animal and vegetable kingdoms: for, though
deilitute of the faculty of locomotion, it poffefies a degree

¥ ot

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE.

of irritability and fenfation much fuperior to any other
known vegetable produ@tion. For a particular account of
this very curious fubject, fee the article ANEMONE.

The ftewartry of Kirkcudbright gives rife to feveral
rivers, befides a number of fmaller ftreams. The moit re-
markable of thefe are, the Orr or Urr, the Ken, the Dee,
the Fleet, and the Cree. The Urr, which is alfo called the
Uure or Whurr, flows from a Jake of the fame name, in the
pari(h of Balmaclellan, fituated in the diltrit of Glenkens.
Hence it runs almolt directly fouth, and falls into the Solway
frith near the village of Colvend. ‘This river is navigable
for veflels of So tons burden, to the diftance of eight miles
from its mouth. By means of it, therefore, coals, lime, and
other articles, imported from England, are conveyed thus
far up the county, and hence diltributed to the more interior
parts. ‘Ihe dangers and difficulties, however, attending this
trade, owing to the numerous fand-banks in the channel of
the Solway, which are every day becoming more extenfive,
oppofe powerful obitacles to its increafe, either here or at
any other port on this coaft. One advantage pofleffed by
this river, is a large bafon called Gibbs-hold, which it forms
within land, about two miles from its confluence with the
fea, where large vellels often fecure a fafe retreat during
ftormy weather. The Ken, the fecond river above ,men-
tioned, takes its rife alfo in the northern part of the
ftewartry, near the borders of Nithfdale. Flowing hence,
at firft in a fouth-welterly direCtion, it feparates the parifhes
of Dalry and Cavefphairn; then proceeding towards the
fouth, with an inelination eaftwards, it falls into Kenmuir-
loch, and forms a junction with the Dee. This river begins
its courfe among the hills in the north-weltern divifion of
the county. After receiving the Ken, it flows towards the
Solway frith, into which it difcharges itfelf, after pafling
the town of Kirkcudbright. The Dee is remarkable both
on account of its breadth and depth, particularly at the
place called Kenmuir-loch. It is navigable to the village
of Tongland, two miles above the town of Kirkcudbright ;
and, were it not for the number of recks and fhallows with
which it abounds beyond this point, might be made the
means of introducing an inland navigation to the very centre
of the county. A furvey was made fome years ago, with
a view to fupply the defe&ts of the river by a navigable
canal, but the plan was not fuccefsful in meeting the appro-
bation of parliament. A {mall canal, however, has been
cut by the fteward of the county between the Dee and a
Jake called Carlinwark-loch, which is fituated above the
fhallows of Tongland,and furnifhes marle in great abundance.
The Fleet and the Cree are alfo navigable for feveral miles.
‘The former rifes out of a lake cailed Lochfleet, and pours
its waters into the bay of Wigton, at a fhort diitance from
the village called Gatehoufe-ot-Fleet. The Cree takes its
rife amoug tHe mountains which feparate the northern part
of the county from Ayrfhire, forming, for feveral miles
of its courfe, the boundary of the ftewartry. It ferves as
a continuation of the navigation of Wigton bay, and pro-
duces fifth of various kinds, particularly falmon, in great
plenty.

Few counties can boaft of a greater number of lakes or
lochs than Kirkcudbright. With the exception, however,
of Lochken, or Kenmuir-loch, already mentioned as formed
by the waters of the Ken and Dee, which is ten miles in
length, they are, generally fpeaking, of {mall extent. The
parifh of New Abbey, in the eaftern diftri& of the ftewartry,
contains three lakes, Lochkendan, Lochend, and Craigend,
the two lait of which are nearly a mile long, and more than
ene half of a mile broad. Lochrutton, which gives name

\

to a parifh, is of fimilar dimenfions. In the centre of it’
is an artificial ifland, nearly of a circular form, and fome-
what more than half a rood in circumference. It is com-
pofed, on the furface, of a vaft collection of large ftones.
In Balmaclellan parifh there are five lakes. One of thefe,
though very fmall, js famous for a. particular fpecies of
trout, many of which weigh ten Englifh pounds each.
Carlingwark-loch, in the parith of Kelton, formerly covered
116 acres, but fince the canal joined it to the Dee, it has
been reduced to lefs than 80. This loch contains an in-
exhaultible fund of the very bett fhell marle. Before its extent
was contra¢ted, there were two ifles in it, upon which the
country people fay two churches or chapels formerly ftood..
Indeed, the tradition in the neighbourhood is, that there
had been a town in the loch, which was drowned or fwal-
lowed up. The difcovery of an iron forge, on the fouth
ifle, fome years ago, feems to give fome probabi ity to this
idea. It was furrounded by the remains of a {tone building.
or rampart, and communicated with the oppofite fide of the
lake by a caufeway or road of ftones, fecured by piles of
oak wood, and having an opening in it, fuppofed to have
been for a drawbridge. Several canoes, hollowed by fire,
after the manner of the American favages, and a large iron
mallet, have alfo been found inthis loch. Befides thofe al-
read noticed, there are a number of f{maller Jakes in different
parts of the county. None of them, however, deferve to
be particularized except Loch Kohn or Koan, which is
fituated in the parifh of Croflmichael. It extends over
4o acres of ground, and is from 10 to 22 fathoms deep.
No rivulets or {treams flow into it, nor indeed has it any
vifible feurce of fupply excepting the clouds. It never
freezes but during the moft intenfe frott-

This county contains a variety of minerals and mineral
fprings. The want of coals, however, and the difficulty
of fhipping them, in general prevents the former from being
turned to advantage. A rich iron-mine, in the parith of
Kerrick, was wrought for fome time by an Englifh company,
but they were at lait obliged to abandon it. A lead mine,
however, has been opened, and is {till fuccefsfully carried
on in the weftern divificn of the ftewartry. Both thefe
metals are found in abundance in many other parts. Ap-~
pearances of copper have alfo been oblerved ; but it is not
known that any trial of it has been made. There is alfo
great plenty of limeftone, though of an inferior quality, as
yet untouched; and a vatt fund of excellent fhell-marle for
manure, which is too much negleéted by the farmers, and:
lime exported in its flead, at a very confiderable expence.

The remains of antiquity in this county are itill very
numerous, and many of them in no {mall degree interefting.
The abbey of Sweetheart, or New Abbey, in a parifh of
that name, is a beautiful lofty building in the light pointed
flyle. It was founded in the 13th century by Devongilla,
the mother of John Baliol, king of Scotland. This ftruc-
ture ftands in a fine level field about 20 acres in extent,_
which is enclofed by a ftone wall ten feet high, built of
granite ftones, fome of which are of immenfe fize.

Hil's caftle fituated near Lochrutton, and about three
miles from Dumfries, was one of the many fortified places
which belonged to the Douglas family, as lords of Gallo-
way. Edward the firft lodged here, on his way to Kirk-
cudbright in the year 1300. A tower and a few fmall
buildings, which furround a {quare court, are all that remain
of this edifice. Buittle caftle, the favourite refidence of
king John Baliol, is ftill to be feen in the parifh whence it
derives its name. ‘The hand of time, however, has nearly
levelled it with the ground. An old coin was difcovered

I 4 here

‘

KIR

here fome yearsago, bearing the date 1220,' This neigh-
bourhood is remarkable for a number of vitsified forts, the
nature and formation of which antiquaries have found it
difficult to determine ; and refpeGting which various opinions
are entertained.

One of thefe forts appears alfo on the top of a fmall hill
in the parifh of Anworth. The fummit forms an area of
thirty paces long and twenty broad, and is nearly furrounded
by an irregular ridge of loofe ftones, intermixed with large
portions of vitrified matter. Thefe {tones are of the com-
mon blue {chiftus kind, and from the manner in which they
lie fcattered about, it would feem that the fort has either
been deficient in regularity of. ftru€iure originally, or been
intentionally demolifhed. Some coins of Edward VI. and
queen Elizabeth were lately found near this fpot. Thrieff
eaftle, which is fituated in an ifland formed by the river
Dee, is famous for having been the chief refidence of the
Douglaffes. A great fquare tower is all that remains of the
once proud and lofty mantfion of thefe celebrated warriors.

Lincludden college was founded inthe reignof Malcolm IV.
It was originally a Benedictine nunnery, but afterwards con-
verted into a monattery, in the chancel of which is an elegant
monument, erected in honour of Margaret, daughter of Ro-
bert III. and wife to one of the earls of Douglas. The
college is fituated upon a {mall ftream called Cluden, about
two miles from its jun¢tion with the river Nith, and prefents
in its ruins many marks ef its former magnificence and
grandeur.

Dundrennan Abbey, which ftands in the parifh of Ker-
rich, about a mile and a half from the Solway frith, is
alfo a fine ruin. It was founded in the year 1142, and
has acquired celebrity as the afylum of Mary queen of
Scots after the battle of Langtide. Befides thefe, the
ftewartry contains feveral other curious remains of anti-
quities. The moft remarkable are the rocking jlone, in the
parifh of Kells, which is fo nicely balanced, that it can be
moved by the flighteft preflure ; the monaftery of Tongland,
the Dun of Bareland, the moat of Urr, probably the largett
work of the kind in Scotland, and the caflle of Kennuir,
fituated near the lake of that name. To thefe may be
added the tomb of king Galdus, called Cairnholy, faid to
have been erected to commemorate the fall of that prince
in a battle, between the Scots and Piéts about the year 82,
or, according to another tradition, in memory of bifhop
Whitehorn and other gentlemen, who were killed in an ac-
tion with the Englifh about the year 1150. Which of
thefe accounts is the correét one it is perhaps impoffible to
determine. This, however, is certain, that this flewartry
was the fcene of many fanguinary contefts, particularly
during the invalions of the Romans, and during the conten-
tions of Bruce and Baliol.

The principal country feats in the ftewartry are thofe
of the earl: of Selkirk, Mr. Murray of Broughton, anda
large houfe built by the late fir Samuel Hannay, the ex-
terior of which is wholly formed of the moft beautiful
granite. The chief products of this diftrict, befides thofe
already noticed, are fheep and black cattle for the Englifh
market. It has given birth to few remarkable characters,
except Thomas Gordon, famous for his writings in the Ban-
gorian controverfy, and Paul Jones the celebrated pirate,
who fpread fo much terror over different parts of the coaft
during the American war.

A very interefting and well written account of this dif-
trict, was publifhed in 1810, entitled ** General View of
the Agriculture of Galloway; .comprehending two coun-
ties, viz. the Stewartry of Kirkcudbright, and Wigton-
thire,’”? by the Rev. Samuel Smith, miniiler of Borgue.

.

KIR

KIRKHAM, a {mall market town and parifh in. the
hundred of Amoundernefs, Lancafhire, England, is fituated
ina traét of country called the File-lands, between the Rib-
ble and another frail river. It is 22 miles diftant from Lean-
cafter, and 225 from London ; and contained, according to
the return under the population act of 1800, 362 houfes,
inhabited by 1561 perfons. The chief trade is in coarfe
linen and fail cloth. Here are a well endowed free-fchool
for the education of 100 boys, and a charity-{chool for 40
girls: two fairs are held annually, and a market weckly on
‘Tuefdays.. The Lancafter canal paffes by this town, from
Liverpool. - One mile weft of Kirkham is Ribby-hall, a
large weil built brick manfion, belonging to Jofeph Hornby,
efq. Beauties of England, vol. ix.

KIRKI, a town of Grand Bucharia; 100 miles S.E.
of Bokhara.

KIRKIE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Chandaree ; 24 miles S.S.W. of Chatterpour.

KIRKINYTULLOCH, a {mall town of Dumbarton-
fhire, fituated about nine miles from Glafgow, and four from
Kilfyth. The Forth and Clyde canal is carried over the
{mall river Logie, abcut half a mile from this place, by an
aqueduct of a fingle arch of great dimenfions, which was
confidered at the time it was built as a very extraordinary
fpecimen of mafonic art. . Kirkintulloch is not a place of
any importance, but the country round it is populous and
well cultivated, and many refpeétable land-holders of mid-
dling fortunes refide upon their eftates, and contribute
much to its improvement. It is a burgh of barony, go-
verned by two bailiffs, annually chofen. In 1801, the
number of inhabitants was 3210, of whom 1785 were
employed in trade and manufacture. dts manufactures are
linen and cotton.

KIRK-MOTE, a fynod. See SyNop.

Sometimes the word is alfo taken for a meeting in the
cherch, or veftry. See Mors.

KIRK-OSWALD, in Geography, a market town and
parifh in the ward of Leath and county of Cumberland,
England, is feated in the pleafant vale of Eden, and is a
place of fome note in the early annals of the kingdom, The
church dedicated to St. Ofwald, the king and martyr of
Northumberland, is a large irregular building, evidently
erected at different periods; probably at the expence of the
Dacre family, whofe arms appear in various parts of the
building. Here is an handfome monument raifed to the
memory of fir Timothy Featherftonehaugh, an active fup-
perter of king Charles I. He was beheaded, and is two
fons were flain in the battle of Worcefter. A defcendant
of the fame name refides near this town. At the welt end
of the church iffves a copious {pring of excellent water ;
which, in the reign of Monachifm, was deemed to poflefs
miraculous powers. The belfry tower ftands on an emi-
nence at fome diftance from the church. In the town is an
endowed free fchool, and a meeting houfe for Diffenters. Qu
an elevated f{pot, about a quarter of a mile from the town,
are the ruins of a caltle, which Sandford deferibes ‘as the
faireft fabric that ever eye looked upon.’”” At prefent only
a {mall tower and fome vaults are all that remain : but ori-
ginally it was extenfive, of a {quare form, and bounded on
three fides by a fofs, and on the fourth bya brook. Hugh
de Morville procured a licence from king John to incloie
his woods at Kirk-Ofwald, to fortify bis manor houfe, and
to have there an annual fair aud-a weekly market. This
Hugh was one of the murderers of archbilhop Becket ; and
the weapon of affaflination was kept for a long time in this
fortrefs. »

On ahill about three miles from Kirk-Ofwald, near the vil-

Bi 2 lage

KIR

lage of Little Salkeld, is a noted Druidical monument, call-
ed “* Long Meg and her Daughters.” It contifts of a cir-
cular arrangement of unhewn itones ; the circumference of
the circle is about 350 yards. Some of the ftones are 10
feet high, and from r2 ‘to 15 feet in girth. The ftone called
Long Meg, about 17 feet out of the circle, is 18 feet in
height, and nearly 14 feet in circumference. » Pennant’s
Tour to Allton-Moor, gto. Hutchinfon’s Hiltory, &c.
of Cumberland, 2 vols, 4to. Beauties of England, vol. xi.
8vo. 1802.

KIRK-SESSIONS, the nare of a petty ecclefiaftical
judicatory in Scotland. ach parifh, according to its ex-
tent is divided into feveral particular diftri@s, every one of
which has its own elder and deacon to overfee it. A con-
filtory of the minifters, elders, and deacons of a parifh, form
a kirk-feffions.

Thefe meet once a week, the minifter being their mode-
rator, but without a negative voice. It regulates matters
relating to-public worfhip, elections, catechifing, vifitations,
&c. It jadges in matters of lefs fcandal ; but greater, as
adultery, are left to the prefbytery ; and in all cafes an ap-
peal lies from it te the prefbytery.

KIRKSTALL, in Geography, a village in Yorkshire,
was formerly a place of note, and adorned with a moft fplen-
did and richly endowed abbey, of which the ruins of the
church prefent a grand and interefting mafs of ancient ec-
clefiaflical architecture. It was founded in the reign of
king Stephen for Ciltercian monks. Parts of, the original
building itill remain: the columns of the nave are mailive,
and fupport heavy, pointed arches. The fide aifles are
nearly perfeét, as are alfo the nave, tranfepts, and choir.
At the weit front isea fine door-way with a femicircular arch,
and above it two handfome windows, curioufly ornamented.
On the fouth fide are feveral ruinous apartments, among
which the dormitory and fome other rooms are {till covered
in. “ Sirkftall will be found highly interelting to the -pic-
turefque traveller, as it affords a variety of fubje€ts for the
pencil, both archite¢tural, and where the ruins will unite
finely with the landfcape”’ ‘This place is three miles from
Leeds, and 191 from London. Dayes’ Excurfions in York-
fhire, 8vo. 1805, in which work is a neatly engraved view of
Kirkttall, and an interefting account of the picturefque fea-
tures of the country around that grand pile of ruins.

KIRKULETI, a river of Atia, which rifes in the
mountains of Armenia, and traverfing the principality of
Guriel, runs into the Black fea. N. lat. 41° 55’. E. long.

x acl.

KIRKUR, a town of Hindoettan, in Rohilcund; 35
miles S. of Bereilly,

KIRKWALL, the chief or principal town of the
Orkney iflands, Scotland, is feated on the northern coait of
the Main-land, in the latitude of 59° g! N. and in the longi-
tude of 2° 30! W. ef Greenwich, towards the S.E. fide of
the bay of the fame name ; and is divided into the old town
that bends-along the bay, and the new, which itretches a con-
fiderable way to the fouth. Its original name appears, from
ancient authorities, to have been Kirkiovog, or the kirk on
the bay. The town has only one {lreet, nearly a mile long,
with many excellent houfes ranged on each fide, which, tor
the ftyle of their building, and the manner in which they
are finifhed and furnifhed, may bear a comparifon with thofe
of any {mall town inthe kingdom. Several gentlemen of
property refide here, and alfo a confiderable number of fhop-
keepers ; but the bulk of the people is compofed of tradef-
men, boatmen, fervants, and day-labourers: and when the
population .of the country parifh, which makes a fourth of
the whole, is confidered, the united parifhes of Kirkwall and

KIR

St. Ola, in which are two eftablifhed clereymen, contaim thie
former about two thoufand, the latter five hundred inha-
bitants. ‘The town was ereéted into a royal borough by
charters from the Scottifh fovereigns, confirming all its
ancient privileges : and all its rights and advantages were at
laft folemnly ratified by a&t of parliament. The govern-
ment is vefted in a provolt, four magiftrates, a dean of guild :
a treafurer, and fifteen other members, who together’com-

pofe a council. In this town, the theriff, the admiral, the

commiflary, and the juftice of peace courts, are alfo occa-

fionally convened for the adminiltration of law ; and for the

cognizance and regulation of ecclefiaftical matters ; the three

prefbyteries, of which the provincial fynod is compofed, and

fometimes the fynod itfelf, meet at leaft once a year, or

oftener, according to circumftances. Here are alfo a cuftom-

houfe, a poft-office, and a ftore-houfe, into which are col-

le&ted the rents, that are moltly paid in kind, of both the

bifhopric and ear!dom, which are generally let om leafe to

merchants, who fometimes difpofe of them here, and feme-

times fend them out of the country. Kirkwall, with the

four northern burghs, Wick, Dornock, Tain, and Dingwall,

choofe a burgefs to reprefent them in the Britifh parliament.

The principal modern building is a town-houfe, divided inte

apartments ref{pectively appropriated to a prifon, an affembly-

hall, a court ‘of juttice, anda lodge of freemafons. Ata.
{mall diftance are {chool-houfes for the feveral branches of

education. ‘Thefe ttructures, however, are but trifling, com-= .
pared with the relics of the bifhop and earl’s palaces, the

caltle, once a place of great ftrength, and the venerable

cathedral of St. Magnus: but for nothing is the town more

celebrated than for its excellent harbour, which is broad,

fafe, and capacious, with a bottom of clay fo firm, and a

depth of water fo convenient, as to afford anchorage for

fips of a large fize, and in great numbers. Towards the _
fouth-ealt fide, are itill vifble the veltiges of a rude tempo-

rary fort, thrown up on an emergency by Oliver Cromwell ;

and on the oppofite fide another of the fame kind has been

evidently marked out for co-operat-on in either annoying or

protecting the harbour. Mott of the lands in the parifh of

St. Ola, which furround Kirkwall, formerly made part of

the temporalty of the bifhopric of Orkney, and were fepa-

rated at the Reformation, or on the profpect of the abolitioa

of epifcopacy. Some additional particulars relating to this

town, and to places in its vicinity, wi'l be given in a fubfe-

quent article, under the word Orkneys. In the interim,

the reader is referred to an interefting volume publifhed in

1508, entitled ‘* Hittory of the Orkney Llands,”” &e. by

the Rev. Dr. Barry : fecond edition, with corrections and

additions, by the Rev. James Headrick. ‘

KIRLAK, an ifland of a triangular form in the Fro-
zen fea, about 240 miles in circumference. N, lat. 71° 3a!
to 72° 85’. KE. long. 421° to 1262,

KIRMANSHA, or Kirmoncnua, a town of Perfia, in
the province of Irak; 145 miles N.E. of Bagdad. N. lat.
34° 35’. EE. long. 46° 3a.

KIRN, a town of France, in the department of the
Rhine and Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Simmern; 17 miles W. of Creutznach. The
place contains 1240, and the canton 4084 inhabitants, in
18 communes. N. lat 49° 47!. E. long. 7° 26).

KIRNBERGER, Joun Puixip, in Biography, a Ger-
man mulician, much refpeéted as. a learned contrapuntilt,
was born in 1721, at Saalfeld, in Thuringia, a province
of Saxony ; at the age of eighteen he went to Leipfic,
where he ftudied wnder Sebaftian Bach till 1741, when he
went into Poland, where he was admitted into the fervice
of feveral Polith princes; and afterwards appointee

rector

KIR

rector of the mufic ata convent. Tn 1751, he went to
Drefden, where he ftudied the violin under Fickler, and
fome time after entered into the fervice of the king of
Pruffia, as a performer on that inftrument. About the year
1756, he was appointed court mufician to her royal high-
nels princefs Amelia of Pruffia. The harpfichord, which
was his firlt, was likewife his beft inftrument, and his com-
pofitions for that and the organ were very numerous, as
well as his polemical and theoretical writings. Befides thefe
publications, he was editor of four collections of harpfi-
chord pieces, which included feveral of his own ; and of all
thefe he marked the fingering according to the rules of
Emanuel Bach.

During the laft years of his life, his knowledge in the
laws of harmony made him regarded as the Pepufch of Ber-
lin; but being gifted with lefs temper than the venerable
organilt of the Charter-houfe, his crtical quarrels kept his
mind in perpetual perturbation. Naturally grave and auf-
tere, he was faid to be rendered more four by oppofition and
difappointment-

His fugues and church mufic are models of corre& coun-
terpoint, but too elaborate and dry for the public. He never
feems to have afpired at, or thought of, facility, grace, and
elegance. His ambition feems to have been to fhew what
could be done by labour and ftudy, which had never been
attempted before, and which, when achieved, amufed the eye
much more than the ear. He feems to have created giants
which none could vanquifh but himfelf. His mufical infti-
tutes manifett great meditation and fcience ; but will be
intelligible to none but thofe who have already advanced far
into the myfteries of counterpoint.

This profound mufician, whofe knowledge in all the laws
and {ubtleties of canon, fugue, and modulation, were indif-

*putable, but who, in his latter days, appeared to be more
ambitious of the character of an algebraift than a mulician
of genius, now and’ then fuffered fine paflages, and even
whole movements, to efcape him ; whicl: proves that, like
his great malter Sebaltian Bach, if he had condefcended to be
lefs artificial, he was poffeffed of the means of exciting, by
his abilities, delight as well as wonder. See his Inftitutes,
pp. 242 and 243, where the compofition is admirable, clear,
neat, and pleafiag. This able profeffor died at Berlin, in
1773, at the age of fixty-two years.

KIRNEE, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Bahar; 48 miles S.W. of Arrah.

KIROLL, a town of Hindooftan, in Dooab; 25 miles
N. of Etaya.

KIROO, a town of Bengal; 24 miles N. of Tomar.

KIRRIEMUIR, commonly pronounced Kilamoor, a
town and parifh of Angus-fhire, Scotland, is built on the
S.W. fide of a hill near a romantic glen, through which
flows the fmall river Gairie. This town is 16 miles from
Dundee, 20 from Arbroath, fix from Forfar, and 75 from
Edinburgh. Here is a large weekly market ; and the
town contains fome confiderable manufactories for Ofna-
burghs and coarfe linens. In the year 1792, the value of
thefe goods, manufactured here, and in the immediate neigh-
bourhood, was about 30,000/. fterling. The town is a
burgh of barony, but the date of its charter is unknown.
In the population report of 1800, this town was returned
as containing 9 49 houfes, and 4421 inhabitants ; but it is
prefumed this total muft include the whole parifh, as in a
previous cenfus for 1793, the town is faid to have com-
prifed only 1584 inhabitants, ‘The parith confilts of an area
meafuring about eight miles in length by fix in breadth, and
is beautifully diverfified by hills, dales, woods, and plains.

KIR

At Kinnordy, Mr. Lyall has a handfome feat, with fine
plantations ; and at Clova, the feat of Mr, Ogilvie, the
woods are abundant, and ferve to beautify the afpe& of the

country. At Invercarity is a large caftle formerly belong-
ing to the Ogilvics. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scot-
land.

KIRSANAFF, a town of Roffia, in the government of
Tambof, feated on the Vorona, which falls into the Khoper ;
56 miles S.E. of Tambof.

KIRSHEHR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia,
and capital of a diftrict ; formerly a confiderable city, and
called “* Dioewfaria.’’ In the vicinity falt is manufactured ;
84 miles N. E. of Cogni. N. lat. 39° 12’. E, long,

prigh
a? IRSHETCH, a town and diftri& of the government
of Volodimir, in Ruffia, feated on a rivulet that falls into
the Kliafma.

KIRSOVA, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria,
on the Danube ; 30 miles S. of Galatz. N. lat. 44° So’.
E. long. 27° 30’.

KIRSTENIUS, Perer, in Biography, a learned phy-
fician, was born at Breflau, in Silelia, on the 25th of De-
cember, 1577, where his father was a merchant. He loft
his parents when he was very young, but his guardians took
good care of his educztion, intending him for his father's

rofeffion. He early evinced, however, a paflion for letters,
which they did not think proper to control, and left him to
indulge it to the utmoft. He learned the Greek and Latin
languages, and paid confiderable attention alfo to the He-
brew and Syriac; at the fame time, as he now began to lool
to medicine as his objeét, he cultivated natural philofophy,
anatomy, and botany, with the greateft affiduity. He after-
wards itudied at the univerfities of Leipfic, Wittenberg,
and Jena, where he was much diftinguifhed among his fel-
low-ftudents, and determined upon farther improving himfelf
by travelling. He had been told, that no perfon could obtain
a high rank in the prattice of phytic, unlefs he underftood
Avicenna ; and knowing the tranflation of that phyfician’s
work to be bad, he had a ltrong inclination to learn Arabic.
To this he was urged by Jofeph Scaliger and Ifaac Cafau-
bon, who judged that he was capable of rendering great
fervice to the republic of letters in that way: and he re-
folved to'read not only Avicenna, but alfo Mefue, Rhafes,
Avenzoar, Albukafis, and Averroes. This paffion, how-
ever, did not prevent him from gratifying the inclination
which he had to travel, and he accordingly {pent feven years
from home. He firlt went through the Low Countries into
France, and thence to Switzerland, where he received the
degree of M. D. from the univerfity of Bafle, at the age
of twenty-four. Heé then continued his travels, yiliting
Italy, England, and Spain, and reaching even Greece and
Afia.

Soon after his return to Silefia, he was appointed by the
magiftrates of Breflau to be direCtor of the college and
{chools of that city. But he afterwards refigned that diffi-
cult employment, and applied himfelf entirely to the prac-
tice of phyfic and to the ftudy of Arabic, with which he
became fo enamoured, that he refolved to promote the know-
ledge of it by eitablifhing an Arabic prefs, and employed.
all the money he could {pare in accomplifhing that object ;.
refufing, at the fame time, the moit honourable offers from.
courts and univerfities, which would have interfered with his.
proje&t. He afterwards retired into Pruffia, {ti!]: with the:
intention of fulfilling his defigns, and purfuing his favourite-
ftudies ; but obtaining the friendfhip of chancellor Oxen-
ftiern, he was induced to accompany him in a journey to
Germany, While at Erfurth, Kirftenius received the oes

5

KIR

ef a profefforfhip, which ‘he accepted. But his patron in-
duced him, neverthelefs, to quit this univerfity, and to ac-
company him to Sweden, where he was appointed profeffor
of medicine, in 1636, and foon afterwards phyfician to the
queen. His conititution, however, was confiderably im-
paired, and he did not enjoy thefe advantages above four
years; for he died on the eighth of April, 1640, in the
fixty-third year of his age. The epitaph, infcribed by
Schroer to his memory, eulogizes his extraordinary know-
ledge of languages, of which, it is there faid, he was ac-
quainted with twenty-fix.

He publiflied feveral works, for which divines are as
much indebted to him as thofe of his faculty. Thefe are,
x. “ Grammatica Arabica.’”’—2. “ Tria Specimina Cha-
raGterum Arabicorum.’’—3. “‘ Decas facra Canticorum et
Carminum Arabicorum ex aliquot MSS. cum Latina ad
verbum interpretatione.”—4. “ Vite quatuor Evangelifta-
rum ex Antiquiflimo Codice MS. Arabico erute.”.—

. © Liber fecundus Canonis Avicenne, typis Arabicis ex
Mss. editus, et ad verbum in Latinum tranflatus, &c.”?—
6. * Liber de vero Ufu et Abufu Medicine.”—7. « Hy-
potypofis, five, Informatio Medice Artis ftudiofo perutilis,
aliquandiu in Pharmacopolio verfaturo.’”—8. ‘¢ Nota in
Evangelium S. Matthziex collatione Textuum Arabicorum,
Syriacorum, /Egyptiacorum, Grecorum, et Latinorum.”’—
g. “ Epiftola S. Jude ex MSS. Heidebergenfi Arabico ad
verbum tranflata, &c.’’ Hutchinfon Biog. Med. Eloy.
Di&. Hitt. ;

Kirsrenius, Grorer, alfo a phyfician, was born at
Stettin, in January, 1613. He purfued his ftudies, during
feveral years, at Jena and Strafburg, and afterwards tra-
velled through Germany and the Low Countries. He was
invited to profeffional chairs in the univerfities of Grip{wald
and Derp ; but the political troubles of the times prevented
him frem accepting them : he determined at length to fettle
at his native place, and contented himfelf with a profeffor-
fhip in the Royal College of Stettin. He died on the 4th
of March, 1660. The greater part of his life was pafled
in ufeful refearch, and he obtained a high reputation in his
profeffion. He left feveral learned effays, in Latin, on the
fecretion of milk, on wounds of the head, on the fight,
fmell, tafte, &c. which were efteemed in their day ; and he
publifhed alfo the following works : “ Oratio de Medicine
dignitate et preftantia,’’ 1647.—** Adverfaria et Animad-
verfiones in Joannis Agricole Commentarium in Poppium et
Chirurgiam parvam,” 1648.—“ Difquifitiones Phytolo-
gic,” 1651. Eloy. Di&. Hift.

KIRTI, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Parvati, the
confort of Siva.

KIRTLE, a term ufed for a fhort jacket ; alfo fora
quantity of flax, about a hundred weight.

KIRTON, or Kirxtown, in Geography, a large village
and parifh in the divifion of Holland, and county of Lincoln,
England, has been a place of confiderable fize and importance,
but from having loft its weekly market, and being out of a
public road, and divefted of manufa€tures, is now reduced to
the rank of a village. In the year 1800, it contained 269
houfes, and 1238 inhabitants. Kirton has long been famed
for its large and elegant church, which was formerly col-
Jegiate, and, according to fome writers, was built by Alex-
ander, bifhop of Lincoln, in the time of king Henry I.
This ftatement is, however, evidently erroneous, for the
ftyle of architeCture marks it to be as late as the early part
of the ¥s:hcentury. Being much injured by negleét, and
larger than neceflary for the population of the parifh, the
chancel, tower, and tranfepts were taken down in the year
1306. A new tower was, however, erected at the weit end

KIS5

of the church with the original.materials. At the wellers
end of the nave is a femicircular arch, probably of the age
of the bifhop above named. In the church is a handfome
wctangular font, on the pedeftal of which is an infcription,
ftating, that it was made for Alauni Burton, in the year
1405. Beauties of England, vol. ix. 1807.

Kirton Lind/ay, a market town and parifh in the wapen-
take of Corringham, in Lindfay divifion of the county of
Lincoln, England, is fituated 20 miles from Lincoln, and
147 from London. The inhabitants were returned under
the population act as 1092, the houfes as 243. Dr. Stuke-
ley ftates, that John of Gaunt had a palace here. At this
place Mr. Pegge places the Sidnaceiter of the Romans.
See Gough’s edition of Camden's Britannia, vol. ii. p, 266.
ed, 1789. eG

KIRWANI, a town of Africa, in the country of Den.
tela, in which Mr. Park faw fome iron fmelting-furnaces ;
zo miles W. of Baniferile. N. lat.12° 30! W. long. 11°.

KIRWEILER, a town of France, in the department
of the Lower Rhine; 15 miles N. of Strafburg.—Alfo, a
town of France, in the department of Mont Tonnerre ;
18 miles S. of Lauterburg.

KIRZAK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Vla-
dimir ; 48 miles W.S.W. of Vladimir,

KIS, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by fome people to
the common pyrites ; and by others to a peculiar kind of it,
containing copper, and a {mall quantity of filver.

KISAK, in Geography, an ifland near the S. W. coaft of
Eaft Greenland. N. lat. 59° 51’. W. long. 45°.

KISERYA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 32 miles
S.S.E. of Bettiah. N. lat. 26°20’. E. long. 85° 6’.

KISH, or Kesu, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Fermanagh; 93 miles N.W. by N. from Dublin. ‘

Kisu, a fand-bank in the Irifh fea, about fix miles long,
and hardly one wide ; 7 miles from the coaft of the county
of Dublin. N. lat. 53° 15’. W. long. 5° 54’.

KISHCORRAN Movnrarns, a long ridge of moun-
tains in the fouthern part of the county of Sligo, Connaught,
Ireland, on the fummits of moft of which are very large
cairns. Beaufort.

KISHENAGUR, a circar of Bengal, lying on the E.
fide of the Hoogly, about 110 miles long, and from 7 to
30 broad.—Alo, the capital of this circar; 45 miles N.
of Calcutta. N. lat. 23° 23/. E. long. 88° 38.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooftan ; 15 miles S. of Ayimere.

KISHMA, Kisnmisu, Ki/mich, or Dsji/me, the largett
ifland in the Perfian gulf, 30 miles long and from fix
to eight broad. A narrow channel feparates it from the
continent of Perfia, navigable, but dangerous, on account
of pirates. This ifland contains three or four towns or
villages, one of which, on the N. coaft, is called by the
fame name. N. lat. 26’ 54'. E. long. 56° 50’.

KISHNUKOOD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan ; 36 miles W. of Candahar.

KISHTAC, an ifland in the N. Pacific ocean, E. of
Foggy Cape, oppofite to the mouth of Cook’s river ; about
100 miles long, and from 30 to 50 broad. N. lat. 57° to

> go'. W. long. 152° 30' to 154° 50’. f

KISHTEWAR, a country of Afia, lying S.E. o
Cafhmere, near the banks of the river Chunaub. Its
capital, called Mundul, or Mundul-Muder, is fituated about
three coffes E. of this river. :

KISI-HISAR, a town of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia; 36 miles N.E. of Sofia.

KISILE-DARIA. See Kuesit.

KISKEMANITAS, a river of America, which is a

branch

KIS

branch of the Alleghany, into which it difcharges itfelf.
N. lat. 40° 40’. W. long. 79° 42', in Weltmoreland
county, Pennfylvania. Its headwaters are, Little Cone-
ot and Stone creek, which after their junction aflume
the name ef Conemaugh river. After receiving other waters
it takes the name of Kifkemanitas. It is navigable for bat-
teaux 49 or 50 miles, and good portages are found between
it and Juniatta and Potowmac rivers. Coal and falt are
difcovered in the vicinity of thefe rivers.

_ KISKIN-Ostrog, a town of Ruflia, in the perinfula
of Kamtichatka; 52 miles W. of Verchnei-Kamtfchat-
fkoi.

KISKO, a town of Sweden, in the province of Nyland ;
32 miles N. of Eknas.

KISLAK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 20 miles E.S.E. of Braclaw.

KISLAR. See Kizrrar.

KISMA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ghilan;
zt miles W.N.W. of Rethd.

KISMALO, a town of Hungary ; 12 miles N.N.E. of
Gran.

KISSABATTY, a town of Bengal; 22 miles S.E. of
Burdwan. N. lat. 23° 2’. E. long. 88’ 18!.

KISSAMOS, a imall town, formerly the harbour of
« Aptera,”? which gives name to a diltrict or province in
the north-weftern part of the ifland of Crete. This town
would be of fome importance, if the pachas had not pro-
hibited the exportation of the commodities of the ifland,
except from the chief place of their government. This pro-
vince is one of the beft cultivated and moft produttive of
the ifland; it furnifhes a tolerably large quantity of oil and
wine; it produces honey, wax, and filk; but little barley
and wheat. Its mountains are for the moft part wooded ;
and among the trees are feattered many common and holm
oaks, the acorns of which allow the Greeks to breed a large
number of hogs. Here are alfo many carob-trees, whofe
fruits are carried to Canea. In this province the vine de-
ferves attention, which produces grapes with one hoeing and
without any manure. The wine of Kiffamos is a claret,
fpirituous, and of a tolerably good quality. As it is not
an article of commerce, the Greeks convert a part of it
into brandy for their winter ftock. On the gulf of Kiffa-
mos is a quarry of beautiful gypfum. The fort of “ Gra-

- bufa,’’ fituated ow a fleep iflet, at the moft weftern and
northern part of Crete, is comprifed in the diftri@ of Kif-
famos. The junétion of thefe {mall iflands and an advanced
eape form a natural harbeur, in which the largeit fhips an-
chor in fafety. The population of the Turks of Kiflamos
is eftimated at upwards of a third of the inhabitants. See
Canola.

KISSEE, or Kissy, a town of Africa, in the country
of Sierra Leona, at the head of a river of the fame name,
eight journeys from Teembo. According to Dr. Afzelius
the town of Kifley may be, in dire&t diftance, about 36 geo-
graphical miles to the N.E. by E. of Sierra Leona.

KISSEL, Jonn. Vay, in Biography, a painter of por-
traits and {till life. He was born at .Antwerp in 1626.
Nature was his guide in the practice of the art he profefled,
and it was his conftant cuitom to make fketches of all his vari-
ous productions at the different feafons of the year ; merely
fetching fome, and colouring and even modelling others ;
by thefe means he poffeffed a large itock of things ready to
his hand for eompofition, and he executed them with great
tafte and delicacy.

He demanded fo high a price for his produCtions, that
few could purchafe them. Among thofe who- did was the
king of Spain, who,, after having obtained: many of his

KIS

works, at laft gained poffeffion of the painter alfo. He
was appointed painter to the queen of Spain, and was re-
tained in her fervice as long as he lived.

His portraits are very highly efteemed, being executed
with a light free touch, and a tone of colour that very
muh refembles Vandyke’s, He died in 1708, at the age
of 82.

KISSELPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal ;
35 miles S.S.W. of Doefa, N. lat. 22° 32'. E. long.
84° 41!

KISSER, a town of Africa, in Tunis; 18 miles S.E.
of Sbeah.

KISSI, Sr., a fmallifland in the Grecian Archipelago.
N, lat. 38° 43. E. long. 24° 10’.

aed a town of Japan; 45 miles N. of Nan-

afaki.

; KISSINGEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg,
on the Saal, in the environs of which are fome medicinal
and falt fprings; 24 miles N. of Wurzburg. N. lat.
50° 14... Es long,.10°. 17.

KISSOREGUNGE, a town of Hindooftan, in Bun-
deleund ; 18 miles S.E. of Chatterpour.

KISSUNPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 11
miles N. W. of Bahar.

KIST, a word ufed by Paracelfus as the name of a
weight, equal to 14 grains.

KISTNA, in Geography, atown of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic.

KISPNABARAM, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
13 miles S. of Tademeri.

KISTNAGHERI, a town and fortrefs of Hindooftan,
in the Myfore country ; go miles E. of Seringapatam. N,
lat. 12° 30’. E. long. 78° 22!.

KISTNAGUR, a town of Bengal; 24 miles N. of
Goragot.—Alfo, a town of Bengal; 16 miles S. of Na-

ore. N. lat..22° 52’. E. long. 87° 21!.

KISTNAH, ariver of Hindooftan, which rifes in the
mountains of Vifiapour, about 20 miles from Sattarah, and
after obliquely traverfing almoft the whole extent of Hin-
dooftan, from W. to E., difcharges itfelf, by feveral mouths,
into the gulf of Bengal, between Mafulipatam and Niza-
patam, in the circar of Guntoor. The Godavery and Kitt-
nah, approaching one another in their defcent towards the
fea, inclofe a tra&t of country, for an account of which,
(fee Dexra.) The iflands, formed by the mouths of the
Kiftnah, are very fertile, and produce grain, excellent tim-
ber. and fome of the beft tobacco in India ; and befides, the
low grounds, which at fpring tides are overflown, produce
a fhrub of great ufe in dyeing chintzes and callicoes.

KISTNAPORAM, a town of Hindooitan,. in the Car-
natic ; 25 miles W.N.W. of Tnitchinopoly.

KISTNAPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Gol-
conda; 48 miles S. of Hydrabad.

KISTNAVERAM, a town of Hindooftan, at the
mouth of a river, which runs into the bay of Bengal; 15
miles S.E. of Nellore. N. lat. 14° 16!. E. long. 80° 11".

KISTVAEN, or Cist-Vaen, in Briti{h Antiquities, a
ftone cheit, coffin, or cavity for the interment of the hu-
man body, after its deceafe. Many antiquarians have con-
founded this fubje€&t with the Cromlech, and have thus
confufed their readers, and indeed have bewildered them-
felves. Some even call the perpendicular, or ftanding ftones
of the Cromlech, by the appellation of Kiftvaen, and the
horizontal, or covering-ftone, the Cromlech. This is mul-
tiplying terms without meaning or utility. Kiftvaen is a
compound word from the Britifh language, and literally
fignifies a cheft of ftone; ic. Ci; a cheit‘or coffer, and

FV aens

KIS

Vaen, from Maen, a ftone: the min Britifh being com-
monly changed to v in compofition. The Kiftvaen decidedly
differs from the Cromlech, the firlt being always immerfed,
or covered over with many ftones, when the whole is called
cairn, or by a heap or mound of earth, which is called bar-
row. Mr. Owen defcribes the Ciftvaen ‘* as a kind of cell
formed by placing four flat {tones together in a {quare,
with another laid on the top for a cover.” In fome inftances,
however, the cift is formed by five, fix, or feven ftones,
raifed on their edges, and covered by two or'three flat ftones.
In Berkfhire, near the track of the ancient Ridge-way, on
the downs, in the vicinity of the White-horfe Hill, are fome
remains of a monument of this clafs. The upper part of a
barrow being removed, feveral large ftones were difcovered,
fome of which were fet up edge-ways, and others placed
fiqt, or horizontally. Three of large dimenfions formed
the fides and end of a cell, which was nine feet from eaft
to welt, by about fix feet from north to fouth. At the
mouth, or entrance towards the ‘welt, were two upright
ftones, forming jambs, between which was a paflage to the
cilt. Several other ftones were placed near the entrance,
and the barrow appeared to have been furrounded with a
circle of ftones. (See Beauties of England, vol. i.) ‘In
the various practice of the Britons, the Ciftvaen fometimes
contained the urn which preferved the precious afhes of the
deceafed ; but it often contained the afhes and bones without
any urn.”” (Caledonia, by Chalmers, vol. 1. p. 84.) Toland
thinks that Kiftvaens were altars for facrifice: and fome wri-
ters have conjectured that they were intended for cells, or
dungeons to confine prifoners. “In Cornwall, and elfewhere,
we tind Kiftvaens (of an area equal to the fize of the
human body) confilting of fide itones pitched on end, with-
out any covering ftone: thefe certainly once inclofed hones
of the dead, though new generally dug up to fearch for
money.”? Borlafe’s “ Antiquities of Cornwall,’’ p. 228:
fee alfo p. 225. Gough, in his ** Sepulchral Monuments
of Great Britain,’ voli. p. 16, &c. has given accounts of
the contents of feveral Kiftvaens. See alfo Stukeley’s
«* Abury” and * Stonehenge.’’ King’s «© Munimenta An-
tiqua,’’ vol. i. pp. 232. 253. 267. Rowland’s «* Mona An-
tiqua.’’ Davies’ « Mythology and Rites of the Druids,’
P- 394. “ Archeologia,”’ vol. ii. pp. 256. 362.— iii. 116.
—ly. 114.—xil, 328.—xiv. 227. Jamiefon’s Etymological
DiGionary. Douglafs’s «* Nenia Britannica,’ folio.

KISWARDA, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; 17
miles E. of Tokay.

KISZENAU, or Kitznu, a town of European Turkey,
in Moldavia; 72 miles E. of Jaffi: N. lat. 47° 13'. E.
Jong. 29° go’.

KIT, in Wufc, the name of a fmall violin of fuch form
and dimenfion as to be capable of being carried in a cafe or
fheath inthe pocket. its length, meafuring from the ex-
tremities, is about fixteen inches, and that of the bow about
feventeen. Small as this inftrument is, its powers are co-
extenfive with thofe of the violin.

Kear, in Laboratory Works, a compofition made of refin
glb., pitch 6lb., bees-wax 6lb., and tallow rlb., ufed for
the lait covering of carcafles. This is ufed, when previoufly
pounded and rendered completely liquid.

Kir is likewife ufed, among dragoons, to denote their lot
of neceflaries, colleéted and packed up in a {mall compafs.
The term is alfo applied, among the infantry, to the con-
tents of a foldier’s knapfack.

Kir, in Rural Economy, in fome places, a name given to
a milking-pail or veffel in the form of a churn, with two
ears and a cover, ufed to convey mii in by horfes or other
means, in country fituations.

KIT
KITAIRELIA, in Botany, fo named, by Willdenow,

in honour of Dr. Kitaibel, one of the authors of the fplen-
did work, entitled Plante Rariores Hungaria, which was
publithed in imitation of Jacquin’s ora du/flriaca. and in-
tended as a:continuation or fequel of that book. Willd.
Nov. Ac. Soc. Nat. Scrut. Berol. v. 2, 107.—Curt. Mag.
t. S21. Clafs and order, Monadelphia Polyandria. Nat.
Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvaceae, Jul.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double; the outer one feven, or nine~
cleft. Capfules fingle-feeded, forming a roundifh, five~
lobed head.

1. K. vitifolia. Willd. Sp. Pl. y. 3. 800. Waldft. et
Kitaib. Pl. Rar. Hung. v. 1. 29. t. 31.—A native of
Sclavonia. This plant, when wild, rifes to the height of
feven or eight feet, and is entirely covered with {mall vifcid
glanduliferous hairs. Stem round, even, not ftriated. Leaves
alternate, on footftalks, &ve-lobed, unequally toothed ; the
intermediate lobe longer than the reft, pointed. Foot/fa/hs
round, the lower ones as long as the leaves, the upper
fhorter. Stipulas ovate, rather heart-fhaped, bifid. Focers
axillary, generally about three, pedunculated. Laner calyx
villofe, fmaller than the outer one. Petals white, wedge-
fhaped, truncate, a little fmaller than the fegments of the
outer calyx.

KITANESJO, in Gengraphy, a town of Japan, on the
N.W. coatt ‘of the ifland of Niphon. N. lat. 36° go.
FE. long. 137° 30!.

KI-T'CHANG, a town of Corea; 65 miles S.S.E. of
Kang-tcheou. ;

KITCHEN, a room appropriated to the drefling of
meat, and furnifhed with fuitable accommodations and uten-
fils for that purpofe.. See Burtprne.

The kitchen in the king’s houfhold is under the dire€tion
and management of a clerk-comptroller, who has a falary
of soo/. a-year, fubordinate clerk at 250/. a-year, firft clerk
at 150/. a-year, junior clerks, two maiter-cooks, the falary
of the firlt being 237/. ros. a-year, and of the fecond 217/,
Ios. a-year, yeomen, grooms, &c.

Kitenen-Garden, that fort of garden which is prin-
cipally deftined to the growth of different forts of culinary
vegetables and roots.

The land defigned for this fort of garden fhould be fuf-
ficiently {pacious, of a good depth and quality of mould,
dry, and at the fame time well fituated for warmth, and
the influence of the fun. i

The foils and fituations which are the moft adapted for
this purpofe, as well as the forms and modes of Jaying them
out, have been already fully explained in {peaking of gar-
dens in general. The great expence of cultivating kitchen
gardens by means of hand-labour, however, renders it effen=
tially neceflary that they fhould be fo contrived, as to have
the principal part of the work executed in other ways, as
by the ufe of {mall teams. In this way much money may
in numerous inftances be faved, and at the fame time the
labour be equally well performed. Mules and large afles
have been found extremely beneficial in this intention, in a
great number of fituations. See GARDEN. :

KircHen-Garden Plants, the common name of all fuch
plants as are cultivated for the purpofe of food, in gardens
of this kind.

Names and Sorts of Plants, with Modes of Culture re-
Jpetively.

Asaricus campofris, the field agaric or mufhroom. Cul-
tivated by the {pawn of the root, or invifible feed, running
in lumps of earth or dung,-in the autumn feafon. ;

Allium, garlick, onion, leek, &c., of the firit kind, large

white

erty

white garlick and red’ garlick
root when feparated.

. In the fecond, or rocambole fort
bulbs from the ftalk.

In the third, or onion kind, as the common oval Straf-
burg onion, great oval Portugal onion, flat white Spanith
onion, flatted Spanifh onion, filver-fkinned onion, bulblefs
rooted Welch onion By feed annually, which fhould be
fown at different times in the early {pring months.

In the fourth fort, as chives or cives By dividing
the roots, and planting them out in the fpring.

Inthe fifth kind, the efcalot or fhallot
the root planted out in {pring.

In the fixth fort, or Canada tree-onion By offset
bulbs of thegroot, and the bulbs at the top of the ftalk,
planted out trfpring.

In the feventh, or the leek kind, as the broad-leaved
London leek, narrow-leaved leek By feed annually,
which fhould be fown in the early fpring.

Anethum, dill, &c.; common dill
fown in the {pring.

Fennel, light-green leaved, dark-green fennel, {weet-
feeded fennel By feed fown-in fpring ; alfo by flipping
the old roots, and planting them out in the autumnal

afon.

Italian fennel

Angelica favita, common angelica
fown in fpring. ;

Apium, parfley, celery, &c.; parfley, common plane-
leaved parfley, curled leaved common parfley, broad-leaved,
or large rooted parfley By feed fown in {pring.

Celery, common upright celery, upright celery with
folid italks, turnip-rooted fpreading celery By feed
fown in the fpring, for tranfplantiug in fummer and au-
tumn.

Ajparagus officinalis, common afparagus By feed

own in the autumn, and when once raifed, the roots abide
for fome years.

Atriplex hortenfis, garden orach, white-leaved garden orach,

green orach, purple orach By feed annually fown in
the {pring feafon.
_ Beta vulgaris, beet, common culinary beet, green-leaved
~ culinary beet, white beet, chard, or great white Swifs beet,
_ mangel wurzel beet By feed annually fown in the {pring
months.

Red beet, large long red-rooted beet, turnip-rooted red
beet, red-rooted beet with green leaves, pale-red beet-——
By feed annually fown in the early fpring.

, Barago, borage By feed annually fown in autumn or
ring.

Nae diea, the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, turnip, &c.
The cabbage fort, {mall*early fummer cabbage, dwarf early
fugar-loaf-fhaped cabbage, large hollow fugar-loaf-cabbage,
early Ruffia cabbage, common round white cabbage, long-
fided hollow cabbage, oval hollow cabbage, flat-topped cab-
bage, mufk-fcented cabbage, giant cabbage, red cabbage
By feed annually fown at different times, in {pring and
autumn, for ufe all the year, by having the plants fet out
at various times. {

Savoy cabbage, common green curled favoy, large green
Dutch favoy, yellow favoy —~ By feed annually fown in
fpring, for autumn and winter ufe.

Laciniated, and other open-leaved coles, green curled
borecole, red curled borecole, thick-leaved curled borecole,
finely fringed borecole, broad ere curled-leaved Siberian
borecole, or Scotch cole or kale, red and green common

Vou. XX.

By the cloves of the

By the root and

By offsets of

By feed annually,

By feed annually, fown in the fpring.
By feed annually,

Riaz

plane-leaved green colewort By feed annually fown in
{pring and fummer, for plants for autumn and winter ufe.

Turnip cabbage, turnip cabbage with the turnip above
ground, with the turnip under ground —— By feed fown
annually in {pring and {ummer.

The cauliflower forts, early cauliflower, late cauliflower
—— By feed fown annually in fpring and autumn, for
plants for fummer and autumn ufe.

Italian braffica, or broccoli, early purple broccoli, late
large purple broccoli, comprehending varieties, with blue,
brown, green, and yellowifh heads, dwarf purple broccoli,
white or cauliflower broccoli, black broceoh——-By feed
fown in fpring and beginning of fummer, for plants for
autumn, winter, and {pring ufe.

The turnip, early Dutch turnip, white round turnip,
green-topped turnip, red-topped turnip, yellow turnip, ob-
long white turnip, long white-reoted French turnip, round
purple French turnip By feed fown in {pring and fum-
mer, for plants for ufe moft part of the year.

Calendula officinalis, common marigold By feed fown
annually in fpring, fummer, or autumn.

Cichorium endivia, endive, green curled ‘endive, white
curled endive, broad-leaved Batavian endive — By feed
fown annually, in fummer, from May till July, for plants
for autumn and winter ufe.

Cochlearia armoracia, horfe radifh——By pieces of the
roots planted out in {pring, for ufe for moft part of the
year.

Crambe, fea-cabbage or colewort, the different varieties

By feed fown in {pring ; but when once raifed, the
roots remain for years, nad up fhoots for ufe in {pring
and fummer.

Cucumis, cucumber and melon, the cucumber, early fhort
prickly cucumber, early clufter cucumber, long green prick-
ly cucumber, long white prickly cucumber, long fmooth
green Turkey cucumber, large fmooth white cucumber,
large fmooth green Roman cucumber — By feed fown
annually, at different times on hot-beds, in the early {pring
and fummer.

The melon, Romana melon, Cantaleupe melon ; varieties
of each, and feveral other forts By feed fown annually
at different times, on hot-beds, in the {pring months.

Cucurbita, the gourd and water melon By feed fown
annually in the {pring feafon.

Cynara, artichoke and cardoon, the common artichoke,
globular-headed red Dutch artichoke, oval-headed green
French artichoke———By fuckers from the fides of the old
plants, in {pring, of many years duration.

The common cardoon By feeds fown annually in
the early fpring.

Daucus carota, the carrot, orange-coloured carrot, red
carrot, yellow carrot, white carrot By feed fown an-
nually in fpring, fummer, and autumn, for ufe moft part
of the year.

Helianthus tuberofus, tuberous fun-flower, or Jerufalem
artichoke ——By pieces of the root planted annually in
the {pring feafon.

Hiyffopus officinalis, common hyffop, the feveral different
varieties By feed fown in {pring, and by pianting flips
and cuttings of its branches.

Laéduca, lettuce, early green cabbage-lettuce, white cab-
bage-lettuce, brown Dutch cabbage-lettuce, great admira-
ble cabbage-lettuce, green and white ball cabbage-lettuce,
green cos-lettuce, white cos-lettuce, black cos-lettuce,
{potted Aleppo cos-lettuce, brown Cilicia lettuce, Imperial
lettuce, red Capuchin lettuce, green Capuchin lettuce, curled-

G lettuce

KIT

lettuce ——By feed fown annually, at different times, in
fpring, fummer and autumn, for plants for fetting out for
ufe moft part of the year.

Lavandula, lavender, fpike-flowered common lavender,
common narrow-leaved, broad-leaved, blue-Howered, white-
flowered, and dwarf lavender By flips planted out in
f{pring, which are of many years continuance,

Stechas, or French lavender By planting flips or cut-
tings, and by feed, which are of many years duration.

Lepidium fativum, garden-crefs, common {mall-leaved,
broad-leaved, curled-leaved By fowing feed at different
times of the year, according as the plants are wanted.

“Melia officinalis, balm, common balm-— By dividing
and planting the roots in {pring or autumn, which are of
many years duration. :

Mentha, mint, penny-royal, &c., green common fpear-
mint, curled-leaved fpearmint, variegated fpearmint
By dividing the roots, by young; plants, and by cuttings of
the ftalks, planted out in fpring, and which continue many
years.

Peppermint
former.

Penny-royal —— By dividing and flipping the plants, as
for the mint, and planting them out. ‘

Ocymum bafilicum, bafil, common {weet bafil, feveral va-
rieties By feed fown in {pring on a hot-bed, the plants
being afterwards planted out.

like

By roots and plants, &c. the

Origanum marjoram, common, wild, perennial pot mar-
joram, winter perennial {weet marjoram, marjorana, or an-
nual {weet marjoram By fowing feeds in {pring, and
a two former alfo, by flipping the roots, and planting
them.

Paflinaca fativa, parfnip, common garden parfnip——
By feed fown annually for winter ufe.

Phafeolus vulgaris, common kidney-bean, dwarfs and run-
ners, dwarf kinds, early white, early yellow, liver-coloured
f{peckled dwarf, Canterbury white dwarf, Batterfea white
dwarf, large white dwarf, cream-coloured dwarf, black
dwarf, fparrow-2g¢ dwarf, amber-fpeckled dwarf. By
feed fown annually, at different times, from April till July,
or the following month.

Running kinds, fcarlet runner, white variety, large Dutch
runner, Batterfea white runner, negro runner, variable run-
ner By fowing the feed like the former, but principally
in the fummer months.

Pifum, the pea, Charlton pea, golden Charlton, earlieft
golden Charlton, long Reading hotfpur, Maiter’s hotfpur,
Spanifh morotto, green nonpareil, early dwarf marrowfat,
large marrowfat, green rouncival or union, white rouncival,
Ledman’s dwarf pea, {mall fugar pea, large fugar pea, cluf-
ter pea, crown pea, egg-pea, fickle pea, &c.——By feed
fown annually, at different times, from Odtober till June,
but principally in the early {pring months.

Portulaca olevacea, purflane, green purflane, golden pur-
flane By feed fown different times in April and May. ,

Poterium fanguiforba, burnet, common garden burnet
By feed fown in autumn or fpring, and parting the roots.

Raphanus fativus, the radith, fhort-topped early radifh,
jong-topped radifh, deep-red radifh, pale-red, tranfparent,
mild radifh, falmon-coloured radifh, fmall white turnip-rooted
sadifh, fmall red turnip radifh, large white turnip-rooted
Spanith radifh, large black turnip-rooted Spanifh radifh
By feed fown at different times, from Chriftmas tll
July or Auguft; but the latter forts fown principally in
June and July, for autumn and winter ufe,

| oY

Rofimarinus, rofemary, fome varieties—_-By planting
layers, flips, and cuttings in fpring.

Rumeai acetofa, forrel, common long-leaved forrel, round-
leaved French forrel, barren forrel By parting the roots
and the firft fort alfo plentifully by feed.

Ruta graveolens, rue; f{everal varietie——By planting
flips and cuttings; alfo by feed.

Salvia, fage, clary, &c, The forts are; common fage,
red fage, broad-leaved green faze, narrow-leaved green fage,
broad-leaved hoary fage, fage of virtue, worm-wood fage,
&e. By planting flips in April, May, and June; alfo
by fowing the feed in the {pring feafon.

Clary -—~ By feed fown annually in the {pring.

Satureja, favory, winter perennial favory, fummer annual
favory —~Both by feed fown in the {pring feafon, and the
former alfo by planting flips. ‘

Scandix cerefolium, chervil, annual garden chervil———
By feed annually, in Auguft, for winter and {pring ufe, or
fown alfo in {pring and fummer, for fucceflion crops.

Scorzonera, {eorzonera, Spanifh {eorzonera An eate
able root, raifed from feed fown in fpring.

Siaapis, muftard, white muftard, black muftard, field
or wild muftard; the former to ufe young in fallad, and
the two laft for their feeds, to make the table fauce called
mu{tard —— By feed in {pring ; or, if for fallads, at anyg
time of the year.

Sium fifariun, fiariun or fkirret-——An eatable root
railed by planting offsets commonly of the root ; alfo by
feeds.

Smyrnium olufatrum, Alifanders, or common Alexanders
—— By feed annually in fpring.

Solanum, night-fhade, furnifhing the potatoe and toma-
toe, tuberous-rooted folanum or potatoe, the common
found red potatoe, early round red, oblong red, deep red,
pale red, rough red, white kidney-fhaped, large red-ended
kidney, white round, white clufter, prolife American
— By planting pieces of the roots or the roots whole
in {pring ; alfo by fowing feed occafionally to obtain new
varieties.

Tomatoe or love-apple ; varieties ——By fowing the feed
annually, on a hot-bed, in the fpring. A

Spinacia, {pinach, round thick-leaved or fmooth-feeded, -
triangular leaved or prickly feeded; the former for {pring >
and fummer crops, the latter to ftand the winter—-— By
fowing annually in fpring, fummer, and autumn, for ufe
moft part of the year.

Tanacetum vulgare, common tanfey —— By parting the
roots, and planting in {pring or autumn.

Thymus vulgaris, common thyme, the varieties with broad
leaves, with narrow leaves, with ftriped leaves By fow-
ing feeds in March and April; alfo by planting flips of the
roots and branches, and by cuttings; but feed is the only
way to raife a quantity of the common fort ; and the other
methods to continue the varieties, or for a general fupply.

Tragopogon porrifolium, falfafy—An efculent root, by
feeds annually in f{pring.

Tropeolum, Indian crefs, or nafturtium, nafturtium minus,
nafturtium majus ; their flowers for garnifh and fallads, and
their feeds to pickle: Raifed annually from feeds fown
at different times in fpring.

Valeriana locufla, corn fallad or lamb’s lettuce———By
feed fown in {pring and autumn.

Vicia faba, the bean, early Mazagan, early Lifbon, long-
pod, Turkey long-pod, toker bean, Sandwich bean, Wind-
for-bean, white bloffomed, red-bloffomed, Spanifh bean, non-
pareil bean, dwarf fan bean, very low: By feed fown an-

4 - nually

KIT

nually, at different times from O&ober until June, but prin-
cipally in the early {pring months.

More full explanations of the nature of the culture, ap-

lication, and ufe of each, will be given under the different
acs to which they particularly belong.

KI-TCHENG, in Geography, a town of Corea; 65
miles E.N.E. of Kiang-ki-tao.

KITCHIK-JOURLOU, a town of Natolia; 16 miles
N. of Ifbarteh.

KITCHWARA, a circar of Hindooftan, in Malwa,
bounded on the N. by the circar of Cotta, on the E. by
Chandaree, on the S. by Malwa, and on the W. by Oudipour
and Banfwaleh.

KITE, in Ornithology. See Farco Milvus. Its motion inthe
air diftinguifhes it from all other birds ; being fo fmooth and
even as to be fcarcely perceptible : fometimes it will remain
quite motionlefs for a long while: at other times, glide
through the fky, without the leaft apparent action of its
wings, from whence it derived the old name glead, of the
Saxon glida. Lord Bacon obferves, that when kites fly
high it portends fair and dry weather. Pliny thinks that
the invention of the rudder arofe from the obfervation made
of the various motions of the tail, when the kite was fteering
through the air. Lib. x. c. to.

The kite is a deftruétive bird to farmers, &c. on which
account it is neceflary to guard againit its depredations as
much as poffible. This laft purpofe may fometimes be
effected by laying fuch animal fubftances as have been in-
fufed in fome fort of liquid with nux vomica, in the places
where they come in order to feed.

Kure, in EleGricity. See ConpucTor.

KITLOLL, in Geography, a town of Bengal; rg miles
5.S.W. of Goragot.

KKITNAISE, a town of Egypt, on the left branch of
the Nile ; 20 miles S. of Faoué.

KITOISKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, fituated on the Kitoi, which runs into the Angara :

~ 68 miles N.N.W. of Irkutfk.

KITORAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Boggilcund ;
25 miles N.N.E. of Rewah.

KITRIANI, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Siphanto. N. lat. 36° 55/. E. long. 24° 49’.

KITTATINNY Mounrtatns, .a ridge of the Alleg-
hany mountains, which runs through the northern parts of
New Jerfey and Pennfylvania.

KITTEN Istanp, a {mall ifland in the Mergui Archi-
pelago, near the 8.E. coaft of Cat ifland.

KITTER, atown of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 37 miles N.
of Hajypour.

KITTERY, a townfhip of York county, in the ftate of

; Maine, incorporated in 1653; and confifting of three parifhes,
which contain 3114 inhabitants. It is fituated between
Pifcataqua and York rivers, 67 miles N. of Bofton,

KITTILA, a town of Swedifh Lapland ; 103 miles N.
of Kemi.

KITTIWAKE, in Ornithology, a fpecies of the gull
kind, being the Jarus rifa of Linnzus: the head, neck,
belly, and tail are of a {nowy whitenefs ; behind each ear is
fometimes a dufky fpot ; the back and wings are grey ;
the bill is yellow, tinged with green; the legs are dufky,
and have a fmall knob inftead of the back toe. This bird
inhabits the romantic cliffs of Flamborough-head, the Bafs
ifle, the rocks near the caftle of Slains, in the county of Aber-
deen, and Prieftholm-ifle. The young of thefe birds are a
favourite difh before dinner, for whetting the appetite, in
North Britain, but they have arank tafte and {mell. Pennant.
See Larus.

KIZ
KITT’s, Sx., in Geography. See St. Currsrorier’s.
KITWADA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
5 miles N.W. of Meaco.

KITZBUHL, a town of the county of Tyrol], on the
Acha; 36 miles E. of Infpruck. N. lat. 47° 25’. E. long.
12° ay!,

KITZINGEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on
the Maine; it isa large, handfome town, owing its rife to
aconvent of Benedi¢tines, founded in 745 by duke Pepin.
Mott of the inhabitants are Lutherans ; 10 miles E.S.E. of
Wurzburg. N. lat. 49° 42’. E. long. 10’ 12’.

KIU, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the province of
Tche-kiang ; pleafantly fituated near a fine river, and be-
tween two others that run into it. It borders on Kiang-fi
and Fo-kien ; but to the laft province the paffage is diffi-
cult on account of the intervening mountains. N. lat. 29° 2!.
E. long. 118° 39’.

KIVA. See Kureva.

KIVA K, a town of Perfia, in the province of Khorafan ;
300 miles N. of Herat. .

KIVALORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the Carnatic ;
8 miles W. of Negapatam. .

KIVIJARVI, a town of Sweden,'in the government of
Wafa; 7omiles S.E. of Jacobitadt.

KIUKA, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
30 miles S.S.E. of Biorneborg.

KIULO, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;
30 miles $.S.E. of Biorneborg.

KIUN-TCHEOU, acity of China, of the firft clafs, and
capital of the ifland of Hainan, which fee. It ftands on a
promontory, and fhips often anchor at the bottom of its
walls. Two different kinds of Mandarins command here,
as in all the other provinces of China; the firlt are called
literati ; the fecond, mandarins of arms, or military officers.
Its jurifdiGion extends over three cities of the fecond clafs,
and ten of the third. N. lat. 20% E. long. 109° 38!.

KIURAWASI, town of Sweden, in the government of
Kuopio; 15 miles N.N.W. of Kuopio,

KIUSIU, an ifland of Japan, alfo termed Saikokf, or the
weltern country, fituated on the S.W. The length of
Kiufiu from N. to S. ig about two degrees, or 140 Britifh
miles, and the greateft breadth about go. See Ximo.

KIUTAJA, or Curasa, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
capital of a fangiakate, and refidence of the beylerbeg of
Natolia, fituated at the foot of a mountain, near the river
Purfak, which runs into the Sakaria’ It contains feveral
mofques, and three Armenian churches. The fojl is fertile,
and the air healthy. Near it are fome warm baths, in high
eftimation for feveral diforders ; 136 miles E. of Conftanti-
nople. N. lat. 39° 14/. E. long. 30° gol.

KIWACZE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Brzefk ; 20 miles E. of Brzefk.

KIZ, a town of Kharafm ; 290 miles N.W. of Samar-
cand.

KIZELGICK, a town of Natolia, on or near the {cite
of the ancient Euromus; g miles. N.N.W. of Melaffo.

KIZIDANY, a town of Samogitia ; 20 miles E.S.E. of
Rofienne. : i

KIZILBASCH, or Kezexeascn, a Turkifh term fig-
nifying red-head : applied by way of obloquy to the Perfians,
ever fince Ifhmael Sophi, founder of the family laft reigning
in Perfia, who ordered his foldiers to wear a red cap, round
which is a fearf or turban with a dozen plaits in it, in me-
mory of twelve imams, fucceflors of Ali, from whom he pre-
tended to defcend.

Viginere writes the word Zezeilba/s, and adds, that according

G2 to

,

KLA

to the vulgar interpretation among the Perfians, the twelve
plaits fignify the twelve facraments of their law. Bat not
contented with this, he looks out for another original, and
tells us there is a mytftery in it, derived from the ancient
paganifm, when the Perfians adored fire, whofe heat is de-
noted by the red colour, which in fome meafure fymbolizes
with the fun, held by them in the higheft veneration. He
adds, that the twelve plaits fhew the twelve months of the
year, and twelve figns in which that luminary performs his
courfe.

KIZILERMAK, or Kizit-1rmak, the celebrated Halys
of antiquity, in Geograph y, a river of Afiatic Turkey, which
rifes in mount Taurus, a few miles S. of Kaifarieh, in Cara-
mania, and runs into the Black fea, N. lat. 41° 4o’. E. long.

6°, on the coaft of the gulf of Sanfoun.

KIZIL-KHAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Diarbe-
kir ; 12 miles W. of Merdin.

KIZILAGADJE, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Ghilan ; 25 miles N. of Aftara. ?

KIZILHIZAR, a town of Syria; 8 miles E. of
Antab.

KIZIL-OZAN, or Serip Bup, called by Hanway Se/i/-
trood, a river of Perfia, which M. D’Anville derives from
the mountain of Elwend, not far N. of Hamadan ; fo that,
by a very winding courfe to the Cafpian fea, its length
doubles what is afligned in more recent maps. This river
is the Mardus of antiquity, and the Swidura of Gmelin,
rifing on the confines of Turkey, and failing into the fea
below Langorod. It fupplies numerous pike, carp, and
other kinds of fifh, efteemed by the Perfians. Gmelin fays
that it abounds in fturgeon.

KIZILRABAT, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 10 miles
N_N.E. of Shehrban.

_ KIZ{L-TASH, or Taman, an ifland at the mouth of

the river Kuban, between the Black fea and the fea of
Azoph ; inhabited by Coffack Tartars. N. lat. 45°.. E.
jong. 3

KIZIZAN \N, a town of Moravia, in the circle of
; 1s miles S.E. of Brunn. N. lat. 49° 8! E. long.
16 52!.

KIZLIAR, or Kistar, a Ruffian town, fortrefs, and
port, in the government of Caucafus, eftablifhed in the year
1735, near the eaftern coait of the Cafpian, and covering the
frontiers towards the limits of Perfia. _Veffels formerly en-
tered the fouthern branch of the Terek; but as the mouths
of that river are now choaked up, the merchandize is landed
in a {mall bay, at the diftance of 34 miles. Kiflar draws
from Acachan the European commodities neceflary for the
Perfian traffic, together with corn and provifion for the
Ruffian colonies on the Terek, and for the neighbouring
diftri@ of mount Caucafus. Befides the goods which are
difpofed of at Kiflar, and fent to the Perfian ports, the in-
habitants carry on a contraband trade to Shamakee, Der-
bent, and even Teflis, in Georgia, which is exceedingly pre-
carious from the numerous banditti who pillage the caravans.
The environs of Kiflar are very fertile in corn and fruit, with
plenty of same ; 160 miles S.S.W. of Aftrachan. N. lat.

°'50!. E. long. 46° 44’.

KIZLUK, a town of Ruffia, lately in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 16 miles E. of Braclaw.

KLACKS, a finall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia, N lat. Gr? 21'.. E. long. 17° 4!.

KLADNO, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Schlan ;
10 miles N.W. of Prague.

KLAN, atown of Iftria; 13 miles N.E. of Pedana.

Kian, or Clano, a town of the duchy of Carniola; 28
miles E. of Trielte.

KLE

KLANG Pornt, acape on the S. coait of the ifland of
Java. S. lat. 7° 40'. Ev. long. rog® 32’.

KLATTAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen,
built in 775, and furrounded with walls in 10003 having
fome filver mines in its vicinity ; 21 miles S. of Pilfen. N.
lat. 49° 24!, KE. long. 13° 15).

KLEBANI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 1o miles §. of Braclaw.

KLEBANON, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 60 miles
N. of Kaminiec.

KLEBER, J. B. in Biography, a French general, was
born at Strafburgh in 1759, and was bred an architect.
Accident led him to enter himfelf into the Auftrian fervice,
in which he continued eight years, and then returning to his
native country, became infpeétor of the public buildings ia
Upper Alface. The revolution of France rekindled his.
military ardour, and he obtained a commiffion in the fervice. —
He difplayed great bravery and judgment at the fiege of
Mayence, after which he was employed in La Vendée ; but
the fanguinary fcenes there fo difgufted him, that he ob-
tained his recall, and was afterwards engaged in the north,
where he defeated the Auttrians, took Mons, and drove the
enemy from Louvain. He captured Maettricht, and con-
tributed to the taking of feveral other flrong places. Dif-
contented with the DireCtory, he left the army and returned
to Paris, where he led a private life, writing his military
memoirs, till Bonaparte, being appointed general of the
army of Egypt, chofe Kleber as his companion. At the
fiege of Alexandria he was wounded on the head as he was
climbing the ramparts, but he did not retire till he received
afecond wound. He defeated the Turks in feveral actions ;
and Bonaparte, on quitting Egypts left Kleber in the chief
command. Ina fhort time he figned the treaty of El-Arifh |
with fir Sidney Smith, by which the French agreed to leave
Egypt ; but it was annulled by the Britifh government, and
holtilities were renewed. Kleber, though reduced, did not
bend under his misfortunes, but defeated the Turks at the
obelifk of Heliopolis. He next took Cairo by ftorm, ard’
formed an alliance with Murat Bey ; but he was aflaflinated
by a Turk, named Solyman, who gave him four flabs witl*a
dagger, in the year 1800.

KLECK, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Novogrodek, 24 miles W.N.W. of Sluck.

KLEIN, a town of the duchy of Stirla; 12 miles
E.S.E. of Landfperg.

KLEINENBERG, a town of :Weftphalia, in the
bifhopric of Paderborn; 8 miles N.W. of Warburg.

KLEINHOVIA, in Botany, was fo defignated by Lin-
neus, in honour of Mr. Kleinhoff, a feduloys and ingenious
cultivator of the botanic garden eftablifhed in the ifland of
Java. Linn. Gen 468. Schreb. 324. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 2. 871. Cavan. Diff. v. 2. 288. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3.
Juff. 278. Lamarck. Di&. v. 3. 367. Gertn. t.137.
Clafs and order, Dedecandria Monegynia. Nat. Ord. Co-
lumnifere, Linn. Malvacee, Suff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth deciduous, of five, oblong, nearly
equal leaves; the lower one rather fhorter than the refi,
Cor. Petals five, lanceolate, feffile, a little longer than the
calyx; the upper one fhorter, broader, curved and trun-
cated; neCtary central, fupported by a column the length
of the calyx, furrounded with glandules at the bafe, af-
cending at the top, bell-fhaped, very fmall, divided half way
down into five recurved. fegments. Stam. Filaments 15,
very fmall, three placed on each fegment of the neétary ;
two of them are terminal, the other rather lower ; anthers
of two lobes. Pi/? Germen fuperior, ovate, five-fided,
placed in the hollow of the nectary ; flyle fimple ; ftigma

flighthy

KLE

flightly notched. Peric. Capfule five-lobed, five-fided, in-
flated. Seeds folitary, roundith, fomewhat muricated.

Obf. This genus is, according to Linweus, who’ places
it in Gynandria, allied to Ayenia, but perfectly diftin&
from it.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Nedtary bell-
fhaped, five-lobed, bearing the ftamens, and affixed to the
column of the germen. Capfule five-fided, inflated, con-
fiiting of five fingle-feeded cells. .

1. K. Hofpita. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1365.. Cavans Diff. v. 2.
t.. 146.—(Catti-marus; Rumph. Amboin. v. 3. 177.
t. 113.) A native of Java, Amboina, and the Philippine
iflands, flowering throughout the year, and bearing fruit in
Otober.—Stem like that of a common apple-tree, thick,
incurved, and knotty. Branches {mooth. Leaves alternately
feattered, fomewhat heari-{haped, broad, ovate, acute,
feven-ribbed, with arched veins. Svipulas lanceolate. Flowers
bright purple. Fruit at firlt greenifh purple, afterwards
reddifh. Rumphius has remarked, that the younger leaves,
when bruifed, emit an odour like violets, on which account
the natives of Amboina wafh their heads with an infufion
of them. This handfome tree is univerfally admired among
the Malays for the beauty of its foliage as well as for the
firmnefs and excellence of its wood, of which their quivers
are generally formed.

KLEINIA, named in honour of the celebrated German
zoologilt, James Thecdore Klein, F.R.S. well known for
his critical oppofition to Linnzus in that department of na-
tural hiftory. Hus claim to botanical diitinétion is founded
chiefly on a treatife concerning the plant now called Cacalia
Kenia ; wor would this perhaps have excited much atten-
tion, but for the abfurdity of the phrafe by which he diftin-
guithes it, Nec Cacalia, nec Cacaliaffrum, an Tithymaloides.
This is cited in the Critica Botanica of Linneus, as an in-
flance of the confufion that mutt enfue from botanifts not
beftowing new names upon new plants.—Klein flourished in
the firft half of the eighteenth century, having been born in
1685, and living till 1759.—Schreb. 545. Willd, Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 1738. Jacq. Amer. 215.—Clafs and order, Syage-
nefia Polygamia qualis. Nat. Ord. Compofite Difcoidee,
Linn. Corymbifere, Juff.

Obf. For an account of the feparation of this genus
from Cacalia, fee that article.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx perfe@ly fimple, oblong, cylin-
drical, compofed of five, linear, lanceolate, pointed, equal
leaves. Cor..compound, uniform, tubular. Florets all fer-
tile, numerous, equal, a little longer than the calyx, funnel-
fhaped ; tube flender, very long ; limb fomewat bell-fhaped,
five-cleft _ Stam. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort; an-
thers cylindrical, cubular. Pift.. Germen fuperior, linear,
half as long as the calyx ; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of
the ftamens ; ftigma bifid, revolute. Peric. none. The
whole calyx is bent backwards when in fruit. Seeds folitary,
linear ; feed-down capillary. Recept. naked, flattifh.

Eff. Ch. . Receptacle naked. Down fimpie. Calyx fim-
ple, equal, of five leaves.

1. K. ruderalis. Willd. n. 1. Jacq. Amer.t. 127. (Ca-
ealia ruderalis ; Swartz. Prod. 110.)—Leaves oblong-lan-
ceolate, acute at each end, nearly entire—Found in gravelly
waite ground and on walls, in Jamaica, St. Domingo, and
Martinico.—Root annual. Stem ereét, about three feet
high, very {mooth. Leaves moftly alternate, fometimes
undivided, fometimes waved or cut, of a glaucous green.
Flowers greenifh-yellow, inodorous.

2. K. Porophyllum. Wilid. n. 2. (Cacalia Porophyllum ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. 1169. Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 11. t. 222 )—Leaves
elliptical, obtufe, befprinkled with traniparent dots=—A

K LjE

native of Peru. It flowered in the royal garden of the
Eicurial during the month of November.—Stem ftraight,
fimple, {mooth, flightly ttriated, about a foot and half high.
Leaves numerous, feattered, on footitalks, oval or elliptical,
crenate, and dotted with fmall diaphanous f{pots. Flowers
terminal, cylindrical.

3+ K. angulata, Willd. n. 3. (Cacalia angulata ; Vahl.
Symb. v. 3. 92, C. fonchifolia ;, Forfk. Algypt-Arab.
n. 485.)—‘“ Lower leaves on footftalks, oblong, toothed,
angulated ; upper ones lanceolate, entire.”?—A_ native of
Arabia Felix.—Stem herbaceous, divided at the upper part,
ftriated. The flowering dranches elongated and naked up-
wardss Leaves very {mooth, about an inch and half long.
Flowers corymbofe.

4. K. fufruticofa. Willd. n. 4. (Cacalia fuffruticofa ;
Linn. Mant. 109. C. Linaria; Cavan. Ic. v. 3. 29. t. 257.)
—‘* Leaves linear, entire, with pellucid dots. Stem rather
fhrubby.”’—A native of New Spain, and fent by Arduino to
Linnzus from Brafil.—Svems about fix inches high, thread-
fhaped. Leaves {cattered, entire, finall, flethy. Flower-
Jflalks terminal, fingle-flowered, ere. Flowers numerous,
of a purple-colour, and very fimilar to thofe of K. Poro-
phyllum, but the herbage is totally unlike that {pecies.

KLEIST, Curistian Ewatp Von, in Biography, was
born at Zoeblin, in Pomerania, in 1715. His parents, who
were of the order of nobility, fert him to the Jefuits? col-
lege in Upper Poland, whence he was fent to the academy
of Dantzic, and afterwards to the univerfity of Konigfberg.
At the age of twenty-one he entered the Danifh military
fervice, but having an attachment to literature he did not
forget the Mufes amidft his other avocations. Once he
was fo intent on reading Milton, that he forgot to relieve
guard. He did not remain long in the Danith fervice, but
entered into that of Pruffia. Frederic the Great gave him a
commiffion in the regiment of prince Henry, and in this
fituation he formed an intimacy with all the great chara¢ters
at Potfdam. He was particularly noticed by the king, and
advanced in the army. He requefted and obtained leave to
take an active part in the campaign of the year 1759, but
this inftance of military ardour proved fatal to him, and.
deprived Germany, of one of its beft poets.. He was pre-
fent at the battle of Kunnerfdorff, and after the moft heroic
difplays of valour in the fucceffive attacks of four bat-
teries, he fell covered with wounds, of which, after much
fuffering,:he died in the forty-fourth year of his age. His
principal work, as a poet, was entitled “ Spring,” which
was firft publifhed in 1749. On account of this poem he
was called the imitator of Thomfon: he is reckoned to
excel in painting the {weet and beautiful fcenes of nature,
ina ityle fingularly elegant and harmonious. The Spring
was tranilated imto feveral languages. He wrote Idylis in
the manner of Gefner, which poflefs great fimplicity and
neatnefs. He was author, likewife, of {ome moral treatifes,
and « Reflections on the Art of War.”? He publifhed an
edition of his works.in 1756, with additions, among which
is a defcription of an inundation, a piece of the terrific
kind. Gen. Biog.

KLEMPENOW, or Cremrenow, in Geography, a town
of Anterior Pomerania ; eight miles N. of Treptow.

KiGEMS, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz 3
eizht miles S.E. of Olmutz.

KLEPOT, a town of Tranfylvania; 14 miles S. of
Hunyad.

KLEPS, a town of Norway ; 11 miles S. of Sta-
vanger.

KLESAKU, a town of Walachia; 21 miles W.S.We
of Buchareit,
KLETTGAU,.

K LI

KLETTGAU, a landgravate of Germany, called alfo
«The county of Sulz,’’ fituated near the Rhine as it leaves
the lake of Conftance.

KLEWAH, a town of Ruffian Poland, in Volhynia ;
24 miles E.N.E. of Lucko.

KLIMATOVSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Novgorod; a4 miles W.N.W. of Novgorod.

KLIMATZSKOJ, an ifland of Ruflia, in the lake of
Onetzkoi; 48 miles N.N.E. of Petrovadfk.

KLIMIA, or Crimta, in the Materia Medica, the name
given by the Arabian writers to the lapis calaminaris.
Avicenna and Serapion never call it by any other name.
Some pronounce the word calimia. Hence the modern
Greeks have formed their ce/imic, which is the namé of the
fame fubftance; and our calaminaris is evidently deduced
from the fame original. ~

KLIMOVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Tobolfk, on the Tungufka; 200 miles E.
of Enifeiflk—Alfo, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolik, on the Mura ; 232 miles E.S.E. of Enifeifk.

KLIMOVIGI, or Krimovircut, atown of Ruffia, and
diftrict of the government of Mogilev, or Mohilef, on the
river Olteg, which falls into the Sofh; 80 miles E. of
Mogilev.

KLIN, atown of Ruffia, and diftri& of the government
of Mofcow, on the river Seftra, falling into the Dubnia,
which joins the Volga; 36 miles N.N.W. of Mofcow.—
Alfo, a {mall ifland in the N. Pacific ocean, near the E.
coalt of Kamt{chatka.

_ KLINGENFEL, a town of the duchy of Carniola;
nines miles S.W, of Landftrafs.

KLINGENTHAL, a town of Saxony, in: the Vogt-
land, inhabited chiefly by miners and woodmen, driven out
of Bohemia an account of their religion; 12 miles E. of
Oelfnitz.

KLINGERSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfl ; 76 miles S.S.E. of Nertchinfk. —

KLINGNAN, a town of Switzerland, in the county
of Baden; nine miles N. of Baden.

_ KLINGSTEIN, in Mineralogy, Pierre Sonante, Broch.
Its colour is dark greenifh-grey, pafling into yellowith and afh-
grey, a light olive-green or liver-brown. It occurs in mafs.
The crofs fracture is almoft dull, the longitudinal fraGiure is
gliftening. The former is fplintery, paffing into conchoidal, the
latter is more or lefs flaty. It branches into indeterminate
fharp-edged, fometimes tabular fragments. Ufually tranflucent
on the edges, confiderably hard, and not eafily frangible.
When ftruck with a hammer, it gives a ringing metallic
found, whence its name. Sp. gr. 2.57. It melts eafily
before the blow-pipe, and yields a clear, almoft colourlefs

giafs. According to Klaproth’s analyfis, it confifts of

Silex ben
Alumine 23.5

Lime Zits

Oxyd of Tron EPe As

— Manganefe 0,25
: - Soda 8.1
Water 3.0
98.1

Werner refers it to the floetz-trap formation, refting upon
bafalt, into which it frequently paffes. It often contains
ceryftals of feldfpar, and then forms flate porphyry. Reufs
reckons it to belong to the primitive rocks. It occurs in
the middle mountains of Bohemia, particularly the Don-

KLO

nerfberge, near Milbfchau, a conical mountain above 2500
feet high, which confilts entirely of this mineral. It has
alfo been obferved by Jamiefon in the ifland of Landahh, in
the Frith of Clyde. Very beautiful varieties of it alfo
occur in rock maffes between Llanberris and Caernarvon in
North Wales. Aikin’s Dié&. of Chem. and Miner.

KLINKETS, in & ortification, a fort of {mall gates made
through palifadoes, for fallies.

KLINKOSEE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in
Podolia ; +52 miles N.N.E. of Kaminiec.—Alfo, a river
of Poland, which runs into the Dnieiter ; eight miles S. of
Kaminiec.

KLIP Fisx, in Jchthyology, aname by fome authors fup-
pofed to mean the lupus pifcis, or wolf-lifh ; and by. others,
the common cod-fith.

Of the former opinion is Fabricius, who fuppofes the
lupus fo called, becaufe it is able to climb up rocks, or
generally lies hid among rocks: the word 2/ip, in the Ger-
man, fignifying a rock. Of the other is Schonefeldt, who
fuppofes the cod has its name of klip-fifh, or rock-fifh, from
its being ufually dried upon the rocks.

Kuip-f/p is alfo a name by which the Dutch in the Eaft
Indies call a flat fifh, caught frequently on thofe fhores, and
fometimes called alfo foldaten vifch, or the foldier’s fifh. It
fomewhat refembles the bream in fhape. Its general fize
is about fix or feven inches in length, and it is of a very
white and filvery hue. It’ differs very greatly, however,
from the bream in many particulars. The nerves of its back
fin are prickly, as in the perch; its tail. is pointed, not
forked ; and the irifes of its eyes are yellow. It is one of
the fineft fifth of the Eatt Indies. Its flefh is very firm, and
falls into large pieces, when drefled, like that of the cod,
andis very well talted. See Cuaropon feira, cornutus, and

Sriatus.

KLIPPEN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic,
near the coaft of Africa. S. lat. 32° 10.

KLOBUK, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hra-
difch ; 20 miles E. of Hradifch.

KLODAWA,a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 12 miles
N.W. of Lenczicz.

KLOETZEN, a town of Weltphalia, in the principality
of Luneburg-Zelle; 45 miles E. of Zelle. N. lat. 52° 41'.
E. long. 11° 8'.

KLOKLSBERG, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Bechin ; r2 miles S.E. of Rofenberg.

KLOKOTZ, a town of Croatia; 24 miles S. of Carl-
ftadt.

KLOPSTOCK, Freperic Turorntitus, in Biography,
a German poet, was born at Quedlinburg in 1724. He was
the eldeit of eleven children, and. diftinguifhed himfelf in his
youth among his companions in bodily and mental exercifes.
At the age of fixteen he went to college, and being placed
under an able tutor, he made himfelf familiar with the Jan-
guages, and acquired a tafte for the beauties of the beft
claflical authors. He made-attempts in compofition both in
profe and verfe. In the latter he wrote fome pattorals, but
not contented with thefe humbler efforts, he formed the
refolution of compofing an epic poem, and fixed upon the
“«¢ Meffiah”’ as his fubje&t. In 1745, he went to the uni-
verfity of Jenay where he commenced the ftudy of theology,
but in the midit of his academical purfuits he was planning
his projected work, and fketched out his three firft cantos,
In 1746, he removed from Jena to Leipfic, and became a
member of a fociety of young men who had formed them-
felves into a literary club for mutual improvement., About this
time he exercifed his genius in lyric compofitions. Several
of his odes, together with the three firft cantos of his

Meffiah,

\

KLO

Meffish, appeared in a periodical paper, entitled «¢ Bremen
Contributions.”? The publication of ten books of his Mef-
fiah made his name known throughout Germany, and raifed
his reputation very high. This work was extremely popu-
lar among thofe who had hearts to feel the beauties of poetry
and the warmth of devotion. The Mefliah was quoted again
and again from the pulpit by the younger divines, while
thofe more advanced cenfured the fictions in which the poet
had indulged himfelf on facred topics, and rigid gramma-
rians made fevere ftrictures on the ftyle and verfification.
He travelled into Switzerland in 1750, to pay a vifit to

’ Bodmer of Zurich, in confequence of an invitation, where

he was received with every token of refpeét. The fublime
fcenery of that country, the fimplicity of the inhabitants,
and the freedom they enjoyed, were much fuited to the tafte
of Klopftock. Here he intended to have fpent the remain-
der of his life, but baron Bernttorff caufed an invitation to
be fent to him to refide at Copenhagen, with affurances of
fucha penfion as would make him independent. Klopftock
acceded to the propofal, and fet out in 1751, by the way of
Brunfwick and Hamburgh, at which latter place he became
acquainted with Mifs Muller, a lady perfectly adapted to his
own mind, whom he foon after married. They feemed by
Providence deitined to be one of the happieft couples upon
earth, but he was foon deprived of her, for fhe died in child-
bed: her memory, however, was facred to Klopftock to
the laft moment of his exiftence. He lived chiefly at Co-
penhagen, till the year’ 1771, after which he refided at
Hamburgh as Danifh legate, and counfellor of the margrave
of Baden, who gave hima penfion. The latter part of his
life was little varied by incidents, and after he had brought
the Meffiah to a conclufion, he continued to employ himfelf
in compofition, and ia the correction and revifion of his
worrs. He died at Hamburgh, in March 1803, being 79
years of age. By thofe who were intimate with him, he is
reprefented as a truly amiable man, happieit in a {mall circle
wf private friends, and particularly fond of the fociety of
young perfons. The character of Klopftock, as a poet, is
that of exuberance of imagination and fentiment. His
fublimity is almoft unparalleled, he is apt to lofe himfelf in
myitical abftraGtion, and his excefs of feeling fometimes
betrays him into rant and extravagance. An able critic
claims for the author of the Meffiah a rank among the firit
poets. His odes and lyric poems have likewife been much
admired by his countrymen, and his dramas difplay great
force and dignity, but they are better adapted to the clofet
‘than the ftage. To his talents asa profe writer, his ‘* Gram-
matical Dialogues” will bear witnefs : they abound with
judicious remarks, and the objet of them is worthy of a
true patriot, viz. an attempt to prove that the German
tongue is capable of ail the ftrength and noblenefs of a
claffical language.

~ KLOTEN, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the
«anton of Zurich; 5 miles N. of Zurich.

KLOTZ, Curistian Aporruus, in Biography, an
‘eminent German critic, was born in the year 1738 at Bif-
chofswerden, near Drefden, where his father was fettled as
a clergyman. He difplayed, at an early period, fuch an
attachment to letters, that his parents fpared no expence to
gratify his tafte, and to enable him to cultivate his talents
to the beft advantage. He employed thofe leifure hours,
which other lads devote to amufement, in compofing and
‘reciting German verfes. At Gorlitz, he ftudied under
Baumgarten the Greek and Roman claffics, and gave a {pe-
eimen of his powers ‘in verfification, by a poem compofed on
the “ DeftruGtion of Zittau,’’ which was laid watte in the
year 1757. In 1758, he proceeded to Leipfic to ftudy

‘

KNA

jurifprudence, and while here, he publifhed feveral papers in
the.s* Acta Eruditorum,” and fome feparate pieces. In
1761, he publifhed his « Opufcula’ Poetica,’? containing
twenty-three odes, three fatires, and as many elegies. From
Weipfic he repaired to Jena, where he opened a {chool, which
was well attended. Having accepted of an invitation to a
profefforfhip at the univerfity of Gottingen in 1762, he fer
off for that place, and almott immediately after his arrival he
was attacked by a fevere illnefs, from which, however, he
recovered, and immediately publifhed a treatife, ** De Vere-
cundia Virgilii,”’ to which were added three differtations re-
lative to the eclogues of the poet. He alfo publifhed
«* Mifcellanea Critica,’”? and applied himfelf to the ftudy of
ancient gems and paintings, with which he became well ac-
quainted. His celebrity had now increafed fo much, that
he received two offers in the fame day, one from the prince
of Hefle Darmftadt, to be profeffor of the Oriental languages
at Gieffen, and the other from his Prvffian majefty, to be
profeflor of eloquence at Halle. While he was deliberating
refpecting the choice he fhould make, he was nominated by
his Britannic majefty te be profeffor of philofophy at Got-
tingen, with an increafed falary, which induced him to re-
main in that city, till fome attempts were made to ruin his
reputation. He then quitted Gottingen, and accepted an
offer made him by his Pruffian majefty, of being profeflor of
philofophy and eloquence at Halle, with the rank and title
of aulic counfellor. While preparing for his departure, he
publithed «‘ Hiftoria Nummorum Contumelioforum et Satyri-
corum,”’ containing a hiftory of thefe coins ; and on his re-
moval to Halle he gave the public another work of the fame
kind, and at the fame time he effeGted, what had been often
attempted before without fuccefs, the inftitution of a new
fociety, called the “« Literary Society of Halle,” which af-
forded great fatisfation to the liberal-minded part of the
learned in Germany. In 1766, he was invited by his Polifh
majefty to Warfaw to fuperintend the education of the
children of the Polifh nobility, which he would gladly kave
accepted, as it afforded him an opportunity of vifiting new
countries, but the king ordered him to remain at Halle,
conferred upon him the rank of privy-counfellor, and ac-
companied this mark of honour with a confiderable addi-
tion to his falary. He died in 1771, leaving behind him
many other works befides thofe to which we have referred.
Before his death, he revifed every thing which he had written
on coins, and publifhed « Opufcula, nummaria quibus Juris
Antiqui Hiftorieque nonnulla Capita explicantur.”? Gen.
Biog.

KLUMP-FISH, in Ichthyology. See Terropon Mola.

KLYDAU, Litt, in Geography, a imall ifland on the
E. fide of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60°37’. E. long.
20° 54",

ees Stor, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulfof Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 39’. E. long. 20° 48'.

KLYSSA, a town of Pruffia, in-Pomerelia; 33 miles
S.S.W. of Dantzic.

KMIDOMOUKA, 2 town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Kiev ; 32 miles S.S.E. of Bialacerkiev.

KNAG, a.termufed by country people for a knot in
wood ; alfo for the branches which grow out in the hart’s
horn, near the forehead.

KNAP’s Bay, in Geography, a bay in Hudfon’s bay. N.
lat. 61° 15'. W. long. o4 54. : ‘

KNAPPIA, in Botany, fo named by the writer of the
prefent article, in honour of John Leonard Kauapp, efq.
F.L.S. and A.S. author of “Gramina Britannica, or
Reprefentations of the Britifh Graffes, with Remarks and
occafional Deferiptions,”’ an elaborate work in quarto, with

119

KNA
119 coloured plates, drawn by the author, publifhed in
1S04.—Sm: Fl. Bfit. 1387. Engl. Bot. v. 16. 1127.
(Chamagroftis; Schirad. Germ. v. 1. 158.)—Clafs and
order, Triandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina.

Gen. Ch. «Cal. Glume of two ereét, equal, oblong,
abrupt, keeled valves, without awns, containing a fingle
floret. Cor. the length of the calyx, ovate, obtufe, clofed,
confifting of innumerable, {imple or branched, parallel fibres,
denfely matted together, united at their bafe, without awns.
Stam. Filaments three, capillary, twice as long as the corolla ;
anthers of two elliptical pointed lobes, feparate at the bafe
and fummit. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, ovate, {mooth ; ftyles
two, very fhort ; ftigmas very long, capillary, acute, downy.
Peric. none, except the permanent corolla and calyx. Seed
one, elliptical, unconneéted with the glumes, but enveloped
in them. ;

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two abrupt awnlefs valves, fingle-
flowered. Corolla compofed of denfely-compacied fibres,
clofed, permanent. Seed unconnected. .

1. K. agroflidea. Engl. Bot. t. 1127. Knapp Gram.
t.11o. Huil. ed. 2.23. (Chamagroftis minima; Schrad.
Germ. 158. Agroftis minima; Linn. Sp. Pl. 93. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1. 372. Sm. Fl. Brit. 82. Hudf. 32. With, 134.
Gramen minimum, paniculis elegantiffimis; Bauh. Theatr. 26.
G. minimum, Anglo-Britannicum ;\ Raii Syn. Indic. Pl.
Dub. G. fparteum, capillaceo folio minimum ; Dill. Gil.
172. t. 16. excellent.) —A native of fandy pattures, efpe-
cially near the fea, in various parts of Europe; as Ger-
many, the fouth of France, and the fouth-welt ceaft of
Anglefea, at which lait place it has been obferved in plenty
by the Rev. H. Davies. It is a {mall, delicate, annual
grafs, flowering in the early f{pring, after which it foon
withers and difappears. The root confifts of a few long
fimple fibres. Svems from one to three inches high, fimple,
flender, ftraight, {mooth, naked, except at the bottom.
Leaves almot entirely radical, fhort, linear, channelled, blunt,
with very broad fheathing membranous bafes. Spike fimple,
terminal, hadly an inch long, of eight or ten little purplifh
or green flowers, placed alternately, each on a fhort ftalk,
ona flender, zig-zag, common ftalk, to which, when in feed,
they become clofely preffed.

The name of Knappia cannot be fuperfeded by Chama-
groftis, the latter being untenable, as compofed of another
eftablifhed generic name Agroflis, and contrary to the rule
of Linneus, Phil. Bot. fe&. 225, “a generic name, with one
or two fyllables prefixed, fo as to make it apply to a totally
different genus from what it originally. defignated, is to be
rejected.’? We cannot but wonder, therefore, that the ex-
cellent Schrader fhould have been led, by any of his lefs
learned countrymen, to adopt fuch a name, when another was
already before him, liable to no objection. _S.

KNAPSACK, in Military Language, is a rough leather
er canvas bag, which a foldier carries on his back, contain-
ing all his neceffaries. Square knapfacks are moft conve-
wient, and fhould be made with a divifion to hold the fhoes,
black-balls, and brufhes, feparate from the linen. White
goat-ikins are fometimes ufed. Soldiers are put under ftop-
pages for the payment of their knapfacks, which, after fix
years, become their property.

KNAPWEED, in Botany. See Jacra.

KNAPWEED, a common name given to a kind of weed,
which is fometimes called blue-bottle. It infefts arable land

reatly in many cafes.

KNARED, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Halland; 14 miles E.S.E. of Halmitad.

KNARESBOROUGH, a borough, market-town, and
parifh in the wapentake of Claro, Weit-Riding of Yorkthire,

KNA

England, is fituated on a rocky mountain, at the foot of which
runs the river Nid. It is one of the ancient burghs that were
part of the demefnes of the crown, found under the title of
Terra Regia, in Domefday Book, and other records. ‘The
{cite of Knarefborough corre{ponds with the defcription given
of the towns of the Britons; being placed on the bank of
a river for the fupply of water, and on the fkirt of a forelt,
for conveniency of hunting and patture. ‘The remains of a
ditch and rampart, which may yet be traced, include an area
of goo feet in length, and 600 in breadth. Soon after the
Norman conquelt, a ftrong caitle was built here by Serlo de
Burgh, who accompanied the conqueror to England, and
received this manor, with feveral others, as a reward for his
fervices. The caftle, having fallen to the crown, was granted
by Henry III. to his brother Richard, earl of Cornwail,
in the year 1257. In 1327, it was taken by John de Tl-
burn, an officer belonging to the earl of Lancafter: but,
being befieged by the king’s order, and Lilburn finding no
profpeG of relief, he furrendered, having firft detlroyed all
the records, and every memorial of the liberties and privi-
leges of the burgh. In 1371, the caflle and manor were
granted by Edward III. to his fon, John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancafter : from whofe time it has been an appendage to
the duchy of Lancafter. The town and caftie had a conti-
derable fhare in the civil war of the 17th century: after a
brave refiftance, the caftle furrendered to lord Fairfax ; and
was ordered by the houfe of commons to be rendered un-
tenable. The walls and towers have ever fince been moul-
dering away. -This caftle contained nearly two acres and
a half within its walls, which were flanked with eleven
towers: thefe, with feveral other buildings in the different
wards, afforded accommodation for a numerous garrifon.
Part of the principal tower is {till remaining, and appears
to have been built about the time of Edward III. It con-
filts of three ftories above the keep or dungeon. The firft
room on the ground-floor has been, from time immemorial,
the repofitory of the ancient records. On the fecond itory
is a ftate-room, called the king’s-chamber, in which Ri-
chard II. was imprifoned after his depofition. Beneath
this tower is the dungeon, to which there is a defcent by
twelve fteps: the roof is arched with ftone, and fupported
by one round pillar, nine feet in circumference. In a part
of the ruins are the remains of a fecret cell, or hiding-place,
conftru@ed in the middle of the wall: this receptacle is
three feet four inches high, two feet eight inches wide, and
more than twenty feet in length. In the caftle-yard is the
entrance to an arched fubterraneous paflage leading to the
moat. Leland, {peaking of this caftle, fays, * It itandeth
magnificently and ftrongly on a rock, having a deep ditch
hewn out of the rock, where it was not defended by the
river Nid.”

The church of Knarefborough, dedicated to St. John the
Baptift, was a grant from the crown at the beginning of the
12th century. On the north fide of the choir is a chapel
belonging to the Slingfby family: on an altar-tomb are
whole length figures of fir Francis Slingfby and his lady,
the knight in complete armour; the lady in a long robe,
with folding plaits down to the feet : here are alfo figures
of fir William Slingfby and Henry Slingfby, efq. and various
other monuments and infcriptions. On the fouth fide of the
choir is a. chapel belonging to the Plumptons of Plumpton,
though no traces now remain of that ancient family, except
their arms {tained on glafs in the window. The feats on,
either fide of the choir, and a pulpit facing the ealt window,
appear to be ancient.

Knarefborough was fummoned to fend members to par-
liament in the firft year of queen Mary; from which

2 time

KNA

time it has returned two reprefentatives: the right of
eleétion is vefted in the holders of burgage tenures,
84 in number. In the diary of fir Henry Slingfby,
who was elected in 1640, is the following note:—
« There is an evil cuftom at fuch elections, to beftow wine on
all the town, which coft me fixteen pounds at leaft.”” The
practice of purchafing the burgage-houfes began about the
year 17143 fince which a majority of the votes have been
in the pofleffion of the dukes of Devonfhire, who have no-
minated the two members. The town, though a borough,
is not incorporated ; but is governed only by a bailiff and
conftable. Here are a fpacious market-place, and a neat
market-crofs, which was erected in the year 1719. Over
the river is a good ftone bridge. On the eaft fide of the
church is a free-fchool, endowed, in 1616, by the Rev.
Robert Challoner, a native of Goldborough, and rector of
Amerfham, in Buckinghamfhire. The prefent building was
erected by fubfcription in 1741. In Windfor-lane is a
Diflenters’ chapel, founded by lady Hewley, of Bell-hall,
near York; the prefent edifice was built, on the ancient
fcite, in 1778. In Gracious-{treet is a Quaker's meeting-
houfe, erected in 1701. A confiderable martufacture of
linen has been carried on here for many ages, and is {till in
a flourifhing condition ; upwards of 1000 pieces, each 20
yards in length, being often woven in a week. In the year
1764, an act of parliament was obtained for the better fup-
ply of river water, of which the conveyance before was,
from the elevated fituation of the town, rendered difficult
and expenfive. In the Long walk, clofe by the river Nid,
is the Dropping well, or Petrifying {pring, which iffues trom
a lime-ftone rock, about 40 yards from the bank of the
river; and, after running about 20 yards, divides, and
{preads itfelf over the top of a ledge of rock, whence it
trickles or drops down from 30 or 40 places, into achannel
hollowed for the purpofe. ‘The {pring is fuppofed to fend
forth 20 gallons in a minute. This rock, which is about
ro yards high, 16 long, and from ro to 16 broad, about
the year 1704, ftarted from the common bank, and left a
chafm between them. Tradition ftates, that near this rock
the famous Yorkfhire fybil, Mother Shipton, was born,
about the year 1488. From the Dropping well, the walk
extends along the river fide to the High-bridge ; producing,
as the river meanders very much, every 1@ or 20 yards, a
new point of view, which, though compofed of the fame
objects, is {urprifingly variegated. From fome parts of this
walk are feen the venerable ruins of the caftle, the hermi-
tage, &c. with an intermixture of rocks and trees, over
which part of the tower of Knarefborough church makes its
appearance. On the other fide of the river, at the foot of
a perpendicular rock, is St. Robert’s chapel, fuppofed to
have been made, in the reign of king John, by a learned and
pious hermit of that name. ‘This chapel is hollowed out
of the folid rock; its roof and altar are beautifully orna-
mented ; at the entrance is the figure of a knight templar
in the aét of drawing his {word. Near Grimbald-bridge
is a hermitage called St. Robert's cave, fuppofed to have
been the dwelling of the hermit above-mentioned. This
cave has been rendered remarkable by a circumftance,
which, in the year 1758, led to the difcovery of the murder
of Daniel Clarke, committed 14 years before, by Eugene
Aram, a {chool-malter of this town, a man of extraordinary
learning, who pleaded his own caufe in the moft able man-
ner. He was, however, convicted and executed. About
half a mile from St. Robert’s chapel, ftood the priory,
founded by the great earl of Cornwall, about the year 1257,
for a fociety of friars of the order of the Holy Trinity.
The fcite, at the diffolution, was granted to the earl of

Vou. XX.

KNA

Shrewfbury. It foon after became the property of the
Sling{bys, in which family it has ever fince remained. ‘lhe
chapel, priory, and other buildings, are now entirely de-
molifhed ; the ruins lying fcattered in “* many a mouldering
heap.”” The remains of the fifh-ponds thew them to be
of a fingular conitruétion, fo that the water might be drawn
off at pleafure. On the oppolite bank of the river flands
a high rock, called Grimbald-cragg; from the top of
which is a fine profpect of the fubjacent vale, the river,
Birkham-wood, and the lofty fummit of Almias-cliff. On
the fide of the rock is a cavern, which, by its rude remains,
appears to have been the refidence of a hermit, of the name
of Grimbald.

Knarefborough is 17 miles diftant from York, and 202
north of London. The population, as returned to pavrlia-
ment in the year 1800, was 3358, inhabiting 766 houtes.
A market is held on Wednefday, which is plentifully fup-
plied with all kinds of provilions: the quantity of corn {old
here weekly, is fuppofed to exceed that of any other market
in the county. In the year 1708, queen Anne granted to
the burgeffes five annual fairs, with a court of Pie-poudre ;
a court held in fairs to redrefs diforders committed in them.

On the eaft fide of the town is Hay-park, containing:
about 1200 acres, granted by the crown to an anceftor ot
the late lord Bingley ; and afterwards in the pofleffion of
fir John Hewley, whofe widow appropriated the rents to
charitable ufes.

Knarefborough forcft extends from eaft to weft upwards
of twenty miles, and in fome places eight miles in breadth.
By the Domefday furvey, there were then only four town-
fhips in this foreitt; Birftwith, Futton, Beckwith, Roffett.
But in the year 1368, there appear to have been three prin-
cipal towns and fixteen hamlets.

Ata fhort diftance from Knarefborough is Bilton park,
formerly in the poffeilion of the Sling{by family, afterwards
in that of Stockdale for above an hundred years, from
whom it pafled by fale to the Watfons ; John Farfide Wat-
fon, efq. is the prefent pofleffor.

On a {mall elevation above the river Nid, ftands Conyng-
ham houfe, formerly called Coghill hall: which for feveral
centuries belonged to the Coghill family; but was pur-
chafed of fir Thomas Coghill, bart. with 51 acres of land,
by the countefs of Conyngham in the year 1796.° Har-
grove’s Hittory of the Cattle, ’own, and Foreit of Knaref-
brough, 1798, 12mo.

KNAVE, ati old appe'lation for a man fervant, and fo
ufed in 14 Edw, TIT. itat. 1. cap. 3.

The word is formed from the Saxon enapa, or Flemifh
hnape, which fignify the fame.

Kwave alfo fignifies a male-child, or boy, in which fenfe
knave-child has been frequently ufed in contradiftinction to a
girl; and in this fenfe Wickliffe ufes the word in his tranflation
of Exod. i. 16, and other places of the Bible. In the old
Saxon tranflation of Mat. viii. 6. ‘ Puer meus jacet in
domo paralyticus,”” was termed JZya knapa.

Kwave has fometimes alfo been ufed as an addition ; as
Willielmus Cowper de Denbigh, knave, &c.

It is a common opinion, that Rom. i. 1. was tranflated,
Paul, a knave of Jefus Chrift. This miltake was ocealioned
by a Bible in the duke of Lauderdale’s hbrary, where the
word dneawe'is inferted in lefs charaéters than the others,
and a rafure might ealily be difcerned.

Kwave- Line, in a Ship, a rope fattened to the crofs-trees,
under.the main or fore-top, whence it comes down by the
ties to the ram-head, and there it is reeved through a piece
of wood of about two feet long, and fo is brought to the
fhip’s fide, and there hauled up taught to the rails. ~

H KNAUTIA,

RNA

KNAUTIA, in Botany, received its appellation in ho-
nour of two botanitts, Chriftopher Knaut, the father, and
Chriltian Knaut, the fon, who lived at Halle, in Saxony,
about the end of the 17th, and beginning of the 18th cen-
turies, and who diftinguifhed themfelves by fome paradoxical
opinions refpecting the methodical arrangement of plants.
The method of the former is an alteration of that of Ray,
without any improvement.—The latter was abfurd enough
to fuppofe that the effence of a flower confilted in its co-
rolla.—Linn. Gen. 49. Schreb. 65. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
561. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Sm. Prod. Fl. Gree. p. 1.
85. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1.231. Jufl. 195. La-
marck Did. v. 3. 367. Illuftr. t. 58. Gaertn. t. 86.—
Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggre-
gate, Linn. Dipfacee, Jufl. Y

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Common perianth, containing the florets
difpofed in a fimple orb, cylindrical, oblong, ereét, divided
into as many fegments as there are florets ; proper perianth
very {mall, crowning the germen. Cor. univertfal, equal ;
proper of one petal, unequal ; tube the length of the calyx ;
Jimb unequal, in four feyments, of which the outer one is
larger and ovate. Svam. Filaments four, longer than the
tube of the corolla, inferted into the receptacle ; anthers
oblong, incumbent. /i/?. Germen inferior ; {tyle thread-
fhaped, as lorg as the ftamens; fligma thickifh, bifid.
Peric. none. Seeds folitary, fquare with a woolly tip. Ke-
cept. common, very {mall, flat, naked.

Obf. ‘This genus is diltinguifhed from Scabio/ in having
a tubnlated calyx, and the florets arranged in a fimple orb.

Eff. Ch. Common calyx oblong, fimple, containing about
five flowers: proper calyx fimple, fuperior. Florets irre-
gular. Receptacle naked.

t. K. orientalis. Linn. Sp. Pl. 146. Till. Pif. t. 48.—
“ Leaves cut. Florets five, longer than the calyx.”—A
native of the Levant, flowering from June to September,
and frequently'to be feen in our gardens. “Root annual.
Stem branched, about four feet high. Branches terminated
by fingle peduncles, each fupporting a flower. J"lorets of
a bright-red colour. Leaves on the middle of the item pin-
nated; the reft are ferrated. Sveds comprefled, hairy,
many-toothed at top. Dowz a concave crown, with many
briltle-fhaped, unequal teeth.

2. Ke. propontica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1666. Willd. n. 2.
(Scabiofa orientalis villofa, flore {uaverubente, fructu pulehro
oblongo; Tourn. Cor. 35.)—‘* Upper leaves lanceolate,
entire. Florets ten, equal with the calyx.’””-—A native of
the Eaft, from whence Forfkal fent feeds of it to Linneus,
who raifed plants from them in his. garden, from one of
which he made the following defeription.—* Stem biennial,
the thicknefs of a finger, two feet in height, villofe, refem-
bling Cheiranthus incanus. Leaves rougtith, ferrated ; the
upper ones a {pan long. Calyx oblong, cylindrical, com-
poled of eight or ten leaves, awl-fhaped at the point. Co-
rolla four-cleft, purplifh ; anthers of the fame colour ; fila-
ments and piltils white. It differs from the lait fpecies in
having the upper leaves undivided ; florets about ten, inftead
of five, whilft the feed-crownis fifteen-toothed and fringed.”
—It appears to us, neverthelefs, to be a mere variety.

K. paleftina and plumofa of Linneus are referred by Dr.
Smith, in his Prodromus Flore Grace, to the genus Scabio/a,
to which they moft indubitably belong.

Kraut, in Gardening, contains plants of the herbaceous,
annual, and biennial kinds ; of which the {pecies cultivated
are, the oriental knautia (K. orientalis) ; and the Levant
knautia (K. propontica).

Method of Culture. —Plants of this kind may be ealily in-
creafed by feeds, which, when permitted to {catter in the

8

KNE

autumnal feafon, produce good plants. After they this may
be taken up, and planted out in the clumps and borders of
pleafure-grounds, among other low fhrubs near the walks.
In this way the plants live through the winter, and flower
in June, There is no particular fort of culture requilite
afterwards, but to keep the plants perfectly clean from weeds.
The feeds fall to the ground as toon as they become fully
ripe.

Thefe plants are capable of affording variety among
other hardy flowering plants which are of fimilar growths.

KNAWEL, in Botany, faid to be a word of German
origin, but of its fignification Dillenius confefles himfelf,
‘€ though a German,”’ to be ignorant. He adopts it, in his
Nova Plantarum Genera, 94. t. 3, for what Linnzus more
pes called Seleranthus, of which we {hall treat in its

ace.

KNECK, in the Sea Language, the twilting of a rope or
cable, as it is veering out.

KNEE, Genu,in Anatomy. See Extremiries.

Kyuz, Preternatural Cartilaginous Subflances in, in Sur-
gery. See Jowwrs, Difeafes of.

Kyrr, Drop/y of. See Joints, Difeafes of.

Kes; White Swelling of. See Wutre SWELLING.

Kner, Diflocation of. See Luxation.

Kyer-Cap, a fort of bandage emp!oyed for keeping up
a fteady, equal, and effectual preffure on the knee, when
the nature of the cafe requires fuch treatment, as for in-
ftance, when there are preternatural cartilaginous fub-
ftances in the joint, and it is not judged proper to fub-
mit to the operation of excifion. See Jornrs, Difeafes of.

Kyrs-Pan, in Anatomy. See Extremiries.

Kwes- Pan, Diflocations of, in Surgery. See LUXATION.

Kwnee-Pan, Fradures of. See Fracture.

Knee, in the Manege, is the joint of the fore-quarters,
that joins the fore-thigh to the fhank.

Kwers, ina Ship, are the crooked parts of oak timber
which fecure the beams to the fides of the fhip, and are diltin-
guifhed by the terms hanging-knees and lodging-knees ; the
former are thofe whofe arms fay to the fide in a perpendi-
cular direction, whereas the latter fay next the timber upon
the clamps in the direCtion of the hang of the deck. The
fcarcity of thofe articles has compeiled the fhip-builder
to introduce knees of iron; but being inferior in point of
contact with the fhip’s fides, and as the bolts cannot be
drove tight in the iron-knees if the fhip flrains, they con-
fequently mult work loofe, thefe, therefore, fhould only be
reekoned as an inferior fubftitute.

Kyen of the Head, by failors called the cutwater, an
affemblage of pieces of oak timber, tabled or coaked toge-
ther edgeways, upon account of its great breadth: it ex-
tends from the fore-part of the flern to the figure-head,.
which it fupports, as likewife the rails and all other com=
partments of the head, and is feeured to the bows by large’
knees, called cheeks of the head, and through the ftern, &c..
by bolting.

Kwere Holm, or Kner folly, in Botany: See Ruscus.
aculeatus.

Kyrr Lake, in Geography, a lake of North America
N. lat. 55°. W. long. 95.

KNEELING. See GeNuFLExIon.

KNEEP Heap, in Geography, a cape on the E. coalt
of the ifland of Lewis, N. lat. 58° 19! W. long. 6’ 9.

KNEKINIEC, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia ;
28 miles S.E. of Lemberg.

KNELLER, Sir Goprrey, Baronet, in Biography, a
portrait painter, more liberally encouraged, more praifed
and paid than any other man who ever trod the fame path

with

KNE

with the fame portion of real power in the art of painting.
A rapid pencil and a ready talent of taking likenefles were
the foundation of his reputation; and a moft fortunate
ignorance of the art among the bet informed even of the
public, by whom he was employed, aided his progrefs. Not
but that he was equal to the produétion of good works if he
had been more carefully trained, and had lived amongft thofe
who knew how to value works of art upon jult principles ;
but he was amongit the mott vain of mankind, and had no
regard whatfoever for that pofthumous fame which leads
men to facrifice prefent enjoyments to future glory. His
motto was, * to live whilit he lived,’? and, confequently,
to make money was a matter of greater moment with
him than to make good pictures ; and he fucceeded fully ;
for although he loft 20,000/. by the South-fea fpeculation,
he left, at his death, an eftate of 2000/. a-year. His prices,
whillt he painted here, were 15 guineas for a head; 20 if
with one hand ; 30 for a half, and 60 for a whole length.

He was born at Lubec about the year 1648. His fa-
ther was furveyor-general of the mines, and infpector of
count Mansfeldt’s revenues. At firft Godfrey was deftined
fora military life, but painting was his paffion. His father
acquiefced in his wifhes, and placed him under Bol, at
Amiterdam. He had even fome initructions from Rem-
brandt. He vifited Italy in 1672, and remained fome time
_at Venice, where he painted fome of the firft families, and
amongit them the cardinal Baffadonna. It is probable that
he here learnt that free, loofe ityle of execution in which
he delighted, but by no means excelled ; with him it fell to
negligence and clumiinefs, particularly in his draperies,
whi'tt fometimes his heads exhibit a perfect mafter of the
pencil.

Kneller did not ftay long in Italy, as in 1674, he came
to England with his brother, John Zachary, who affifted
him in painting, without intending to refide here ; but being
recommended to Mr. Banks, a Hamburgh merchant, he
painted him and his family. Mr. Vernon, fecretary to the
duke of Monmouth, faw them, and fat to Kneller ; and
perfuaded the duke alfo to fit. His grace was delighted,
and engaged the king his father to have his picture by the
new artilt, at a time when the duke of York had been pro-
mifed the king’s piéture by Lely. Charles, unwilling to
have double trouble, propofed that both artifts fhould paint
him at the fame time. Lely, as the eftablifhed artift, chofe
his light and ftation: Kneller took the next beit he could,
and performed his tafk with fo much expedition and {kill,
that he had nearly finifhed his piece when’ Lely’s savas only
dead-coloured. The circumftance gained Kneller great
credit ; and Lely obtainéd no lefs honour, for he had the
candour to acknowledge and admire the abilities of his
rival. This fuccefs fixed Kneller here, and the immenfe
number of portraits he executed, prove the continuance of
his reputation.

He was equally encouraged by Charles, James, and Wil-
liam ; and had the honour of painting the portraits of ten
fovereigns (viz. Charles II. James II. and his queen, Wil-
liam and Mary, Anne, George I. Louis XLV. the czar
Peter the Great, and the emperor Charles VI.), which is
more than can be faid of any other painter. His bett friend
was William, for whom he painted the beauties of Hampton
Court ; and by whom he was knighted in 1692, and pre-
fented with a gold medal and chain worth 300/. In his
reign, he alfo painted feveral of the admirals for Hampton
Court, and the Kit-Cat club. He lived to paint George I.
and was made a baronet by him. In 1722, fir Godfrey
was feized with a violent fever, from the immediate danger

of which he was refcued by Dr. Meade. He languished,

K N E-

however, fome time, and died in O&ober 1723. His body
lay in ftate, and was buried at his country-feat called Wal-
ton; but a monument was ereéted to him in Wettminiter
Abbey, for which he left 300/. and gave particular inftruc-
tions for the execution of it to Ryfbrach. |

During the latter part of his time, that is, after the death
of Lely, in 1680, Kneller ftood at the head of the profefiors
of his art in this country, and that moft confpicuoufly. It
is not therefore furprifing that he experienced the encourage-
ment he did. He has left fome few good pictures behind
him as proofs of the natural powers he poflefled; but his
molt fincere admirers, who are judges, muft acknowledge
that the far greater portion of thofe he allowed to pafs
into the world under his name, are a difgrace to him
and his patrons. His piéture of the converted Chinefe at
Windfor, he is faid to be moft proud of, as juftly he
might be. This, however, fhews his profligacy in prin-
ciple, as it exhibits that he really knew what was good,
and could -produce it if he chofe. According to his own
doétrine, he did as much and no more than was neceflary
to pafs current among his employers. ‘ Hiftory painters,”
he faid, ‘* make the dead live, and don’t begin to live till
they are dead. I paint the living, and they make me
live.”?

There is a fingular paucity of imagination in Kneller’s
pictures. He did indeed (and ‘Walpole jultly commends
him for it) indulge in an ideal drapery for women, inflead
of the monftrous dreffes they wore at the time ; but his in-
genuity does not appear equal to aflift them fo much; fo
that there is a ridiculous mixture of poiitive formality in
the {tiff neckloths and wired fkirts pf coats of the one, and
of an affected flow and grace in the loofe robes of the other,
which confiit of nothing more than a chemife thrown open,
and difcovering the bofom, and a robe-de-chambre lvofely
drawn over it.

All that Kneller can be juflly praifed, or defervedly
efteemed for, generally fpeaking, is, that his heads, or rather
his faces, have a good deal of livelinefs and gentility. It
feldom amounts to charaéter in the general run of his por-
traits. Now and then the mafter-hand appears, when the
fubje& or the moment were favourable. ‘There is, at Pet-
worth, a head of fir Ifaac Newton that would be an honour
to any man to have produced ; and portraits of branches of
the Seymour family, which are a difgrace to the name they
bear. :

The artilts who fueceeded him, dazzled by his fuccefs,
and allured by the profeffed admiration of his talte, mott
unaccountably loft ijght of the infinitely greater -beauties
of Vandyke’s manner, and followed his alone. In confe-
quence, the art funk to the lowett ebb, till it was fomewhat
redeemed by Richardfon’s writings, and Hudfon's and
Ramfay’s talents in painting. But true tafte was not re-
ftored till Reynolds took uprthe pencil ; and now, happily,
the weaknefles as_wellas the merits of Kneller are duly
appreciated, and hundreds of his works cenfigned to the
oblivion he probably wifhed they might experience. When
the mafs may be. thus difpofed of, and the feleA only re-
main, then he will obtain, unalloyed, the praife his talents,
when carefully exerted, fully deferved.

KNEMA, in Botanyy a genus named by Loureiro, is
derived from ximun, the /poke of a wheel, on account of the
anthers being difpofed into a ftar-like, or wheel-fhaped
form.— Loureir. Cochinch. 604.—Clafs and order, Diecia
Monadelphia. . Nat. Ord. . .

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. none. Cor. of one petal, flefhy ;
tube thick, fhort ; limb in three, acute, fegments, woolly om
the outfide. Syam. a fingle filament, fhort, turbinated ;

Hz anthers

KN I

anthers ro or 12, ovate, two-celled, expanded horizontally
about the top of the filament. Female, (flowers on a diftinct
plant.) Cad. Perianth inferior, very fhort, fomewhat trun-
cated, permanent. Cor. as in the male. /i/?. Germen
fuperior, roundifh, hairy; ftyle none; ityle laciniated,
erect. Peric. Berry ovate, fucculent. Seed folitary, ovate,
tunicated. ;

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx none. Corolla three cleft. Anthers
formed into a ftar, about the filament. Female; Calyx rather
truncated. Corolla three-cleft. Stigmaone. Berry fuperior,
fingle-feeded.

1. K. corticofa. Loureir.—A_ native of the woods of
Cochinchina.—‘This is a. large tree, with a thick brown,
or reddifh dark. Branches afcending. Leaves lanceolate,
entire, fmooth, alternate, on foot-ftalks. Both male and
female flowers nearly terminal, on many-flowered [talks.
Corolla brown on the outfide, yellowifh red within. Berry
{mall, pulpy, red.

It feems to us that Loureiro refers this genus to the
order AYonandria rather inadvertently, becaufe he defcribes
1o or r2 anthers as pertaining to the generic character.

KNEVELS, ina Ship. See Kevens.

KNIAGININ, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Nizagorod, ona rivulet that falls into the
Volga; 40 miles E.N.E. of Niznei Novgorod.

KNIASE, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 50 miles
8.W. of Lucko.

KNIFA, in Botany, one of Adanfon’s whimfical names,
of whofe origin or meaning no account is given. He ufes
it to defignate a genus of his own, compofed of the Lin-
nean Hypericum mutilum and fetofum, whofe flowers have
but two ityles, and their capfules two cells.

KNIFE is a well known inftrument made for cutting, and
adapted in form to the ufes for which it is defigned.

Knives are faid to have been firft made in England in 1563,
by one Matthews, on Fleet-bridge, London. Anderf. Hitt.
Com. vol. i. p. 402.

Surgeons have various forts of knives. See Bisroury,
&e.
KNIFVEN, in Geography, a {mall ifland on the W. fide
of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 38/. E. long. 17° 30'.

KNIGHT, Eques, among the Romans, was the fecond
degree of nobility ; following immediately that of the fe-
nators.

At the time of building the city of Rome, the whole
army of Romulus confifted of 3000 foot and 300 horfe,
which 300 horfe were the original of the Roman eguites or
knights.» Thefe made the fecond order that had places in
the fenate.

Manutius and Sigonius are of opinion, that befide the
equeftrian order, and thofe knights immediately below the
fenators, Romulus inftituted a military order, whereof the
Roman cavalry was compofed. But no ancient author takes
notice of any order of knighthood initituted on purpofe for
the, war, nor any other knights but thofe 300, which, as
we have obferved, were the firit foundation of the equeftrian
order,

The knights had horfes kept for them at the public
charge 5; but when they were admitted among the fenators,
they refigned that privilege. To be a knight, it was ne-
ceflary they fhould have a certain revenue, that their poverty
might not difgrace the order; and when they failed of the
pretcribed revenue, they were expunged out of the lifts of
knights, and thruit down among the plebeians. Ten thou-
fand crowns are computed to have been the revenue re-

uired,

The knights grew fo very powerful, that they became a

KNIT

balance between the power of the fenate and the ‘people,
They negleéted the exercifes of war, and betook themfelves
principally to civil employments in Rome; infomuch that
Pliny obferves, in his time, they had no longer a horfe kept
at the public expence.

Some fay that the order of knights, as diftin& from the
people, did not begin before the time of the Gracchi;
others fay, the privilege was then firft granted them, that
no judge fhould be chofen, but out of their order: fome
time-after which they admitted them into the fenate. This,
however, is certain, it was only from that time that a
certain revenue was neceffary, and that this entitled them
to.the knighthood, without being defcended from ancient
knights.

Knicut, in a more modern fenfe, properly fignifies a
perfon, who, for his virtue and martial prowefs, is, by the
king, raifed above the rank of gentlemen, into a higher
clafs of dignity and honour.

The word knight, in its original German, énech?, fignifies
a fervant ; and has fince been ufed for a foldier or man of
war. We have but one initance among us where knight is
ufed in the firft fenfe, and that is in Anight of the fhire, who
properly /ferves in parliament for fuch a county. In the
Latin, French, Spanith, Italian, and Dutch languages,
knight is exprefled by a word (eguites) which properly fig-
nifies a horfeman, as being ufually employed on horfeback.
Indeed our common law calls them milites, /oldiers, becaufe
they formed a part of the. royal army, in virtue of their
feodal tenures: one condition of which was, that every one
who held a “ knight’s fee’? immediately under the crown
was obliged to be knighted ; to ferve the king as foldiers in
his wars, in which fenfe the word miles was uled pro vaffalo ;
or fine for non-compliance.

The exertion of this prerogative, as an expedient to raife
money, in the reign of Charles I., gave great offence, though
warranted by law, and the recent example of queen Eliza-
beth; but it was by the ftatute 16 Car, I. c. 16. abolifhed :
and this kind of knighthood has, fince that time, fallen into
great difregard.

Knighthood was the firft degree of honour in the ancient.
armies, and was ufually conferred with a great deal of cere~
mony on thofe who had diftinguifhed themfelves by fome
notable exploit in arms. They were originally faid to be
adopted, adoptabantur in militem, which we now call dubbed 3
as being fuppofed, in fome meafure, the fons of him who
knighted them.

The cuftom of the ancient Germans was to give their
young men a fhield and a lance in the great council; this
was equivalent to the ‘ toga virilis’’ of the Romans, Be-
fore this, they were not permitted to bear arms, but were
accounted as a part of the father’s houfehold; after it, as
part of the community. (Tacit. de Mor. Germ. § 13.)
Hence fome derive the ufage of knighting, which has pre-
vailed all over the weftern world, fince its reduction by co-
lonies from thofe northern heroes. See KwiGHTHOOD,
Military, infra.

The ceremonies at the creation of a knight have been
various. ‘The principal were a box on the ear, and a flroke
with a {word on the fhoulder. Then they put on hima
fhoulder-belt, gilt fword, {purs, and the other military ac-
coutrements ; after which, being armed as a knight, he was
led in great pomp to the church.

The manner of making a knight with us, is defcribed by
Camden in a few words: ‘** Qui equeftrem dignitatem fuf-
cipit, flexis genibus leviter in humero percutitur: princeps
his verbis Gallice affatur: fus vel fois chevalier au nom de
Dieu, furge vel fis eques in nomine Dei’? This is a

o

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of knights-bachelors, which are the loweft, though the moft
ancient order of knighthood among us; for we have an in-
ftance of king Alfred's conferring this order on his fon
Athelftan. Will. Malmfb. lib. ii.

Knights grew fo very numerous, that the dignity became
of much lefs repute. Charles V. is faid to have made five
hundred in a fingle day: on which account, therefore, new
orders of knighthood were inftituted, in order to diftinguifh
the more deferving from the crowd. For the feveral kinds
of knights among us, fee BacuELor, BANNERET, Ba-
nonet, BATH, GARTER, ‘&c.

Kyicut is alfo underftood of a perfon admitted into any
order either purely military, or military and religious, in-
flituted by fome king or prince, with certain marks and
tokens of honour and diftinétion.

Such are the knights of the Garter, of the Elephant, of the
Holy Ghoft, of Malta, &c. All which fee under Garter,
ELEpuantT, &c.

Kyicut Marfhall. See Marsuatt.

Kon icuts of St. Ampulla. See AMPULLA.

Kyicuts of Annunciata, See ANNUNCIADE.

Kyicuts of St. Anthony. See ANTHONY.

Kyicuts of St. Bridget. See Brictant.

Kwicurts of St. Catharine of Mount Sinai. See CATHA-

RINE.
Kwyients of the Chapel. See Cuaren.
Knieuts of Chrif. See Curist.

See CoLLar.

Kwnicuts of the Gollar.
See Dracon.

Kuicuts of the Dragon.

Kyieuts of the Elephant. See Evernanr.

Kwicuts of the Ermin. See Exar.

Kyicuts-Errant, a pretended order of chivalry, whereof
ample mention is made in the old romances.

They were a kind of heroes, who travelled the world in
fearch of adventures, redreffing wrongs, refcuing damiels,
and taking all occafions of fignalizing their prowefs. This
romantic bravery of the old knights was heretofore the chi-
mera of the Spaniards ; among whom there was no cavalier
but had his miftrefs, whofe efteem he was to gain by fome
heroic a€tion. ‘The duke of Alva, notwithftanding his age
aad gravity, is faid to have vowed the conqueft of Portugal
to a young lady.

Kwieuts of St. George. See GEORGE.
Kyicuts Ho/fpitalers. See Hospiraters and Matra.
Kniouts of St. Louis. See Louts.

Kyicuts of Malta. See Matta.

Kixrours of St. Mark. See St. Mark.

Knicuts of Mary. See Mary.

Kauicuts of the Mine. See Miz.

Kwicuts of Mount Carmel. See CARMEL.

Kwnicuts, Rad. See Ran.

Knicuts of the Round Table. See Taste.

Kyicurts of the Temple. See Tempiars.

Kyicnts Teutonic “See Teutonic.

Kwyicuts of the Thiftle. See UHIstTLe.

Knicuts of the Shire, or Kxicuts of Parliament, are
two gentlemen of worth, chofen on the king’s writ in pleno
comitatu, by fuch of the freeholders of every county as have
the value of 40s. per ann. within the county, clear of all taxes
and dedu€tions except parliamentary and parochial taxes, to
reprefent fuch county in parliament.

This qualification of ele&tors for knights of the fhire or
county members, its fettled by ftat. $8 Hen. VT. c. 7. and
to Hen. VI. c. 2. amended by 14 Geo. III. c. 58. Ac-
cording to the eflimate of bifhop Fleetwood in his ‘‘Chronicon
Preciofum,”’ gos. in the eo of Henry VI. was equal to
sai. per annum in the reign of queen Anne; and as.the value

7

K NI

of money has been towered fince, judge Black ftone'toncludes
that 12/. in the bifhop’s days muft have been equivalent to 20/.
in his own time ; and the depretiation of money in later times
muft have made the difference much greater. (See Dr-Ex-
pensis.) The other qualifications of the ele¢tors for counties
in England and Wales, collected from ftatutes are; that no per-
fon under twenty-one years of age fhall be capable of voting;
nor any perfon conviéted of perjury or {ubornation of perjury :
that no perfon fhall vote in right of any freehold granted to
him fraudulently to qualify him to vote: that every voter fhall
have been in the actual poffeffion or reccipt of the profits of
his freehold to his own ufe for twelve calendar months before,
except it came to him by defcent, marriage, marriage fettle-
ment, will, or promotion to a benefice or office: that no per-
fon fhall vote in refpe€@t of an annuity or rent-charge, unlefs
regiftered with the clerk of the peace twelve calendar months
before: that in mortgaged or truft eftates, the perfon in pof-
feffion fhall have the vote: that only one perfor fhall be ad-
mitted to vote for any one houfe or tenement, to prevent the
fplitting of freeholds: that no eftate fhall qualify a voter,.
unlefs the eflate has been affeffed to fome land-tax aid, at
leaft twelve months before the ele€tion: and that no tenant

by copy of court-roll fhall be permitted to vote asa free-
hoider. (7and8W.III.c.25. 10 Am.c. 23. 2G.II-
CG Zins tO Gert, Cros 3i Gre DbiC. Fan MG, TEE

c. 24.) By ftatute 22 G. ILI. c. 41. no commiflioner, or
officer, employed in managing the duties of excife, cultoms,.
ftamps, falt, windows or houfes, or revenue of the poft-
office, fhall be capable of voting in the ele€tion of a member
of parliament.

Thefe knights, when every man who had a knight’s-fee
was cuftomarily conftrained to bea knight, were of neceflity
to be milites gladio cin@i, for fo the writ runs to this day;
but now cultom admits efquires to te chofem to this
office.

It is required by 23 Hen. WI. c. 15. that all knights of
the fhire fhall be a€tual knights, or fuch notable efquires and
gentlemen as have eftates fufficient to be knights; and by no»
means of the degree of yeomen: and more precifely by
9 Ann. c. 5. that every knight of the fhire fhall havea clear
eftate of freehold or copyhold to the value of 600/. fer an-
zum, except the eldeft fons of peers and of perfons qualified’
to be knights of fhires. For other qualifications, fee Par-
LIAMENT.

The expences of knights of the fhire, are to be defrayed:
by the county, during their fitting in parliament, at the rate
of four fhillings a day. This rate of wages was eftablifhed:
inthe reign of Edw. IlI. (Seealfo 35-Hen. VIII. c. 11.)
It is hardly neceffary to add, that thefe are never-now re-

uired.

Knicut’s Crofs, in Botany. See Campion.

Kyicut-Heads, or Bollard Timbers, are oak timbers-with
large upper partsor heads, which are fayed and bolted together,
one on each fide the ftern, or with a filling between, as they
muft open at the heads’ fufficient to admit the bowfprit
between them, and running high enough to fupport the
fame above the ftern..

Kyicuts Fee, an ancient /aw-term, figrifying fo much
land of inheritance as was efteemed fufficient to maintain a
knight with fuitable retinue ; which, in the days of H. III.,
was reckoned at 15/. per ann. And by ftat. 1 Edw. II.
fuch as had 20/. per ann. in fee, or for life,. might be com-
pelled to be knights. But this flatute is repealed by 16Car. I.
Sir T. Smith rates a knight's fee at’ 4o/. yearly. According
to Coke, a knight’s fee contaimed twelve carucates, ox
plough-lands. Stow fays, that there were found in England,,
at the time. of the Conqueror, 60,211 knight’s fees; ac--

cording:

KNI

cording to others there were 60,215 ; whereof the religious
houfes, before their fuppreffion, were pofleffed of 28,015.
See Fr.

In confequence of the introduétion of the feodal fyftem
upon the Norman conqueft, all the lands in the kingdom
were divided into knight's fees, in number, as Stow fays,
above 60,000; and for every knight's fee, a kniglit or {ol-
dier, miles, was bound to attend the king in his wars, for go
days in a year; in which {pace of time, before war was re-
duced to a {cience, the campaign was generally finifhed, and
a kingdom either conquered or victorious. By this means,
the king had, without any expence, an army cf 60,000 men
always ready at hiscommand, Accordingly we tind among
the laws of William the Conqueror, one, (c. 58.) which in
the king’s name commands, and firmly enjoins, the perfonal
attendance of all knights and others; ‘‘ quod habeant et te-
neant fe femper in armis et equis, ut decet et oportet: et
quod femper fint prompti et paratiad fervitium fuum integrum
nobis explendum et peragendum, cum opus adfuerit fecun-
dum quod debent de feodis et tenementis fuis de jure nobis
facere.”? This perfonal fervice in time degenerated into pe-
cuniary commutations or aids, and at laft the military part of
the feodal fyitem was abolifhed at the reftoration, by
iftat. 12 Car. II. c. 24. -

Kyicurs ferwice, fervitium militare, a tenure whereby fe-
veral lands in this nation were anciently held of the king,
This was the firit, moft univerfal, and efteemed the mott
honourable {pecies of tenure, called in Latin ‘ fervitium mi-
litare,"’ and in law-French “chivalry”? or “ fervice de chi-
valer,’? anfwering to the fief d’haubert’’ of the Nor-
pians ; a name that frequently occurs inthe Mirror. It dif-
fered in-few refpeéts from a pure and proper feud, being
entirely military, and the genuine effect of the feodal efta-
blifhment in England. In order to make this tenure, a quan-
tity of land, calied a knight’s fee ‘*feudum militare,’”?> was
neceflary ; and he who held this proportion of land (ora
whole fee) by knight-fervice, was bound to attend his lord
to the wars for 40 days in every year, if called for ; and this
attendance was his ‘ reditus”’ or return, his rent or fervice
for the land he claimed.to-hold. If he held only halfa knight's
fee, he was only bound to attend 20 days, and fo in propor-
tion. This tenure had all the marks of a itri@ and regular
feud; it was granted by words of pure donation, dedi et con-
ceffi (Co. Litt. 9.) ; was transferred by invefliture or deli-
vering corporal poffeffion of the land, ufually called livery
ef feilin; and was perfeéted by homage and fealty: It alfo
drew after it thefe feven fruits and confequences, as infe-
parably incident to the tenure in chivalry 5 viz, aids, relief,
primer feifin, wardfhip, marriage, fines for alienation, and
efcheat ; which fee relpectively. It was by this tenure af
knight-fervice that the greateit part of the lands in this
kingdom was holden, and that principally of the king in ca-
pite, ull the middle of the 17th century ; and which was
created, as fir Edward Coke exprefsly teltifies (4 Inft. 192.),
fora military purpofe ; wiz. for defence of the realm by the
king’s own principal fubjects, which was judged to be much
better than to hirelings or foreigners. The defcription
above given relates to knight-fervice proper ; which was to
attend the king in his wars. There were alfo fome other
{pecies of knight-fervice ; fo called, though improperly, be-
caufe the fervice or render was of a free and honourable na-
ture, and equally uncertain as to the time of rendering it, as
that of knight fervice proper, and becaufe they were attended
with fimilar points and confequences. Such was the tenure
by grand ferjeanty, which fee; and of this tenure that by
eornage (which fee) was a {pecies.

Kyicut’s Canal, in Geography, an inlet of the Paci-

K NI

fic ocean, on the W. coaft of North America, extendmg ia
an IE. and N.E. direétion about 50 miles. Its entrance from
8 arm of the fea lies in N. lat. 50° 45’. E.long. 233°
16’.

Kyicur's Zfland, a {mall ifland in Beering’s bay, N.W.
of Eleanor’s found, feparated from the American continent
by a narrow chainel, which is navigable. N. lat. 59° 45’.
E. long. 220° 47'—Alfo, an ifland in Prince William's
found, about 30 miles in length from N, to S., and from
two to five broad. N, lat.60 24'. E. long. 212° 52.—
Alfo, a fmall ifland in Hudfon’s bay. N. lat. 61° 50’.
W. long. 93 30'—Alfo, an ifland in the Pacific ccean, and
the largeft of thofe called by Capt. Vancouver the ‘* Snares;""
difcovered by Broughton, commander of the Chatham un-
der Vancouver, in November 1791. Some parts of the ifland
prefented a very barren appearance, not unlike the W. fide
of Portland, compofed of whitifh rocky cliffs. The rocky
iflets are five innumber, fome of which are of a pyramidical
form. It did not appear to be inhabited. The fouth point
is fituated in S. lat. 48° 15'.. E. long. 166° 44'.

Kyicuts, Poor, a group of {mall iflands, fo called by
lieutenant Cook, who difcovered them in November 1769,
on the coait of New Zealand, when he was in 8. lat. 36’
36’, at the diitance of three leagues N.E. by N.

KNIGHTEN-GILD, in our Old Writers, a gild or
company in London, confilting of nineteen knights, which
king Edgar founded, giving them a portion of void ground
lying within the walls of the city, now called Portfoken-
ward.

KNIGHTHOOD, a military order, or honour; or a
mark or degree of ancient nobility, or reward of perfonal
virtue and merit.

There are four kinds of knighthood ; military, regular, ho-*
norary, and facial.

Kxicuruoop, Military, is that of the, ancient knights,
who acquired it by high feats of arms.

Thefe are called -milites, in ancient charters and titles, by
which they were diltinguifhed from mere bachelors, &c.
Thefe knights were girt with a fword, and a pair of gilt
f{purs ; whence they were called eguites aurati.

Knighthood is not hereditary, but acquired. It does not
come into the world with a man like nobility ; nor can it be
revoked, The fons of kings, and kings themfelves, with all
other fovereigns, heretofore had knighthood conferred on
them asa.mark of honour. They were ufually knighted at
their baptifm or marriage, at their coronation, before.or after
a battle, &c.

Between theage of Charlemagne and that of the Crufades,
the fervice of the infantry was degraded to the Plebeians ; the
cavalry formed the itrength of the armies, and the honourable
name of miles, or foldier, was confined to the gentlemen who
ferved on horfeback, and were invefted with the character of
knighthood.
rights of fovereignty, divided the provinces among their
faithful barons; the barens diftributed among their vaffals
the fiefs or benefices of their jurifdiGior ; and thefe military
tenants, the peers of each order, and of their lord, compofed
the noble or equeltrian order, which difdained te conceive
the peafant or burgher as of the fame fpecies with them-
felves. The dignity of their birth was preferved by pure and
equal alliances; their fons a'one, who could produce four
quarters or lines of anceltry, without fpot or reproach,
might legally pretend to the honour of knighthood; but a
valiant plebeian was fometimes enriched and enrolled by the
{word, and became the father of a new race. A fimple.
knight could impart, according to his judgment, the cha-
raéter which he received ; and the warlike fovereigns of Eu-

en

The dukes and counts, who had ufurped the _

—

K NI

rope derived more glory from this perfonal diftinétion than
from the luftre of their diadem. This ceremony, of which
fome traces may be found in Tacitus and the woods of Ger-
many, was, in its origin, fimple and profane ; the candidate,
after fome previous trial, was invelted with the {word and
fpurs; and his cheek or fhoulder was touched with a flight
blow, as an emblem of the laft affront, which it was lawful
for himto endure. But fuperitition mingled in every public
and private action of life ; in the holy wars, it fandified the
profeffion of arms ; and the order of chivalry was affimilated
inits rights and privileses to the facred orders of priefthood.
The bath and white garment of the novice were an indecent
copy of the regeneration cf baptifm; his fword, which he
offered on the alcar, was bleffed by the minilters of religion ;
his folemn reception was preceded by fa{ts and vigils ; and he
was created a knight in the name of God, of St. George,
and of St. Michael the archangel. He {wore to accomplith
the duties of his profeffion ; and education, example, and the
public opinion, were the inviolable guardians of his oath.
As the champion of God and the ladies (“1 bluth,” fays
Gibbon, **to unite fuch difcordant names’’), he devoted
himfelf to {peak the truth; to maintain the right; to pro-
te& the diftrefled ; to practife courte/y, a virtue lefs familiar
to the ancients ; to purfue the inkidels ; to defpife the allure-
ments of eafe and fafety ; and to vindicate in every perilous
adventure the honour of his charaéter. The abufe of the
fame fpirit provoked the illiterate knight to difdain the aéts
of induitry and peace; to efteem himfelf the fole judge and
avenger of his own injuries ; and proudly to neglect the laws
of civil fociety and military difcipline. Yet the benefits of
this inftitution, to refine the temper of barbarians, and to in-
fufe fome principles of faith, jultice, and humanity, were
ftrongly felt, and have been often obferyed. The afperity of
national prejudice was foftened; and the community of re-
higion and arms fpread a fimilar colour and generous emula-
tion over the face of Chriftendom. Abroad, in enterprize
and pilgrimage, at home in martial exercife, the barriers of
every country were perpetually affociated; and impartial
talte mutt prefer a Gothic tournament to the Olympic games
of claffic antiquity.

The lance was the proper and peculiar weapon of the
knight ; his horfe was of a large and heavy breed ; but
this charger, till he was roufed by the approaching dan-
ger, was ufually led by an attendant, and he quietly rode
a pad or palfrey of a more eafy pace. His helmet and
fword, his greaves and buckler, it is needlefs to defcribe in
this place; but at the period of the crufades the armour
was lefs ponderous than in later times; and inftead of a
mafly cuirafs, his brealt was defended by an hauberk or coat
ef mail. Each knight was attended to the field by his
faithful {quire, a youth of equal birth and fimilar hopes ;
he was followed by his archers and men at arms, and four,
or five, or fix foldiers, were computed as the furniture of a
complete “lance.”’ In the expeditions to the neighbouring
kingdoms or the Holy Land, the duties of the feudal tenure
no longer fubfifted ; the voluntary fervice of the knights and
their followers was prompted by zeal or attachment, or pur-
ehafed with rewards and promifes ; and the number of each
fquadron were meafured by the power, the wealth, and the
fame of each independent chieftain. They were diftinguifhed
by his banner, his armorial coat, and his cry of war; and
the moft ancient families of Europe muft feek in thefe
achievements the origin and proof of their nobility. Guib-
bon’s Decl. and Fall of the Rom. Emp. vol. xi.
further account of the charaéter of the ancient knights and
the beneficial effets of chivalry and the crufades;. {fee the
articles Curvatry and Croisapes. i

For a

K NI

Thefe fervices, both of chivalry and of grand-ferjeanty, were
all perfonal, and as to their quantity or duration uncertain.
But perfonal attendance in knight-fervice being found incon-
venient and troublefome, the tenants found means of com-
pounding for it; firlt, by finding others to ferve in their
ftead, and in procefs of time by making a pecuniary fa-
tisfaGtion to the lords in lieu of it. (See Escuace.)
When knight-fervice, or perfonal military duty degene-
rated into efcuage, or pecuniary afleflments, all the ad-
vantages (promifed or real) of the foedal conftitution
were deftroyed, and nothing but the hard{hips remained.
Thefe hardfhips, which were numerous and grievous, were
from time to time palliated by fucceflive a¢ts of parliament,
till at length the humanity of king James I. coniented,
(4 Init. 202.), in confideration of a proper equivalent, to
abolifh them all, upon a plan fimilar to that, which he had
formed and began to put in execution, for removing the feo-
dal grievance of heritable jurifdiction, in Scotland, which
has fince been purfued and effected by the {tatute 20 Geo. II.
c. 43. By another ftatnte of the fame year (20 Geo. IT.
c. 50.) the tenure of “ ward-holding’’ (equivalent to the
knight-fervice of England) is for ever abolifhed in Scotland.
At length the military tenures, with all their heavy appen-
dages, (having during the ufurpation been difcontinued)
were totally deltroyed by the itatute 12 Car. II. c. 24.
Blackft. Com. b. ii. See Tenure. é

Kyicutnoop, Regular, is applied to all military orders,
which profefs to wear fome- particular habit, to bear arms
again{t the infidels, to fuccour and affitt pilgrims in their
paflage to the Holy Land, and to ferve in hofpitals where
they fhould be received; fuch were the knights Templars,
and fuch ftill are the knights of Malta, &c.

Kyicurnoop, Honorary, is that which princes confer on.
other princes, arid even on their own great minifters and
favourites ; fuch dre the knights of the Garter, St. Michael,
&e.

Kyicutsoop, Social, is that which is not fixed, nor con-
firmed by any formal inftitution, nor regulated by any. laft-
ing flatutes ; of which kind there have many orders been
erected on occafion of factions, of tilts and tournamentsy,.
mafquerades, and the like.

The abbot Bernardo Juftiniani, at the beginning of his
hittory of knighthood, gives us a complete catalogue of
the feveral orders : according to this computation, they are
in number ninety-two. avin has given us two volumes
of them under the title of Theatre d’Honneur & de
Chevalerie. Menenius has publifhed Delicie Equeftrium
Ordinum, and Andr. Mendo has written De Ordinibus

Militaribus. Beloi has traced the original, and Ge--
hot, in his Armorial Index, has given us their inftitu-
tions. 3 .

To thefe may be added, Father Meneftrier de la Che--
valerie Ancienne & Moderne, Michieli’s Trefor Mili-
taire, Caramuel’s Theologia Regolare, Mireus’s Origines
Equeftrium five Militarium Ordinum: but above all,
Juttiniani’s Hiltorie Chronologiche del’ Origine de gl’ Or-
dine Militari, e di tutte le Religione Cavalerefche : the
edition which is fullett, is that of. Venice in 1692, in two
vols. fol.

KNIGHTON, Henry, in Biography, who flourifhed’
at the clofe of the 14th century under Richard IT. is cele-
brated as an ancient chronicler. He was acanon-regular of
Leicefter abbey, and wrote a hiftory of: Englifh affairs in
five books, from the conqueftto the year 1395. He wrote
likewife an account of the depofition of Richard II. His
works are printed with the ten Englifh hiftorians atid

x:

KNI

hy the learned Selden. ‘He is reckoned an éxa& and faith-
ful narrator of events within his own times.

Kyicuron, or Tref-y-clawdd, in Geography, a market-
town and parith in the hundred of Knighton, and county of
Radnor, South Wales; is featedin a valley, through which
the river Teme meanders at the diitance of 17 miles W. of
Ludlow, and 33 S. of Shrewfbury. The valley of Teme,
in the vicinity of this town, is fkirted by lofty hills, the fides
of which are well clothed with wood and verdure. The

town contains fome good houfes, ranged on the fides of
ftreets, which in parts are teep. Here is a free grammar
fchool. Tche church has rather a fingular appearance, from
its irregular form, detached tower, with itrange fpire.
Knighton has a weekly market, and an annual fair; and
contained, in the year 1800, 221 houfes and 785. inhabit-
ants. ;

On the weftern fide of the town, is part of the noted
‘boundary embankment called Offa’s Dyke, which was formed
in the year 760, and intended to be the line of demarcation
between England and Wales. Harold made a law, that if
any Welfhman was found on the eaftern fide of this dyke,
the fhould lofe his right hand. See Presreren.

KNIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Beraun,
near which is a gold mine, 12 milesS.E.of Beraun. N_ lat.
49 49. E. long. 14° 18'—Alo, a fortified town of Dzl-
matia, f{trengthened by a deep ditch, and fituated on a nar-
row neck where the river Kerka is jeined by another itream,
called Butim-{chiza. This is fuppofed to be the ancient

cattle called ‘* Arduba,” taken by Germanicus, 40 miles E. |

of Zara. N. lat. 43° 55'. E. long. 16755'.

KNIP Bay, a bay on the W. coalt of the ifland of Cu-
racoa.

KNIPHAUSEN, a fea-port town of Germany, in the
dordthip of Jever, taking its name from an ancient caitle,
where the tribunal of juftice is held ; 5 miles E.S.E. of Jever.
N. lat. 53° 29'. E. long. 8°.

KNIS TENEAUX, otherwife called Killiffinons or Ki/-
4inons, the name of a people, who are {pread over a confider-
able extent in the centre of the northern part of America.
‘Weare indebted to Mr. Mackenzie (fee Voyage from Mon-
treal, &c. Introd. p. g1, &c.) for a particular account of
thefe people. Their language is the fame as that of the
am who inhabit the coalt of Britifh America on the At-

ntic, the Efguimaux excepted, and continues along the
eoatt of Labrador, and the gulf and banks of St. Lawrence
to Montreal. The line then follows the Utawas river to its
fource, and continues from thence nearly W. along the
highlands, which divide the waters that fall into Lake Su-
perior and Hudfon’s Bay. It then proceeds till it itrikes
the middle part of the river Winipic, following that water
through the lake Winipie, to the difcharge of the Safkat-
chiwina into it; from thence it accompanies the latter to
Fort George, when the line, ftriking by the head of the
Beaver river to the Elkriver, runs along its banks to its dif-
charge in the lake of the Hills, from which it may be car-
ried back E. to the iflea la Croffe, and fo on to Churchill,
by the Miffiippi. The whole of the traé between this line
and Hudfon’s bay and flraits, that of the Efquimaux in the
latter excepted, may be faid to be exclufively the country of
the Kniiteneaux. Some of them, indeed, have penetrated
farther W. and §. to the Redriver, to the S. of lake Wini-
pic, andthe S. branch of the Safkatchiwina.

_Thefe people are of a moderate Aature, well proportioned,
with few examples of deformity, and very aétive. Their
complexion is copper-coloured, and their hair black, in
which they refemble all the natives of North America. It is
@ut in various forms, according to the fancy of the feveral

K NI

tribes, and by fome it is left in the long, lank. flow of na-
ture, They very generally extra their beards, and both
fexes manifeft a difpofition to pluck the hair from every part
of the body and limbs. Their eyes are blacky keen, and
penetrating ; their countenance is open and agreeable, and
they are fond of decorating their perfons. In the ufe of
vermilion, to which they are much accuftomed, they con-
traft it with their native blue, white, and brown earths, to
which they frequently add charcoal. ‘Their dreds is fimple
and commodious. It confiits of tight leggins, reaching
near €he hip: a ftrip of cloth, or leather, called Affian,
about a foot wide, and five feet long, whofe ends are drawn
inwards and hang behind and before, covering abelttied round
the walt for that purpofe; a clolfe vet or fhirt reaching
down to the former garment, and cinétured with a broad
ftrip of parchment faitened with thongs behind; and a cap
for the head, confifting of a piece of fur, or {mall fkin. with
the brufh of the animal as a fufpended ornament ; a kind of
robe is thrown occafionally over the whole of the drefs, and
ferves both night and day. Thefe articles, with the addi-
tion of fhoes and mittens, conftitute the variety of their
apparel. ‘The materials vary according to the feafon, and
confit of dreffed moofe-fin, beaver prepared with the fur,
or European woollens. ‘The leather is neatly painted, and
fancifully wrought in fome parts with porcupine quills, and
moofe-deer hair ; the fhirtsand leggins are alfo adorned with
fringe and taffels; nor are the fhoes and mittens without
fomewhat of appropriate decoration, and worked with a con-
fiderable degree of {kill and tafle. Their head-drefles are
compofed of the feathers of the {fwan, the eagle, and other
birds. The teeth, horns, and claws of different animals are
alfo the occafional ornaments of the head andneck. Their
hair is always befmeared with greafe. The making of every
article of drefs is a female occupation ; and they pay parti-
cular attention to the appearance of the men, whilit they
negleé no decoration of their own perfons; and their faces
are painted with more care than thofe of the women, _

The female drefs is formed of the fame materials with
thofe of the men, but they are differently made and ar-
yanged. ‘Their fhoes are commonly piain, and their leggins
gathered below the knee. The coat, or bedy-covering,
falls down to the middle, of the leg, ard is faltened over the
fhoulde:s with cords, a flap or cape turning down about
eight inches, both before and behind, and agreeably orna-
mented with quill-work and fringe; the bottom 1s alfoe
fringed, and fancifully painted as high as the knee. Being
loofe, it is inclofed round the wailt with a {tiff belt, deco-
rated with taffels, and faftened behind. ‘The arms are co~
vered to the wrift, with detached fleeves, fewed as far as the ~
bend of the arm, from thence they are drawn up to the
neck, and the corners of them fall down behind, as low
as the waift. The cap, when a cap is ufed, confiils of a
quantity of leather or cloth, fewed at one end, by which
means-it is kept on the head, and, hanging down the back,
is faftened to the belt as well as under the chin. ‘The upper
garment is a robe like that of the men. Their har is divided
on the crown, and tied behind, or fometimes faitened in large
knots overtheears. They prefer European articles to their
own commodities. Their ornaments, like thofe of favages
in general, confift of bracelets, rings, and fimilar baubles.
Some of the women tattoo three perpendicular lines, whichare
fometimes double : one from the centre of the chin to that of
the under lip, and one parallel on either fide to the corner of
the mouth.

The Knifteneaux women are the moft comely of any feen
by Mr. Mackenzie on the American continent : they are
well proportioned, and the regularity of their faire

wou

KNISTENEAUX.

sould be acknowledged by the more civilized people of Eu-
rope ; and their complexion is lefs darkly tinged than that of
thofe favages who have lefs cleanly habits. Thefe people are
in general fubject to few diforders. The lues venerea, how-
‘ever, is common, and is cured by the ufe of fimples, with
the virtue of which they are well acquainted. They are
alfo fubje& to fluxes, and pains in the breaft. They are na-
turally mild and affable, as well as juft in their dealings ;
they are generous and hofpitable, and extremely good na-
tured, when not inflamed by fpirituous liquors ; indulgent
to their children to excefs ; the father takes pains in qualify-
ing them for the operations of war and hunting, and the mo-
ther is equally attentive to the inftruction of the daughters.
Illegitimacy is only attached to thofe children who ave born
before their mothers have cohabited with any man by the
title of hufband. Chaftity does not feem to be a virtue among
them, nor is fidelity thought to be effential to the happinefs
of a wedded life. Sometimes, however, the infidelity of a
wife is punifhed with the lofs of her hair, nofe, and perhaps
life. A temporary interchange of wives is not uncommon ;
and the offer of their perfons is confidered as a neceflary part
of the hofpitality due to ftrangers. When a man lofes his
wife, itis confidered asa duty to marry her filter, if fhe has
one; or he may have both, if he pleafes, at the fame time.
Notwithftanding the amiable traits of their character, they
are not free from vices, even of the moft atrocious kind.
They are addicted to inceft and beftiality. When a young
man marries, he lives with the father and mother of his wife,
and is confidered as a ftranger, till after the birth of his farft
child ; he then attaches himfelf more to them than to his own
parents; and his wife gives him no other denomination than
that of the father of her child.

The profeffion of the men is war and hunting: they alfo
fpear fifh, but the management of the nets is committed to
the women. The females are fubordinate, like thofe of fa-

"vages in other tribes; but their labour is alleviated by the
contiguity ef lakes and rivers, where they employ canoes.
In winter, when the waters are frozen, they travel with
fledges drawn by dogs. They are fubje&t, however, to
every kind of domeftic drudgery: they drefs the leather,
make the clothes and fhoes, weave the nets, collec wood,
ere€t the huts, fetch water, and perform every culinary fer-
vice ; fo that their life is an uninterrupted fucceflion of toil
and pain. Under the impulfe of this feeling, they fometimes
dettroy their female children. By the ufe of fimples they
alfo procure abortion ; and this they do without any material
injury to their own health.

Their funeral rites commence with f{moking, and terminate
with a featt: the body is drefied in the belt habiliments pof-
feffed by the deceafed, or his relations, and is then depofited
in agrave, lined with branches: fome domettic utenfils are
placed in it, and a canopy erected over it. During the
ceremony, they make great lamentations ; and when the de-
ceafed perfon is very much regretted, the near relations cut
off their hair, pierce the flefhy part of their arms and thighs
with arrows, knives, &c. and blackcn their faces with char-
coal. If they have diitinguifhed themfelves in war, they are
fometimes laid on a kind of fcaffolding ; and it is faid, that
women, as in the Eatt, have facrificed themfelves to the
manes of their hufbands. ‘The whole property of the de-
ceafed perfon is deftroyed, and the relations take in exchange
for the wearing apparel any rags that will cover their naked-
nefs. he feaft which is given on this occafion, and which
in fome cafes is repeated annually, is accompanied with eu-
logiums on the deceafed; and on the tomb are carved or
painted the fymbols of his tribe, which are taken from the
different animals of the country.

Vou. XX.

Thefe people have frequent fealts ; and at fated periods.
as in {pring and autumn, they pra¢tife long and folemn cere-
monies. Dogs, and particularly thofe that are fat and
milk-white, are offered as facrifices.. They alfo make large
offerings of their property, of whatever kindit be. Theie
ceremonies are performed on the bank of a river or lake:
and if any ftranger, who is in want of any thing that is dif-
played as an offering, chance to pafs by, he has a right to
take it, upon replacing fomething of inferior value; but to
take or touch any thing wantonly is confidered as a facri-
legious aét, and highly infulting to the great Matter of life,
to adopt their expreffion, who is the facred objec of their
devotion. The f{cene of private facrifice is the lodge of the
perfon who prepares it, and it is conduéted with a variety of
ceremonies. He begins by fpreading the contents of his
medicine-bag, containing various articles, on a piece of new
cloth or well-dreffed moofe-fkin neatly painted. ‘The prin-
cipal of thefe articles is a kind of houfehold-god, which is a
{mall carved image about eight inches long, and is an object
of the moft pious regard. The next article is his war-cap,
decorated with the feathers and plumes of rare birds, beavers,
eagle’s claws, &c. From this is fufpended a quill or feather
for every enemy whom the owner of it has flain in battle.
The remaining contents of the bag are a piece of Brafil to-
bacco, feveral roots and fimples in repute for their medicinal
qualities, and a pipe. After certain previous ceremonies,
an affiftant lichts the pipe, and prefents it to the officiating
perfon, who, turning to the eait, draws a few whiffs, which
he blows to that point. He praétifes the fame ceremony
towards the other three quarters, with his eyes conttantly
dire€ted upwards, After fome other ceremonies performed
with this pipe, he makes a fpeech, explaining the defign of
the attendants being called together, and concludes with an
acknowledgment of paft mercies, and a prayer for the con-
tinuance of them, from the Matter of life. He then fits
down, and the whole ecmpany declare their approbation and
thanks by uttering the word 4o/ with an emphatic pro-
longation of the laft letter. The Affiftant or Michiniwais
again takes up the pipe, and holds it to the mouth of the
officiating perfon, who, after {moking three whiffs out of
it, utters a fhort prayer, and then goes round with it in a
courfe from eaft to weit, to every perfon prefent ; and thus
the pipe is {moked out: when, after turning it three or four
times round his head, he drops it downwards, and replaces
it in its original fituation. He then returns the company ~
thanks for their attendance, and wifhes them, as well as the
whole tribe, health and long life. Thefe fmoking rites pre-
cede every matter of great importance, with more or lefs
ceremony, but always with equal folemnity. The public
feaits are cond:Ged in a fimilar manner, but with fome ad-
ditional ceremony. At thefe feveral chiefs officiate, and
the guefts difcourfe upon public topics, repeat the heroic
deeds of their forefathers, and excite the rifing generation
to follow their example. From thefe feafts the women and
children are excluded; but the women, who are forbidden
to enter the places facred te thefe feltivals, dance and fing
around them, and fometimes beat time to the mufic within
them; thus forming an agreeable contratt.

As to their divifions of time, the Knifteneaux compute
the length of their journies by the number of nights pafled
in performing them ; and they divide the year by the fuc-
ceflion of moons, the names of whic are defcriptiye of the
feveral feafons. Thefe people areacquainted with the medi-.
cinal virtues of many herbs and fimples, and apply the roots
of plants and the bark of trees with fuccefs. But the con-
jurers, who monopolize the medical fcience, blend myitery
with their art, and conceal their knowledge. Their materia

ib medica

KNO

medica they adminifter in the form of purges and clyfters ;
but the remedies and furgical operations are fuppofed to de-
rive much of their effet from magic and incantation. A
fhirp flint ferves them as a lancet for letting blood, as well
as for {carification in bruifes and fwellings.

Among their various fuperftitions, they believe that the
vapour en is feen to hover over moilt and fwampy places
is the fpirit of fome perfon lately dead. They alfo fancy
another fpirit which appears in the fhape of a man, upon the
trees near the lodge of a perfon deceafed, whofe property
has not been interred with him. He is reprefented as bear-
ing a gun in his hand; and it is believed that he does not
return to his reft, till the property that has been withheld
from the grave has been facrificed to it. Mr. Mackenzie
has given examples (ubi fupra) of the Knifteneaux and
Algonquin languages, between which there is a confiderable
refemblance. See ALGONQUINS.

KNITTERFELDT, a town of the duchy of Stiria,
on the river Muehr; 20 miles S.W. of Pruck. N. lat. 47°
14’. E. long. 14° 36).

KNITTLE, in Sea Language, a {mall line, which is
either plaited or twifted, and ufed for various purpofes at
fea; as to faflen the fervice in the cable, to reef the fails
by the bottom, and to hang the hammocks between decks,
&e. 3

KNITTLINGEN, in Geography, a town of Wurtem-
berg, the birth-place of Fautt, one of the firft printers ; 22
miles S. of Heidelberg.

KNOCK-Heap, 4 cape of Scotland, on the north coaft
of Banfffhire; 3 miles W.N.W. of Banff. .

KNOCKING Mitt. See Srampine.

KNOCKLAYD, in Geography, a mountain in the
northern part of the county of Antrim, Ireland ; about two
miles S. of Ballycattle.

KNOCKMELEDOWN, a chain of mountains in Ire-
land, between the cornties of Waterford and Tipperary,
and extending into both. Thefe are rated by Smith
among‘tt the higheft mountains in Ireland. On the fummit
of one of them, major Eeles, the eleétrician, was buried by
his own defire.

KNOCKNAREA, a cape of Ireland, in Sligo bay;
6 miles W. from Sligo. :

KNOCKTOPHER, a poft-town of the county of Kil-
kenny; Ireland; 63 miles S.W. from Dublin.

KNOLL, a term ufed in many parts of the kingdom for
the top of a {mall hill, or for the hill itfelf.

KNOLLES, Ricnarp, in Biography, an Englifh hif-
torian, a native of Northamptonfhire, was entered at the
univerfity of Oxford about the year 1560. He was after-
wards chofen mafter of the free-fchool at Sandwich, and
proved his fitnefs for this poft by publifhing a compendium
of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew grammar. In 1610 he pub-
lithed, in folio, «¢« A Hiftory of the Turks,’’ which had been
the labour of twelve years, and was executed in a manner
highly creditable to his reputation. It has pafled through
many editions ; and continuations have been made to it, of
which the belt is that of Paul Rycaut, conful at Smyrna.
Mr. Knolles likewife wrote “ A brief Difcourfe of the
Greatnefs of the Turkifh Empire.” He died at Sandwich,
in 1610.

KNOLLIS, Frances, an Englifh ftatefman, was born
at Grays, in Oxfordfhire ; and after receiving an univerfity
education, he went to court, and became a zealous friend to
the reformation, in the reign of Edward V1., at whofe
death he went abroad. On the acceffion of queen Eliza-
beth he returned, and was made privy counfellor, and vice

chamberlain of the houfehold. He was employed in feveral

KNO

important matters of flate: was one of the commiffioners
who fat in judgment on Mary queen of Scots; was ap-
pointed treafurer of the royal houfehold, and knight of the
Garter. He died in 1596. Sir Francis wrote a treatife
again{ft the ufurpations of ‘papal bifhops, printed after his
Geath in 1608 ; and a general furvey of the Ifle of Wight,
which has not been printed.

KNOLLS, in Agriculture, a provincial term ufed in fome
counties to fignify turnips.

KNONAU, in Geography, a bailiwick of Switzerland,
in the canton of Zurich.

KNOPPERS, a fuperior kind of Gall-nuts ; which fee.

KNORR a Russenrotu, CunisTIAN, in Biography, a
learned German orientalift, was born in the year 1636. He
purfued his fludies at various colleges, and then travelled
for improvement into France, England, and Helland. The
fubjeéts which had engaged his attention were chemiftry
and the cabaliflic art, of which he had been from his youth
a great admirer. At Amfterdam he was introduced to the
knowledge of the Oriental tongues, and Hebrew ; and made
fuch progrefs in his favourite {tudies, as to obtain the efleem
and friendfhip of Lightfoot, More, and Van Helmont. By
the latter of thefe learned men he was introduced to the
count palatine of Sulzbach, who, in 1688, nominated him
one of his privy council, and afterwards gave him the ap-
pointment of his chancellor. The duties of thefe offices did
not divert him from his literary, chemical, and myttical
purfuits. He tranflated, into the German language, fir
Thomas Brown’s “ Inquiry into vulgar Errors,” and va-
rious other pieces ; but his reputation is chiefly founded on
a work, entitled ‘¢ Kabbala Denudata, feu Doétrina Ie-
brzorum tranfcendentalis, et metaphyfica, atque theolo-
gica, &c."’ in 3 vols. ato. This work abounds in wild
reveries, fanciful chimeras, and myftical abfurdities ; but it
contains, at the fame time, very learned and valuable re-
fearches relative to the philofophy of the Hebrews.

KNOTS, in Gardening, a term ufed to exprefs the rudi-
ments of the firft branches of plants, as ihey grow up from
the feed. Thus, in the melon, the two firlt leaves or feed-
leaves are called the ears, and the branches that grow from
them are called, according to the order of their growth, the
firlt, fecond, and third knots. Mr. Quintiny’s famous me-
thod of raifing the beft melons, depended principally on the
cutting off every third knot of the plant as they grew up.
Philof. Tranf. N° 45. s

In trees, the knot denotes that part from whence it fhoots
out branches, roots, or even fruit.

The wood is harder and clofer in the knots than in any ©
other part, but it is alfo more fubjeé to fplit there.

The ufe of the knots of plants is to ftrengthen the ftem:
they ferve alfo as fearces to filtrate, purify, and refine, the
juice raifed up for the nourifhment of the plant.

Kwor, in Military Language, the wing or epaulette, com
monly made of worfted, of a non-commiffioned officer or
corporal. When ferjeants and corporals are fentenced to be
reduced to the ranks, the knot is generally cut off by the drum-
major, in the prefence of the battalion, as a mark of infamy.

Knor on board a Ship, is alarge knob formed on the ex-
tremity of a rope, by untwifting the ends thereof, and inter-
weaving them regularly amongit each other. Of this there
are feveral forts: the chief of which are the wale knot,
which is fo made with the lays of a rope, that it cannot flip,
and ferves for fheats, tacks, and floppers; the doqw-line knot
is fo firmly made, and fattened to the crengles of the fails,
that they muft break, or the fails {plit, before it will flip;
the /hecp-/bank knot, which ferves to fhorten a rope without
cutting it, which may be prefently loofened; the a

snot,

KNO

knot, the rofe knot, &c. The knots are generally yfed to
fa(ten one rope to another, by means of a {mall cord attached
to the neck of the knot, called the laniard, which is firmly
tied about both ropes. They are alfo defigned to prevent
the end of a rope from fliding through an eye, which the
knot is intended to confine in a particular fituation.

Kwor-Berries. See RAspBEeRRIES.

Kxor-Gra/s, in Botany. See Potyconum.

Knot-Gra/t, in Rural Economy, a common name often
given to couch-grafs. See Coucn-Gra/s.

Kwot-Grafs, Mountain. See Wurriow-Gra/s.

Kwors of the Log-Line, at fea, are the divifions of it.
See Loe.

Knor is alfo ufed for the intrigue of a romance, or dra-
matic piece ; being that part where the perfons are the moft
embarrafled, by a conjuncture of affairs, whofe end it is not
eafy to forefee. ‘

Ariftotle, under this term, includes all the incidents of a
tragedy, from its beginning to the place where it begins to
unravel. The knot holds as long as the mind is kept fuf-

ended about the event. ‘The knot ought always to lait to
the middle of the fifth a@, otherwife the reft of the piece
languifhes.

_Kwor, Order of the, was the name of a military order in
the kingdom of Naples, inftituted in 1352, by queen Jane I.
on occation of the peace eftablifhed between her and the king
of Hungary, by means of her marriage with Louis prince of
Tarentum. It was fo called becaufe the knights wore for
their badge a knot, like a true-lover’s knot, embroidered
on the breaft of their coat in purple filk, intermixed with

old.

3 The order confifted of fixty knights. Clement VI. ap-
proved of this order, and gave it the rule of St. Bafil: it
chofe St. Nicolas for its protector; but it dwindled away
after the death of its foundrefs.

Kor, in Ornithology, the name of an Englifh bird of the
fnipe kind, not known among authors by any particular
Latin name, unlefs it be the calidrys nigra, or black cali-
drys of Bellonius, which is doubtful from his defeription ;

~ and faid to have obtained its Englifh name from Canute,
one of the Danifh kings of this ifland, who was particu-
ak fond of it: it is the tringa Canutus of Linnzus, which
ee.

Kwnor, or Bo/s, in Pointed ArchiteGure, the key ftone of
the groin, where all its {pringers or ribs meet together.

KNOULTON Laxg, in Geography, a lake of America,

~ in the ftate of Vermont. N. lat. 44” 48'. W. long. 71° go’.

KNOUT, or Kwnoor, is the name of a punifhment in-

flied in Ruffia, with a kind of whip called snout, and made
of a long {trap of leather prepared for this purpofe. This
inftrument is a hard thong, about the thicknefs of a crown
piece, and $ of an ich bread, and tied to a thick plaited
whip, which is conneéted, by means of an iron ring, with a
fmall piece of leather faftened to a fhort wooden handle.
With this whip the executioners dextroufly carry off a flip
of {kin from the neck to the bottom of the back laid bare to
the waift, and repeating their blows, in a little while rend
away all the fkin off the back in parallel ftrips. In the com-
mon knout, the criminal receives the lafhes fufpended on the
back of one of the executioners: but in the great knout,
which is generally ufed on the fame occafions as racking on
the sited in France, the criminal is raifed into the air by
means of a pulley fixed to the gallows, and a cord faftened to
the two wrilts tied together ; a piece of wood is placed he-
tween his two legs alfo tied together; and another of a.
erucial form under his breaft. Sometimes his hands are

tied behind over his back, and when he is pulled up in this

KNO

pofition, his fhoulders are diflocated. The executioners can
make this punifhment more or lefs cruel: and, it is faid, are
fo dextrous, ‘that when a criminal is condemned to die, they
can make him expire at pleafure, either by one or feveral
lathes.

KNOWING, Principles and Rules of. See Prixcrprz,
and Ruue.

KNOWLEDGE may be confidered either as an opera-
tion of the mind, or as the refult of that operation. In the
former fenfe, it denotes the clear perception of truth; and
in the latter, it fignifies the treafure of affociated ideas,
that are laid up in the mind, in confequence of clear per-
ceptions ; ‘thus, mathematics, aftronomy, ethics, hiftory,
&c. are branches of knowledge.

KNowLepGE, according to Mr. Locke, confifts in the
perception of the connection and agreement, or difagree-
ment and repugnancy, of oor ideas. See Inka.

In which fenfe, knowledge ftands oppofed to ignorance.

To snow that white is not black, is only to perceive that
thefe two ideas do not agree. So, in knowing that the
three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones; what
do we more than perceive, that equality to two right ones
neceflarily agrees to, and is infeparable from, the three
angles of a triangle?

Know ence, Kinds of. As to what relates to the agree-

ment or difagreement of ideas, we may reduce the whole
dottrine, and confequently the whole ftock of our know-
ledge, to four heads, wiz. identity or diverfity, relation, co-
exifience, and real exiffence.
_ With-refpe&t to the identity or diverfity of our ideas, we
may obferve, that it is the firft at of the mind to perceive
its own ideas; and, fo far as it perceives them, to know
what each is, and thereby to perceive their difference ; that
is, the one not to be the other: by this the mind clearly per-
ceives each idea to agree with itfelf, and to be what it is:
and all diftin® ideas to difagree. This it does without any
pains, or deduction, by its natural power of perception and
diftinction ; and, for doing this, men of art have eftablifhed
certain general rules or principles; as that, what is, is; and
that it is impoffible for the fame thing to be, and not to be.
But no maxim can make a man know clearer, that round is
not f{quare, than the bare perception of the two ideas, which
the mind, at firft fight, perceives to difagree.

The next kind of agreement, or difagreement, the mind
perceives, in any of its ideas, may be called relative, and is
nothing but the perception of the relation between any two
ideas, of what kind foever; that is, their agreement or dif-
agreement, one with another, in the feveral ways, or refpe&ts,
the mind takes of comparing them.

The third fort of agreement, or difagreement, to be found
in our ideas, is coexiffence, or non-coexiflence, in the fame fub-
je&; and this belongs particularly to fubftances. Thus
when we pronounce concerning gold, that it is fixed, it
amounts to no more but this, that fixednefs, or a power to
remain in the fire unconfumed, is an idea which always ac-
companies that particular fort of yellownefs, weight, fufi-
bility, &c. which make our complex idea fignified by the
word gold.

The fourth fort is that of a@ual and real exiflence, agreeing
toany idea. -

Within thefe four forts of agreement, or difagreement,
feems contained all the knowledge we have, indeed all we
are capable of ; for all that we know, or can affirm, concern-
ing any idea, is, that it is, or is net, the fame with fome
other ; as, that blue is not yellow: that it does, or does not,
coexift with another in the fame fubje& ; as, that iron is
fufceptible of magnetical impreffions; that it hath that or

La this

this relation to fome other ideas; as, that two triangles upon
equal bafes, between the fame parallels, are equal: or, that
it has a real exiltence without the mind; as, that God is.

The mind becomes poffeffed of truth in feveral manners,
which conftitute fo many different {pecies of knowledge.
Thus, when the mind has a prefent view of the agreement
or difagreement of any of its ideas, or of the relation they
have one with another, it is ca'led e@ual knowledge.

Secondly, a man is faid to know .any propolition, when,
having once evidently perceived the agreement or difagree-
ment of the ideas whereof it confifts, and fo lodged it in his
memory, ‘that whenever it comes to be reflected on again,
the mind aflents to it without doubt or hefitation, and is cer-
tain of the truth of it: this may be called Aabitual know-
ledge. And thus a man may be fpid to know all thofe
truths which are lodged in his memory, by a foregoing,
clear, and full perception.

OF habitual knowledge, there are two forts; the one con-
fifts of fuch truths, laid up in the memory, as, whenever
they occur to the mind, it_aCtually perceives the relation
that is between their ideas ; and this is in all’ thofe truths
where the ideas themfelyes, by an immediate view, difcover
their agreement or difagreement one with another. The
other is of fuch truths, whereof the mind having been con-
vinced, it retains the memory of the conviction, without the
proofs. Thus a man that remembers certainly, that he once
perceived the demonftration, that the three angles of a
triaugle are equal to two right ones, knows it to be true,
when that demonttration is gone out of his mind, and cannot
poflibly be recollected ; but he knows it in a different way
from what he did before; namely, not by the intervention
of thofe intermediate ideas ; whereby the agreement, or dif-
agreement, of thofe in the propofition was at firft perceived;
but by remembering, that is, knowing, that he was once
certain of the truth of this propofition, that the three angles
of a triangle are equal to two right ones,—the immutability
of the fame relation between the fame immutable things, is
now the idea that fhews him, that if the three angles of a
triangle were once equal to two right ones, they will always
be fo. And hence he comes to be certain, that what was
once true, is always true; what ideas once agreed, will
always agree; and confequently, what he once knew to be
true, he will always know to be true, as long as he can
remember that he once knew it.

Know ence alfo may be ufefully diftinguifhed into three
kinds ; hifforical, philofophical, and mathematical.

Know ence, LHi/lorical, is merely the knowledge of fats,
or of what is or happens in the material world, or within
our own minds. Thus, that the fun rifes and fets, that
trees bud in the f{pring, that we remember, will, &c. are
inftances of hiftorical knowledge.

Kwow.ence, »Philofophical, is the knowledge of the
reafons of things, or of what is or happens. ‘Thus he has a
philofophical knowledge of the motion of rivers, who can
explain how it arifes from the declivity of the bottom, and
from the preflure which the lower part of the water fultains
from the upper. So likewife the fhewing how, and by what
reafon, defire or appetite arifes from the perception or imagi-
nation of its object, wou!'d be philofophical knowledge.

Know LepGe, Mathematical, is the knowledge of the
quantity of things, that is, of their proportions or ratios to
{ome given meafure. Thus he who knows the proportion
of the meridian heat of the fun at the fummer folltice to its
meridian heat at the winter fol{tice, might fo far be faid to
have a mathematical knowledge of the fun’s heat. So like-
wife he has a mathematical knowledge of the motion of a
planet in its orbit, who can diftincily fhew how, from the

KNOWLEDGE.

quantity of the impreffed and centripetal force, the velocity
of the planet is produced; and how, from the action of the
double force, the elliptical figure of the orbit arifes.

Thefe three kinds of knowledge differ evidently, it being
one thing to know that a thing is; another, the reafon why
it is; and a third, to know its quantity or meafure.

It is alfo evident, that Aiforical knowledge, though exten-
fively ufeful, and the foundation of the reft, is the loweft
d:gree of human knowledge. Thofe who aim at the
greateft certainty ought to join mathematical with philofo-
phical knowledge. Nothing can more evidently fhew that
an effect arifes from a certain caufe, than the knowledge that
the quantity of the effeét is proportional to the force of the
caufe. Betides, there are many things in nature, the reafons
‘of which depending on certain figures or quantities, are not
affignable but from mathematical principles.

Know epce, Degrees of. As to the different degrees,
or clearnefs of our knowledge, it feems to lie in the different
way which the mind has of perceiving the agreement or
difagreement of any of its ideas. When the mind per-
ceives this agreement or difagreement of two ideas imme-
diately by themfelves, without the intervention of any other,
we may call it intuitive knowledge; in which cafe the mind
perceives the truth, as the eye doth light, only by being
directed towards. it. Thus the mind perceives that white
is not black ; that three are more than two, and equal to
one and two. This part of knowledge is irrefiftible ; and,
like the bright funfhine, forces itfelf immediately ta, be
perceived, as foon as ever the mind turns its view that
way. Itis on this intuition that all the certainty and evi-
dence of our other knowledge depends, which certainly
every one finds to.be fo great, that he cannot imagine,
and therefore cannot require a greater. The next degree
of knowledge is, where the mind perceiyes not this agree-
ment, or difagreement, immediately, or by the juxtapo-
fition, as it were, of the ideas; becaufethofe ideas, con-
cerning whofe agreement, or difagreement, the inquiry is
made, cannot, by the mind, be fo put together as to fhew
it. In this cafe, the mind is obliged to difcover the agree-
ment, or difagreement, which it fearches for, by the inter-
vention of other ideas: and this is that which we call rea-
soning.

Thus, if we would know the agreement, or difagree-
ment, in bignefs, between the three angles of a triangle and
two right angles, we cannot do it by an immediate view and
comparifon of them, becaufe the three angles’ of a triangle
cannot be brought together at once, and Compared with any
other one or two angles; and fo of this the mind has no
immediate or intuitive knowledge. But we muft find out
fome other angles, to which the three angles of a triangle
have equality ; and, finding thofe equal to two right ones,
we come to know the equality of thefe three angles to two
right ones. 2

Thofe intervening ideas, which ferve to fhew the agree-
ment of any two others, are called proofs ; and where the
agreement, or difagreement, is by this means plainly and
clearly perceived, it is called demon/fration ; and a quicknefs
in the mind to find thofe proofs, aud to apply them right, is
that which is called /agacity. ‘

This knowledge, though it be certain, is not fo clear and
evident as intuitive knowledge ; it requires pains and atten-
tion, and fleady application of mind, to difcover the agree-
ment, or difagreement, of the ideas it confiders ; and there
mult be a progreflion by fteps and degrees, before the mind
can, in this way, arrive at any certainty. Before demon-
ftration, there was a doubt, which, in intuitive knowledge,
cannot happen to the mind, that has its faculty of per-

4 ception

KNOWLEDGE.

» ception left in a degree capable of diftinct ideas, no more
than it can be a doubt to the eye (that can diitinGly fee
white and black), whether this ink and paper be all of a
colour. Now, in every ftép that reafon makes in demon-
ftrative knowledge, there is an intuitive knowledge of that

agreement, or difagreement, it feeks, with the next inter- -

mediate idea, which it ufes as a proof; for, if it were not
fo, that yet would need a proof, fince, without the per-
ception of fuch agreement, or difagreement, there is no
knowledge produced.

By mick it is evident, that every ftep in reafoning, that
produces knowledge, has intuitive certainty ; which when
the mind perceives, there is no more required, but to re-
member it, to make the agreement, or difagreement, of
the ideas, concerning which we inquire, vifible and certain.
This intuitive perception of the agreement, or difagree-
ment, ‘of the intermediate ideas in each ftep and progrefiion
of the demonfation, muit alfo be exaéily carried in the
mind; and a man muit be fure, that no part is left out,
which, in long deduGtions, the memory cannot eafily retain,
and therefore this knowledge becomes more imperfect than
intvitive, and men often embrace falfehoods for demon-
itrations.

It has been generally taken for granted, that mathe-
matics alone are capable of demonttrative certainty : but to
have fuch an agreement, or difagreement, as may be in-
tuitively perceived, being, as we imagine, not the privilege
of the ideas of number, extenfion, and figure alone, it
may poflibly be the want of due method and application
in us, and not of fufficient evidence in things, that demon-
itration bas been thought to have fo little to do in other
parts of knowledge. For, in whatever ideas the mind
can perceive the agreement, or difagreement, immediatcly,
there it is capable of intuitive knowledge, and, where it
can perceive the agreement, or difagreement, of any two
ideas, by the intu:tive perception of the agreement, or
difagreement, they have with any intermediate ideas, there
the mind is capable of demoniiration, which is not li-
mited to the ideas of figure, number, extenfion, or .heir
modes.

The reafon why it has been generally fuppofed to belong
to thefe only, is, becaufe, in comparing their equality or
excefs, the modes of numbers have every the leaft differ-
ence very clear and perceivable: and, in extenfion, though
every the leait excefs is not fo perceptible, yet the mind
has found out ways to difcover the juft equality of two
angles, extenfions, or figures ; and both numbers and figures

. can be fet down by vifible and lafting marks. .But, in
other fimple ideas, whofe modes and differences are made
and counted by degrees, and not quantity, we have not
fo nice and accurate a diftinétiom of their differences, as
to perceive or find ways to meafure their juit equality,
or the leaft differences. For thofe other fimple ideas being
appearances, or fenfations produced in us, by the fize,
figure, motion, &c. of minute corpufcles, fingly infenfible,
their different degrees alfo depend on the variation of
fome or all of thofe caufes; which, fince it cannot be
obferved by us in particles of matter, whereof each is
too fubtile to be perceived, it is impoffible for us to have
any exact meafures of the different degrees of thefe fimple
ideas. ze

Thus, not knowing what number of particles, nor what

motion of them, is fit to produce any precife degree of
whitenefs, becaufe we have no certain ftandard to meafure
them by, nor means to diftinguifh every the leaft difference ;
the only help we have is from our fenfes, which in this point
fail us. But where the difference is fo great as to produce

in the mind ideas clearly diftin&t, thefe ideas, as we fee in
colours of different kinds, blue and red for inftance, are as
capable of demonttration as ideas of number and extenfion ;
and what is here faid of colours, holds true in all fecondary
qualities.

‘Thefe two then, intuition and d:mon/firation, are the degrees
of our knowledge ; and whatever comes fhort of one of thefe,
is only faith, or opinion, not knowledge, at leaft in all general
truths.

There is, indeed, another perception of the mind, employed
about the particular exiftence of finite beings without us,
which going beyond probability, but not reaching to either
of the foregoing degrees of certainty, pafles under the name
of knowledge.

Nothing can be more certain, than that the idea we re-
ceive from an external objeét is in our minds: this is intuitive
knowledge ; but whether we can thence certainly infer the
exiftence of any thing without us, correfponding to that
idea, 1s that whereof fome men think there may be a quef-
tion made ; becaufe men may have fuch an idea in their
minds, when no fuch thing exifts, nor any fuch obje& affe&s
their fenfes.

But it is evident, that we are invincibly confcious to our-
felves of a different perception, when we look on the fun in
the day, and when we think on it by night 5; when we aétually
tafte wormwood, or {mell a rofe, or only think on that fa-
vour or odour; fo that we may add, to the two former forts
of knowledge, this alfo of the exiitence of particular exter-
nal obje&ts, by that perception and con{ciovinefs we have of
the actual entrance of ideas from them; and allow thefe
three degrees of knowledge, viz. intuitive, demonftrative, and

enjilive.

ey fince our knowledge is founded on, and employed
about, our ideas Only, will it follow thence, that it muit be
conformable to our ideas, and that where our ideas are clear
and diftin&t, obfcure asd confufed, there our knowledge will
be fo too? We anfwer, No; for our knowledge confifting
in the perception of the agreement, or difagreement, of any
two ideas; its clearnefs or obfcurity confiits in the clear-
nefs 6r obfcurity of that perception, and not in the clear-
nefs or obfcurity of the ideas themfelves. A man (for
inftance), who has a clear idea of the angles of a triang!e,
and of equality to two right ones, may yet have but an
ob{cure ‘perception of their agreement, and fo have but a
very obfcure knowledge of it : but obfeure and confufed
ideas can never produce any clear or diftiné&t knowledge ;
becaufe, as far as any ideas are obfcure or confufed, fo
far the mind can never perceive clearly, whether they agree
or difagree ; or, to exprefs the fame thing in other words,
he that has not determined ideas to the words he ufes, can-
not make propofitions of them, of whofe truth he can be
certain.

From all this it follows; 1. That we can have no know-
ledge farther than we have ideas.

2. That we have no knowledge farther than we can have
perception of the agreement, or difagreement, of our ideas,
either by intuition, demonftration, or fex%ation.

3- We cannot have an intuitive knowledge, ,that fhall ex-
tend itfelf to all our ideas, and all that we would know about
them ; becaufe we cannot examine and perceive all the rela-’
tions they have one to another by juxtapofition, or in imme-
diate comparifon one with another. Thus, we cannot
intuitively perceive the equality of two extenfions, the dif-
ference of whofe figures makes their parts incapable of ar
exa&t immediate application.

4. Our rational knowledge cannot reach to the whole ex-
tent of our ideas ; becaufe, between two different ideas which

we

KNOWLEDGE.

we would examine, we cannot always find fuch proofs,
whereby we can conneét one to another with an intuitive
knowledge in all the parts of the deduétion.

. Senfitive knowledge, reaching no farther than the
exiltence of things actually prefent to our fenfes, is yet much
narrower than either of the former.

6. From all which it is evident, that the extent of our
knowledge comes not only fhort of the reality of things,
but even of the extent of our own ideas. We have the
ideas of a fquare, a circle, and equality ; and yet, perhaps,
fhall never be able to find a circle equal to a {quare. See
Circe.

Know.epce, Latent and Limits of. The affirmations or
negations we make concerning the ideas we have, being re-
duced to the four forts above-mentioned, viz. identity, co-
exiftence, relation, and real exiftence, let us inquire how far
our knowledge extends in each of thefe.

1. As to identity and diverfity, our intuitive knowledge
is as far extended as our ideas themfelves ; and there can be
no idea in the mind, which it does not prefently, by an in-
tuitive knowledge, perceive to be what it is, and to be dif-
ferent from any other.

2. As to the agreement or difagreement of our ideas of
co-exiftence, our knowledge herein is very defeétive, though
it is in this that the greatelt and moft material part of our
knowledge, concerning fubftances, confifts: for our ideas
of fubftances being nothing but certain collections of fimple
ideas co-exifting in one fubje&t (our idea of flame, for in-
ftance, isa body, hot, luminous, and moving upwards) ;
when we would know any thing farther concerning this, or
any other fort of fubftance, what do we but enquire what
other qualities, or powers, thefe fubftances have, or have
not? which is nothing elfe but to know what other fimple
ideas do, or do not exift with thofe which make up fuch
complex ideas. ‘The reafon of this is, that the fimple ideas,
which make up our complex ideas of fubftances, have no
wifible neceflary conneétion, or inconfiftence, with other fim-
ple ideas, whofe co-exiftence with them we would inform
ourfelves about. Thefe ideas being likewife, for the moft
part, fecondary qualities, which depend upon the primary
qualities of their minute or infenfible parts, or on fome-
thing yet more remote than thefe from our comprehenfion,
it is impoffible we fhould know which have a neceffary union,
or inconfiftence, one with another; fince we know not the
root from whence they fpring, or the fize, figure, and tex-
ture of parts on which they depend, and from which they
refult. Befides this, there is no difcoverable conneétion
between any fecondary quality, and thofe primary qualities
that it depends on. Weare fo far from knowing what
figure, fize, or motion, produces (for inttanee) a yellow co-
lour, or {weet tafte, or fharp found, that we can by no means
conceive how any fize, figure, or motion, can poffibly pro-
duce in us the idea of any colour, tafte, or found, whatfoever 5
there being no conceivable connection between the one and
the other.

Our knowledge, therefore, of co-exiftence reaches little
farther than experience. Some few, indeed, of the pri-
mary qualities have a neceflary dependence, and vifible con-
neétion, one with another: as figure neceflarily fuppofes
extenfion ; receiving or communicating motion by impulfe
fuppofes folidity : but qualities co-exiftent in any fubjeé,
without this dependence and conneétion, cannot certainly be
known to co-exift, any farther than experience, by our
fenfes, informs us. Thus, though, upon trial, we find gold
yellow, weighty, malleable, fulible, and fixed ; yet, becaufe
none of thefe have any evident dependence, or neceffary con-
nection, with the other, we cannot certainly know, that,

where any four of thefe are, the fifth will be there alfo, how
highly probable foever it may be. But the higheft degree
of probability amounts not to certainty, without which there
can be no true knowledge; for this co-exiftence can be no
true knowledge; for this co-exiftence can be no farther
known than it is perceived; and it cannot be perceived,
but either, in particular fubjects, by the obfervation of our
fenfes, or, in general, by the neceflary connection of the ideas
themlelves.

As to incompatibility, or repugnancy to co-exiftence, we
know, that no fubje¢t can have of each fort of primary qua-
lities more than one particular at once, as one extenfion, or
one figure ; and fo of fenfible ideas peculiar to each fenfe :
for whatever, of each kind, is prefent in any fubjeét, excludes
all other of that fort ; for inftance, one fubjeét cannot have
two imells, or two colours, at the fame time.

As to powers of fubitances, which make a great part of
our enquiries about them, our knowledge reaches little
farther than experience; becaufe they confift in a texture
and motion of parts,’ which we cannot by any means
come to difcover; and I doubt, whether, ‘with thofe fa-
culties we have, we fhall ever be able to carry our general
knowledge much farther in this part. Experience is that,
which, in this part, we mult depend on: and it were
to be wifhed, that it were more improved. We find
the advantages fome men’s generous pains have this way
brought to the ftock of natural knowledge; and if others,
efpecially the philofophers by fire, had been fo,wary in
their obfervations, and fincere in their reports, as thofe
who call themfelves philofophers ought to have been, our
acquaintance with the bodies here about us, and our in-
fight into their powers and operations, might have been
yet much greater.

As to the third fort, the agreement, or difagreement, of
our ideas in any other relation; this is the largeft field
of knowledge, and it is hard to determine how far it may
extend: this part depending on our fagacity in finding
intermediate ideas, that may fhew the habitudes and re-
lations of ideas, it is a hard matter to tell when we are
at an end of fuch difcoveries. They who are ignorant
of algebra, cannot imagine the wonders of this kind that are

‘to be done by it ; and what farther improvements and helps,

advantageous to other parts of knowledge, the fagacious
mind of man may yet find out, it is not eafy to determine.
This, at leaft, we may believe, that the ideas of quantity
are not the only ones capable of demonftration and know-
ledge ; and that other, and, perhaps, more ufeful parts

of contemplation, would afford us certainty, if vices, paf- .

fions, and domineering intereit, did not oppofe or menace
endeavours of this kind.*

As to the fourth fort of knowledge, viz. of the real, a@ual
exiflence of things, we have an intuitive knowledye of our
own exiftence, a demonilrative knowledge of the exiftence
of God, and a fenfitive knowledge of the objects that pre-
fent themfelves to our fenfes.

Hitherto we have examined the extent of our knowledge,
in refpect of the feveral forts of beings that are: there is
another extent of it, in refpec&t of univerfality, which
will alfo deferve to be confidered; and this, in regard to
our knowledge, follows the nature of our ideas. If the
ideas, whofe agreement, or difagreement, we perceive are
abftract, our knowledge is univerfal; for what is known
of fuch general ideas, will be true of every particular
thing, in which that effence, that is, that abftra& idea,
is found: and what is once known of fuch ideas, will be
perpetually and for ever true; fo that, as to all general
knowledge, we mutt fearch and find it only in our own

2 : minds 3

KNOW LEDGE.

» minds; and it is only the examining our own ideas that
furnifhes us with it. Truth belonging to eflences of things
(that is, to abftra&t ideas) are eternal, and are to be found
out by the contemplation only of thofe effences; as the
exiftence of things is to be known only from experience.

Know rnce, Reality of. It is evident, that the mind
knows not things immediately, but by the intervention of
the ideas it has of them. Our knowledge, therefore, is
real, only fo far as there is a conformity .between our
~ideas, and the reality of things. But how fhall we know
when our ideas agree with things themfelves? It is an-
fwered, There are two forts of ideas, that we may be
affured agree with things: thefe are, :

1. Simple ideas, which, fince the mind can by no means
make to itfelf, muft be the effe@ of things operating upon
the mind in a natural way, and producing therein thofe
perceptions, which, by the will of our Maker, they are
ordained and adapted to. Hence it follows, that timple
ideas are not fictions of our fancies, but the natural and
regular production of things without us, really operating
upon us, which carry with them all the conformity our
ftate requires, which is to reprefent things under thofe
appearances they are fitteft to produce in us. Thus the
idea of whitenefs, as it is in the mind, exa¢tly anfwers that
power which is in any body to produce it there; and this
conformity between our fimple ideas, and the exiltence of
things, is fufficient for real knowledge.

2. All our complex ideas, except only thofe of fubftances,
being ait gpes of the mind’s own making, and not te-
ferred to the exiftence of things, as to their originals,
cannot want any conformity neceflary to real knowledge ;
for that which is not defigned to reprefent any thing but
itfelf, can never be capable of a wrong reprefentation.
Here the ideas themfelves are conlidered as archetypes,
and things are no otherwife regarded than as conformable
to them. Thus, the mathematician confiders the truth
and propetties belonging to a re€tangle, or circle, only as
they are ideas in his own mind, which poflibly he never
found exifting mathematically, that is, precifely true ;
yet his knowledge is not only certain, but real, becaufe
real things are no farther concerned, nor_intended to be
meant by any fuch propofitions, than as things really agree
to thofe archetypes in the mind.

3. But the complex ideas, which we refer to archetypes
without us, may differ from them; and fo our knowledge
about them may come-fhort of being real: and fuch are
our ideas of fubftances. Thefe mult be taken from fome-
thing that does, or has exifted, and not be made up of
ideas arbitrarily put together, without any real pattern.
Herein, therefore, is founded the reality of our knowledge
concerning fubftances, that all our complex ideas of them
muft be fuch, and fuch only as are made up of fuch fimple
ones as have been difcovered to co-exift in nature: and our
ideas, being thus true, though not, perhaps, very exaét
copies, are the fubjeét of real knowledge of them. What-
ever ideas we have, the agreement we find they have with
others will be knowledge. If thofe ideas be abftraét, it will
be general knowledge ; but to make it real concerning fub-
ftances, the ideas mult be taken from the real exiftence of
things. Wherever, therefore, we perceive the agreement,
or difagreement, of our ideas, there is certain knowledge ;
and wherever we are fure thofe ideas agree with the reality
of things, there is certain, real knowledge.

KNOWLEDGE, method of improving or enlarging. It being
the received opinion among{t men of letters, that maxims
are the foundation of all knowledge, and that fciences are

each of them built upon certain pracognita, from whence
es

the underftanding is to take its rife, and by which it isto
conduct itfelf in its enquiries inthe matters belonging to that
{cience : the beaten road of the f{chool has been to lay down,
in the beginning, one or more general propofitions, called
principles, as foundations whereon to build the knowledge
that was to be had of that fubject.

That which gave occafion to this way of proceeding was,
the good fuccefs it feemed to have in mathematics, which of
all the feiences have the greateft certainty, clearnefs, and
evidence in them. But, if we confider it, we fhall find, that
the great advancement and certainty of real knowledge men
arrive to in thefe {ciences, was not owing to the influence of
thofe principles, but to the clear, diftin&, and complete
ideas their thoughts were employed about, and to the re-
lation of equality and excefs, fo clear between fome of them,
that they had an intuitive knowledge, and by that a way to
difcover it in others, and this is without the help of thofe
maxims. For is it not poffible for a lad to know, that his
whole body is bigger than his little finger, but by virtue of
this axiom, the whole is bigger than a part ; nor be affured
of it till he has learned that maxim? Let any one confider
which is known firlt and cleare!t by moit people, the par-
ticuiar inftance, or the general rule; and which it is that
gives life and birth to the other: thefe genéral rules are but
the comparing our more general and abftra& ideas, which
ideas are made by the mind, and have names given them, for the
eafier difpatch in its reafonings: but knowledge began in the
mind, and was founded on particulars, though afterwards,
perhaps, no notice be taken thereof, it bemg natural for the
mind to lay up thofe general notions, and make the proper
ufe of them, which is to difburden the memory of the cum-
berfome load of particulars. ‘The way to improve in know-
ledge is, not to {wallow principles with an implicit faith,
and without examination, which would be apt to miflead
men, inflead of guiding them into truth; but to get and
fix in our minds clear and complete ideas, as far as they are
to be had, and to annex to them proper and conftant names ;
and thus, barely by confidering our ideas, and comparing
them together, obferving their agreement or difagreement,
their habitudes and relations, we fhall get more true and
clear knowledge by the conduct of this one rule, than by
taking up principles, and thereby putting our minds into
the difpofal of others.

We muift, therefore, if we would proceed as reafon ad-
vifes us, adapt our methods of enquiry to the nature of the
ideas we examine, and the truth we fearch after. General
and certain truths are only founded on the habitudes and re-
lations of abftra& ideas ; therefore, a fagacious, methodical.
application of our thoughts for the finding out thefe rela-
tions, is the only way to difcover all, that can with truth
and certainty be put into general propofitions. By what
fleps we are to proceed in thefe, is to be learned in the fchools
of the mathematicians, who from very plain and eafy be-
ginnings, by gentle degrees, and a continued chain of rea-
fonings, proceed to the difcovery and demonftration of
truths, that, at firft fight, appeared beyond human capacity.
This may reafonably be faid, that, if other ideas that are real,
as well as nominal effences of their fpecies, were purfued
in a way fimilar to that of mathematicians, they would carry
our thoughts farther, and with, greater evidence and clear-.
nefs, than poffibly we are apt to imagine.. This is reafon.
fufficient to advance that conje€ture above mentioned ; viz...
«« That morality is capable of demontftration, as wellas ma-
thematics ;”? fer moral ideas being real effences, which have
a difcoverable conne¢tion and agreement one with another, fo
far as we can find their habitudes and relations, fo far we

fhall be poflefied of real and general truths. i
a

KN O

In our knowledge of fubftances, we are to proceed after
a quite different method ; the bare contemplation of their
abitra& ideas (which are but nominal effences) will carry us
but a very little way in the fearch of truth and certainty.
Here experience mutt teach us what reafon cannot ; and it is
by trying alone, that we can certainly know what qualities
co-exilt, with thofe of our complex idea ; for inftance, whe-
ther that yellow, heavy, fufible body, we call gold, be
malleable, or not ; which experience (however it prove in
that particular body we examine) makes us not certain that
it is fo in all, or any other yellow, heavy, fufible bodies,
but that which we have tried ; becaufe it is no confequence,
one way or other, from our complex idea. The neceffity or
inconfiftence of malleability has no vifible conneétion with the
combination of that colour, weight, and fufibility, in any
body. What is here faid of the nominal effence of gold,
fuppofed to confift of a body of fuch a determinate colour,
weight, and fufibility, will hold true if other qualities be
added to it. Our reafonings from thofe ideas will carry us but
a little way in the certain difcovery of the other properties
in thofe maffes of matter wherein all thofe are to be found.
As far as our experience reaches, we may have certain know-
ledge, and no farther. It is not denied, but that a man,
accuftomed to rational and regular experiments, fhall be able
to fee farther into the nature of bodies, and their un-
known properties, than one that is a {tranger to them: but
this is but judgment and opinion, not knowledge and cer-
tainty.

This would make it fufpeGed, that natural philofophy
‘is not capable of being made afcience. From experiments,
and hiftorical obfervations, we may draw advantages of eafe
and health, and thereby increafe our ftock of conveniences
for this life ; but beyond this, it is to be feared our talents
reach not, nor are our faculties able to advance farther. See
Puysics.

The ways to enlarge our knowledge, as far as we are ca-
pable, feem to be thefe two: the firltis, to get and fettle
inour minds, as far as we can, clear, diftin€@, and conltant
idéas‘of thofe things we would confider and know; for it
being evident that our knowledge cannot exceed our ideas,
where they are either imperfeét, confufed, or obfcure, we
cannot expeét to have certain, perfeét, or clear knowledge.
The other art 1s, of finding out the intermediate ideas, which
may fhew us the agreement or repugnancy of other ideas,
which cannot be immediately compared.

That thefe two (and not relying on maxims, and drawing
confequences from fome general propofitions) are the right
method of improving our knowledge in the ideas of other
modes, befides thofe of quantity, the confideration of ma-
thematical knowledge will eafily inform us ; where, firft, we
fhall find, that he, who has not clear and perfect ideas of
thofe angles or figures, of which he defires to know any
thing, is utterly thereby incapable of any knowledge about
them. Suppofe a man not toyhave an exact idea of a right
angle, {calenum, or trapezium, and it is clear, that he will
in vain feek any demoniiration about them. ,

And farther, it is evident, that it was not the influence
of maxims or principles that led the matters of this fcience
into thofe wonderful difcoveries. they have made: let a man
of good parts know all the maxims of mathematics ever fo
well, and contemplate their extent and confequences as much
as he pleafes, he will, by their affiftance, fearce ever come
to know, that the fquare of the hypothenufe in a right-
angled triangle, is equal to the fquares of the two other
fides. ‘This, and other mathematical truths, have been dif-
covered by the thoughts otherwife applied. The mind had
ather objedis, other views before it, tar different from thofe

KNO

maxims, which men, well enough acquainted with thofe

received axioms, but ignorant of their method who firlt
made thofe demonftrations, can never fufliciently admire.
Our knowledge, as in other things, fo in this alfo, has fo
great a conformity with our fight, that it is neither wholly
neceffary, nor wholly voluntary. Men, who have fenfes,
cannot choofe but receive fome ideas by them; and, if they
have memory, they cannot but retain fome of them ; and if

they have any diftinguifhing faculty, cannot but perceive the

agreement, or difagreement, of fome of them one with an-
ether. As he that has eyes, if he will open them by day,
cannot but fee fome objects, and perceive a difference in
them ; yet be may choofe whether he will turn his eyes to-
wards an objeét, curioufly furvey it, and obferve accurately
all that is vifible init. But what he doth fee he cannot fee
otherwife than he doth; it depends not on his will to fee
that black which appears yellow. Juft thus it is with our
underltanding : all that is voluntary in our knowledge, is the
employing or withholding any of our faculties from this or
that fort of objects, and a more or lefs accurate furvey of
them; but, they being employed, our will hath no power
to determine the knowledge of the mind one way or another;
that is doue only by the objeéts themfelves, as far as they
are clearly difcovered. Thus, he that has got the ideas of
numbers, and has taken the pains to compare one, two, or
three, to fix, cannot choofe but know they are equal. He
alfo, that hath the idea of an intelligent, but weak and
frail being, made by, and depending on, another, who. is
eternal, omnipotent, and perfectly wife and good, will as
certainly know, that man is to honour, fear, and obey God,
as that the fun fhines when he fees it. But yet, be thefe
truths ever fo certain, ever fo clear, he may be ignorant of
either or both of them, who will not take the pains to em-
ploy his faculties, as he fhould, to inform himfelf about
them. ;

~

KNOWLTON, in Geography, atownfhip of America, —

in Suffex county, New Jerfey, containing 1937 inha-
bitants. :
KNOWLTONIA, in Botany, fo named by Mr. Salif-
bury in memory of Mr. Thomas Knowlton, who is faid to
have been Sherard’s gardener at Eltham. Salif. Prodr. 372.
Sims in Curt. Mag. v. 22. 775. (Anamenia; Venten.
Malmaif. 22.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Polyeynia.
Nat. Ord. Multifilique, Linn. Ranunculacea, Juff. vo
Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. Petals numerous, from ten to

twenty, oblong, without any nectary, deciduous, the inner-
moft longeft and nearly linear ;, outermoft fomewhat ovate,
externally hairy. Stam. Filaments numerous, thread-fhaped,

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Petals numerous, oblong, defti-
tute of a neGtary. Receptacle of the fruit globofe. Ber-
ries numerous, of one cell. Seeds folitary. :

Obf. Mr. Salifbury feparated this very diftin@ genus from,
the Linnean Adonis, and publifhed it in 1796, by the above
unexceptionable name, which therefore takes place of Ven-
tenat’s Anamenia, publifhed feveral years after; the latter
being moreover liable to objection, from ftriét Linnean
{cholars, as being formed of an Arabic word.

1. K. capenfis. Hairy Knowltonia. (K. veticatoria ; Sims in
Curt. Mag. t. 775. Adonis capenfis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 772,
Suppl,

KNO

Suppl. 272. Anamenia hirfuta; Venten. Malmaif. 22. .n. 4.
Chriftophoriana trifoliata, foliis fcabris, flore fulphureo rariore ;
Burm. Aft. 145.t.51.)—Hairy. Leaves twice ternate ; leaf-
lets elliptic-ovate. Petals linear.— Native of the Cape of Good
Hope. With us itis ahardy green-houfe plant, flowering in
the fprine. Root perennial, and, as appears from Dr.
Sims’s deicription, of long duration, the plant from which
his figure was taken, in 1804, having come out of Dr. Fother-
gill’s colle&tion near 25 years before. Leaves feveral, radical,
on long hairy ftalks, twice ternate; their leaflets elliptical,
or fomewhat ovate, ferrated, more or lefs hairy, the termi-
nal ones ufually largeft. Svems taller than the leaves,
branched nearly from their very bottom, hairy, almott leaf-
lefS ; their branches elongated, fubdivided, fomewhat co-
rymbofe ; ultimate ones umbellate, fingle-flowered, very
hairy. Bradeas leafy ; the upper ones narrowelt, lanceo-
late and entire. F/owers an inch broad, {preading, of a
light yellowith green.

2.8. veficatoria. Bliftering Kaowltonia. (Adonis vefi-
eatoria; Linn. Suppl. 272. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1307.
' Anamenia coriacea; Venten. Malmaif. 22. n. 1. t. 22.
A. laferpitiifolia ; ibid. n. 2. Ramuncuius ethiopicus, feliis
rigidis, floribus ex luteo virefcentibus ; Comm. Hort. v. 1.
t. 1. Imperatoria ranunculoides africana .enneaphyllos, lafer-
pitti lobatis foliis rigidis, margine fpinofis ; Pluk. Phyt.
t. 95. f. 2.)—Smooth, leaves twice ternate ; leaflets nearly
hear*-fhaped, coriaceous ; the lateral ones unequal at their
bafe. Petals elliptic-oblong. Umbels compound, many-
fiowered.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, and .occa-
fionally kept in green-houfes, like the preceding, from which
we cannot but think it fpecifically different. The aves
are much larger, {mooth, very thick and rigid, with ftrong,
almoft pungent, ferratures or teeth ; fometimes they are thrice
compounded. Stems more umbellate in all their fubdivifions,
the ultimate umbels confifting of very numerous ftalks,
which are but flightly hairy. Braéeas rather elliptical.
Petals elliptic-oblong rather than linear. Berries purplith
black. Thunberg fays that the leaves are ufed at the Cape
to raife blifters, they having that property in common with
fome fpecies of Ranunculus and Clematis, their near allies

3- K. gracilis. Slender Knowltonia. (Anamenia gracilis ;
Venten. Malmaif. 22. n.3. Adonis zthiopica; Thunb.
Prodr. 94?)—‘ Leaflets ovate, deeply ferrated, rigid,
hairy. Stems branched at the top; branches ereét, with
few flowers.”? Vent.—We know nothing of this but from
the definition of Ventenat, who faw it in Juffieu’s herba-
rium. Thunberg, whom he quotes with dcubt, defines his
plant thus. ** Leaves more than twice compound ; leaflets
deeply toothed, divaricated. Stem villous.’?— With this we
have no further acquaintance, unlefs, as we ftrongly fufpec,
itis the fame as the following ; but if fo, it by no means
i a the chara¢ter given in Ventenat’s work.

4 K. filia. Fine-leaved Knowltonia. (Adonis filia ;
Lion. Suppl. 271. A. ethiopica; Thunb. Prodr. 94?
A. daucifolia; Lamarck. Di&t.v. 1.46. Anamenia dau-
eifolia ; Venten. Malmaif. 22. n. 5.)—Leaves twice ternate ;
Jeaflets pinnatifid, deeply cut, fmooth, their fegments de-
current. Flower-ftalks hairy.—The only fpecimen we have
feen was given to Linneus, by Thunberg, who gathered it
at the Cape. We prefume, therefore, it mutt be his Adonis
athiopica, with the character of which, cited under our laft
fpecies, it fufticiently tallies. The /eaves are finely divided, but
not fufficiently like a Daucus to warrant Lamarck’s change
of the original name, however unmeaning that may be.
The /fem is tall and flender, bearing two hairy-ttalked um-
bels. Lower Jradeas compound. Petals nearly linear. Lae

Vou. XX.

K NO
marck's account feems entirely taken from the Supplementum
of Linneus. 5S.

KNOX, Joun, in Biography, the intrepid and fuccefsful
promoter of the Reformation in Scotland, was defcended
from an, ancient family, and born mear Haddington, in Fait
Lothian, in the year 1505. Having received the elementary
parts of a good education, he was, at a proper time, fent to
the univerlity of St. Andrews, where he applied himfelf with
uncommon diligence in the ftudies of theyplace, made a very
rapid proficiency, and was admitted to the degree of M.A.
at anearly age. Having determined to embrace the eccle-
fialtical profeffion, he was admitted to priett’s orders before
the period ufually allowed by the canons. He now com,
menced teacher, and acquired great applaufe in that capa-
city.. But by inftruéting others, he difcovered the errors of
the common fyftem in which he had been educated, and
which he had endeavoured to eltablifh in the minds of the
people. Feeling diffatisfied with what he was engaged in,
he chofe rather to bea hearer than a preacher, and frequented
the difcourfes of Thomas Williams, a black-friar, who
publicly preached againft the pope’s authority, and who was
the firlt from whem Mr. Knox received any tatte for the
truth. About the fame time, Mr. George Wifhart, another
celebrated reformer, coming from England, with the com-
miffioners fent by king Henry VIII. Knox learned from
him the principles of the reformed religion, and with thefe
he was fo well pleafed, that from this moment he renounced
Popery and became a zealous Proteitant. Mr. Knox had
quitted St. Andrews a little before this entire change of his
opinions, having been appointed tutor to the fons of the
lairds of Ormilton and Langnidry, who were both favourers
of the Reformation. Knox inttilled into the minds of his
pupils the principles of piety and the Proteftant religion,
notice of which being given to David Beaton, cardinal,and
archbifhop of St. Andrews, that prelate profecuted him
with fuch feverity that he was obliged to abicond, and
frequently to change the place of his concealment. He
thought of retiring into Germany, but was diffuaded from
it by the fathers of his pupils, and he took fhelter with them
in St. Andrews caftle, which was then in pofleffion of the
Leflies, the determined friends of the Reformation. In
this afylum he continued to injiruct his pupils, and he gave
them public lectures in theology, which he delivered at a
{tated hour in the chapel, within the walls of the caitle.
Thefe were frequented by feveral perfons of note in the
city, who entreated Mr. Knox to take upon himfelf the
office of preacher, to which, though with great reluctance,
he agreed to comply. He began his public mimiftry at St.
Andrews, in the year 1547, with that fuccefs which always
accompanies a bold and popular eloquence. He without
hefitation ftruck at the root of Popery, and attacked both
the doGrine and difcipline of the eitablifhed church with a
vehemence peculiar to himfelf, but well adapted to the
temper and wifhes of the age. In his firft fermon he proved,
to the fatisfaétion of his hearers, that the pope was antichriit,
and that the doétrine of the Roman church was contrary to the
do&trine of Chrift and his apoftles. He fhortly made converts
of all the people in the cattle, and of great numbers in the
city, who even joined him in partaking of the Lord’s fupper.
In the month of July 1547, an interruption took place in the
exercife of Mr, Knox’s miniftry, in confequence of the fur-
render of the caftle to the French, when he was carried pri-
foner with the garrifon to France. He remained in confine-
ment in the galleys till the latter end of the year 1549, when,
being fet at liberty, he pafled over to England, and arriving
at London, was licenfed ene by Cranmer, or Ens

i the

KN OX.

the protector, and appointed preacher, firft at Berwick, and
afterwards at Newcaltle. In 1552, he was appointed one of
fix chaplains, whom the council thought proper to retain in
the fervice of king Edward VI., not only to attend the
court, but to be itinerary preachers of the Proteftant reli-
gion throughout the kingdom ; he had alfo the grant of forty
pounds a year till fome benefice fhould be pro¢ured for him.
Shortly after he was offered the living of All-hallows, which
he refufed, not ch8ofing to conform to the liturgy. Soon
after the acceffion of queen Mary, he thought it right to re-
tire from the impending ftorm; he accordingly went to Ge-
neya, where he had not refided long before he was invited by
the Encglith refugees at Frankfort to become their minifter :
this invitation he accepted, though againtt his will, through
the interferesce of John Calvin, and he continued-his fer-
vices among them till fome internal difputes about ceremonies
broke up their fociety. Some of the Englifh, particularly
Dr. Cox, afterwards bifhop of Ely, withed for a liturgy
according to king Udward’s form, but Knox and others
preferred the Geneva fervice; at length the party of Cox,
to get rid of the Scotch reformer, taking advantage of
certain unguarded expreffions in one of his former publica-
tions, threatened to accufe him of treafon unlefs he quitted
the place, which he-did, and went again to Geneva. In 1555,
he went to Scotland ; upon his arrival, finding the profeffors
of the Proteftant religion greatly increafed in number, he
formed them into a fociety, affociated with them, and com-
menced his preaching with the ufual vehemence. He
had an opportunity, in the courfe of a few months, to
preach in various paris of Scotland, and in all the places
the people flocked in great crowds to hear him. The Popith
clergy began to be alarmed at the confequences of his dif-
courfes, which were daily making converts, and fummoned
him to appear before them in the church of Black-friars in
Edinburgh: he, having received affurances of fupport trom
various perfons of rank and etlimation, determined to obey
the fummons, but before the day arrived, his enemies
thought fit to-abandon the profecution. Knox, however,
went to Edinburgh, and as he was not allowed to vindicate
his caufe in the prefence of his opponents, he preached twice
every day for ten days tothe people, and had on thefe occa-
lions more numerous audiences than he had before witneffed.
Emboldened by fuccefs, he wrote a letter to the queen re-
gent, urging her to hear the Proteftant doGrine, which fhe
declined, and Mr. Knox afterwards publifhed his letter with
fome additions. Inthe fummer of 1556, Mr. Knox fet out
for Geneva, at the earneft entreaty of the Englifh congre-
gation, and almoft the moment in which he embarked, the
bifhops fummoned him to appear before them, and upon his
non-appearance, they paffed fentence of death upon him as
a heretic, and burnt him in effigy at Edinburgh. Againft
this wicked fentence he appealed, in a work which he
printed at Geneva, and which contains a mafterly defence of
religious independency, and is diftinguifhed for purity of
ftyle. In 1557, he was invited back to Scotland, and having
confulted Calvin and other perfons as to the prudence and
neceffity of the ftep, he fet out, and had proceeded as faras
Dieppe, when he was advifed that fome of his beft friends
feemed, through timidity, to be abandoning their principles,
and that theretore it would not be fafe for him to proceed.
He immediately wrote letters to thofe who had invited him,
complaining of their irrefolution, and even denouncing
the’ fevere judgments of God on all thofe who fhould
betray the caufe of truth and of their country, by
weaknefs or apoftacy. Thefe letters made fuch an im-
preflion on thofe to whom they were immediately addrefled,

that they all came to a written refolution, * that they would
follow forth their purpofe, and commit themfelves, and
whatever God had given them, into his hands, rather than
fuffer idolatry to reign, and the fubjeéts to be defrauded of *
the only food of their fouls.’’ T’o fecure each other’s
fidelity to the Proteftant caufe, a common bond, or cove-
nant, was entered into by them, dated at Edinburgh, De-
cember 3, 1557, and from this period they were diftinguifhed
by the name of “¢ The Congregation,”? In the mean ae
Knox returned to Geneva, where, in 1558, he publithe is
treatife, entitled “The firlt Blait of the Trumpet againft
the monftrous Regiment of Women ;’’ which was writter
in deteftation of the cruel and infamous government of queen
Mary, and of the endeavours of the queen-regent of Scot-
land to eftablifh arbitrary government in that kingdom. He
intended to have followed this with “* The fecond Blatt,”
but the death of Mary prevented him going any farther.
He expected much from the government of Elizabeth,
She had, however, been fo difgutted by what he had writ-
ten againit the government of women, that fhe embraced
an early opportunity of difplaying her refentment againft
him. She refufed his requeft of preaching to his friends in
England, in his way from the continent, and rendered his
abode there fo uncomfortable, that he was glad to make the
belt of his road to Scotland, where he arrived in the month
of May 1559. At this time a public profecution was car-
ried on againit the Proteitants, and their trial was juit yeady
to commence at Stirling: Knox inttantly hurried to pal
with his brethren in the threatened danger, or to affift them
in their common caufe. Dr. Robertfon, in deferibing this
bufinefs, fays, “* While their minds were in that ferment
which the qucen’s perfidioufnefs and their own danger occa-
fioned, Knox mounted the pulpit, and, by a vehement ha-
rangue again{t idolatry, inflamed the multtude with the ut-
moit rage. The indifcretion of a prieft, who, immediately
after Knox’s-difcourfe, was feen preparing to celebrate mafs,
and began to decorate the altar for that purpofe, precipitated
them into immediate attion. With tumultuous, but irre-
fiftible violence, they fell upon the churches in that city,
overturned the altars, defaced the pi€tures, broke in pieces
the images, and proceeding next to the monatteries, laid
thofe fumptuous fabrics almoft level with the ground. This
riotous infurreétion was not the effect of any concert, or
previous deliberation. Cenfured by the reformed preachers,
and publicly condemned by the perfons of molt power and
credit with the party, it mult be reearded merely as an ac-
cidental eruption of popular rage’? From this time Mr,
Knox continued to:promote the reformation by every means
in his power, {paring no pains, nor fearing any danger. Mr.
Knox, by his correfpondence with fecretary Cecil, was
chiefly initrumental in eftablifhing thofe negociations be-
tween “ The Congregation”? and the Englith, which ter-
minated in the-march of an Englifh army into Scotland to
affift the Proteftants, and to protet them againtt the perfe-
cutions of the queen-regent. This army, being joined by
almoft all the great men of Scotland, proceeded with fuch
vigour and fuccefs, that they obliged the French forces, who
had been the principal fupports of the tyranny of the re-
gent, to quit the kingdom, and reftored the parliament to
its former independency. Of that body, a great majority
had embraced the Proteftant opinions, and encouraged by
the zeal and number of their friends, they improved every
opportunity in overthrowing the whole fabric of Popery.
They fantisiaed the confeflion of faith prefented to them
by Knox, and the other reformed teachers: they abolifhed’
the jurifdition of the ecclefiaftical courts, and a
the -

KN O X.

the caufes to the cognizance of the civil courts; and they
prohibited the exercife of religious worfhip, according to
the rites of the Romifh church. In the year 1561, Mary
queen of Scots, the widow of Francis II. king of France,
arrived in her native country, from which fhe had been ab-
fent more than twelve years, though fhe was then fearcely
nineteen. On the Sunday after her arrival fhe commanded
mafs to be celebrated in the chapel of her palace: the Pro-
teftants, from low murmurs, began to exclaim loudly againft
‘the practice, and Knox, with his ufual vehemence, declared
from the pulpit, “ that one mafs was more frightful to him
than ten thoufand armed enemies landed in any part of
the realm.’ Knox himfelf frequently infulted her from
the pulpit, and when admitted into her prefence, regardlefs
of her fex, her beauty, and her rank, behaved to her with
very unjuftifiable freedom. He avowed himfelf the author
of “The Blatt,’ and contended for the right of teaching
and propagating doCtrines contrary to the common opinion,
and concluded a long conference by faying, ‘If the realm
finds no inconveniency in the regiment [government ] of a wo-
man, I fhall be wellcontent to live under your Grace, as Paul
was under Nero. And my hope is that fo long as ye defile
not your hands with the blood of the faints of God, neither
T nor the book {hall either hurt you or your authority ; for
in very deed, madam, that book was written mott efpecially
again{t the wicked Jezebel of England.’? In 1562, Mr.
Knox was employed in bringing about a reconciliation be-
tween the earls of Bothwe'l and Arran, which fhews in
what eftimation he was held by perfons of the higheft rank
in the ftate. In the fame year he was appointed, by the
general aflembly, commiffioner to the counties of Kyle
and Galloway, and by his influence feveral gentlemen en-
tered into a bond or covenant at Ayr, fimilar to that entered
into at Edinburgh in 1557. About the fame time he ac-
cepted a challenge, made by the prior of Whithorn, to a
public difputation upon the mafs, which continued for the
fpace of three days, and the fub{tance of which was after-
wards publifhed. In 1563, during the queen’s abfence on
a progrefs to the weft of Scotland, the Proteftants at Edin-
burgh excited a riot in the chapel royal while mafs was
celebrating: of thefe fame of the moft aétive were feized in
order to be brought to trial. Knox, determined to affitt
and fuccour them, and being authorized by the lait general
affembly to give information to the whole body of Protef-
tants in Scotland, fhould any circumftance arife that might
threaten danger to the reformation ; iffued circular letters,
requiring all who profeffed the true religion, or were con-
cerned in its prefervation, to afflemble at Edinburgh on the
day of trial, that they might comfort and aflift their dif-
treffed brethren. One of thefe letters fell into the hands of
the queen, and it was immediately conftrued into an act of
treafon, for which he was indicted, brought to trial, and
acquitted. His conduct was alfo approved by the general
affembly of the church, which met foon afterwards. In
1565, lord Darnley, who had lately married the queen, con-
fented, at the defire of his friends, to hear Mr. Knox
preach, in hopes thereby of conciliating him, inltead of
which he took occafion to declaim againit the government
of wicked princes, who, for the fins ot the people, are fent
as tyrants and fcourges to torment them. Darnley com-
plained of the infult, and the council filenced the preacher
for feveral days. In the fame year he was appointed by
the affembly to vifit and eftablifh the churches in the fouth;
and he was the bearer of a letter from the affembly to the
bifhops of England, drawn up by himfelf; the purport of
which was to complain of the fevere treatment of the Eng-
lith Puritans, and to folicit indulgence for them. In1571,

he found it expedient to confult his own fafety by withdray
ing from Edinburgh, and in the following year, as he knew
his enemies were plotting his deftruction, he went firlt to
Abbot’s-hall, in Fife, and from thence to St. Andrews,
where he remained till Auguft 1572. When the troubles
of the country were in fome meafure abated, the people of
Edinburgh, who had been obliged to leave it, returned, and
fent a deputation to St, Andrews, to invite Mr, Knox to re-
fume his miniftry among them. He accepted the invitation,
on condition that they would allow him to {peak to them
according to the diétates of his confcience, as in former
times, and on the laft day of Augult he preached to them
in the great kirk. His voice was, however, very weak, and
his health was evidently declining. The news of the ac-
curfed maffacre of Proteftants at Paris gave the finifhing
blow to his already fhattered conttitution: he, neverthelet{s,
muttered fufficient ftrength to preach againft the bloody
deed, and with much energy denounced God’s vengeance on
the wicked ators in it, of which he defired the French am-
baffador might be informed. From the moment that he
had finifhed his difcourfe, his approaching diffolution was ob-
ferved with the utmoft concern by his friends. During a
long illnefs he difcovered the utmott fortitude, and met the
approaches of death with a magnanimity worthy of his high
charaGter. He anticipated with joy the profpects of im-
mortality, and exulted in the expectation of being releafed
from the infirmities of the body. He died November 24th,
1572, in the fixty-feventh year of his age: his corpfe was
attended to the grave by feveral of the nobility then in
Edinburgh, particularly by earl Morton, who was regent
at the time, and who exclaimed, when he faw the body de-
pofited in the ground, “ there lies he, who never feared the
face of man; who hath often been threatened with the dag-
ger, but hath yet ended his days in peace and honcur : for
he had God’s providence watching over him in an efpecial
manner, when his very life was fought.” The private life
of this eminent reformer was irreproachable and exemplary,
and the world is not a little indebted to him for that degree
of light and religious liberty which it enjoys: “ He was,’
fays Dr. Robertfon, ‘“ the prime inftrument of {preading and
eftablifhing the reformed religion in Scotland. Zeal, intre-
pidity, dilfintereftednefs, were virtues which he poffeffed in
an eminent degree. He was acquainted, too, with the learn-
ing cultivated among divines in that age, and excelled in
that fpecies of eloquence, which is calculated to roufe and
inflame. His maxims, however, were often too fevere, and
the impetuofity of his temper exceffive. Rigid and un-
complying himfelf, he fhewed no indulgence to the infirmi-
ties of others. Regardlefs of the diftinctions of rank and
charaGter, he uttered his admonitions with acrimony and ve-
hemence, more apt to irritate than to reclaim. This often
betrayed him into indecent and undutiful expreffions with
refpeét to the queen’s perfon and conduét. Thofe very
qualities, however, which now render his charaéter lefs ami-
able, fitted him to be the inftrument of Providence for advanc-
ing the reformation among a fierce people, and enabled him
to face dangers, and to {urmount oppofition, from which a
perfon of a more gentle fpirit would have been apt to
fhrink back.’’ After the death of this great man, his “ Hif-
tory of the Reformation of Religion in the Realm of Scot-
land, &c.’’ was publifhed in a folio volume. To the fourth
edition of which, printed in 1732, feveral of his other pieces
were added. There ate, among the Harleian MSS. in the
Britifh Mufenm, two pieces attributed to Mr. KKnox, one
is a letter to his wife, and the other a treatife addreffled to
the faithful in London, Newcaftle, and Berwick. Biog.
Brit. Robertfon’s Hift. of Scotland.

K 2 Knox,

KNO

Kyox, id Geography, a county of Kentucky, containing
1119 inhabitants.-~¢\lfoy a county of Teneflee, in Hamil-
ton dillri€t, bounded on the S. by, Blount county and W.
by the Indiana territory, and watered by the rivers Holfton
and Clinch It contains 11,981 inhabitants, of whom 1122
are flaves.—Alfo, a county in the Indiana territory, erected
in June, 1790, and- containing 2517 inhabitants, of whom
28 are flaves. Fort Knox is in the fame territory. —Alfo,
one of the two iflands difcovered by captain Ingraham ;
the other being Hancock, called by captain Roberts, who
foon after difcovered them, Freeman and Langdon. ‘Vhele
iflands had every appearance of fertility. Their latitude is
from 83° to S5°S., and their longitude very nearly 141°
W. from Greenwich.

KNOXIA, in Botany, a genus named by Linnzus, in
honour of Robert Knox, an Englifhman, who {pent many
years in examining the natural produétions of Ceylon, and
who publifhed at London, in folio, an “¢ Hiltorical relation”
of that ifland in the year 1681. In this work, ‘the bo-
tanical defcriptions,”’ fays Haller, “thew him to have been
well killed in the knowledge of plants."’ It was tranflated
into German, and publithed in quarto at Leipfic in 1689.
A. French edition of it appeared, in two volumes o¢tavo,
at Amiterdam, in 1693.—Linn. Gen. 51. Schreb. 68.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.. 582. Mart. Mill. Dict y. 3.
Juff. 197. Lamarck. Di&. v. 3. 369. Illuftr. t. 59.
Gertn. t. 25.—Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Svel/ataz, Linn. Rubiaceae, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cai. Perianth {uperior, {mall, deciduous, of
four acuminated leaves; one lanceolate, triple the lize of
the reit. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped; tube thread-
fhaped, long; limb deeply divided into four, equal, rather
oblong, rounded fegments. S*em. Filaments four, capil-
lary, fituated within the throat of the corolla; anthers ob-
long, equal. P2/f. Germen roundifh, inferior; ftyle thread-
thaped, as long as the ftamens; ttigmas two, capitate,
Peric. Fruit naked, fomewhat globular, pointed, furrowed.
Seeds two, roundifh, pomted, outwardly convex, marked
with three ftreaks ; fat within, and affixed at the upper

art to a thread-like receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal, funnel-fhaped. Seeds
two, furrowed. One leaf of the calyx larger than the
rett.

1. K. seylanica.
Burm. Ind. 34. t. 13. f. 2.
t. 114. f. 2.)—‘¢ Flowers in {pikes.
Found in Ceylon, upon the trunks of rotten trees—This
plant in appearance is like a Plumbago or Lychnis, Stem
ere&t, a foot high, fmooth, jointed. Leaves oppolite, lan-
ceolate, nearly feffile. Spikes long, narrow, with fcattered,
fefitle flowers.

2. K. corymbofa. Pootumby of the Malabars. Willd.
n. a. (Planta Maderafpatana; Pluk. Amalth, 172. t. 454.
f.2. K. ftriia; Gertn. v. 1. 122. t. 25. £ 8 2)—* Flowers
corymbofe. Leaves downy beneath.?—A native of the
Eaft Indies and found near Velore.—Stem pubefcent.
Leaves two together, pointed, on footitalks, lanceolate,
imooth above, covered on the under fide with fhert thick
hairs. - The injlorefcence in fize and habit is like that of Va-
leriana dioica. Flowers on footitalks.. Seeds {mall, ftriated,
difpofed in an umbel at the fummit of the item. We have
little doubt but that Willdenow is perfeGily correét in pre-
fuming this to be the K. /lrida of Gertner.

KNOXVILLE, in Geography, a poit-town of America,
the metropolis of the flate of Teneffee, fituated in Knox
county, on the N. fide of Holiton river, where it is 300
yards wide, on a beautiful {pot of ground, 22 miles above

Linn. Sp. Pl. 151. F‘. Zeylan. 18g,
(Veronice affinis; Pluk. Phyt..

Leaves {mooth.’?’—~

KNU

the junction of the Holfton with the Teneffee, and four be»
low the mouth of French Broad river. ‘This town is flou-
rifhing, and communicates by poft with every part of the
United States. It is regularly laid out, and contains 518
inhabitants, a Bane ate aol, and barracks large enough
to contain 700 men. ‘The iad courts of law and equity
for the diflrié& of Hamilton are held here every half year,
and the courts of pleas and quarter-feffions for Knox count

are alfo held here. A college has been eftablifhed in this
town by government, called « Blount college.’ N. lat. 35°
48. W. long. 83° 44'.

KNUCKLE Point, a cape on the N.E. coalt of New
Zealand. §. lat. 34° 51'. W. long. 186° 21’.

Kyucxe-Timlers, in a Ship, are the upper or top
timbers next the beak-head, whofe heads {tanding perpendi-
cular, and the heels or lower part partaking of the hollow
of the top fide, form an angle or knuckle near the plank-
fheer.

KNUD’s Hoven, in Geography, a cape of Denmark,
on the E. coaft of Slefwick, eight miles N.E. of Haderf-
leben. N. lat. 55° 20’. E. long. 9° 40'——Alfo, a cape
of Denmark, on the E. coait of the ifland of Fyen, pro-
jeGting into the Great Belt, and forming a bay on the S. of
the town of Nyeborg. N. lat.55° 17’. E. long. 0° 52’.
—Alfo, a cape of Denmark, on the S.W. coaft of the
iflasd of Zealand. N. lat. 55° 5'.. E. long. 11° 37’, .

KNUTSFORD, a ccnfiderable market town in the
hundred of Bucklow, and county of Chetter, England, is
feated on the great road from London to Liverpool, being
173 miles from the former, 30 from the latter, 24 from
Chefter, and 15 from Manchefter. It was formerly a
chapelry within the parifh of Roftherne, but was made a
dittinét parifh, by a& of parliament, in the year 1741,
and comprizes the townfhips of Over-Knutsford, Nether-
Knutsford, Bexton, Ollerton, and Toft. i

William de Tabley, who was lord of both the Knuts-
fords, about the year 1292, granted a charter of privileges
to his burgeffes of Knutsford, which is printed in fir Peter
Leicefter’s Hiftory of Bucklow hundred; this William,
‘about the fame time, procured a charter for a market on
Saturday, which ftill continues, anda fair for three days,
at the feltival of St. Peter and St. Paul ; the charter was con-
firmed to William Tabley the younger, 1332 ; this fair alfo is
ftill continued ; there is another on the 8th of Nov. and a
third has been eftablifhed within thefe few years on the 23d
of April; none of them are noted as great marts for the
fale of any particular commodities. A charter for a Wed-
nefday’s market at Over-Knutsford, on Knutsford-Booth, -
was granted in 1335, to Ellen Legh, with a fair on Tuef-
day and Wednefday in Whitfun-week ; this market has been
long cifcontinued, but the fair is fill held.

Knutsford is not a corporate town, but it appears that
its chief officer was called a mayor in the reignof king Ed-
ward I.; it has now no peculiar government. The quarter-
feffions for the county are held in this town at Midfummer
and Michaelma~. In the year 1777, an account having beem
taken of the population of Kuutsford, it was found that
there were 375 families, and 1674 inhabitants; annval
average of deaths for the ten years then preceding had
been only one in forty, being ébout the fame proportion, as
th the city of Chefter, and very much below the ufual
average of towns. According to the returns made to par-
liament, under the population a& in 1801, there were then
543 families in Over and Nethor-Kautsford, and 2372 in-
habitants, of whom 782 were employed in trade, manu-
factures, or handicraft. A manufacture of thread has been
long eftablifhed inthis town. There is no cotton factory,

5 but

e
KN Y

but a great deal of cotton {pinning and weaving ig done in
private houfes.

Under an aét of parliament pafled in the year 1741,
Knutsford was made a diltin& parith and vicarage, and the
ancient chapel in Nether-Knutsrord taken down; the new
parifh church, then built in the Tentry-croft, was confe-
crated in the year 1744, and dedicated to St. John the
Baptilt ; the patronage is velted, by the aét, in the lords of
Over-Knutsford, Nether-Knutsford and Ollerton, Toft,
and Bexton, who prefent in rotation. Knutsford is divided
into two parts by a fmall rivulet, and from the relative
fituation, thefe divifions are called Upper and Lower. An-
nual races are held in the vicinity of this town. Imme-
diately in the neighbourhood are fome feats diftinguifhed
for their antiquity and picturefque features. To the north
is Tatton-hall, the feat of Wilbraham Egerton, efq. a large

* ftone manfion, recently ereéted from the deligns of Samuel
Wyatt, efq. The adjoining park comprizes about 2000
acres of land, fome of which is annually in tillage. Welt
of the town is T'abley-houfe, the feat of fir John F. Lei-
cefter, bart., a large brick manfion, in a fpacious park,
which is ornamented with a large lake and fine forelt
trees. The houfe is particularly noted for its noble gallery
of piétures, all executed by Englith artifts. Lyfons’s
Magna Britannia, vol. ii. gto. 1810.

NUTWEIL,a bailiwick of Switzerland, in the canton
of Lucerne. ;

KNUTZEN, Marutas, in Biography, a native of Ol-
denfworth, in the duchy of Slefwick, was educated at Ko-
nigfberg, in Prufiia. He is the only perfon on record who
openly profeffed and taught the principles of Atheifm. It
has been afferted that he had, at one time, 1000 difciples in
the different parts of Germany. ‘They affumed the title of
« Confcientiarians,’” becaufe they maintained that people
were bound to lay afide all confideration of God and reli-
gion, and to follow the dictates of reafon and confcience
alone. Reafon, faid Knutzen, teaches every man the three

- fundamental principles of the law of nature: * to hurt no-
body”’—“ to live honeftly’’—and “to give to every man
his due.” Inthe year 1674, he difperfed a Latin letter, and
two dialogues in German, explanatory of his doétrines,
which affumed that there was neither God nor devil: that
neither magiltrates nor priefts were to be regarded, and that
there is no life but the prefent. Mufeus publifhed an
anfwer to his Letter and Dialogues, as well to refute the
abfardity and wickednefs of his fyftem, as to contradi& the
fact ref[peGting the number of the difciples.
died in contempt, as no notice is taken of the latter part of
his life by hiftorians. Moreri, Bayle.

Kxyurzex, Martin, a profeffor of philofophy in Pruffia,
was born at Konigfberg in the year 1713. He filled, for
fome years, the philofophical chair in the univerfity of his
native place, and occupied the polt of librarian. He died
in 1751, when he was only about thirty-eight years of age.
‘He was author of feveral learned works, of which the prin-
cipal are, ‘ Syltema Caufarum Efficientium ;’? “* Elementa
Philofophice Rationalis, Methodo Mathematico demon-
ftrata ;"’ “© Theoremata de Parabolis infinitis ;? and « A
Defence of the Chriltian Religion.” This lait is faid to be
a very excellent piece, and one that is honourable to his vir-
tues and talents.

KNYSNA, in Geography, an arm of the fea on the coaft
of Africa, in the colony of the Cape of Good Hope, at the
diftance of about 18.r**s to the weltward of Plettenberg’s
bay, which, in the opinion of Mr. Barrow, may one day
become an important itation. He has given a plan of it in
the fecond volume of his “ Travels in Southern Africa.”

He probably |

KOB

The tide fets into it through a uarrow paflage, or portzl,
as intoadock. The depth of water, and great extent of
it, running into the centre of very fine forefts, render it a
mott eligible place for building and repairing fhips. Vellels
of 500 tons and upwards, deeply laden, may pafs the por-
tal, and thofe that are much larger might be built in it and
fent out light, to be completed in Plettenberg’s bay. The
forefts contain feveral different kinds of durable and well-
grown timber fit for that valuable purpofe, as well as
abundance of mafts and yards.

KNYSZYN, a town of the duchy of Warlaw; 36
miles N. of Bielfk.

KOADGW AH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Jenhat ; 20 miles W.N.W. of Gujurat.

KOALA, in Zoology, afpecies of the Wombat, the pe-
culiarities of which have been defcribed by Mr. E. Home
in the Phil. Tranf. for 1808, part. ii, The koala inhabits
the forefts of New Holland, about 50 or 60 miles to the
S.W. of Port Jackfon, and was firit brought to that place
in Augutt, 1803. It is commonly about two feet long and
one high, in the girth about one and a half foot : itis covered
with fine foft fur; lead-coloured on the back, and white
on the belly ; the ears are fhort, ereét, and pointed ; the
eyes generally ruminating, fometimes fiery and menacing ;
refembling the bear in the fore part of its body; it has no
tail; and its pofture is commonly fitting. ‘The New Hol-
landers eat the flefh of this animal, and are therefore diligent
and aétive inthe purfuit of it ; afcending the loftielt gum
trees, and following the animal from bough to bough, till at
length they are able either to kill it with the tomahawk, or ta.
take it alive. In the day time the koala feeds upon the tender
fhoots of the blue gum tree, and in the night it defcends,
and prowling about, fcratches the ground in fearch of fome
particular roots. It feems to creep rather than walk; when
incenfed or hungry, it utters a long thrill yell, and aflumes a
fierce and menacing look. Thefe animals are found in pairs,
and the mother carries the young on its fhoulders. The
koala appears foon to form anattachment to the perfon who
feedsit. ‘Thefe animals feem to form the intermediate link
between the opoffum and kanguroo.. See Womsat.

KOAMAROO, Cars, in Geography, the S.E. projec-
tion of land at the entrance of Queen Charlotte’s Sound,
on the ifland of Tavai-Poenammoo, one of the New Zealand
iflands. 5S. lat, 41° 34'. E. long. 176° 30’.

KOANG-TCHEOU, a town of Corea; 150 miles S.
of King-ki-tao. WN. lat. 3596’. E. long. 125° 41/.

KOB, in Zoology. See ANTELOPE Lerwia.

KOBA, in Geography, atown of Africa, in Kullo. WN,
lat. 12° 20'. W. long. 9°.—Alfo, atown of Arabia, in the
province of Hedsjas; three miles N.W. of Medina,—Alfo,
a town of Turkeftan; 70 miles E. of Toucat.

Koga of Buffon, in Zoology, Antelope Koba, is referred
by Gmelin, with fome hefitation, to ANTELOPE Pygarga,
(which fee) ; but Pennant refers the koba to the {ipecies
we are now to defecribe ; i. e. his Senegal antelope, the Cer-
vus temamacama of Seba, the antilope Bubalis of Pallas,
la grande vache brunne of Adanfon. The horns are thick
and annulated, very clofe at the roots, much bent in the
middle, then approaching and receding at the ends, which
are fmooth, fharp, and bent backwards. ‘This animal in-
habits Senegal; it isa large f{pecies, feven feet long ;, the
head is Jorge and chimfy, with large ears, feven inches long ;
the horns are feventeen inches long, and are furrounded: with
fifteen prominent rings ; the head and body are of a-lght
reddifh-brown colour, with a narrow black lift down the
hind part of the neck; the rump is dirty white; there 1s
a dufky mark on each knee, and ubove each. fetlock joint

the °

KOB

the tail isabout a foot long, and is covered with longifh
black hairs.

KOBACK, in Geography, a town of Sclavonia, on the
Save; 20 miles E.S.E. of Belgrade.—Alfo, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Yani.

KOBAD, a diftri&t of Perfia, in the N.W. part of Far-
fiftan. : .

KOBAK, a town of Sweden, in Welt Bothnia; feven
miles N.W. of Umea.

KOBAN Kopri, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 27
miles E. of Erzerum. |

KOBELNIKA, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Gali-
cia ; 34 miles W. of Lemberg.

KOBELWIES, a town in the canton of St. Gallen, in
Switzerland, at the foot of the Kamor. About two miles
above Kobelwies are the caves known by the name of the
Cryftal Caves. Thefe are difficult of accefs, the only pof-
fible mode of entering them being in a creeping pofture.
From the firft of thefe caves you defcend into the fecond,
and afcend again in order to arrive at the third, out of
which iffues a brook, which fupplies forty baths at Kobel-
ies. The interior of the caves is ftudded all over, not with
rock cryftals, but with calcareous fpar, which is partly coated
with a yellow kind of clay ; it is found white and of an afh-
grey colour, feparates into brilliant large grains with a
{mooth furface, and when burnt yields the fineft and whiteft
fort of lime which is applied for the purpofes of art. The
water iffuing out of the caves is very clear; it is impreg-
nated with lime and fulphuric acid, and the baths it fupplies
(efpecially when taken warm) are very efficacious in the
cure of the ague prevailing in the marfhy parts of the coun-
try bordering on the Rhine.

KOBEN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Glo-
gau,; on the Oder. N, lat. 51° 31'.. E.long. 16° 26!.

KOBI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Cauca-
fus ; 60 miles §.E. of Ekaterinograd.

KOBIELE, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Troki; 20 miles N.N.E. of Grodno.

KOBIELEN, atown of the duchy of Warfaw; 28
miles W. of Kalith.

KOBIL, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Peterf-
burg, on the E. coaft of the Tchud#:hoi lake ; 24 miles
N. of Phkov.

KOBILINKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the country of
the Coffacks ; 156 miles E.N.E. of Azoph.

KOBIN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Segeftan ;
30 miles S. of Zareng.

KOBINIKI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna ; 52 miles E.N.E. of Wilna.

KOBRESIA, in Botany, fo called by profeffor Willde-
now, in honour of a nobleman at Vienna, named de Kobres,
whom he celebrates as an eminent promoter of natural hif.
tory.— Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 205.—Clafs and order, Monoecia
Triandria. Nat. Ord. Calamarie, Linn. C; pperoidee, Jufl.

Gen, Ch. Male, Ca/. the inner feales of a catkin, each
oblong, flightly concave, fingle-flowered, permanent, fome-
times wanting. Cor. none. Stam. Filaments three, capil-
lary, erect, longer than the calyx ; anthers vertical, linear,
erect:,

Female, Cal. the outer feales of the fame catkin, rather
larger, fheathing, elliptic-oblong, fingle-flowered, perma-
nent. Cor. none. Pi/, Germen fuperior, triangular ;
ityle cylindrical, fhort ; ftigmas three, briftle-fhaped§ downy.
Peric. none, except the permanent fcales. Seed one, trian-
gular, pointed, hard, naked.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx the inner feales of an imbricated
catkin, folitary. Corolla none.

KOB

Female, Calyx the outer feales of the fame catkin,
fheathing, permanent. Corolla none. Stigmas three. Seed
triangular, naked.

Obf. This genus differs from Carea in the want of a
tunic to the feed, which is fo remarkable in that, and has
been called fometimes a corolla or nectary ; as well as in
the difpofition of the flowers. Thefe in Kobrefia ftand in
pairs, the males being interwal, and fmaller. In one known
inftance only they want their {cale or calyx, fo that there is
no feparation between the flamens and pittil, and the flowers
become apparently united, or hermaphrodite. Three {pecies
only are known.

1. K. feirpina. Willd. n. 1. (Carex Bellardi; Allion.
Pedem. v. 2. 264. t. 92. f..2. Schkuhr. Car. 12. t. D.
f.16. C. myofuroides; Villars. Dauph. v. 2. 194. t. 6.
See Carex, n. 15.)—Spike folitary, fimple, cylindrical.
—Native of dry elevated {pots on the mountains of Savoy,
Dauphiny, Italy, Carinthia, Styria, and the Tyrol, flower-.
ing in July and Auguft. We have gathered it high on
Mount Cenis, in company with the able botanift whofe
name it bears. Linnzus had fpecimens from Italy, which
he never defcribed. Mr. Davall found this plant on the
mountain of Valforey, though Haller has it not. - The root
is perennial, tufted, confifling of numerous blackifh, zig-
zag fibres, running deep into crevices of rocks. Stems nu-
merous, a {pan high, or lefs, fimple, naked, round, firiated,
fmooth, erect or flightly curved, compofing denfe tufts,
with numerous, fheathing, brown, polifhed radical feales,
Leaves radical, ere&t, fhorter than the ftems, narrow, acute.
inyolute, rough-edged. Spie terminal, folitary, ereét, about
an inch long, obtufe, flender, of from tem to twenty pair of
flowers, moft lax in its lower part. G/umes brown, fhining,
with membranous edges, awnlefs. Schkuhr figures but two
fligmas ; we find three, as all other writers defcribe them.
The permanent glumes, invefting the feed, look like the torn
tunic of a Carex, as Villars reprefents them, ‘That of the
male flower is much the fmallett and moft membranous.

2. K. caricina. Willd. n. 2. (Carex hybrida; Schkuhr.
Car. t. Rrr. f. 161. Willd. Schoenus monoicus ; Sm. Eng.
Bot. v. 20. t. 1410.)—-Spike compound, denfe, fomewhat
ovate; fpikelets alternate, imbricated.—Native of Mount
Cenis, in rather moift muddy fpots, flowering in Auguit ;
gathered by the writer of the prefent article in 1787. Mr.
Dickfon obferved it in the county of Durham in 1799. The
Rev, Mr. Harriman mentions the mountain of Cronkley,
and the neighbourhood of Widdy bank, in Teefdale forett,
as its particular ftations, At the fuggeition of the late
Mr. W. Brunton, it was referred in Eng. Bot. to. Schoenus,
proving, on examination, no Carex. Its habit and fize are
much like the preceding, except that the /fems grow lefs
crowded or tufted, and are ftouter, and the /eaves fhorter,
fomewhat broader, as well as more fpreading. ‘Vhe /prke is
effentially different, being compofed of four or five alter-
nate, fhort, elliptical {fpikelets, making all together an ovate
figure. Glumes rather more pointed, keeled, and lefs mem-
branous, than in the foregoing f{pecies. Stigmas three. Seed
elliptic-oblong, triangular, pointed, horny. ;

3. K. eyperina. Willd. n. 3. (Carex hermaphrodita ;
Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 174. Ic. Rar. t. 615.)— Umbel twice
compound, leafy ; {pikes cytindrical; fpikelets fpreading.
Male flowers without their proper calyx.—Jacquin received
this from the Caraccas, where it grows in wet fituations,
and it flowered with him in the ftove at’ Vienna, from May
to Auguft. The habit is that of aQyperus, or a Kyllingia.
Root perennial. Stems annual, triangular, {mooth, about
two feet high, with feveral long, fheathing, linear, roughifh
leaves, balf an inch broad at their bafe, and many f{maller

ones

KOC

ones at the umbe/, which confifts of numerous, fimple, or
compound ftalks, bearing various thick but lax spikes.
Thefe are compofed of numerous {pikelets, {preading hori-
zontally, each linear-lanceolate, flender, a quarter of an inch
long, and confilting of four or five, apparently hermaphro-
dite, imbricated rowers. It feems to us, however, that they
are really pairs of flowers, of which the male wants the
ind or calyx, which fuppofition is juftified by the ana-
ogy of the other fpecies. The colour of the whole plant is
reprefented by Jacquin, as arearly uniform pale green.—
Stigmas three. Seed oblong, triangular, pointed, brown. S.

KOBRYN, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Brzefe; 28 miles E. of Brzefc.

KOBYN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefe; 34 miles E.S.E. of Brzefc.

KOCHEISKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutfk, on the Ilga; 28 miles N.W. of Vercholenfk.

KOCHIA, in Botany, fo named by Dr. Roth, and
* adopted by Mr. R. Brown, in honour, as we prefume, of'a
German botanift, John Frederick William Koch, author of a
periodical work on economical plants, printed at Magde-
burgh in 1797 and 1798, in oftavo. It may alfo comme-
morate Jofeph Matthias Koch, who pubhfhed on agriculture
at Vienna in 1767, recommending falt for manure; an
opinion perhaps to be adopted “ cum grano fais; but as
this plant belongs to a /aline tribe, he may, under fuch limi-
tation at lealt, be faid to have merited the diftinétion as well
as fome profefled botanifts.—Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v.1.
409.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord.
Holeracee, Linn. Airiplices, Juil, Chenopodee, Decandolle
and Brown.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of one leaf, in five fegments,
having appendages at their backs when in fruit. Corolla
none. Seed one, depreffed, enclofed in the winged calyx.

Two fpecies only are mentioned by Mr. Brown as natives
of the fouth coaft of New Holland.

_ 1. K. brevifolia. Leaves cylindrical, feffile, fmooth.
Stem fhrubby, much branched, erect and woolly. Appen-
dages of the calyx dilated and membranous

. 2. K. aphylla. Shrubby and leaflefs. Branches divari-
cated and bent downwards ; the young ones fpinous. Spikes
lateral. Calyx woolly ; its appendages when in fruit mem-
branous. f

‘There feem to be many more fpecies in other parts of the
world, as Mr. Brown advifes a divifion of the genus into
Kochia, properly fo called, the fpecies of which have the
appendages of their calyx awl-fhaped and {pinous, their feeds
deititute of albumen, and their embryo cloven at the bafe s
and Willemetia, whofe appendages are membranous and
dilated, their feeds furnifhed fparingly with albumen. This
difference however, refpecting the albumen, in plants fo
nearly akin, fhews how little any charaGter is to be trufted
abfoiutely. The abfence or prefence of albumen forms one
of the mott effential marks of diftin&tion with writers on
natural orders, and, on account of the difficulty of its de-
tection, might feem more impofing and authoritative to the
unlearned than it really is. '

KOCNI, in Geography, a town of Walachia, on the
Ardgis ; 15 miles N, of Buchareft.

_ KOCYCK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin; 24 miles N. of Lublin.

KOCZARAWACG, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Braclaw; 48 miles $.S.W. of Braclaw.

KOCZMYN, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 28 miles N. of Sluck.

KOCZOWA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiev; 22 miles S.S,E. of Bialacerkiev.

K OD).

KODAJA, a town of Arabia, in the province of Neds-
jed; 50 miles W. of Jamama.

KODALLY, a town of Hindooflan, in Myfore; 27
miles E.. of Chinna Balabaram.

KODDA-PAIL, in Botany, the Indian name of the Lin-
nean Piffia Stratiotes. See Kheede Hort. Mal. v. xi. 63.
t. 32, and Plum. Nov. Gen. 30. t. 39.

KODDE, Vannen, in Biography. There were three
brothers of that name, viz. John, Adrian, and Gilbert, in-
habitants of Warmond, near Leydeu, who are entitled to
notice from their having been founders of a religious com-
munity known by the name of CoLLeGiAnts, which fee,
The founders paffed their days in the obfcurity of a rural
life, but were faid to be men of eminent piety, well ac-
quainted with facred literature, and enemies to religious con-
troverfy. Gilbert was an elder of the Remonftrant church
at Warmond, and poffeffed a fluent elocution. In the year
1619, when the perfecution of the Calvinilts had driven the
Remonftrants from their churches, the three brothers pro-
pofed that meetings fhould be held of members of the charch.
at Warmond, at which one or more of their number fhould
read a chapter or two out of the Bible and pray ; and if any
perfon had any thing to offer by way of exhortation, inftruc-
tion, or the edification of others, he fhould be at liberty fo to
do. Hence they foon inferred the inutility of the minifterial
profeflion, as the people were fufficiently qualified to teach
and inftru& one another. From this origin {prung a fect,
or community, already referred to, confilting of perfons of
all fe&ts which {pread very widely over the Dutch provinces,
Mofheim’s Ecclef. Hitt.

KODEN, in Geography, a town of Lithuania, in the
palatinate of Brzefc; 12 miles S. of Brzefe.

KODGIA-HISAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the:
province pf Diarbekir; 10 miles S. of Merdin.

KODGIA-SHEHR, a town of Natolia;. 12 miles N.
of Kiutaja.

KODIAK, a range of iflands, confifting of one large;
bearing this name, and feveral fmaller, in the North Pacific
ocean, extending about 120 miles in length. from S.W. to
N.E., and about 40 miles in breadth ; above 20 miles from
the W. coaft of America, and 30 S. from the entrance into
Cooke’s inlet. N. lat. 56° 45! to 58° 28'.. E. long. 206?
12! to 208° 45!.

KODJA, See the next article.

KODJAKANS, or Kopgas, a numerous: clafs of pers
fons in the Ottoman empire. particularly in the capital, which,
holds the middle rank between the military men and the
lawyers, and which is become fufficiently powerful, fince-
the influence of the Ulemas has declived, as the-divan is
compofed of them, and as fome of them obtain fiefs, . mili-
tary rank, and governments. Almoft all the minifters, all
the agents in the different adminiftrations of the capital, the.
cuftoms, and the mofques; all the principals of offices, all
the fecretaries, all’ the clerks, all the fchool-maiters; in a
word, all the writers from the fimple ‘‘ kiatib,”” who copies
books, petitions, or memorials, end him who applies himfelf
to writing purely and correctly the language, to the ‘¢ reise
effendi,”? who is at the head of them, are all diftinguifhed by
the name of Kodja, and make part of that fort of corpora-
tion. The art of tranfcribing the national books, and efpe-
cially the koran, is a kind of nurfery for this clafs of perfons.
The Miffulmen are indebted to the Kodjas fora great num.
ber of works, which they hold in high eftimation, relative
to the Arabic and Perfian languages, philofophy, morality,
Mahometan hiftory, and the geography of their provinces 5
and among them are generally found the. moft intelligent

ftatefmepy.

KOE

ftatefmen, or thofe who are moft capable of ferving as
miniflers.

KODI-HISSAR, a town of Natoliay 18 miles N. of
Kiangari.—Alfo, a town of Aiiatic Turkey, in Aladulia,
18 miles N.E. of Sivas. ‘

KODINSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of-
Tobolik; 224 miles E, of Enifeifk. N. lat. 58° 20'. E.
long. 99? 14!

KODMA, a town of Perfia, in the province of Kerman;
jo miles N. of Kermanfhir.

KODMANA, a town of Walachia; ro miles S. of
Kordedearda.

KODNIA, a town of Ruffian Poland, in Volhynia; 10
miles S. of Zytomiers.

KOEG. See Dacznurier. ,

KQEI, or Koert-yane, a city of China, of the firft clafs,
and capital of the province of Koei-tcheou. It is a fmall
city, being only about three miles in circuit; its houfes are
partly of earth, and partly of brick, and as the river that
approaches it is not navigable, it is a place of no trade. It
was once the refidence of the ancient kings ; the remains of
temples and palaces announce its former magnificence ; but
thefe monuments of grandeur are mouldering into ruins.
Within its jurifdiGtion there are three towns of the fecond
order, and four of the third; about it are many forts, N.
lat. 26° 30'. E. long. 106° 19’.

KOEI-TCHEOU, the {malleft province of China,
bounded on the N. by Se-tchuen, on the E. by Hou-quang,
on the S. by Quang-fi, and on the W. by Yun-nan. The
whole country is almoft a defert, and covered with inac-
cefible mountains; fo that it may be regarded as the Siberia
of China. The inhabitants are independent and ferocious.
The Mandarins and governors, who are fent into this pro-
vince, are fometimes difgraced noblemen, for whom the em-
‘peror wifhes to provide ; the garrifons are entruited to their
charge, in order to overawe the country; but no troops of
the empire are found fufficient to fubdue the intractable
mountaineers of this province. Many efforts have been
made for this purpofe, forts have been erected, and troops
fent to conquer them; but they retire within the faltnefles
of their mountains, and féldom iffue forth, but to deitroy
the Chinefe works, or ravage their lands. Neither filk
ituffs, nor cotton cloths, are manufaGured within this pro-
vince ; but it produces a plant, refembling our hemp, of
avhich they make cloth for their fummer dreffes. It has
mines of gold, filver, quickfilver, and copper ; and of the
Jaft metal, they make thofe {mall pieces of coin, which are
iu circulation throughout the empire. This province con-
tains 10 cities of the firft clafs, Koei-yang being the capital,
and 38 of the fecond and third. Some of thefe cities,
which are conftru&ed of earth and brick, and which may
be faid to refemble heaps of cottages, are fituated on the
banks of agreeable rivers and in fertile vallies ; and though a
quantity of land might be found in this province, which by
proper cultivation would yield a confiderable produce, the
Chinefe are fo awed by the mountaineers, that they dare
not leave the neighbourhood of their fortreffes.

Koei-tcheou furnifhes the beft horfes in China; an immenfe
number of cows and hogs are raifed here, and wild poultry,
of a moft exquifite tafte, are every where to be found. Sir
George Staunton eftimates the population of this province
at 9,000,000.

Koxi-rcHEOoU, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the
province of Se-tchuen; feated on the banks of the great
river Kincha, or Yang-tfe-kiang, and forming the key to the
province with a cuftom houfe for receiving the duties of the
amerchandize which is brought thither. Its trade is great,

KOE

and of courfe it is opulent. Its jurifdition comprehends
one city of the fecond clafs, and nine of the third. ‘The
adjacent country is mountainous, but is rendered fruitful by
the induflry of its occupiers, who are unpolifhed hufbandmen.
The neighbourbeod affords great quantities of mufk, and
feveral {prings from which falt is procured. Orange and
lemon trees are very common. — N, lat. 31° ro’. E. long.
17g’ 14!

KOELCOTTY, a town of Thibet, on the Ganges;
30 miles S_ of Gangotri. ¥

KOELKE, a ridge of mountains between Sweden and
Norwav. ;

KOELPINIA, in Botany, fo named by profeffor Pallas,
in the third volume of his Ruffian Travels, p. 755. #, L. 1.
Jig. 2, in memory of his “highly meritorious friend,?? Alex-
ander Bernard Koetpin, Profeffor of Phylic at Stetin, in Po-
merania, author of feveral botanical traéts. Pallas fubmits
this genus to the decifion of thofe who, as he modeftly fays,
take the lead in botany. Few are more worthy to do fo
than himfelf, and his Acelpinia is ettablifhed as a genus by
Schreber and Willdenow, though they found themfelves
obliged to adopt a different name, this identical genus being
the Rhagudtolus of Cefalpinus, Tournefort, Vaillant, Juffieu,
and Gertner, confounded by Linnzus under Lap/fana. The
name they have retained feems to us expreffive and unexcep-
tionable, though Ambrofini furely gives a wrong explana-
tion of its meaning. See RuaGApIoLus.

KOELREUTERIA, a genus named by Laxman, in
the Memoirs of the Peterfburg Academy, in honour of John
Theophilus Kolreuter, M.D. profeffor of Natural Hiftory
at Carlfrhue, born in the year 1733, author of fome differ-
tations relative to the plants about Tubingen, and of feveral
experiments relative to vegetable fecundation.— Laxman. in
Nov. Comm. Petrop. v. 16. 561. t. 18. Schreb. 731.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2.330. Mart. Mill. Dit. v. 3. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 351. L’Herit. Sert. Angl. 18.
Juff. 451.‘ Lamarck. Mlluitr. t. 308.—Ciafs and order,
O@andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Trihilate, Linn. Sapindt,
Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five, ovate, obtufe,
concave, membranaceous, unequal leaves, afcending towards
the upper fide, gaping below. Cor. Petals four, equal, af-
cending towards the upper fide; the two lower ones oppo-
fite: claws cylindrical, ftraight, the length of the calyx :
borders lanceolate, recurved at the top, fpreading. Neétary
compofed of four ereét, deeply cloven feales, affixed to the
claws of the petals, forming. a crown to the orifice ; with
three glands between the ftamens and piftil. Stam. Fila-
ments eight, awl-fhaped, ere, affixed to the columnar re-
ceptacle ; anthers oblong, obtufe. Pi/?. Germen fuperior,
oblong, triangular, ftanding upon the columnar receptacle 5
ftyle fimple, three-fided, afcending, as Jong as the petals;
ftigma trifid, fpreading, {mall. Peric. Capfule oblong, of
three cells, and three valves, the partitions from their centre.
Seeds in pairs, attached to the partition, one of them gene-
rally abortive.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Coroila of four petals, ir-
recular. Netary of four cloven feales, and three glands.
Capfule of three cells, with two feedsin each. ;

1. K. paniculata. Willd. n. 1. L’Herit. Sert. Angl,
t. 19. (Sapindus chinenfis; Linn. Suppl. 228.)—A na-
tive of China, hardy with us, flowering in July and Augult,
— Stem arboreous, upright, round, fmooth, branched, fix or
feven feet high. Branches {cattered, twilted ; the younger
ones glandulous and dotted. Buds conical, imbricated.
Leaves on long, club-fhaped, channelled foot-ftalks, un-
equally pinnate, with about fix patr of ovate, laciniated, ae

. rated,

KOE

vated, acute, flat leaflets. Panicles terminal, more than twice

compound, loofe and {preading. /Vowers three or more on
ech partial ftalk, greenifh and in themfelves not. very con-
{picuous. Some male flowers being intermixed among the

reft, have induced Schreber to refer the genus to Poly-
amia.

KOEMPFERIA. See Kamrrenia.

KOENIG, Samuet, in Biography, a learned philofo-
pher, diftinguifhed by his mathematical abilities, was a Swifs
by birth. He filled the chair of philofophy and natural
Jaw in the univerfity of Franeker, whence he removed to
the Hague, where he had the appointment of librarian to the
fladtholder, and to the princefs of Orange.
a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin, but was
afterwards expelled from that body, on account of an attack
ae Maupertuis the prefident, charging him with plagiarifm.

he learned in every part of Europe felt intercited in the
difpute. Koenig publifhed an ‘ Appeal’? written with
much animation, which procured him many fupporters. He
died in 1757, leaving behind him the character of being one
of the belt mathematicians of the age. He was author of
feveral other pieces. According to Voltaire “he was a
#reat metaphyfician, a good geometrician, and, what is of
itill greater moment, a very good man.”

KOENIGIA, in Botany, fo called by Linnzus in honour
of his difciple Dr. John Gerard Koenig, a native of Cour-
land, born in 1728, who in 1765 difcovered this plant in
Iceland, and after having inveftigated the vegetable pro-
duétions of that dreary country, and of its circumjacent feas,
vifited the richer climes of India, where he died at Jagrenat-
pour, in Bengal, in 1785. His communications have greatly
enriched the collections of Europe, efpecially thofe of Lin-
neeus, Retzius, and fir Jofeph Banks. The fine Bankfian li-
brary coatains his botanical manufcripts. His letters to
ie are very numerous and inftruétive.—Linn. Mant. 3.
Schreb. 57. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 490. Mart. Mill. Dict.
v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed.z. v. 1. 183. Juff. 83. La-
marck. Illuitr. t. 51. Gaertn. t. 128.—Clafs and order,
hee Trigynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn. Polygonee,
duff,

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, in three deep, ovate,
concave, permanent fegments. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments three, capillary, fhorter than the calyx ;. anthers
roundifh. Pifl. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyles none ;
ftigmas three (often but two), clofe together, downy, co-
Joured. Peric. none. Seed folitary, ovate, as long as the
calyx.

Ef. Ch. Calyx in three deep fegments.
Seed folitary, ovate, naked.

1. K. flandica. Linn. Mant. 35. FI. Dan. t. 418.—
Native of Iceland, from whence fir Jofeph Banks brought
feeds to Kew garden in 1773, and where Mr. William Jack-
fon Hooker obferved it on his late eventful vifit to the fame
country, of which he has favoured the public with fo
pleafing and unaffeGted a narrative. This humble plant is
chiefly ca'culated to attraé the fcientific botanitt, being an
annual, {carcely two inches high, witha few alternate, obo-
vate, or f{patulate, entire /eaves, and {mall, green, fafciculate,
terminal fowers. "The whole herb is fmooth, a little fuccu-
lent, turning red in decay, or from expofure to much light,
like its allies the tribe of Docks and Sorrels.

KOERTEN, Yoanna, in Biography, was born at Am-
flerdam in 1650. She had a fine tafte for drawing in water
colours and for embroidery. She alfo modelled in wax, and
made artificial ornaments and flowers; but her chief excellence
confifted in cutting out figures in paper with fciffors only,
aid her portraits and land{capes.in this way were fo.much

“Vou. KX:

Corolla none.

He was eleé&ted ©

KOR

talked of that foreigners from all countries vifited AmMerdam
to fee them, among whom was Peter the Great of Ruiffia.
She made a magnificent difplay of ber art for the confort of
the emperor Leopold, confiiting of trees, arms, eagles, &c.
for which fhe was very handfomely paid. She died in
1715.

KOETEKOIE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Ealt
Indian fea. S. lat. 4°38’. IE. long. 132° 8'.

KOEWAK, a town on the S. coaft of the ifland of Ce-
ram. S. lat. 3°14’. E. long. 129° 18".

KOF, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 27 miles
S.E. of Nigata.

KOFEL, atown of the county of Tyrol, on the borders
of the Vicentin,; near which is a celebrated pafs, with a fort
erected on a high and fteep rock, in which is a {pring of
water for the fupply of a {mall garrifon, which can only enter
by means of pullies. The road below is fearcely wide
enough for two carriages. On the fide eppofite to the fort
is the precipitous bank of the Brenta; 21 miles E. of
Trent.

KOFEZ, mountains of Perfia, between Mecran and
Kerman. :

KOGETIN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Ol-
mutz; 14 miles S. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 20. E. long.
£7? righ

KOGL, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 17 miles N.N.W.
of Rakefpurg.

KOGAONG, a town of Africa, in the country of Sierra
Leone. N. lat. 10°45’. E. long. 12? 12.

KOHAUT, a town of Candahar; 130 miles S.E. of
Cabul. N. lat. 33°5'. E. long. 70° 20',

KOHHEL, a town of Arabia, in the province of Ye-
men; 10 miles N. of Debin.

KOHLBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the principality of
Sulzbach ; 11 miles N.E. of Sulzbach.

KOHLMEISE, in Ornithology, the Colemoufe of Pen-
nant, &c. See Parus ater.

KOHLMULEN, in Ichthyography, a name given by
fome to the aj/éllus flavefeens, or yellow cod, called by
others b/ank and gelbe. See Gavus Pollachius.

KOHLRABI, in Agriculture, the name of a fort of tur-
nip cabbage, which is probably capable of being cultivated
to advantage as an article of cattle food, though it is not yet
much known to the farmers of this kingdom. It has the
eatable part, or bulb, above the ground upon the ftem, and
there are two varieties, the green and the blue, which are
both equally good and hardy in their nature.

In the raifing of plants of this kind, the feed fhould be
fown at the fame period as fer the common cabbage, and
the plants, when of proper growth, be tranfplanted out in
the fame manner about the beginning of June, allowing good
diftances both between the plants and rows. In performing
this work, it is advifed to cut off about one-third of the
roots of the plants, care being taken to plant them fuffi.
ciently deep in the ground, as by this means the bulb grows
to a much larger fize withoyt becoming tough,

Plants of this fort fucceed beft on fuch foils as are not toe
much difpofed to moifture. This plant is found to with-
ftand the feverity of frofts much better than the Ruta baga,
or Swedifh turnip. And it is further obferved, that in the
botanical garden at Brompton, fome of the plants weighed
feven or eight pounds ; and that though many of them were
notched and hacked on purpofe for the experiment, the
turnip remained perfeétly found and uninjured, while a bed
of Swedifh turnips near them was quite rotten. The fac~
charine quality of-it is. equally remarkable, and both its
leaves and bulb are very ufeful as kitchen vegetables.

dy In

KOK

In our own trials, we found it to ftand the feverity of the
winter without the leafl injury, and to be perfectly well
tafted, though the bulbs did not increafe to a large fize. It
has every appearance of being a variety of the turnip cab-
bage. But few experiments have, however, yet been made
upon it, either in regard to its culture or application as a green
cattle fodder. a -

KOHMU, in Geography, a town of Bengal ; nine miles
N. of Toree.

KOHONE, atown of Africa, in the kingdom of Burfali.

KOHTAUM, a town of Bengal; 183 miles W. of
Doefa.

KOH-ZERDEH, mountains of Perfia, in the province
af Chufiltan, bordering on the Irak. See Herzarpara.

KOJA-KIZ, a town of Kharafm, near lake Aral; 18
miles N.E. of Urkonje.

KOIDANOW, atown of Ruffian Lithuania; 15 miles
S.W. of Minfk.

KOJEND, or Kocenp, a town of Greater Bucharia,
on the left bank of the Seir, on the borders of Turkeltan.
jn 1220, it was taken and plundered by Jenghiz Khan, after
a brave defence; 120 miles N.E. of Samarcand. ‘

KOIRVIRAH, a town of Perfian Armenia ; 18 miles S.
of Erivan.

KOISJU, atown of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo; 26
miles W. of Naka.

KOIVISTA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viborg; 20 miles S. of Viborg.

KOKANO, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of Brac-
law ; 28 miles N. of Braclaw.

KOKAR, a finallifland of Sweden, in the Baltic, about
go miles S.E. from the ifland of Aland. N. lat. 59° 58’.
E. long. 20° 46.

KOKERWARA, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ;
15 miles N.W. of Amedabad.

KOKETARRA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Gangpour; 16 miles N.E. of Pada.

KOKLOT, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 62°17’. E. long. 21° 25’.

KOKOB, in Zoology, the name of a fpecies of ferpent
found in the Welt Indies, and very fatal by its bite. It is
fmaller than our viper, and of a brown colour, variegated
with green and red fpots.

KOKONOR, Tarrars or, in Geography, a tribe of
Tartars, who are, by nation, Eleuthes or Kalmucks, and
{ubje&s of the emperor of China, and who occupy an
extenfive country to the W. of China, andthe province of
Chen-fi, from which they are feparated by lofty mountains.
See Katmucks.

Koxonor, or Kofonol, Lake, is the largeft in ar-
tary ; itis about 20 leagues in length, and 101in breadth, and
is fituated between 36° 40’ and 37° 10’ N. lat. and 100° and
ro1 E. long.

KOKORE, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Kitchwara ; 45 miles E.N.E, of Shajehanpour.

KOKORO, the eaftern branch of the Senegal river,
which rifes about Ny lat. 11° 50’. W. long. 6 40’, and
joins the wefterly branch about N. lat..14°.

KOKORY, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Prerau ;
fix miles N.W. of Prerau.

KOKRA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Rut-
tunpour; 20 miles S. of Ruttunpour.

KOKURA, a fea-port town of Japan, on the N. coaft
of the ifland of Ximo; furrounded with walls, and having
a citadel, it is a place of extenfive trade, but the harbour is
nearly choked with fand. N, lat. 33°50’. E. long. 130°

20's

KOL

KOLA, a fea-port town of Ruffia, in the government of
Archangel, fituated near the North fea, on the river Kola,
forming a bay at its mouth, in which is a_ confiderable
fifhery for whales, fea-dogs, and other fifh, which the inha-
bitants cure for fale. N. lat. 68° 52’. E. long. 32° 26’,
According to Mayer, it is 420 feet above the level of the
fea. The thermometer was once, in May 1769, at 73’.
—Alfo, a town of European Turkey, in Servia; five miles
S. of Semenaria.—Alfo, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 40
miles N.E, of Kars.

KALABOORA, a town of Hindooftan, in Orifla; 20
miles N.E. of Sumbulpour.

KOLAH, a town of Natolia; 36 miles N.E. of Alah-
Sehr. ‘
KOLAR, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Bur-
fali, near the coaft of the Atlantic. N. lat. 13° 50’. W.

long. 15° 55'.

KOLASSIN, a town of Dalmatia; 24 miles S.E. of
Moftar.

KOLAY, a river of Cochinchina, which runs into the
Chinefe fea, N. lat. 13°51’. KE. long. roS’ 54’.

KOLBE, or Korsen, Prrer, in Biography, was born
at Dorflas, a village in the principality of Baireuth, of which
place his father was a judge, and afterwards a receiver of
taxes. When he had attained the firlt principles of know-
ledge, he was fent to Nuremberg to purfue his maturer
{tudies. Here he lived fome time in great poverty, being
unknown, and having brought with him a fingle dollar only.
In 1696, he was received into the houfe of Eimart, a great
altronomer, under whofe directions, and by whofe aid, he
made confiderable progrefs in the fciences. He entered
himfelf at the univerfity of Halle in the year 17c0, and in
the following year he difputed “ De Natura Cometarum,”*
after which he gave a courfe of lectures in mathematics and
philofophy. He was introduced to baron von Krofie, privy
counfellor to his Pruffian majefty, to whom he became fe-
cretary, and whom he accompanied in his travels. It being
known that he had a great defire to vifit foreign countries,
a propofal was made to him to go to the Cape of Good
Hope, which he gladly embraced. Here he remained ten
years, making obfervations on the country and the people,
till he was affli@ed With the misfortune of blindnefs, which
came on without any external injury. He now returned to
Europe, and by means of medical affiftance he fo far reco-
vered his fight as to be able to read with the afliftance of
glaffes. In 1716, he inferted in the Acta Eruditorum a
treatife “ De aquis Capitis Bonz Spei.’? This work intro-
duced him into farther notice, and he was invited to travel
with two Auilrian counts, but his paflion for foreign coun-
tries had fubfided, and he preferred remaining at home, and
taking upon himfelf the office of reétor of the {chool of
Neuftadt. He difcharged the duties of his fituation with
much diligence till the year 1 726, when he died, in the fifty-
fecond year of his age. His bufinefs, as an initru&or, had
not prevented him from publifhing his great work, entitled
“« A Defcription of the Cape of Good Hope,”’ in folio, with
twenty-four plates. This work was tranflated into the
Dutch language in 1727; and at London, into the Englifh,
in 1731. It. was afterwards abridged, and publifhed in .
French in three vols. 12mo. Kolbe has been charged with.
receiving information without much examination, and with
having publifhed, as true, many falfe and incredible ftories ;
but when the proper deduétions are made that fevere cri-
ticifm has fuggelted, there {till remains much important in-
formation with regard to acountry, which, at that time, was

fcarcely known, Gen. Biog. KOLBEN.

KOL
KOLBENDORF, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in

the circle of Konigingratz ; nine miles N.N.W. of Trau-
tenau.

KOLCHY, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Vol-
hynia; 52 miles N. of Zytomiers.

KOLEI-HISAR, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the
government of Sivas ; 45 miles N.N.E. of Sivas.

KOLEN, a chain of mountains, extending between
Norway and Swedifh Lapland, and afterwards bending, in
the form of a horfe-fhoe, on the S. of Tinmark.

KOLGAPARI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Olonetz; 80 miles N.N.W. of Olonetz.

KOLIAKOYV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Simbirfk, on the Sura; 80 miles W.S.W. of Simbirfk.

KOLLAZIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tver, on the Volga; 68 miles E.N.E. of Tver.

KOLIKUNDA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Jemarrow.

KOLIMA, Koryata, or Kovyma, a river of Ruffia,
which rifes in the Stanovoi-Krebet, almoft over-againit
Ochotfk, and after receiving feveral other rivers, particu-
larly the Omolon, forms a multitude of iflands, and, by
means of four broad arms, flows into the Frozen ocean,
N. lat. 71° 25’. E. long. 152° 24'.

KOLIN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim,
on the Elbe ; 30 miles E.S.E. of Prague. N. lat. 49° 58".
E. long. 15° 15’.

KOLIVAN, Kotyvay, or Kolhyvan, a city of Ruffia,
and capital of the government of the fame name, fituated
ou the Oby, near the mouth of the Berda ; known before
the in{titution of this government under the name of ‘ Berd-
foi oftrog.** Kolyvan is famous for the filver mines dif-
covered in its vicinity. They lie between the rivers Oby and
Irtifch, near the mountains which feparate Siberia from the
Chinefe empire, or rather from the territory of Kalmucks
dependent on the Chinefe. They were difcovered in the
year 1725 or 1728, and appropriated to the crown by the
emprefs Elizabeth in 1744. ‘They produced annually, be-
tween 1749 and 1762, from 8000 to 16,coo pounds of
filver ; between 1763 and 1769, from 20,009 to 32,000;
and fince that period to 1775, from 40,000 to 48,000. The
filver contains upwards of three fer cent. of gold; the fe-
paration of which is made in the imperial laboratory at
Peterfburgh. Upon the whole, it appears from the accounts
of the board of mines, that they have produced, from their
difcovery to the year 1786, about 3,520,000 pounds of
filver, and 48,000 pounds of gold, which yield, at an
average, a produce of 50,000 pounds of filver, and 1600
pounds of gold fer annum. The mines and founderies of
Kolyvan employ nearly 40,000 colonifts, befides the pea-
fants in the diflriéts of Tomfk and Kufnetz, who, in lieu
of paying the poll-tax in money, cut wood, make charcoal,
and tran{port the ores to the founderies. Inthe year 1765,
a mint was eftablifhed at the foundery of Sufunfk, for the
coinage of the copper fupplied from thefe mines, the greater
part of which had been, till that period, of no ufe. Pieces
of one, two, five, and ten copecs (the copec being nearly
equal to a halfpenny) are ftruck and difperfed over Siberia.
Of this currency, the amount of 500,000 roubles is an-
nually coined, which is fufficient for reimburfing the poll-
tax, paying the miners, tran{porting the ore, purchafing the
lead, which muft be brought from Nerfhinfk, and defraying
the expence of fending the gold and iilver as far as Tobolfk.
The filver melted in the Nese ne is conveyed on large
fledges twice a year; the firft convoy fets off in the be-
ginning of winter, and reaches Peterfburgh a little after

KOL

Chrifimas ; the fecond in the middle of winter, and arrives
there towards fpring. Kolivan is diftant 480 miles $.S.E.
of Tobolfk. N. lat. 54° 20'. E. long. 81° 20’, Coxe’s Tra.
vels in Ruffia, vol. iii.

Korivan, Kolyvan, or Kolhyvan, is alfo a government of
Ruffia, bounded on the N. by the government of Tobolfk,
on the E. by that of Irkutfk, on the S. by China, and
on the W. by Tartary; about 720 miles in Jength, and
from 240 to 360 in breadth. This government was
formerly included in that of Tobolfk; it contains five
dillriéts, wiz. Kolyvan, Semipalat, Birfk, Kufnezk, and
Kraffnoiarfk.

Kottvan, or Kolhyvan, is alfo the name of a range of
mountains, conftituting the principal part of the Altay
mountains, or the proper ore-mountains of Altay. (See
Axtat) he Kolhyvan-vos-krefenfkoi mountains derive
their appellation from the adjacent lake Kolhyvan, which
has given its name to the whole chain between the Irtifch
and Oby, as well as to the government, and from the firlt
copper-mine, called Vofkrefenfkoi. Thefe mountains are
bounded on the S. by the granitic ridge, which parts them
from the Korso-/ikin/koi, which fee. "They are confined to
the I. by the deep valley in which the line of the prefent fire-
potts is drawn, and by the lofty Tigeretzkoi fnow-moun-
tains ; and bounded on the N. by the river Ttharyth, whofe
courfe is accompanied by confiderable high fchift and chalk
mountains ; towards the W. they lofe themfelves in the
north-weftern Steppe. The greate{t” elevation of thefe
mountains is the Sinnaia-fopka, or Blue-mountain, which is’
computed to afcend 2814 Parifian feet above the level of
che fea. At the middle and greateft height, this range
conlilts of a moftly coarfe granite, compoted of Spatum
compeitre, quartz, and blackilh mica. In the angle formed
by the little Biela with the great Biela, at the foot-of the
Blue mountain, are found fehiitus and chalk-ftone, in which
latter are fome ‘little cavities, containing lapis calcareus
ftalactites. From the little Biela the mountains rife again
toward the fouth, elevating themfelves to the Revennaia-
fopka, or Rhapontic fummit, which is fvrrounded by the
ore-mountains, and confifting of {chiltus corneus, mixed
fparingly with mica fpathofa and crumbs of mica cams
peltris, in which latter are a few fmall hoilows, in which
are found ftalaétites. Towards the weit, from the Blue
mountain, runs the granite-mountain range, in bulk from
15 to 30 verits, interrupted by a multitude of vallies, pro-
ceeding roo verfts to the Alay, and there uniting with the
Alaifkoi granite-hills. The northern foot of this granite.
ridge runs under powerful fchiftus and chalk mountains, in
and between which the two firft Kolhyvan mines were dug.
Another mighty ridge of granite runs from the Blue moun-
tain northwards to the river Tfharyfh, under-run on the
weftern fide by fchiftus and chalk. ‘The component parts
of thefe granite ridges are various. In fome parts the
feldfpar, in others the quartz, has the afcendant. In one
place the component parts are coarfe, and then fo delicate
and fo poor in mice, that one might be induced to take the
granite proceeding from them for fand-ftone. This trac
of mountains is uncommonly rich in filver, copper, and zinc
ores. Tooke’s Ruffia, vel. i.

KOLKI, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Val-
hynia ; 22 miles N.N.E. of Lucko.

KOLKOTOVATOI, an ifland in the Cafpian fea, near
the W. coaft. .N. lat. 44 45’.

KOLLAT, a town of European Turkey, in Bulgaria ;
72 miles E.S.E. of Driftra.

KOLLOW. See Kittow.

L2 KOLLUVI,

K OL

KOLLUVI, a country of Africa, between Afben and
Cathna, inhabited by the Tuarick.
~ KOLLYRITE. Under this name an argillaceous fof-
fil is mentioned in Karften’s Mineralogical ‘Tables, which
is found at Stepbani-Schacht, near Shemnitz. Dr. ‘Town-
fon, we fuppofe, is one of the firit naturalifts who ob-
ferved it there. This mineral fubftance, which was firft
eonfidered as pure alumine, is light, very friable, and fnow-
white; it foils the fingers, and adheres ftrongly to the
tongue, which Ialt property has procured it the name of
follyrite (from kol'yrion of Diofcorides and Pliny.) Ac-
cording to Klaproth’s analyfis of the Hungarian kollyrite,
it confitts of ‘

Alumine 495
Silica 14
Water 41

100

This fubfance, which may be confidered as a purer variety
of clay, has alfo been found, by Friefleben, at Weiflentels,
in Thuringia, in a jtratum oi fand-{tone.

According to Brongmiart, it has a tolerable degree of
tenacity, and the water it abforbed is feen to ooze out on
the application of preflure, but it retains the liquid with
fuch force, that more than a month is required to dry even
a fmall quantity of it. By deficcation, it feparates into
bafaltic prifms, like-ftarch, lofes half of its weight, and be-
comes very light.

KOLMOGOR, in Geography, a diftri&t of the govern-
ment of Archangel, fituated on the Dwina.

KOLNO, atown of the duchy of Warfaw; 80 miles
N.E. of Warfaw.—Alfo, a town of Lithuania, in the pa-
latinate of Brzefc ; 85 miles E. of Pinik.

KOLO, alake of Ruffia, in the government of Archan-

el; 28 miles S. of Archangel.—Alfo, a town of the
aecise of Warfaw ; 24 miles N.E, of Kalifch.

KOLOCKEN, a town of the duchy of Courland; 32
miles N.E. of Piltyn.

KOLOGRIN, atown of Ruffia, in the government of
Koitroma, on the river Unza; 116 miles N.E. of Koflroma.
N. lat. 58°55’. E. long. 44° 14'.

KOLOMNA Moseva, a town of Ruffia, and diftriét of
the government of Mofcow, about five verlts from its junc-
tion with the Occa; the fee of a bifhop; 48 miles S.E. of
Mofcow, This town is reckoned to contain about 60,000
wnhabitants.

KOLONETI, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia, on
the Pruth ; 86 miles $.S.E. of Lemberg.
~ KOLOR,a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Woolli;
29 miles E.N.E. of Medina.

~KOLOSVAR. See CoLosvar.

KOLOZ, a town of Tranfylvania; 14 miles S.S.E. of
Hunyad.

KOLPAK, atownof European Turkey, in Beffarabia ;
40 miles W. of Akerman.

KOLSKOI, a town of Ruiffia, in the government of
Archangel, on the E. fide of the Dwina; 96 miles S.S.E.
ef Archangel.

KOLTER, one of the Faroer iflands.

KOLTYNIANY, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilra; 32 miles E. of Wilkomierz.—Alfo, a town of
Samogitia ; 28 miles N.W. of Rofienne.

KOLVEREID, a town of Norway ; 95 miles N.N.E.
of Drontheim.

KOLUMBATZ, a town of European Turkey, in Ma-
eedonia; 68 miles N. of Akrida.

kK.OM

KOLZUM, or Corsum, anciently Ch/na, foabinh fee)
a town of Egypt, which formerly exifted near the E. coa
of the Red fea, but the fea has long fince left the eoatt 5
and the town has been deftroyed. From Volney we learn,
that the name is {till attached to a hillock of fand, bricks,
and ftones, on the coaft of the Red fea, about 309 paces
to the N. of Suez: whereas D’Anville places it 16 miles S.
of Suez.

KOM, or Kuvums, a large and populous city of ‘Perfia,
in the province of Irak, at the foot of high mountains, and
near a confiderable river, which is loft in the great falt de-
fert. When Chardin vifited it, the houfes were computed
at 15,000; and the chief manufactures were white earthen
ware, foap, and {word-blades, fabres, and. poniards. ‘The
walls are lofty, and the town has feven gates. The public
{quares are {mall; the grand bazar crofles the town from
one gate to the other; and there are others, which are fur-
nifhed with coffee-houfes, and fhops of various kinds. Here
are a celebrated mofque, and an afylum for debtors, who are
protected and fupported. One of the mofques is highly
efteemed by the Perfians, on account of the fepulchres of
fhah Sefi T. and fhah Abbas II., and alfo that of Sidy Fa-
tima, grand-daughter of Mahomet. Thefe tombs are fre-
quented by pilgrims from all parts of Perfia, who refort
hither once a year to pay their devotions, and are fupported
by a fund affigned to this purpofe. The city is governed by
a vifier, and is the refidence of akhan. The adjacent coun-
try is fertile in rice and fruit; 150 miles N. of Ifpahan.
N. lat. 34° 20’. E. long. 51° 14'.

KOMA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of Wil-
na; 42 miles S. of Braflaw.—Alfo, a town of Perla, in
the province of Khorafan; 227 miles N.N.E. of Herat.

KOMANA, in Bofany, an arbitrary name given by
Adanfon to Hypericum monogynum of other authors, which
he eftablifhes as a genus, on account of its folitary ftyle.
Juffieu, however, ailerts that this fuppofed fimple ftyle
is compofed of five, clofely united. The capfule is de-
fcribed as of one cell, but we have never feen it at all ad-
vancing towards maturity, fo as to form an opinion on the
fubjeGt. See Hyprricum and Knira.

Komawna, in Geography, a town and abbey of Walachia ;
18 miles S. of Bucharelt.—Alfo, a diftri& of Africa, on
the Slave coatt.

KOMANGO, or AmAnco, one of the Friendly ifles ;
5 miles E. of Annamocka.

KOMARA, a town of Hindooan, in Myfore ; 65
miles E.N.E. of Harponelly.

KOMARNA, atown of Auitrian Poland, in Galicia ;
24 miles S.S.W. of Lemberg.

KOMBAH, a town of Africa, in the country of Ga-
go; 170 miles E, of Kaffaba. N. lat. 1° 25’. E. long.
BAO

KOMBO, a kingdom of Africa, near the Atlantic, 5.
of the Gambia. ,

KOMBREGUDU, or Comsreco-A nov, a kingdom of
Africa, fituated on the banks of the river Falemi, about
N. lat. 13° 10’. W. long. ro”.

KOMCHA, cr Komsia, a decayed town of Perfia,
in the province of Irak, celebrated for its gardens.and dove-
houfes, and degraded by the bad character of its inhabit.
ants; 39 miles S. of Efpahan.

KOMENTING, the name of two towns in the ifland.
of Borneo ; one 45 miles N. and the other 15 miles S.S.W.
of Negara.

KOMMANICK, in Ornithology, the German name for the
large-creited lark, common in many parts of Germany,. but
not knewn in England, See ALAuDA crifhata.

KQMOBE,

KON

KOMOL, or Comot, in Geography, afea-port town of
Nubia, with a fmall but fafe harbour in the Red fea.
N. lat. 22°45! E. long. 35° 15".

KOMRI, At, a mountainous ridge in the interior part
of Africa, called alfo the ‘* Mountains of the Moon,’’ ter-

minating the country of Donga. N. lat. 7.

KONAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the country
of Sanore ; 50 miles E.N.E. of Goa. N. lat. 15° 45’.
E. long. 74° 32.

KONDOZ, a town of the Greater Bucharia; 60 miles
N.W. of Anderab. N. lat. 36° 50’. E. long. 67° 22'.

KONDRA, a town of Bengal; 36 miles S.W. of
Doefa. :

KONDUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ;
too miles S.E. of Aurungabad. N. lat. 18° 54’, E. long.

EO"
CONEVETZ, afmall ifland of Ruffia, in lake Ladoga ;

60 miles N.N.E. of Peterfburg.

KONEZKOT, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Vologda, onthe Vim ; 56 miles N.E. of Yarenfk.

KONG. See Gonsan.

KONGA, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Loango.

KONG-FORS, a town of Sweden, in Weft Bothnia;
16 miles N.W. of Umnea.

KONGHELL, Konesuete, or Kong-elf, a town of
Sweden, in the province of Weft Gothland, on an ifland in
the Gotha; formerly the capital of Norway, and refidence

‘of kings, but now decayed ; 10 miles N. of Gotheborg.

KONGSBACKA, a fea-port town of Sweden, in
Halland; 13 miles S. of Gotheburg, N. lat. 57 30%
E. long. t2° 56’.

' KONGSBERG, or Contsserc, a town of Norway,
celebrated for its filver mines. It ftretches on both fides the
river Lowe, which, in its courfe through the town, falls in
a feries of {mall but picturefque cataracts over the bare rocks.
“The crags which border the town are in fome parts naked,
An others clothed with wood, and intermixed occafionally
with flips of corn and pafture; neverthelefs, the prominent
‘features of the circumjacent {cenery are ruggednefs and hor-
ror. Kongfberg contains about 1ooo houfes, including thofe
of the miners, and 6000 inhabitants. The mines are diftant
from the town two miles They were difcoyered and opened
during the reign of Chriftian TV. Thirty-fix mines, fays Coxe,
are now working ; the deepeft is 652 feet perpendicular. The
matrix of the ore is the faxum of Linnzus ; the filver is ex-
tracted according to the ufual procefs, either by {melting the
ore with lead, or by pounding. Pure filver is occafionally
found in {mall grains, and in {mall pieces of different fizes,
feldom weighing more than four or five pounds. One mafs
has been found which weighed 409 marks, and was worth
3000 rix-dollars (Goo/.) ; this piece is preferved in the cabi-
net of curiofities at Copenhagen. Formerly thefe mines
produced annually 70,000/. ; in 1769, 79,000/.; at prefent,
(fays Mr. Coxe) they yield only trom 50,000/. to 54,000/.
The expences, itis faid, generally equal, and fometimes ex-
ceed the profits. The largett piece of money ftruck at
Kongfberg is only eight fkillings, or four-pence.

KONGSWINGER, a town of Norway, in the province
of Chriftiania; 42 miles N.E. of Chriftiania. N. lat. 60°
ize » dt. long..17,, 6).

KONG-TCHANG, a city of China, of the firft clafs,in
the province of Chen-fi, feated on the banks of the river
Hoel, and furrounded by very high mountains. _ This city
i¢.very populous, and has great trade. A tomb is fhewn
here, which the Chinefe pretend to be that of Fo-hi. The
jurifdigtion of this city extends over three others of the {e-

KON
cond clafs and feven of the third. N, lat. 34°56’. E. iong,
104° 19'.

KONI, a town of Imiretta; 30 miles S.W. of Co-
tatis.

KONJADA, Gres, and Kkin, two towns of Pruffia,
in the palatinate of Culm; the former 12 miles N.N.W. of
Strafburg ; and the latter 14 miles.

KONIAWA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Troki; 36 miles N.E. of Grodno.

KONIECPOLE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 60 miles S.E. of Braclaw.

KONIGINGRATZ, or Kratowe Hrapecz, a city
of Bohemia, and capital of a circle of the fame name, feated
on the Elbe, built in the year 782, and the fee of a bifhop,
under the archbifhop of Prague; 58 miles E. of Prague~
N. lat. 50° 10’. E.long. 15° 39’.

KONIGSBERG,a if anc beautiful city and fea-port
of Pruffia, fituated on the river Pregal, which has feven
bridges; founded in 1255, rebuilt in another fituation in
1264, and well fortified in 1526, by a rampart about feven
Englifh miles in circumference. The rampart inclofes the gar-
dens, the large caitle moat, with fome meadows and fields,
The number of houfes is about 3800, and of inhabitanty
about 60,000. This city properly confifts of three towns
that are joined together; wiz. Altitadt, Lobenicht, and
Kneiphof, andof feveral fuburbs. Altitadt, or the old town,
contains 16 {treets, and 550 houfes, of which more than
100 are malt-houfes and brewhoufes. It is embellifhed with
fix gates, twe {trong-built towers, and four bridges. Lobe-
nicht, built about the year 1300, was formerly called Neu-
fladt, or the new town. Kneiphof is the moft modern, as-
it was founded in 1324. This itands on an ifland formed by
the river Pregel, the buildings of which are ereéted on piles:
of alder-trees, which by length of time are become as hard.
asiron. It has five large gates, and 13 itreets. ‘The cathe--
dral of this town has a famous organ, which confifts of 5000
pipes, and was finifhedin 1721. ‘The univerfity was found-
ed, in 1544, by the margrave Albert, and has 38 profeffors,
exclufive of the tutors. The number of ftudentsin 1802 was.
300. The town-houfe isa fine building, where the ma-
giftrates of the three towns, which were incorporated in
1724, meet every day. The ftrong citadel, called ** Fre-
derick{burg,’”” was built in 1657,and diredtly faces Kneiphof,.
at the conflux of the two branches of the Pregel. This
fort is a regular f{quare, furrounded with broad ditches and
the river Pregel, which is there increafed by the canal or-
dyke, called Kupferteifch.”? In the citadel area church
and an arfenal. Konisfberg has always ranked high in com-
merce and fhipping, and was formerly one of the Hans
towns. Its trade is {ti'l flourifhing, by means of the river
Pregel, which is here navigable, and from 120 to 240 feet
in breadth. In 1752, 493 large fhips, and 373 floats of
timber, arrived in this port, befides fmaller veflels. A colo-
ny of French Calvinilts excepted, the inhabitants of Ko-
nigfberg are chiefly Germans of the Lutheran perfuafion.
In 1758, this city was taken by the Ruflians, and in 1807 by
the French. N. lat. 54° 43’. E. long. 20° 38'..

Kownicspere, or Klinkowice, a town of Silefia, in the-
principality of Troppau ; 13 miles S.E. of Troppau.-N. lat..
49°40’. E. long. 18° 10.

KoniGsperG, a town of Brandenburg, in the Neva Mark ;
24 miles N.N.W: of Cultrim.. N. lat. 53° 24 _E. long.
14° 33'.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Coburg, fituated on the fide of a mountain, on which is an
ancient caiftle ; 20 miles $.S.W. of Coburg. N.Tit. 50° 4'..

E. long. 10° 45/.
a ‘ KONIGSy-

KON

KONIGSBRONN, a town and convent of Wurtem-
berg ; 20 miles N.N.E. of Ulm.

KONIGSEGG, a principality of Germany, compre-
hending Konigfegg-Rothenfels, and Konigfegg-Aulen-
dorf. The former poffefles the county of Rothenfels and
lordfhip of Stauffers; and the latter the county of Konig-
fegg, and lordfhip of Aulendorf. The lordfhip of Konig-
fegg confifts only of an ancient caltle, § miles N.W. of
Ravenfpurg, and a few hamlets.

KONIGSEK, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Be-
chin; 10 miles E.S.E. of Neuhaus,

KONIGSFELD, a town and citadel of the duchy of
Berg ; 26 miles S.S.E. of Cologne.—Alfo, a town of Ba-
varia, in the bifhopric of Bamberg, on the Auffses ; 10 miles
N.E. of Bamberg.

KONIGSFELDEN, a bailiwick of Switzerland, in the
canton of Berne, fituated between the town of Bruck and
the river Reufs. The monaftery of this place, belonging
to the monks of St. Francis and the nuns of St. Claire,
founded in commemoration of the death of the emperor
Albert, who was affaffinated in 1308 by his nephew John,
duke of Swabia, became very rich by grants from the houfe
of Audtria, and other nobility. i

KONIGSHEIM, a town of Germany, in the county
of Wertheim ; 14 miles S. of Wertheim. ,

KONIGSHOF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz ; 14 miles N. of Konigingratz.

KONIGSHOFEN, a town of the duchy of Wurzburg,
on the Tauber; 20 miles S.S.W. of Wurzburg. —Alfo,
a town of the duchy of Wurzburg, on the Saal ; 38 miles
N.E. of Wurzburg. N. lat. so? 12’. E. long. to° 27’.

KONIGSLUTTER, a town of Weitphalia, in the
principality of Wolfenbuttel, fituated on a ftream, called the
« Lutter ;”? 12 miles N.E. of Wolfenbuttel. N. lat. 52°
17’. E. long. 10° 56’.

KONIGSTEIN, atown of Germany, and capital of
a county of the fame name, with a caftle built on a rock ;
11 miles N.W. of Francfort on the Maine.—Alfo, a town
of Bavaria, in the principality of Sulzbach, near Sulzbach.
—Alfo, a fortrefs of Norway, in the diocefe of Chriftiania,
built for the defence of Frederickitadt.—Alfo, a town of
Saxony, in the margraviate of Meiffen, fituated on the left
fide of the Elbe, with manufactures of linen and woollen.
It is fituated on a mountain, and rendered, as it was fup-
pofed, impregnable. It 1s acceffible only in one place, and
fupplied with water from a very deep {pring in the moun-
tain; 16 miles S.E. of Drefden.

KONIGSTUHL, i. e. King’s Chair, a head-land on the
N.E. coaft of the ifland of Ufedom, in the Baltic, N. lat.

O 37th lone. 12° OG

KONIGSWALD, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 13 mi'es N.N.W. of Leitmeritz.

KONIGSWALDE, a town of Brandenburg, in the
New Mark; 22 miles E. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 52° 25’. E.
long. 15° 26.

KONIGSWERT, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Pilfen ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Topel.

KONIN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 20 miles N.
of Kalifch. N. lat. 52° 6’. E. long. 18° 15'.

KONINCK, or Kontne, Davin ve, in Biography, a
painter of birds, animals, and {till life. He acquired the
principles and executive powers of the art under the tuition
of John Fytt; whofe jealoufy is faid to have been excited
‘by the praifes beftowed upon his difciple.

On this account De Koninck left him, and travelled to

8

KON

Italy, from Antwerp, where he was born. He arrived in
Rome in 1668, having refufed engagements to paint upon
his journey, offered him by the duchefs of Bavaria and the
court of Vienna. In Rome he was highly honoured. Bal-
dinucci, who lived at the time, fpeaks of him as employed
by the greateit among the nobles there ; and receiving com-
miflions from foreign kings and fovereign princes.

His works and manner refemble thofe of TFytt, with
whom, on his return to Antwerp, he was a con{tant compe-
titor. But he is not fo perfect, his effects are not fo bril-
liant, nor is his touch fo free. He died in 1687: his age
is not known. s

Koninck, or Konine, Purtir px, a portrait painter, who,.
having ftudied in the fchool of Rembrandt, proceeded in
his courfe with great fuccefs, obtaining in early life a good
reputation, and maintaining it in the great number of pic-
tures which he produced. His ftyle is, neceffarily, almott
an imitation of that of his matter. It is too fafcinating for
a man that had once obtained poffeffion of the court to quit
it eafily. His likenefles were efteemed, and he had great
choice and variety of attitude. He is among the number
of thofe whofe portraits are honoured with a place in the
gallery at Florence. He died in 1689, at the advanced age
of 70.

KONINGH, Sotomoy, a portrait and hiftoric painter
of the Flemifh fchool. He was the difciple -of Vernando
and Moojart, and rofe to a certain degee of eminence, but
not among the firft clafs. Ss

KONIT, or Conitr. Profeffors Retzius and Schuma-
cher deferibe under this name a calcareo-liliceous rock of a
whitifh-grey, or white colour, found in Norway, Iceland,
&c. Ithas only been feen in detached pieces, moft of which
bear the marks of being rolled. It is faintly glimmering ;
in fome pieces its lultre approaches to the vitreous, and even
the unctuous luftre. Its fraGture is uneven, flat conchoidal,
fometimes obfoletely foliated, fometimes even and fplintery,
not unlike that of fome varieties of horn-{torie. The frag-
ments are indeterminately angular. The varieties having
an unctuous luftre, and obfoletely foliated fra€ture, are trani-
lucent at the edges. Its hardnefs is far fuperior to that of
common compactt limettone, and it even flrikes fire with the
fteel. It is not eafily frangible. Specific gravity 2.8.
When reduced to powder, and thrown on burning charcoal,
it emits a greenifh light, but it is not phofphorefcent from
friction. It effervefces with diluted nitric acid, and is
partly diffolved in it : the remainder is filiceous earth.

The proportion of the calcareous and filiceous earth, of
which the konit confifts, is not yet afcertained.

Upon the whole, we know too little of this mineral fub-
ftance to affign it its proper place in the fyftem. Haty
refers it, with a query, to his quarz-asathe calcifere, which
is the filicicalce of Sauffure. See Hatiy and Brongn. vol. i,

- 3206.
f the {pecimens of conite defcribed by Schumacher were
from Iceland; the one which we had an opportunity of
examining came from Kenrudvern, near Dramen, in Nor-
way-

Aviad the many new names which a modern writer on
rocks is defirous of palming upon the world, we have alfo
that of fonite, which, without mentioning that it has been
previoufly given to a different rock, he applies to the variety
of compact lime-ftone, called freefone..

KONITZ, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
county of Schwartzburg-Rudolftadt ; where are mines of
fiver and copper; 6 miles E.5.E. of dle ae

a baili-

KOO

a bailiwick of Switzerland, in the canton of Berne.—Alfo,
a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz ; 15 miles W.
of Olmutz.—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia ; 8 miles
E. of Schlockaw.

KONKODOO, a country of Africa, bounded on the
N. by Bambouk, on the E. by Gadou, on the S. by
Worada and Jallonkadoo, and on the W. by Satadoo ;
about 60 miles from N. to S., and go from E. to W.
N. lat. 12° 10’ to 13° 10’. W. long. g” to 10”.

KONN, a town on the N. coalt of the ifle of Timer.
S. lat. 8° 18'. Ie. long. 126° 16'.

KONNARUS, a name given by Agathocles in Athe-
neus toa plant of Arabia, which the defcription fhews to
be the fame with the faduc of the later Arabians, the fruit
of which is called nabac or nabech. See Connarus.

This tree is the lotus of Diofcorides, and the acanthus of
Virgil, whofe berries he mentions. he fruit of this tree is
like a cherry, but fmaller, and is ground to powder by the
Africans when dried. It is very well known to all who are
acquainted with the writings of the old phyficians, that the
berries of the lotus or nabac were ground down, by the
Egyptians and other nations where they grew, to a fine

owder for medicinal ufes. They were attringents, and

ufed both externally in poultices and fomentations, and in-
ternally in decoétions azd other forms where attringents
were required.

KONNO, in Geography, a town of Japan, in the ifland
of Niphon; 70 miles N.W. of Meaco.

KONOE, one of the Faroer iflands ;
Bardoe.

KONOS, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 20
miles N.E. of Degnizlu.

KONOTOP, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the govern-
ment of Novogorod Sieverfkoi, feated on a rivulet falling
into the Seim. N. lat. 51° 5'. E. long. 33° 34'.

KONSAN, a town of Africa, in the country of Sierra
Leone. N. lat. 10°44’. W. long. 12° 15'.

KONSBERG. See Konesperc.

KONSTANTINGRAD, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Ekaterinoflaf, on the borders of Turkey. N.
lat. 49° 15’. E. long. 34° 52’.

KONTOP, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Glo-
gau; 15 miles E. of Grunzberg.

KOOCH, a town of Hindooftan, in the country of
Agra; 60 miles E. of Gwalior. N. lat. 26°. E. long.

2 miles N. of

79 35".
KOOHANGAN, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archi-
pelago. N. lat. 6' 3’. EE. long. 121° 18! ;
~ KOOJAR, a town of Africa, in the country of Woolli ;
54 miles E. of Medina.
KOOLASSIAH, a {mall ifland in the Sooloo Archi-
elazo. N. lat. 6°22’. E. long. 120° 38'.
KOOLBARY, a town of Hindoottan, in Golconda; 35
miles S. of Combamet.
~KOOLIKORRO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Bambarra, on the Niger; which is a great falt-market ;
130 miles S.W. of Sego.
KOOLUCONDA, a town of Hindooftan, in Myfore ;
x3 miles N.E. of Nagamungalum.,
KOOMAR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 13 miles
EN.E. of Bahar.
KOOMBOO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Tenda. N. lat. 12° 42’. W. long. 12°.
KOOND, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 17 miles N.
of Saferam.
KOONDA, a circar of Bengal, bounded on the N.E. by
Bahar, on the E. by Ramgur, on the-S. by Toree, and on

KOO

the W. by Palamow ; about 25 miles long, and 16 broad
the capital is Koonda; g2 miles S. of Patna. N. lat. 24?
ii’, FE. long. 84° 48’.

KOONI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 30
miles N. of 'lomu.

KOONIAKARY, a town of Africa, in the country of
Woolli ; 48 miles E.N.E. of Medina.—Alfo, a town of
Africa, in Kaffon. N. lat. 14° 36. W. long. 8° 58’.

KOONJOOR, acircar of Hindooftan, in Oriffa, between
Gangpour and Mohurbunge, the capital of which, of the
fame name, is 86 miles N.N.W. of Cattack.

KOONKA, a town of Bengal; 25 miles W.S.W. of
Ramgur.

KOONTI, in Hindoo Mythological Hiflory, is the mother
of three of the five Pandus, whofe wars are related in the
Mahabarat ; which fee. See alfo Pannu.

KOORBAH, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Ruttunpour ; 20 miles E. of Ruttunpour.

KOORGUNGE, a town of Bengal; 22 miles E. of
Boglipour. ,

KOORKARANY, a town of Africa, in Bondou; 50
miles W. of Fatteconda.

KOORNHERT, Tueoponre, in Biography, defcended
from a refpectable family at Amilterdam, was born in the
year 1522. He was brought up to the profeffion of an
engraver, which he foon abandoned, to travel into Spain and
Portugal, but on his return home, an imprudent marriage
forced him to take up the graver at Harlem, to fupport him-
felf and wife. His leifure hours he employed in reading and
improving his mind in various. ways, in the hope that know-
ledge might fit him for a better employment than that in
which he was labouring. We accordingly find him ad-
mitted a notary in 1561, and in the following year he was
appointed fecretary to the city of Harlem, and in 1564 he
was made fecretary to the burgo-matters of that city. In
this charaéter he was frequently fent to the prince of Orange,
governor of Holland, with whom, and with other perfons of
confequence, he confulted refpeéting the means of maintain-
ing the liberty of his country. Through him, the famous
petition of the Confederates was prefented to the duchefs
of Parma in 1566. He was alfo the author of the firlt
manifefto which the prince of Orange publifhed in his camp,
intitled « An Advertifement to the Inhabitants of the Low
Countries for the Law, the King, and for the Flock.’’
The part which he took in politics excited againft him the
refentment of the government of Bruffels, by whofe direc-
tions he was fent to the Hague, where he fuffered a long
and cruel imprifonment. He at length obtained a hearing,
and, fuccefsfully vindicating himfelf, he was fet at liberty ;
but he found it neceflary to withdraw from the power of his
enemies, and went to the county of Cleves, where he again
maintained himfelf by his profeffion as an engraver. When,
in the year 1572, the States of Holland had taken the
refolution to affert their liberty againit the tyranny of
the Spaniards, Kooornhert returned to his own country,
and was appointed fecretary to the ftates of the province :
finding, however, the people prejudiced againit him,. for
avowedly vindicating the principles of toleration in. refpect
to the Roman Catholics, he refigned his poft, and-withdrew
to Embden. It does not appear that he was a Catholic
himfelf, but he formed the project of uniting all perfons of:
all fe&ts, by way of interim, till God fhould be pleafed to
raife reformers, in all refpeéts like the apottles.. His plan
being, that only the text of God’s words fhould be read to
the people without comment or explication, and without
preferibing any commandment, or prohibition, but at moit
by way of advice. In 1578, he returned to Holland, where

Me

KOO

The engaged in a controverfy with two minifters of Delft at
Leyden, concerning the charaéteriftics of the true church.
He foon proved too powerful for his antagonifts, who
charged him with the defign of making a fchifm among the
people, and who obtained an order that he fhould not be
permitted to publifh any thing in print concerning the dif-
pute. He was alfo forbidden to trouble the minifters of
Delft with letters, or otherwife, upon pain of the utmof
feverity. Being thus effeCtually filenced, the minifters in
different towns of Holland direéted their attacks againft
him from the pulpit, reprefenting him, by name, as a
heretic, an impious fellow, and a free-thinker. He peti-
tioned to be keard in his own defence, but was refufed, and
ordered to comport himfelf peaceably and dutifully, in which
cafe he fhould be fecure from danger. his he regarded
as the introduction of a new inquifition, or force upon con-
{ciences in Holland. Koouhert was ever, and at all times,
the confiftent friend to liberty of confcience, and the firm
opponent. to’ whatever could abridge the right of free dif-
cuffion; for his zeal and‘intrepidity in this caufe, he was
continually haraffed by bigots and the government of the
country; he had, however, a mind that could not be fub-
dued, and he made ufe of his pen, in various traéts, to vin-
dicate the principles which he efpoufed. Among his other
literary antagonilts was the celebrated Lipfius, who, in a
treatife on civil government, maintained that only one kind
.of religion fhould be tolerated in one ftate, and that perfons
who held different opinions, and who endeavoured to bring
others over to their party, ought to be punifhed. « Mercy,”
fays the profeffor, « has no place here, cauflics and ampu-
tations mult be made ufe of, it being better that one limb
fhould perifh than the whole body.’? In anfwer to thefe
perfecuting tenets, Koornhert publifhed his treatife, intitled
«“¢ The Procefs, or Trial of Heretic-killing, and Force upon
Confcience,”? which he dedicated to the magiftratés of Ley-
den. Thefe, however, to gratify Lipfius, gave notice ofii-
cially, that they did not accept the dedication, and that the
author had, by it, done them neither fervice nor honour.
Koonhert died at Gouda in 1590, in the 68th year of his
age. Grotius expreffed a high efteem for his charaGter, and
an ardent hope that his judicious labours would be ufeful to
his country and the world. He is claffed by Pontanus among
the learned men of the city of Amfterdam, and as one warmly
attached to the interefts of piety andtruth. Hadrian Ja-
nius, in his defeription of Holland, calls him a man of divine
underftanding : he adds, that Fortune was his enemy, and he
thinks that ‘he fuffered himfelf to be made ufe of by God
*¢as a voluntary demolifher of the, murthering prifen of con-
f{ciences.”? An edition of all his works was publifhcd in
1630, in three volumes foho. Bayle. Gen. Biog.

KOOROO, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the
country of Foota. N. lat. 1078. W. long. 10° 20'.

KOORTA, atown of Bengal ; 35 miles W. of Nagore.

KOORUMBAH, atown of Hindooftan, in Dowlata-
bad ; 40 miles E. of Poorunder.

KOORWEY, a town of Hindaottan, in the route from
Agra to Oojein, conne&ed with another town called «* Bo-
rafo,” on the banks of the Betwa. Thefe towns are of
confiderable fize, and at the former is a large ftone-fort.
They are inhabited by Patans, who fettled here about ‘t00
years ago, inthe time of Aurungzebe. The revenue of the
prefent Nawab is faid to be between one and two lacs of ru-
pees, whichis fequeftered for the payment of a debt to the
Mahrattas.

KOOS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 45
miles S.E. of Jetfen —Alfo, a town in the ifland of Ximo :
46 miles E.S.E. of Udo,

KOR

KOOSAMBO, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of
Bali. S. lat. 8° 24'. E. long. 114° 46’.

KOOSHAUB, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Lahore, cn the Behut; 95 miles W. of Lahore. N, lat.

1 45!) Belongi}yr° 5".

KOOSHINJEE, or Pusuinc, a town of Candahar ;
80 miles S.E. of Candahar. N. lat. 32? 14'. E. long. 66°58’.

KOOTACONDA, a townof Africa, in Woolli; 16
mlies W.S.W. of Medina.

KOOTAKOO, a town of Africa, in Fooladoo. N.
lat. 13° 30'. W. long. 7° gol. ;

KOOTY, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 84 miles
S.S.W. of Patna. N. lat. 24° 23’. E. long. 84° 43'.

KOPACZOW, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw ; 72 miles N.W. of Braclaw.

KOPAN, a town of Hungary ; 18 miles W.S.W. of
Symontornya.

KOPANITZ, atown of Sclavonia; 21 miles $.S.W.
of Efzek.

KOPASH, a town of Dageftan; 45 miles N.W. of
Derbend. .

KOPIGOWKA, atown of Poland, in the palatinate of
Braclaw, on the Bog ; 16 miles 8. W. of Braclaw.

KOPIL, a town of Lithnania, in the palatinate of Ne-
vogrodek ; 45 miles S.E. of Novogrodek,

KOPIN, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 28 miles N. of
Kaminiec. ,

KOPOLET, a fea-port of the principality of Guriel, .
on the Black fea. N. lat. 41’ 35’, E. long. 41° 22’.

KOPORE, a town of Ruffia, inthe gulf of Finland ;_
32 miles W. of Peterfburg.

KOPYL, a town of Lithuania, in Novogrodek; 16.
miles N.W. of Sluck. ;

KOPYSS, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the govern-
ment of Mohilef, fituated on the Dnieper.

KORA, atown of Ruffia, in the government of Irkutfk,
on the Ilga; 36 miles N.W. of Vercholenfk.—Alfo, a town’
of Africa, in the kingdom of Jemarrow.

KORACHORYNCHUS Inopicus, in Ichthyology, the .
name of a fea-fifh of the Eaft Indies, called by the Dutch»
the raevenbeck. It has its name from its nofe refembling the
beak of a raven or crow, and is about feven inches long ;
its back and tail are red, and its belly yellow ; it has alfo,
on each fide, two pale yellow longitudinal lines, running
from the gills to the tail. It is a wholefome and well-tafted
fifth. Ray. .

KORALLEN-ERTZ, i. e. Coral-Ore, a name given
by the miners of Idria, in Friaul, to a variety of bitumi--
nous fhale, with tuberculated fhining furface, and containing
much hepatic and fome other mercurial ores. See Mer-
cURY. ’

KORAMO, or Curamo, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Benin.

KORAN. See Atcoran.

KORASAN, or CuorAsan, a province of Perfia, ter-
minating it in the N E. is bounded on the N. by Charafmy
and the country of*the Ufbeck Tartars, on the N.E. by
the Gihon or Oxus, on the E. by Bucharia and Candahar,
on the S. by Segeftan and the lake 6f Zeré, or Zurra, the,
Aria palus of antiquity, and on the W. by the province of
Mazanderan and the Cafpian fea ; about 450 miles in length
and 420 in breadth. This country formerly comprehended
Margiana in the north and Ariana in the fouth. It was con-
quered by Timur Bec in the year 1396, and granted by him
to his fon Mirza Charoe, together with Mazandexan and Sea
geltan. The principal towns are Herat, Kenef, Talekan,
Merwah, Zaweh, &c.

KORBETH,

KOR

KORBETH, a town of Perfia, in Irak; 126 miles S.
of Hamadan.

KORBI-LA-HOU, a town of Africa, onthe Ivory
Coatt.

KORBOLE, a town of Sweden, in Helfingland; 53
miles W.N.W. of Hudwick{wall.

KORBOLIKINSKOI Mounrary, a mountain of Ruf-
fia, part of the range of Kolivan (which fee), which has its
name from the brook Korbolikha, which runs through it.
It is enclofed from the S., E., and W., by granite moun-
tains ; but on the N.E. is bounded by the great Biela, toge-
ther with fchift and chalk mountains. It confilts, except
in fome few points, which are covered with fea-bottom ma-
terials, for the moit part of clay, fchift, marl-wacke, lapis
corneus, and quartz, here and there underlaid by granite and
porphyry. Although the height of thefe mountains, between
the origin of the Korbolikha and the little Biela, is confi-
erable, yet the mountain on the great Biela, fuch as the
Revennaia-Sopka, and the Karaulnaia-Sopka, remarkably
diftinguifh themfelves on aceount of their fingle fummits.
The mineral of this mountain confifts of a {chiftofe marl-
wacke and horn-fchifl, in which here and there hornblende and
crumbs of feld{par are to be met with. The chain of moun-
tains, in conjunétion with the north-weftern and fouth-
eaftern rivers of the Revannaia-Sopka, the Blue mountain,
and the Kolhyvan granite mountain, and in the fouth-ealt,
after they have encompaffed the kliutfhef{koi majak, termi-
nate at the foot of high granitic fnow mountains. The
Revennaia-Sopka is the higheft point of thefe mountains,
being eftimated at 2213 Parifian feet higher than the
Slangenberg ; itis faid not to confift of granite, but of firm
horn-{chiftus. In this Korbolikinfkoi tra& of mountains,
the riehelt of all the Altay mine-works are carriedon. See
Korivan and Arrat. ;

KORCHELLEN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ;
52 miles N. of Warfaw.

KORCHINO, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Nizegorod ; 80 miles S.S.W. of Niznei Novgorod.

KORCK, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron-
theim ; nine miles S.W. of Romidal.

_ KORCZANY, a town of Samogitia ; 24 miles W.N.W.
ef Miedniki.

KORCZICK, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 15
miles N.E. of Oftrog.

KORDEDEARDA, a townof European Turkey, in
Walachia ; So miles N.W. of Buchareft. N. lat. 45° 15’.
E. long. 24° 24!.

KORDOFAN, a country of Africa, between Dar-Fir
and Sennaar, fubje€t to the fultan of Dar-Far, by whom
it was conquered in 1795. Mr. Brown informs us in his
“ Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria,’’ that an inveterate
animofity fubfilts between the natives of Dar-Fiur and thofe
of Kordofan; infomuch that wars have been almott continual
between the two countries, as far as the memories of indivi-
duals extend. One of the caufes of this hottility appears to
be their relative pofition; the latter lying in the road be-
tween D)ar-Fir and Sennaar, which is confidered as the
mott praéticable, though net the direct communication be-
tween the former and Mecca, Nor can caravans pafs from
Suakem to Fir, unlefs by the permiffion of the governors of
Kordofan. The jealoufy of trade is, therefore, in part the
origin of their unvaried and implacable animofity. A king, of
the name of ‘* Abli-Calik,”? is the idol of the people of
Kordofan, where he reigned fome years ago, and was re-
nowned for probity and -juftice, The kings of Kordotan
had been deputed by the mecque of Sennaar, till after the
death of the fon of Abli-Calik, when it was ufurped by

Voy. XX.

KOR

Fir, in confequence of the weaknefs and diffentions of the go-
vernment at Sennaar. The people of Kordofan are reported
to be not only indifferent to the amours of their daughters and
fifters, but even attached to their feducers. The father or
brother will even draw the fword again{t him who offends
the ‘“ Refik,’? or companion of his daughter or filter.
Kordofan extends from N, lat. 12° to 14° 40/, and from LE,
long. 29° 25! to 32° 30’. :

KORDYN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Kiev ;
44 miles W.S.W. of Kiev.

KOREPSKOI, a cape on the N. coaft of Ruffia, in the
North fea; 124 miles N.W. of Archangel.

KORIAKT, an oltrog of Kamtfchatka, on the Awati-
ka; 27 miles W. of Awatika.

KORIAKS, the denomination of a people who inhabit
the northern parts of the Penthinikoi gulf, and of the pe~
ninfula of Kamtfchatka, near and among the Kamtfchadales,
Tungufes, Lamutes, and Tfchukthhes. They are fup-
pofed to derive their name from the word Kora, which in
their language fignifies arein-deer. The great likenefs they
bear to many iflanders of the Eaftern ocean, and to the nearelt
Americans beyond the itrait, afford reafon for fuppofing
that they, and alfo the Tfchuktthes, are the primitive pot-
feffors of thefe coafts ; who either came over from the conti-
nent of America, or were feparated from it by the probable
infraCtions of the fea, and the confequent divilion of the twe
quarters of the world. With refpect to number they are
about equal to the Kamtfchadales, who, according to the enu-
meration of 1760, amounted to about 3coo males, though it is
not unreafonable to conclude, that their number is in reality
three or four timeslarger. According to Lefleps the Koriaks
are fuppofed not to exceed 2000 families. Thefe people are
divided into two claffes, wiz. the wandering and the fixed
Koriaks. The latter inhabit the northern part of the ifthmus
of Kamtfchatka, and the whole coalt of the eaftern ocean,
from thence to the Anadyr. The country of the former
ftretches along the N.E. of the fea of Ochotik, to the river
Penfkina, and weftward towards the river Kovyma. The
fixed Koriaks have a ftrong refemblance to the Kamt-
{chadales ; and, like them, depend altogether on fishing for
fubfiftence. Their drefs and habitations are of the fame
kind. They are tributary to the Ruflians, and under the
diltrict of the Ingiga. ‘The wandering Koriaks occupy
them{elves entirely in breeding and pafturing deer, of which
they are faid to poffefs immenfe numbers ; fo that it is not
unufual for a fingle chief to have a herd of 4 or 5000. They
defpife ffh, aud live altogether on deer. They have no
balagans, and their only habitations are like the Kamt{cha-
dale jourts, with this difference, that they are covered with
raw deer-{kins in winter, and tanned onesin fummer. Their
fledges are drawn by deer, and never by dogs ; which, like
the latter, are always fpayed, in order to be trained te
this bufinefs. The draft deer pafture in common with the
others ; and when they are wanted, the herdfman makes ule
of a certain cry, which they inftantly obey, by coming out
of the herd. Captain King was informed by the prielt of
Paratounca, that the twonations of the Koriaks and the
Tichutfki {peak different dialects of the fame language ;
and that it does not bear the leaft refemblance to the
Kamtfchadale. According to the account of Lefleps, the
manners of the fixed Koriaks are a compolition of
duplicity, miitruft, and avarice; and they are faid to
haye’all the vices of the northern nations of Afia, without
the virtues. Robbers by nature, they are fufpicious,
cruel, and ipcapable either of pity or benevolence. Perfi-
dious and favage in their difpofition, they are in a ftate of

M perpetual

KOR

erpetual hoftility with their neighbours; and hence every
individual is led to cherifh a ferocious. fpirit. Hence alfo
they acquire an inflexible courage, and glory ina contempt
of life. Superttition alfo impofes upon them a law which
obliges them to conquer or todie. The vicinity of the Ruf-
fian fettlements has hitherto produced no change in the mode
of life of the refident Koriaks.. Their commercial intercourfe
with the Ruffians merely feem to render them more avarici-
ous and more addicted to plunder; and they refift every at-
tempt of civilization, The wandering Xoriaks were for a long
time more intractable. Their regular occupation is hunting
and fifhing, and when the feafon does not allow of their purfu-
ing it, they fleep and {moke, and indulge themfelves in drunk-
ennefs. Their paffion for {trong liquors has led them to in-
vent a drink, equally powerful with brandy, which is fearce
and dear, and which they extract froma red mufhroom, known
in Ruffia as a ftrong poifon, under the name of “ mouk-
hamorr.”” With a preparation of this they entertain their
guefts for one, two, or three days, till their ftock is ex-
haulted. The features of a majority of the Koriaks are not
Afiatic ; but they might be confidered as Europeans, if it
were not for their low {tature, ill fhape, and the colour of
their fkin. Others of them have the fame charafteriftic out-
lines with thofe of the Kamt{chadales. Among the women
particularly, there are very few who have not funk eyes, flat
nofes, and prominent cheeks: the men are almoft wholly
deftitute of beards, and have fhort hair. The women carry
their children in a fort of arched bafket, in which the infant
is placed in a fitting pofture, and fheltered from the weather.
When a Koriak dies, his relations aflemble, cre& a funeral
pile, and place a portion of the wealth of the deceafed, and
a itock of provifions, confifting of rein-deer, fifh, brandy,
and whatever elfe they conceive will be wanted by him for
his journey, and prevent his ftarving in the other world.
The body is exhibited in his beft attire, and lying in a kind
of coffin; and after receiving the adieu of his attendants,
who have torches in their hands, they haften to reduce it to
afhes. ‘They wear no mourning, as they feel only the regret
of a temporary abfence, and not of an eternal {eparation ;
and the funeral pomp generally terminates in the intemperate
ufe of liquor and tobacco. Death is regarded by them as a
paflage to another life, in which other joys are referved for
them. They acknowledge a fupreme being, the creator of
all things, whofe refidence is the fun; but they neither fear
nor worfhip him. Goodnefs, they*fay, is his effence ; and
it is impoffible, as all good proceeds from him, that he
fhould do any injury. The principle of evil they confider
as a malignant {pirit, who divides with the fovereign good
being the empire of nature. ‘To this evil fpirit they pay
refpect, and perform their devotion, in order to pacify his
wrath, and to avert the calamities which he infli&s. Ac-
cordingly they offer him, as expiatory facrifices, various
animals that have begun to exift: rein deer, dogs, the firft
fruits of their hunting and fifhing, and the moft: valuable of
their poffeffions. Supplications and thank{fgiving conftitute
their devotional exercifes. His votaries have no temple nor
fan@tuary. This imaginary god is worfhipped in all places ;
and they conceive that he hears their prayers in the folitudé
of the defert, as well as in fociety ; and that he is rendered
propitious by their indulging to drunkennefs in their jourts :
for, ftrange as it may feem, drunkennefs is among thefe
people a religious practice, and the bafis of all thei: folem-
nities. See KaAmTsHATKA and TscnuTSKI.

KORKAN, or Jorgsan, a flat diftri& on the eatt fide of
the Cafpian fea, fubje& to great heat, frequent inundations,
and an unwholefome air; but the foil is fertile, and produces
dates, wine, cottan, filk, and corn.

KOR

KORKINA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk ; 20 milés S.W. of Ifchim.

KORKUB, a town of Perfia, in Chufiitan; 30 miles
W.S.W. of Jondifabur.

KORMAND, a town of Hungary, on the Raab; 52
miles S. of Vienna. }

KORMESHTY, mountains of Ireland, in the county
of Mayo; 17 miles N.W. of Cafllebar.

KORMUDSEH, a town of Perfia, in the Farfiftan;
100 miles S/W. of Schiras. N. lat. 28> 37/.

KORNBURG, a town of Stiria, on the Raab; 24
miles S.E. of Gratz.

KORNDYCK, a {mall ifland of Holland, in the Meufe,
with a town of the fame name; about 7 miles W.N.W. of

_ Willemftadt.

KORN-NEUBURG, a town of Auttria, on the north
fide of the Danube, oppofite to Clofter-Neuburg ; 8 miles
N. of Vienna. N. lat. 48° 19!. E. long. 16° 40’.

KORNOCK, an ifland near the weft coat of Weft
Greenland. N. lat. 61° 38’. “V. long. 47° 4o!.

KOROL, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat ; 20 miles
E. of Baroach.

KOROLOVETZ, one of the eleven diftriés of the go-
vernment of Novogorod Severfkoi in Ruffia, fituated on a
rivulet falling into the Defna; 40 miles S,E. of Novogorod
Severfloi. . r

KOROMANTEES, a general appellation given in the
Britifh Weft Indies-to moft of the negroes purchafed on the
Gold Coalt, from Koromantyn, one of the ecarlieft of our
fa€tories on this part of the -\frican coaft ; which is now be-
come an infignificant village, or factory, in pofleflion of the
Dutch. It is fituated in the kingdom of Fantyn, two miles
from the fort of Anamaboe. The Koromantyn or Gold
Coaft negroes are diftinguifhed from all others by firmnefs
both of body and mind, a ferocioufnefs of difpofition, and,
at the fame time, activity, courage, and a kind of ftubborn-
nefs, which prompts them to enterprifes of difficulty and
danger, and enables them to meet« death, in its moft dread-
ful forms, with fortitude or indifference. Many of them
had been flaves in Africa, and others had been engaged in
perpetual hottility with one another ; and they were, there-
fore, prepared for endeavouring, even by means the moft
defperate, to regain the freedom of which they had been
deprived. Accordingly they have been difpofed to excite or
to encourage rebellion, ‘This was the cafe in Jamaica in the
year 1760. The firmnefs, and intrepidity, and contempt
of death, which are diltinguifhable in adults, brought from
the Gold Coaft, are vilible even in boys at the age of ten
years. Edw. W. Indies, vol. i.

KOROP, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the govern-
ment of Novogorod Severfkoi, feated on the left fhore of
the Defna.

KOROROFAH, a country of Africa, fituated ealt of
Wangara.

KOROTCHA, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the
government of Kurfl, feated on a rivulet of the fame name,
that falls into the Donetz; 44 miles E.S.E. of Kurfk.

KOROTOIAN, atown of Ruffia, and diftri& of the
government of Voronetz, fituated on the Don; 20 miles S.
of Voronetz.

KOROVA, a fmall ifland in the fea of Ochotik; 240
miles E. of Ochotfk. N. lat. ¢g° 20'. E. long. 150° 4o'.

KORPIKYLA, a town of Sweden, in Welt Bothnia;
14 miles N.N.W. of ‘Tornea.

KORPILAX, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 68
miles N.N E. of Tavatthus.

KORPO, an ifland of Sweden, in the Baltic, near the

% fouth-

KOR

fouth-welt coaft of Finland, of an oval form, about 20 miles
in circuit; having on the north-weft coaft a town of the
fame name, and feveral villages. NN. lat.. 60° g'. E. long.
2r° 25’.

KORPONA, a town of Tiungary ; 28 miles N.N.E. of
Grav.

‘ KORS, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adirbeit-
zan; So miles §.S.E. of Erivan.

KORSA, a town of Hindooitan, in the fubah of Delhi;
26 miles W. of Delhi.

“KORSAKI, or Corsac, in Zoology. See Fox.

KORSEC, in Geography, a town of Poland, ia Volhynia ;
32 miles E. of Lucko.

KORSENIEC, a town of Lithuania; 60 miles E. of
Wilna.

KORSEWALAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian
fea. S. lat. 7° 39’. E. long. 128” go’.

KORSNAS, a town oF Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 25
miles S.5.E. of Wafa.

KORSOER, a fortified town of Denmark, lying at the
mouth of a {mall bay, forming a well-prote€ted harbour, on
the Great Belt. It has a few good houfes, which belong
to merchants, &c. Some trade is carried on from hence up
the Baltic, and in the vicinity. The fortifications are in
ruins, and the town is chiefly inhabited by fifhermen and fea-

faring people. The breadth of the Great Belt between
Korfoer and Nyeborg is about 22 miles.

KORSUN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiev; 44 miles S.S.E. of Bialacerkiev.

KORSZANY, a town of Samogitia; 25 miles N.W.
of Midniki. :

KORTCHERA, or Kertcuer, a town of Ruffia,
and diftri€t of the government of ‘T'ver, on the Volga.

KORTHOLT, Curistiay, in Biography, a native of
Holftein, was born at Burg, in the ifle of Femeren, in the
year 1633. Having acquired the rudiments of learning, he
was, at the age of fixteen, fent to Slefwick, where he pur-
fued his ftudies two years ; and from this place he went to
the college of Stettin, made great proficiency in learning,
and obtained high applaufe by the able manner in which
he maintained two thefes. He continued his literary ftudies
at Roftock, to which place he removed in 1652; and after-
wards he delivered lectures, in his own apartments, on logic,
metaphyfics, and Hebrew. In 1656 he took his degree of
doétor in philofophy, after which he went to ftudy at the
univerfity of Jena, where he diftinguifhed himfelf by his
academical ats, and by his private leGtures on philofophy,
the oriental languages, and divinity. In 1661 he went to
the court of Schwerin, at the invitation of the duke of
Mecklenburg, in whofe prefence, as well as in the prefence
of a great number of the nobility, he difputed two days on
theological topics with two learned Roman Catholics, one

an Aultrian, and the other a Pole: and on a fimilar invita-
tion he difputed, in the following year, with a Roman Ca-
tholic of Paris. On thefe occafions he acquired univerfal
applaufe from the auditors. In 1662 he was nominated to
the chair of the Greek profeffor at Roftock, and took his
degree of dotor of divinity. From thence he removed to
Kiel, became fecond profeffor of divinity, and afterwards
vice-chancellor and firft divinity prcfeffor. In. 1680 the
duke of Holftein beftowed upon him the profefforfhip of
ecclefiaftical antiquities, and, in 1689, declared him vice-
chancellor for life. Five times he had the honour of being
nominated vice-reGtor at Kiel; and it is univerfally allowed
thawhe performed the duties of his various pofts with great
ability and perfeverance. He died in the year 1694, at the
age of fixty-one, much refpeéted and honoured by his friends

KOS
and the univerfity of Kiel. To the republic of letters he

had been an ornament by a number of curious, learned, and
ufeful works ; the titles of which are given in Moreri, and
alfo in Bayle, to which the reader is referred for further in«
formation.

KORTISJARVE, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
the province of Wafa; 43 miles I. N.E. of Wafa.

KORTRICHT, a poft-town of America, in Delaware
county, New York, in which are 1513 inhabitants.

KORTSCHIN, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz ; 40 miles S.W. of Sandomirz.

KORTY, a town of Africa, in Sennaar, on the borders
of the Nile, where the caravans quit the river, and turn to
the Defert, in order to avoid the pirates of the Nile; 60
miles E. of Dongolu.

KORYSOWA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
the Kiev ; 32 miles S.W. of Kiev.

KORZECZOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Sandomirz ; 24 miles S. of Sandomirz.

KORZELLAN, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 70
miles N.W. of Warfaw.

KORZYMECK, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin ; 38 miles N.N.E. of Lublin. ;

KOS, in the Jewi/b Antiquities, a meafure which held
the quantity of four cubic inches, and fomething over.
This was the cup of blefling, out of which they drank when
they gave thanks after folemn meals, as on the day of the
paflover.

KOSA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Perm; 48 miles W. of Solikamfk.

KOSARIA, in Botany, Forfk. Zigyptiaco-Arab. 164.
Ic. t. 20. A laétefcent foetid very fingular plant, found
by Forfkall in the coffee plantations at Hadie. Juffien, on
the authority of Niebuhr, refers it to Dor/fenia, and itis D.
radiata of Willdenow, Sp. Pl. v.i. 683. oar is its Arabie
name. The /fem is thick and flefhy, lke that of fome A fri-
can Euphorbia, bearing on the upper part feveral oblong,
jagged, ftalked caves. The flowers have a radiated com-
mon receptacle, and grow on ftalks, from tubercles at the
fides of the tem. The plant bruifed is applied as a cure for
eruptive diforders.

KOSCEA, in Geography, a town of Walachia; 16 miles
N. of Kimnick.

KOSCIABAD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Kerman ; 60 miles S.W. of Sirjian.

KOSCLOW, a town of Auttrian Poland, in Galicia;
60 miles E. of Lemberg.

KOSEL, a town of the county of Tyrol, on the
Brenta; 21 miles E. of Trent.

KOSHA, in Zoology. See Siberian Doc.

KOSHAB, in Geography, a town of Curdiftan; 20 miles
S. of Van.

KOSHANIA, a town of Great Bucharia; 30 miles W.
of Samarcand.

KOSHANIKUT, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Segeftan; 110 miles N.E. of Boft.

KOSKANUADEGO, a river of Pennfylvania, which
runs into the Allegany, N. lat. 41° 52’. W. long. 79° 20!.

_ KOSKIN, a town of Norwegian Lapland; 108 miles
S.W. of Pofanger.

KOSKIS, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 22 miles
E. of Tavaithus.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Abo; 20 miles E N.E. of Abo.

KOSL, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen;
18 miles W.N.W. of Chamir.

KOSLOF, a town of Rouffia, and diftri& of the govern-

2 ment

KOT

ment of Tanbof, on the rivulet Ufnoi Voronetz ; 48 miles
N.W. of Tanbof.

KOSOLUL, a town of European Turkey, in Beflarabia ;
28 miles N.N.W. of Bender.

KOSREUKEN, a town of Natolia; 16 miles N.W. of
Kiutaja. :

KOSSAR, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 28 miles
W.N.W. of Lucko.

KOSSATZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-

ingratz; 12 miles W, of Konigingratz.

KOSSOW, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 56 miles S.S.W. of Novogrodek.

KOST, a town of Great Bucharia; 70 miles $.S.E. of
Balk.

KOSTEL, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Brunn,
anciently the fee of a bifhop; 25 miles S. of Brunn. N.
lat. 48° 50’. E. long. 16°47’.

KOSTELOTZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Konigingratz; 16 miles S.E. of Konigingratz.—Alfo, a
town of Bohemia, in the circle of Kaurzim, on the Elbe;
12 miles N.N.E. of Prague. N. lat. 50° 12'. E. long. 14°
45'—Alfo, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz ;
7 miles S.W. of Olmutz.

KOSTENBLUT, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Breflau; 18 miles W.S.W. of Breflau. N. lat. 50° 59’.
E. long. 16° 4o'.

KOSTESH, a town of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
16 miles N. of Birlat.

KOSTIAN, or Kosran, a town of the duchy of War-
faw ; 20 miles S.E. of Pofen.

KOSTOLETZ, a town of European Turkey, in
Servia; 18 miles E. of Semendria.

KOSTOLNA, a town and caftle of Hungary ; 24 miles
N.W. of Topoltzan.

KOSTROMA, a government, town, and river of Ruffia ;
the government, formerly included in that of Mofcow, 1s
about 210 miles from E. to W., and 150 from N. to S.
The capital, Koftroma, with its diftri€t, is fituated near the
Volga, and furrounded with a rampart. N. lat. 57° 30'.
E. long. 41° 14’. The river runs into the Volga at the
capital

KOSUMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
60 miles W.S.W. of Meaco, an

KOSZARA, atownof Bofnia; 12 miles N. of Banja-
luka,

KOSZO, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate of No-
vogrodek ; 60 miles S.S.W. of Novogrodek.

KOSZULA, atown of European Turkey, in Moldavia ;
36 miles N.W. of Jafly.

KOTAH. See Korra.

KOT AIGROD, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 12 miles
§.E. of Kaminiec. :

KOTAN. See Hotom.

KOTANA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Sir-
hind; 4omiles E.N.E. of Sithind.

KOTANKODERIPO, a town on the E. coalt of Cey-
lon; ro miles S.E. of Batacola.

KOTAR, a province of Dalmatia, about 30 miles long,
and 20 broad; called alfo the county of Zara, from its ca-

ital Zara.

KOTCHA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Perm ; 60 miles W. of Solihanfk.

KOTCHEEL, atown of Hindooftan; 10 miles S. of
Agimere.

KOTCHELOVSKATA,a town of Ruffia, in the coun-
try of the Coffacks, at the conflux of the Donetz and the
Don; 52 miles E, of Azoph.

KOT

KOTCHENGSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
Sp of Irkutfk, on the Ilim; 60 miles W.S.W. of Or-
enga.

KOTCHUG, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutfk, on the Lena; 16 miles E. of Vercholenfk.

KOTELNA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Kiev ; 60 miles W.S.W. of Kiev.

KOTELNITCH, a town of Ruffia, and diltri& of the
government of Viatka, on the Viatka; 36 miles S.W. of
Viatka.

KOTIAKOF, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the
government of Simbirfk, on the right fide of the river
Sura. .

KOTIGNOW, atown of Poland, in Podolia; 34 miles
N. of Kaminiec. :

KOTINGHY, a town of Hindooftan, in the cirear of
Ruttunpour ; 36 miles N.E. of Raypour. * j

KOTLAN, a town and capital of a diftri& of the fame
name, in Great Bucharia; 200 miles S.E. of Samarcand.
N. lat. 38’ 10!. E. long. 68° 36’.

KOTMANA, a town of Walachia, near the fource of a
river of the fame name, which runs into the Danube; 45
miles N.W. of Bucharelt.

KOTNA, a town of Great Bucharia, on the Gihon; 40
miles S. of Bokhara.

KOTNAR, a town of Moldavia; 24 miles W.S.W. af
Jafly.

KOTO, or Lamry, a fmall and barren diftri& of Africa,
on the Slave Coaft, in the Whidah country, extending about
18 miles along the Atlantic: the land is flat and the foil
fandy. Slaves have been the chief article of trade with the
Europeans. The chief town is called Koto, or Verku.

KOTONA, atown of Hindooltan, in Mewat; 25 miles
N.N.W. of Cotputly. :

KOTOO, one of the fmall Friendly iflands, furrounded
by coral reefs, and fearcely acceflible by boats ; not more
than 14 mile, or two miles long, but not fo broad. The
N.W. end of it is low, like the iflands of Hapaee ; but it rifes
fuddenly in the middle, and terminates in reddifh clayey
cliffs at the S.E. end, about 30 feet high. In that quarter

_ the foil is of the fame fort as in the cliffs; but in the other

parts, it is a loofe black mould. It produces the fame
fruits and roots which are found in the other iflands: it is
tolerably cultivated, but thinly inhabited. ‘T’he water is
dirty and brackifh, ‘The burying places are neater than
thofe of Hapaee; 16 miles N. of Anamooka. 5. lat. 197
5S’. E.long. 185 11’.

KOTRA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of.
Troki; 15 miles E.S.E. of Grodno.

KOTROU, atown of Afriea, on the Ivory Coatt.

KOTSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Ir-
kutfk, on the Tungufka; 140 mi'es N.N.W. of limfk.

KOTLA, or Koran, a circar of Hindooftan, in Mal.
wa; bounded on the N. by Rantampour, on the E. by
Yohud and Chandaree, on the S. by Kitehwara, and on the
W. by Meywas, or Oudipour. It is crofled in the centre
by the river Jeful,h—Alfo, a town, which is the capital of
the circar, feated on the Jeful. This town is of confider-
able extent, of an irregular oblong form, inclofed with a
ftone wall and round battions. It contains many good
ftone houfes, and feveral handfqme public edifices. ‘The
palace of the rajah is an elegant ftruéture. The ftreets are
paved with ftone. It has, on the W., the river Chumbul,
and on the N.E. a lake, fmooth and. clear as cryftal, which,
on two fides, is banked with ftone, and has, in the middle, .
a building called ‘ Jug-mundul,”’ which is confecrated te.
religious purpofes, Near the N.E. angle of the town, and.

7 only

KOU

@nly feparated from the lake by the road, is the *¢ Chetrea,"”
or maufoleum of one of the knights. In front of this
handfome building are placed feveral ftatues of horfes and
elephants, hewn out of itone. To the fouth of the city,
about three furlongs beyond the wall, is a place confeerated
to the celebration of Rum’s victory at Lanka. Behind this,
in a recumbent pofture, is an enormous {tatue of earth,
which reprefents the demon ‘ Rawoon.’’? On the day of
celebration the principal people affemble ; and the fire of the
guns is direéted againft the earthen wall, which make a
breach in it, and deface or demolifh the image of Rawoon.
The revenue of Kotah is 30 lacks of rupees ; out of which
is paid, though not regularly, a tribute of two lacks yearly
to Sindiah, and as much to Holcar. N. lat. 25° 15" E.
long. 76° 20'. Afiat. Ref. vol. vi.

KOTTIMBEL, a {mall ifland in the Red fea.
077657. ~Eslong. 41° 25".

KOTTIS, a town of Auftria; 10 miles S.E. of Zwetl.

KOTTOCOMB, atown of Africa, in Bornou; 75 miles
S. of Bornou.

KOTTOKOLEE, a town of Africa, and capital of a
country of the fame name, in Negroland. N. lat. 13°.
E. long..5° 40'.

KOTUL, a town of Hindooftan, in Bundelcund; 20
miles S. of Pannah.

KOTY, a town of Bundelcund; 18 miles S.-of Callinger.
' KOTZENAU, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Lignitz ; 16 miles N: W. of Lignitz. Z

N. lat.

KOU, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 30 miles S.E. of

~ Akalziké.

KOUAKAND, a town of Turkeftan, on the Sirr ; 60.

miles S. of Tafhkund,

KOUANG-SI, or Quanc-st, a city of China, of the
firft clafs, in the province. of Yun-nan, N. lat. 24° 40’,
E. long. 103? 28".

KOUANG:SSIN, or Koane-six, acity of China, of
the firft clafs, in the province of Kiang-fi. This city is
furrounded by mountains, many of which are lofty, and
abound’ fome of them» with forefts, and others with fine

eryftal ; the country, however, is fertile and well inhabited ; .

many of the mountains are cultivated, and are no lefs pro-
duétive than the moft fertile plains. They make a very
good paper in this city, and the bef candles in the empire.
N. lat. 28? 27'.. E. long. 117? 44".

KOQUANIN, in the Chinefe Language, the name of a
tutelary deity of women. The Chinefe make great num-
bers of the figures’ of this deity in white porcelain, and
fend them to all parts of the world, as well as keep then
in their own houfes. The figure reprefents a womai
with a child in her arms. The women, who have no
children, pay a fort of adoration to thefe images, and
fuppofe the deity they reprefent to be of power te make
them fruitful. It has been fuppofed, by many Euro-
peans, that thefe images were meant to reprefent the
Virgin Mary, with our Saviour in her arms; but this is
an idle opinion; the Chinefe having been fond of this
figure in all times that we have an account of. The fta-
tue always reprefents a handfome woman, very modeftly
attired.

KOVAR, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 16 miles
~ N.W. of Bittritz. Baten Ei

KOVARABAD, a town of Great Bucharia, in the:

kingdom of Balk ; go miles W. of Balk.

KOUCHO, a town of Africa, in Upper Guinea, on the
river Scherbro.; 36 miles from the fea.

KOUDJEH, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Natolia; 48
miles W. of Kiutaja.

KOU

KOUDRA, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 27 miles
S. of Burwah.

KOUDUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ; 7
mi'es N.N.W. of Beder.

KOUE-HOA, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the
province of Yun-nan. N, lat. 23° 26’. E, long. 103° 56’.

KOUEIT, Gray, Cathem, or Kadhema,’a Sea-port
town of Arabia, in the province of Lachfa, fituated in-a
bay of the Perfian gulf, and governed by a fcheich, who is
vaffal to the fcheich of Lachfa, but occafionally afpires to
independence. Whenever the fcheich of Lachfa advances
with his army, the citizens of Koueit retreat with their
effets into the little ifland of Feludsje. The inhabitants
are chiefly occupied in fifhing, and particularly for pearls ;
in which bufinefs they are faid to employ more than Soo-
boats. N.lat..27° 4o!. E. long. 48° 10'.

KOUEI-TE, a city of China, of the firft clafs, in the
province of Ho-nan, fituated in an extenfive and fertilé
plain, between two large rivers ; but in order to render it
opulent, it wants an incréafe of inhabitants and trade. The
air is: purée, and the fruits, efpecially oranges and pomegra~
nates, are excellent. The inhabitants are diltmguifhed by
their mildnefs and hofpitality. The jurifdi¢tion of this city
comprifes feven towns. N. lat. 34730’. E-long. 115° 29';

KOU-HISAR, atown of Aliatic Furkey, in Caramania;
12 miles NrW. of Akferai.

KOVINSKOI, Niznei, Sred, and Vercehnei, towns of
Ruffia: the firft, on an ifland ‘in the river Kolima, N. lat.
69° 40's Es long. 156% 24':—the fécondy in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk, on the Kolima, N. lat. 65-5’. E. long.
159° 14':—the laft} in°the fame government, on the fame
river, N. lat. 66’ 15'. E. long. 149° 14/.

KOUKOU, or Kovucou, a town of Afia, in the king-
dom of Gaaga; the refidence of a powerful king in the
twelfth century.

KOULIK, in Ornithology.
rivorus.

KOULI-KHAN, Tuamas, or Naprr Scnan, in Bio-
graphy, was born in the province of Khorafan : <his father’
was chief of a branch of the Afghans, which rank defcended
to Nadir when he was a minor, but his uncle ufarped the
government. On this he entered into the fervice of the
Beglerbeg, governor of Mufcada, in. Khorafan, who gave
h'm the command of an army fent againft the Tartars.
Nadir, on this occafion, gave fignal proofs of his prowefs
and military fkill; he gained a complete victory with am:
inferior force, and took the.Tartar general prifoner. For
this able conduét, the Beglerbeg appeared extremely grate-
ful, and, at firft, treated Nadir with great diftinGtion, but
at length he became jealous of his afpiring fpirit, and re-
fufed to promote him“in the army as he had promifed, and
when Nadir complained of his breach of faith; he caufed
him to be baftinadeed: Driven to defperation, he joined a
banditti of robbers,,and committed great ravages. The
Afghans having~ made- themfelves mafters of Ifpahan, and
the Turks and Mufcovites ravaging other parts of Perfia,
Schah Thamas. applied to Nadir for affiftance. He, with-
out hefitation, entered into the fervice of the {chah; but
one -of his -firft aGtions was to murder his uncle who had
ufurped his title, For his great fervices againit the Turks,
he. was ennobled with the title of khan, and honoured with
other diftinétions ; neverthelefs, he depofed Thamas, and
placed a fon of that prince on the throne by the name of
Abbas ILI. to whom he became regent. Under a prince,
fix months old only, Kouli-khan meditated to be the real
fovereign of Perfia. He difpofed of every thing according
to his own pleafure: he defeated the Turks, and obliged
them to fue for peace. Within a few months the poe

ied,

See Rampnasros Pipe-

KO W

died, and Kouli-khan was elected to the vacant throne, and
on his acceflion aflumed the name of {Nadir Shah. [iis
reign was marked with a high degree of glory, but his go-
vernment was to the laft degree defpotic. In the year 1739,
he conquered the Mogul empire, making himfelf mafter of
Delhi, where he acquired immenfe riches. He there af-
fumed the title of emperor of the Indies, but difgraced
himfelf by ordering a maflacre of the inhabitants of Delhi,
in revenge for an infult offered to fome of the troops. The
project was difcovered, and the proferibed party aflembled
with a view of taking revenge. They were furrounded by
a powerful army, which was devoted to the fchah. It was
neceflary to force a confidential guard, and they were neither
acquainted with the fituation of the emperor’s tent, nor
knew how to diltinguifh it from the reft. Defpair, how-
ever, enabled them to furmount every obftacle. Five of
them rufhed into the pavilion, and the emperor was in{tantly
known by the glitter of the ornaments with which he was
covered. In defending himfelf he flew two of the con-
{pirators, when a third gave him a mortal wound. He
exclaimed ‘¢ {pare me, and I will pardon all.’’ ** No,’’ re-
plied the fourth, “ thou hail never fhewn metcy to any, and
we will fhew none to thee.’’ They then difpatched him,
and fevered his head from his body. This event took place
in 1747. Univer. Hitt.

KOUM, in Geography, a town of Thibet ; 15 miles N.
of Darmadijira. ’

KOUNDGI-AGHIZ, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in
the government of Sivas, on the coaft of the Black fea; 15
miles N.W. of Samfoun.

KOUNMEON, a town of Birmah; 48 miles N. of Ava.
N. lat. 22° 33’. E. long. 97° 56’.

KOUPHOLITE, in Mineralogy. See PREUNITE.

KOURAH,, in Geography, atown of Natolia; 44 miles
W. of Kaiutaja.

KOURATTY, atown of Hindooftan, in Dowlatabad ;
15 miles W. of Carmulla.

KOURESTAN, a town of Perfia, in Lariftan ; 36 miles
8. of Tarem.

KOURMA, or Kura, a {mall town of Dar-Fir, W.
by S.of Cobbé, at the diitance of 12 or 13 miles,

KOVROF, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the govern-
ment of Volodimir, on the river Kliafma; 24 miles E. of
Volodimir.

KOUROU, a river of Guiana, which runs into the At-
lantic, N. lat. 5° 5'. W. long. 53° 36'. .

KOUS. See Cous and Apotuinis Urbs.

- KOUSSIE, a river of Africa, which runs into the At-
lantic, §. lat. 30° 12!. E.long. 17° so’. This river is
= northern boundary of the colony of the Cape of Good

ope.

KOUSSIS. See Karrers.

KOUTA, atown of Hindoottan, in Vifiapour ; 10 miles
N. of Merritch.

KOUXEURY, in Ichthyology, a fith found in the lakes of
South America, whofe palate is employed by the Indians
for polifhing their carvings in wood. Itis unknown to which
genus this fh belongs,

KOWAL, in Geography, atown of Afia, in the province
of Adirbeitzan; 120 miles W. of Tauris.

KOWAL, or Cowat, a town of Poland, in the palati-
nate of Brzefc; 16 miles E. of Brzefc.

KOWAR, a town of Africa, inthe kingdom of Bur-
fali, on the river Gambia, which formerly had a large traffic
in flaves.

KOWARSKO, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna; to miles N. of Wilkomierz.

KOZ
KOWEL, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 28 miles

“N.W. of Lucko.

KOWERO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Kuopio; 80 miles E.S.E. of Kuopio.

KOWNO, or Kowig, a town of Lithuania, in the pala-
tinate of Troki, at the conflux of the rivers Wilna and
Niemen, containing eleven churches, one of which is Lu-
theran; 40 miles N.W, of Troki. N. lat. 54° 54. E.
long. 23° 45".

KOWRA, a town of Birmah; eight miles N. of Ray-
nangong.

KOWRAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 10
miles S. of Gogo.

KOWROWA, a village in Karakakooa bay, rendered
infamous by the murder of captain Cook, See Coox, and
KARAKAKOOA.

KOYAHT, afmall American ifle, at the S. end of
Wathington’s ifle, at the entrance of a ftrait feparating a
{mall ifle from the largett.

KOYDANOW, a town of Lithuania, inthe palatinate
of Minfk ; 16 miles S.W. of Minfk,

KOZAK, Joun Sopurontius, in Biography, a phyfician
of fome celebrity, was a native of Bohemia, and praétifed
his profeffion at Bremen during a feries of forty-five years,
and died there on the 3oth of January 1685, at the age of
82. He was an admirer of Robert Fludd, the rofycrucian,
and. adopted many of his fanciful notions in his writings.
He left the following works: ‘ Difcurfus Phyfici quatuor,
de rerum naturalium principiis, de generationum et tran{f-
plantationum mod!s, morborum caufis et fpeciebus, methodg
curationum,’’ Bremen, 1631.—‘* Anatomia vitalis Micro-
cofmi,” ibid. 1636.—** TraGatus fpagyrici de Phlebotomis
et de Fontanellis,” ibid. 1655.—* Traétatus Medicus de
Sale, ejufdemque in corpore humano refolutionibus falutaribus
etnoxis,’’ Francfort, 1663.—* Tractatus de Hemorrhagia,”?
Ulm, 1666. Eloy. Dict. Hitt.

KOZANGRODEK, in Geography, a town of Lithu-
ania, in the palatinate of Brzefe; 42 miles E. of Pinfk. ~

KOZAR, a town of Perfia, in the province of Adir-
beitzan ; 75 miles W. of Tabris.

KOZDAR, a town of Afia, in the kingdom of Can-
dahar, on the borders of Perfia; 180 miles $.S.E. of Can-
dahar. N. lat. 30° 30’. E. long. 67° 15'.

KOZELSK, a town of Ruffia, and diftri@ of the go-
vernment of Kaluga, feated on the left fide of the {mall
river Shifdra, which falls into the Occa; 36 miles S.S.W.
of Kaluga.

KOZELUCH, Joun Anrnony, in Biography, mufie
dire€tor in the Metropolitan church at Prague, was bern at
Wellwarn, in Bohemia, 1738. He itudied and lived pri-
vately many years at Prague, long before he obtained any pro-
feffional honours or preferment. His firft advancement was
to the place of chapel-mafter of Chrilt-church, and the next,
in 1784, was that of organift of the dan kirk or cathedral.
He afterwards Aitiagraihed himfelf as a compofer both for
the church and theatre. Among his produétions for the
latter are his Italian operas of Demofoonte, and Aleflandre
nell? Indie, by which he very much increafed his reputation.
It isa pity, fays Gerber (Mufical Lexicon) that more of his
works have not been publifhed !

Kozsetucu, Lrororp, a celebrated harpfichord-mafter
and compofer for that-inftrument at Vienna, was born at
Wellwarn in 1753. He had learned the principles of mufic
regularly at 18 years old, and the art of finging. At 19,
he was brought to Prague, where he ftudied at the fame
time compofition and the harpfichord. But before he was
18, he produced {pecimens of his genius and. talents. In

177435

KRA

1771, he publithed his firft effay at compofition, in a ballet
for the Prague playhoufe. This was followed by 24 others
and two pantomimes. After this he was invited to Vienna,
where he eftablifhed himfelf, and whence his fame and works
were circulated all over Europe, with thofe of Vanhal,
Hadyn, and Mozart. His ftyle is more eafy than that of
Emanuel Bach, Haydn, or Mozart ; it is natural, graceful,
and flowing, without imitating any great model, as almott
al! his contemporaries have dene. His modulation is natural
and pleafing, and what critics of the old fchoo] would allow
to be warrantable. His rhythm is well phrafed, his accents
well placed, and harmony pure. He publifhed 20 or 30
different fets of harplichord and piano-forte fonatas, fome
with and fome without accompaniments, which were not
only in high favour with the ladies of Vienna, but with
female dilettanti all over Europe. The adagios and violin
accompaniments to all his pieces have been univerfally ad-
mired. If any one fet of his fonatas was more in favour at
Vienna than another, it was his 12th fet. He was the firlt
in Vienna who publifhed duets for two performers on one-
keyed inftruments, and feveral of them are excellent. He
publifhed likewife a duet for two harpfichords, or piano-
fortes, with many concertos for the harpfichord a@ grand
orche(tra.

Nor has he confined himfelf to inftrumental mufic ; he
has fet a French comic opera, Le Muret ; Didone abbando-
nata, a ferions opera in Italian; Mofes in Egypt, a grand
oratorio, in Italian, 1787, the beit for the widows and chi'-
dren of decayed mulicians, that had been compofed for that
fociety. The fame year he was engaged, by a fociety of 150
fubfcribers, to compofe for the Italian opera: and for the
national theatre, or German playhoufe, he compofed airs,
cantatas, and ballets without end. In 1781, on the death
of the emprefs queen, he compofed the mufic to a very
pathetic dirge. Jofeph and his Brethren, a cantata, with
a harpfichord accompaniment only. Pfeifel’s cantata for Mad.
Paradis, his fcholar in 1784, with innumerable leffons and
concertos exprefsly for that blind but admirable performer ;
15 fongs to German words, and cantatas in Italian, with
accompaniments for two French horas, two violins, hautbois,
tenor, and bafe; three fymphonies, various fets of trics,
and quartets ; two concertos for clarinets, and two for the
violoncello.

KOZIN,.in Geography, a town of Poland, in Volhynia ;
24 miles S. of Lucko.

KOZLAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Rako-
nitz; 12 miles S.W. of Rakonitz.

KOZLOV. See Kostor.

KOZMODEMIANSK, or Kusmopemransk, a town
of Ruffia, and diftri@ of the government of Kazan or Cafan,
on the Volga; too miles N.W. of Kazan.

_ KOZU, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Volhynia;
56 miles E. of Lucko.

KRABBEN, a finall ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coaft of Guiana. N. lat. o? 10’. W. Iong. 57” 50’.

KRAFT, Grorce Woxreayn, in Biography, a cele-
brated mathematician, was born at Dutlingen, where his
father was paftor. He received a good education, but ap-
plied himfelf chiefly to geometry and natural philofophy, in
which he made great progrefs under the celebrated Buifinger,
whofe friendfhip and patronage he enjoyed. In 1728, he
took his degree of mafter of arts, and almoft immediately
fet out for Peterfburgh, and was appointed teacher, in that
city, of mathematics in the New college, founded by the
Imperial Academy of Sciences. At the end of five years,
he was appointed a profeflor of natural philofophy. He
was , in confequence of his great reputation, recalled to his

KRA

native country, which obliged him to folicit permiffion to
refign his profefforfhip. ‘This was accompanied with the
molt diftinguifhed teftimonies of high efteem; the academy
ele&ted him an honorary member, and fettled upon him a
handfome penfion. He quitted Peterfburgh in 1744, and
arrived at Tubingen, where he entered on his office as pro-
feffor of mathematics and natural philofophy, which he re-
tained till his death in 1754. He was author of many very
valuable works, among which are “ Inftitutiones Geometriz
fublimioris ;”? ‘* Przlectiones Academice publice in Phyfi-
cam ‘Theoreticam ;"’ * De vera experimentorum Phyficorum
conftitutione ;”” “ De Hydroftatices Principiis generalibus.’’

KRAGG Srong, a rock found near Belfaft, belonging
to the fletztrapp formation, but which, together with thole
rocks called wacke and mullen, is kept diltinét from
bafalt by Mr. Kirwan, who gives the following defcription
of the kragg ftone. Colour greyifh-red or reddifh-grey,
exceeding porous: the pores often filled with various cryftal-
lizations. Louftre and tran{parency none. Fracture uneven
and earthy ; fragments 2; hardnefs from 5 to 7. Spec.
grav. 2.314. Feels rough and harfh; gives a yellowith-
grey ftreak. At 138° it melted into areddifh-brown porce-
Jain mafs. It is often mixed with globules of magnetic
iron-{tone, which adds confiderably to its {pecific weight.

Wacke, mullen, and kragg (Mr. Kirwan adds) have
been by moft writers confounded with what he confiders as
trap; but their colour, fpecific gravity, and fulibility, thew
that they muft be diftinguifhea.

KRAGLIKIU, in Geography, a town of Moldavia; 95
miles N.N.W. of Jafly.

KRAGOJEVA, a town of Servia; 45 miles N.E. of
Novibafar.

KRAGOWATZ, a town of Servia ; 30 miles N.N.W..
of Belgrade. "

KRAKA, a town of Walachia, on a confiderable lake,
that communicates with the Danube; 30 miles $.S.E. of
Buchareft. WN. lat. 44° 5’. E. long. 26°.

KRAKAN, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 30’ E. long. 19° 33!.

KRAKATOA, a fmall ifland in the ftraits of Sunda.
S. lat. 6° 6. E. long. 105° 21’.

KRAKAW, or Kraxo, a town of the duchy of Meck-
lenburg, on a lake; 10 miles N. of Guitrow.

KRAKEN, in Zoology, a marine animal of moft ftupen-
dous magnitude, faid to have been feen in the northern feas,
and particularly near the coafts of Norway and Sweden. The
exiftence of fuch an enormous creature is attefted by bifhop
Pontoppidan, who, in his * Natural Hiftory of Norway,””
affords an entertaining, if not a very fatisfattory and accu-
rate, account of this furprifing creature. From his details:
we learn the kraken lies in the deeper parts of the fea, in:
eighty or one hundred fathoms water, and at fome leagues:
from land. This mighty, and as it feems unwieldy mafs of
animated fubftance, very rarely rifes near the furface ; whem
it does, the calmeft fea becomes troubled to a valt diftance
around it, the heaving billows point out the more immediate
fpace in which it will emerge, and when it has rifen, thofe
parts vifible above the furface of the water affume the
afpe& of fo many iflands, variable in dimenfions as well as
fhape, atevery motion of the kraken. The form of this
enormous being is compared to that of a crab; the back
or upper part, (fo far as can be probably eftimated,) is faid
to be a mile and a half in circumference, (or, as, fome affirm,
even more.) Its limbs, and of thefe it 1s furnifhed with
feveral, are truly gigantic, appearing, when elevated above
the water, as thick and long as the maits of veffels of a mo-
derate fize, and are befides endowed with fo much ftrength,,

that:

KRA

that with one of thefe it can feize on boats and the fmaller
‘kinds of veflels, and draw them under water. The defcent
of this montter from the furface of the fea to the bottom, is
faid alfo to be not lefs terrible than its rifing, fince it occa-
fions a {well and whirlpool fo violent and irrefiftible, that
fhips of the largeft burthen, drawn within its vortex, inevita-
bly fink into the aby{fs of the waters, and fink to rife no
more.

Thefe, and various other circumftances equa'ly calculated
to excite aftonifhment, are related of the kraken by the
learned prelate before mentioned, the particulars of which
have been differently received, many having placed an im-
plicit confidence in his relations, and others as ftrenuoufly
determining to reject them as tales unworthy of belief. In
juftice to Pontoppidan, we fhould obferve, however, that
though we are principally indebted for our knowledge of the
kraken to this writer, it muft be underftood that the exift-
ence of fuch an animal as the kraken is not teltified on his
authority alone ; nor is it in his volumes only that details fo
-marvellous have appeared ; his accounts in general are ina
greater or lefs degree corroborated by feveral northern
writers, and with fuch internal evidence of truth, that we
cannot reject their reports as wholly fabulous, or conceive
the kraken to be the mere creature of fiction. Still we mutt
receive their obfervations deliberately ; we may, and:certainly
do, on their veracity, admit the probable exiftence of a ma-
rine animal, fuch as the kraken is defcribed, of a fize very
far furpafling that of the whale, and confequently, of any
animal at prefent known, but here we paufe ; we have yet
to be informed how far the truth has really been exaggerated
as to the actual magnitude, and powers of this tremendous
creature. As to the nature of this being, that particular
appears to be pretty clearly defined ; we have little doubt,
if any confidence can be placed in the confeffedly imperfeét
deferiptions left us by different authors, that it is a creature
sby no means analogous either to the whale tribe, or any
kinds of fifhes ; it is affuredly, on the contrary, one of the
mollufca order or family of worms peculiar to the fea.
Denys Montfort, a writer who feems to have confidered its
nature with attention, believes it to be a fort of fepia, an
idea not improbable, or perhaps rather, fhould fortune ever
favour the naturalift fo far as to decide the point in queftion,
it may prove to be one of the medufe tribe; this we fuggelk,
though we fhould {till rather be inclined to imagine it an
animal of a diftinét genus not at prefent afcertained, as being
smoft likely partaking in fome degree of the characters both
of the genera Sepia, and Mrpusa, and yet not f{tri@ly ap.
‘pertaining to either. See Sepra aud Mepusa.

KRAKO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro
‘vince of Upland; 17 miles N. of Upfal.

KRAKON, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 61 33'. BE. long, 17° o}.

KRALAM, a town of Bofnia, near the river Mifna ; 34
anites S, of Serajo.

KRALITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Ol-
amutz; 8 miles S. of Olmutz.

KRALOVAVELTKA, atown of Sclavonia; 30 miles
W.N W. of Pofzega.

KRALOWIDWUR, or Konicinnor, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Konigingratz, on the Elbe ; 13 miles
N. of Konigingratz.

KRALOWITZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Rakonitz; 13 miles S.W. of Rakonitz.—Alfo, a town of
Bohemia, in the circle of Czaflau; 16 miles S.W. of
Czaflau. .

KRAMER, in Biography. See the next article.

SRAMERIA, in Botany, received its name from Lin-

KRA

naus, in commemoration of two German botanifls, John
George Heury Kramer, the father, and William Henry,
the fon, both of whom flourifhed towards the middle of
the laft century. The former, a phyfician to the army,
publifhed at Drefden, in 1728, an anomalous arrangement
of plants, partly by the fyftem of Rivinus, and partly by
that of Tournefort, dividing them according to the months
in which they flower. ‘This fame book, amended and en-
larged, was reprinted at Vienna in 1744, interfperfed with
various remarks upon the technical terms of botany, anec-
dotes. of what happened to the author in various journeys,
and, according to Haller, many fabulous abfurdities, He
was alfo author of other botanical tracts. —The latter (Wil-
liam Henry) publifhed at Vienna, in 1756, a catalogue of
the animals and plants of Auftria.—- Linn. in Loefl. It. 196.
Gen. 63. Schreb. 86. Wiild. Sp. Pl. v. 1.693. Mart.
Mill. Di&. v. 3. Jul. 425. (Ixine; Loefl. MSS.) —
Clafs and order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain,
poflibly Lomentacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jufl.

Gen. Ch, reformed. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four or
five oblong, acute, unequal, f{preading leaves, internally
coloured, deciduous. Cor. irregular, much fhorter than the
calyx, of five petals ; the three uppermoft with long claws,
reflexed, and a {mall ovate limb, which is fometimes wanting
in the middle one; two lowermoft ovate, concave, feffile,
at each fide of the germen, {carcely fpreading, much fhorter
than the others. Stam. Filaments four, at the upper fide
of the germen, awl-fhaped, parallel, afcending, two of them
rather {horter than the reft; anthers terminal, fimall, ovate,
ere, opening by two terminal pores. Pi/f. Germen fu-
perior, feffile, ovate; {tyle awl-fhaped, afcending, nearly
equal to the ttamens ; ftigma fimple, acute. Peric. Legume ?
glubofe, of one cell, not buriting, armed on all fides with
barbed projecting briltles. Seed {olitary, ovate, hard,
fmooth.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four or five leaves. Petals five; the
three uppermoit with long c'aws; two lowermott feffile,
ovate. Fruit globofe, prickly, of one cell. Seed folitary,

Obf. It docs not appear that Linnzus ever faw this
genus ; all that he fays of it being taken, not very exattly,
from Loefling; nor is there a {pecimen in his herbarium,
Neither does Mutis feem to have known any thing of it,
when he fent Linneus a defcription of the Acena, Mant,
2. 145, under the denomination of “* Kramerie affinis 3”? for
thefe two genera have nothing in common, except a flight
coincidence in their artificial characters, not founded in na-
ture. This cena indeed was never feen by Linnxus, being
adopted entirely from his friend's account. It is, with
great judgment, referred by Juffieu to his own natural order
of Rofacea, after Anciffrum, with which Krameria has no re-
lationfhip whatever.—The defeription and figure of a fe-
cond f{pecies of Krameria, in Cavanilles, haye enabled us to
form fome idea of its natural affinities, hitherto left in the
dark, as well as to venture on a reformation of its generic
chara@ers ; though all this is done from the above autho-
rities alone, without infpection of any fpecimens. The genus
in gueflion will not conveniently go into any of Juffieu’s
pretent fections of the Leguminofe, but a comparifon of its
anthers with thofe of Ca/fia, its hard ovate feed, and its
anomalous corolla, will, we prefume, confirm thofe more
obvious indications which have led us to the above conclufion,
notwith{tanding the {lrange and peculiar feed-veflel.

Only two fpecies haye hitherto been deferibed by authors,
both natives of South America.

1. K. Jxina. Linn. Sp. Pl. 177.—Leaves all fimple. Calyx
four-cleft —Gathered by Loefling near the town of Comanay
on the coaft of the Caracaos, latitude about 10° S. The

inhabitants

KRA

jihabitants call it Cardillo Breve, or rather, as we prefume,
Cardillo Breva, Teafel Fig, from the fhape of the fruit and
its barbed briftles. Whether there be any thing vifcid in
its habit, which might induce its difcoverer to adopt the
Greek name Jvine, does not appear from his defcription
here fubjoined. «* Roofs fibrous. Stems thrubby, procum-
bent in their lower part, and {preading every way, but foon
afcending and wand-like ; their branches fcattered and erect.
Leaves alternate, lanceolate ; the upper ones linear, acute,
nearly feffile. Flowers alternate, in a'terminal (leafy) clutter,
their ftalks axillary, furnifhed about the middle with two
{mall acute linear braéteas. Calyx of a rofy purple. Upper

petals pale at the tips, lower ones rugofe, dark purple. The

plant itfelf is of a brownifh hoary hue.”’

2. K. cytifoides. Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 61. t. 390.—Leaves ter-
pate; the floral ones fimple. Calyx five-cleft.—Found by
Lewis Née, near the town of Cimapan in New Spain, efpe-
cially on the hill commonly called del carpintero, bearing flowers
and fruit in September.—The ffem is fhrubby, three feet
high, with a grey bark ; its branches numerous, alternate,
downy when young. eaves alternate, on longifh, downy,
comprefled foot-{talks, ternate ; leaflets elliptical, fefiile, en-
tire, downy. FJowers forming a fimple clulter at the end

of each branch, with a fimple elliptic-lanceolate leaf at the

-

bafe of each of their ftalks, and a pair of fmaller ones
above the middle, the ftalks all fingle-flowered, rather longer
than the leaves, and downy. Calyx externally downy, in-
ternally of a violet red. Sfamens equal, red, inferted into
the receptacle, all at the upper fide of the germen, and
within the upper petals, which latter therefore cannot, as
Cavanilles fuggefts, be abortive filaments. The lower petals
are dark yiolet ; the central one of the three upper is elon-
gated, taper-pointed, and recurved, not dilated at the fum-
mit like the others. Germen hairy. Fruit globular, the
fize of a currant, downy, muricated on all fides with longifh

_ projecting briftles, barbed at their points only with three or

four fharp reflexed tecth. S.
~ KRAMERSKY, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the province of Ermeland; 15 miles S. of Heilfberg.
~ KRANICHFELD, a town of Saxony, in the princi-
pality of Altenburg; 12 miles S.E. of Erfurt. N. ‘lat.
50° 43’. E. long. 11° 4’.
' KRANOWITZ, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Troppau; 11 miles N.E. of Troppau. N. lat. 49° 55'.
E. long. 18°.
~ KRANTZ, Arrert, in Biography, a native of Ham-
burgh, of whofe early life we have no information, became
flefior of canon law and theology in the univerfity of

oftock, and afterwards reStor of it about the year 1482.
He took his degree of door of divinity in 1490, and then
removing to Hamburgh was eleéted dean of the cathedral
there. He obtained great reputation for his abilities and
een: and was confulted on various occafions. Of fuch
confequence was his opinion reckoned, that in the year 1500,
the king of Denmark and the duke of Holfte made him
their umpire in a difpute with the people of Dithmarth.
He died in 1517, leaving behind him a charaéter for inte-
grity and induitry in his refearche;. His works are, ‘¢ Chro-
nica Regnor:m Aquiloniorum Daniz, Sueciz, Norvegie :”
“ Wandalia, five Hiftoria de Vandalorum origine:”’ “ Me-
tropolis, five Hiftoria Ecclefiaftica de Saxonia.’’ Moreri.

KRAPERNA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, and
Giftri& of the government of ‘Tula.

KRAPINA, a town of Croatia; § miles W. of Agram.

KRAPPITZ, or KrzApKowirTz, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Oppeln, near the Ober; 12 miles S. of
Oppeln. N. lat. 50°25’. E. long. 17° 52’.

Vou. XX

KRA

KRAS, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Lublin ;
26 miles S. of Lublin,

KRASILOW, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 18
miles W. of Conftantinow.

KRASCHENINNIKOVIA, in Botany, a genus
formed by Giildenftedt, Nov. Comm. Petrop. v. 16. 5515
of the Axyris Ceratoides of Linnzus, and which is retained
in Schreber’s Genera 633 under the name of Diotis. Of
the propriety of its eftavlifhment we have fome doubts,
having never examined the living plant, nor traced the pro-
grefs from the flower to the fruit. It poffibly, however,
bears the fame analogy to Asyris that diriplex dees to Che-
nopodium.

KRASNE, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the

alatinate of Braclaw; 24 miles N.W of Braclaw.

KRASNEPOL, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 32
miles N.E. of Kaminiecz.

IKRASNOBORSK, a town of Ruffia, and diftrict of
the government of Vologda, in the province of Ve'iki-Uf-
ting, on the left fide of the Dwina; 60 miles N.N.W. of
Uiting.

KRASNOBROD, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Belcz; 25 miles W. of Belcz.

KRASNOJ, a town of Ruflia, and diftrict of the go-
vernment of Smolenfko, on a rivulet which falls into the
Dnieper; 28 miles S.W. of Smolenfko.

KRASNOIAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Upha; 16 miles N.N.W. of Upha.

KRASNOIARK, a town of Roffia, and diftri& of
the government of Kolyvan, on the Yenifei, where it re-
ceives the Katcha: it was built in 1618, furrounded with
palifades, fmall towers, and fome batteries. ‘The inhabit-
ants, who occupy about 350 houfes, principally trade in
cattle, horfes, and furs; 100 miles S. of Enifeifk. N. lat.
56°. E. long. 96° 14’.

KRASNOIARSKAFA, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Irkut{k, near the conflux of the Oka and An-
gara; 64 miles W.S.W. of Ilimfk.

KRASNOI-KHOL”, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of
the government of Tver, on the river Schoea, which falls
into the Mologa; 60 miles N. of Tver.

KRASNOKUTSK, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of
the government of Kharkof, or Charcoy, on the Merlo ;
4o miles W.S.W. of Kharkov 3 which fee.

KRASNOSLAW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate
of Cheim; 26 miles $.S.W of Chelm.

KRASNOSLOBODSK, a town of Ruffia, and diftri&t
of the government of Penza, on the Mokvka, or Mofkva;
84 miles N.W. of Penza.

KRASNOUFIMSK, atown of Ruffia, and diftriG of
the governmeut of Perm, on the Upha; 96 miles S.E. of
Perm.

KRASOIJAR, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Caucafus, at the mouth of the Volga 3 16 miles N. of
A ftrachan.

KRASUKKA, a {mall ifland 02 the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 22’. E. long. 24°46’.

KRASUPOL, a town of Poland, ia Braclaw; fix mile
E. of Braclaw.

KRASZNA, atown of Hungary, on a river of the fame,
name, whichruns into the Samos; 16 miles S. of Zatmar.

KRAUPEN, or Krupxa, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Leitmeritz ; 14.miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz. N.
lat. 50° 41’. E. long. 13° 54’.

KRAUS, Martr, in Biography, an eminent {cholar in
polite literature, the fon of a Lutheran clergyman, was bora

KRE

in 1526, at Grebern, in the bifhopric of Bamberg. He re-
ceived his claffical education at Ulm, where he acquitted
himfelf with fo much credit, that the magiftrates of the city
allowed h'm a penfion to affift him in his future ftudies. He
went to Strafburg, and added to his former acquifitions
theology and the Hebrew language. He afterwards under-
took the direétion of the public fchool~at Memmingen,
which he rendered celebrated by adopting the methods pur-
fued at Strafburg. In 1559, he was appointed profeflor of
moral philofophy and the Greek language at the univerfity
of Tubingen, where he refided till the time of his death,
which happened in 1607. He publifhed a great number of
works, grammatical and critical, with orations, Greek and
Latin, but his moft valuable publication is entitled * ‘Turco-
Greciz libri oto,’ containing an excellent colleGtion of
pieces relative to modern Greece, with the language and lhi-
terature of which he was well acquainted. He was author
likewife of Annales Suevici, ab initio rerum ad annum, 1594.""
A very fhort time before his deceafe, and forefeeing that
the time of his departure was at hand, he gave an entertain-
ment to the academical body, and prefented to them, as a
memorial of his efteem, a valuable gold goblet. Moreri.

KRAUTHEIM, in Geography, a town of Germany, on
the Jaxt ; 34 miles N. of Heilbronn.

KRAW, J/hmus of, the narrow part of Lower Siam,
between the Indian fea and the gulf of Siam, about 70
miles wide. N. lat. 9° to 12°. E. long. 98° 20! to 99° 30’.

KRAYSK, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 84 miles E. of Wilna.

KREESE. See Crissz.

KREIBITSCH, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz ; 24 miles N.N.E. of Leitme-

ritz.

KREMENTCHUK, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of
the government of Catharinenflaf or Ekaterinoflav, on the
Dnieper; 38 miles W.N.W. of Ekaterinoflav. N. lat.
49°. E. long.: 33° xo!

KREMINIEK, a
miles S. of Lucko.

KREMPE, a {mall tewn of Holftein, formerly fituated
on the banks of the Elbe and ftrongly fortified, but now
only remarkable for the height of its fteep'e, which ferves
as a mark for feamen, fituated between Itzehoe and Gluck-
ftadt ; 3 miles N. of the latter.

KREMSIER or Kreomerziz, a town of Moravia,
in the circle of Prerau, on the Morawa, belonging to the
bifhop of Olmutz ; 17 miles S. of Olmutz. N. lat. 49° 17’.
E. long. 17° 20'.

KREMSMINSTER, atownof Auftria; 12 miles W.
of Steyr.

| KRENENSKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the country
of the Coflacks, near the Don; 216 miles N.E. of
Azoph. ;

KRESABAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Bundelcund ;
28 miles S.S.W. of Pannah.

KRESTA, a {mall ifland near the S. coaft. of Nova
Zembla, in the ftraits of Waigats. N. lat. 70° 32’. E.
long. 59° 20.

Kresta, S¢., a gulf or bay of Ruffia, in the north part
of the Anadirfkaia gulf. N. lat. 65° 20! to 65° go’. E.
long 180° 34’ to 181° 24.

KRESTIAK, an ifland in the Frozen fea, at the
mouth of the Lena, of a triangular form, having its
mean diameter about 12 miles. N. lat. 77° 42. E,
long. 167 14!.

KREUPEL, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of
Borneo, N. lat. 3°47'. E, long. 112° 29’.

town of Poland, in Volhynia; 36

KRI

KREUSBACH, a town of Aultria; 9 miles S.S.E.
of St. Polten.

KREUTZBURG, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Polotfk, on the Duna; 60 miles E.S.E. of Riga.

KREWITZ, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
10 miles E. of Schwerin. N. lat. 53°.40'. LE. long.
Miro dCs

KREWO, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 42 miles S.E. of Wilna.

KRICHEVSKAITA, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Archangel, on the Dwina; 16 miles S. of Kol-,
mogori.

KRIEBEL Kranxueit, the German appellation of
the difeafe faid to avife from eating the feeds of the rapha-
nus, and thence called Raphania by Linneus and others.
See that article: alfo Ercor and Ienis facer.

KRIEGSTETTEN, in Geography, a_bailiwick of
Switzerland, in the canton of Berne.

KRIENS and Hors, a bailiwick of Switzerland, in
the canton of Lucerne.

KRIGIA, in Botany, named by Schreber, apparently
in honour of Dr. David Krieg, a German phyfician, men-
tioned in the preface to the third volume of Ray’s Hifforia
Plantarum, who is there faid to have accompanied Mr. Wil-
liam Vernon, fellow of St. Peter's college, Cambridge, in a
botanical excurfion through the province of Maryland. In
this journey they difcovered and collected fome hundreds of
new and rare plants, many of which are defcribed in the
work of Ray, above cited. Schreb. 532. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 1618.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia ZEqualis.
Nat. Ord. Compofite Semiflofculofe, Linn. Cichoraceay
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx fimple, cylindrical, of about ten,
lanceolate, ereét, acute, equal leaves, fhorter than the corolla.
Cor. compound, fomewhat imbricated, uniform, each flower
hermaphrodite ; proper, of one petal, tongue-fhaped, linear,
truncated, five-toothed. Stam. Filaments live, capillary, very
fhort ; anthers cylindrical, tubular. Pi/?, Germen nearly
ovate; ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ;
ftigmas two, reflexed. Peric. none; common permanent
calyx ovate, at length reflexed. Seeds folitary, five-fided,
ftriated, with a membranaceous crown of five, roundifh,
erect leaves ; down capillary, confifting of five long rough
briftles, alternating with the crown. Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx fimple, of many
leaves. Seed-down of five membranaceous leaves, with live
alternate briftles.

1. K. virginica. Willd. (Hyoferis virginica; Linn. Sp..
Pl. 1138. Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 88. Lamarck in
Journ. @ Hitt. Nat. v. 1. 222. t. 12.)—A native of Virginia
and Pennfylvania, found even from Canada to Florida.x—
The habit of this plant is very fimilar to that of a ftarved’
Dandelion. Radical leaves at firft ovate, then lanceo-
late, and at length lyrate, acute, {mooth. Stalks nal,
fingle-flowered, thrice as long as the leaves. Calyx per-
feétly fimple, not imbricated, of ten lanceolate leaves.
Flowers deep yellow. Seeds {quare, crowned with five
fhort, rounded, membranous feales, and a3 many alternate,
long, rough, ftraight briftles.

KRIJINAGUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan,,
in Mewat; 18 miles N.N-E. of Alvar.—Alfo, a town in,
Agimere ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Roopnagur..

KRIKA, a diftri@t of Africa, in the kingdom of Cal-
bari.

KRIM. See Crim, Crimea, and TacrIpA.

KRINK, a town of Iftria;, 12 miles S.S.E. of Capo»

a’ Utria, :
KRIS,,

KRI

‘KRIS, the denomination of Indians that inhabit the
banks of lake Chriltineaux, who can raife 1000 warriors.

KRISHNA, in Hindoo Mythology, one of the avataras,
or incarnations of the god Vifhnu, in which he is faid by the
feGtaries, who exclufively worfhip him under this name, to
have magnified himfelf in a degree of power and glory far ex-
ceeding any other of his forms. They maintain, indeed, that
under the other avataras, he aflumed only an an/a, er portion
of his divinity, while Krifhna was Vifhnu himfelf in mortal
mould. A numerous feét, called Gokalafta, from Gokala,
one of Krifhna’s names, worfhip him exclufively, or con-
jointly with his confort Radha: this fect are immeafurably

vifh in their praifes, and vehement in their adoration of
this deity, while other fefts of Hindoos call Krifhna an im-
pious wretch, a mercilefs tyrant, an incarnate demon, now
expiating his crimes in hell. As information is received
from thefe different defcriptions of zealots, fo confequently
will it differ in the account of the charafter and actions of
this motley perfonage, of whom as much is recorded as of
any of the Hindoo deities. His life and a€tions have oc-
cupied the attention of many volumiaous writers; and if
taken literally he led a life of exceffive libertinifm, but his
followers maintain fuch appearances to have been the refult
of maya, or delufion, for that in reality his life was chafte
and holy. The Gita Govinda, a beautiful poem by Jaya-
deva, is a feries of myftical rhapfody in praife of Krifhna,
and a relation of his loves with his confort Radha, and al-
though warm, and indeed loofe, ina degree not admitting
of literal tranflation into our language, is faid to be purely
» myftical, and to mean the “ reciprocal attraGtion between the
divine goodnefs, and the human foul.”? This poem has
been finely tranflated by fir W. Jones, and appears in his
works, and in the third volume of the Afiatic Refearches.
The fame fubje& is myftically handled in the tenth book of
the Sri Bhagavata, a life of Krifhna, not hitherto tranflated,
fo much venerated among certain feéts, as to be elteemed
as the eighteenth Purana. (See JayapEva, Mysticat
Porrry, Sri-BuacavatTa, and Purana.) Mott of the
extravagant tales related of Krifhna, may be refolved into
a continued folar allegory, for he is a perfonification of the
fun, and correfponds with the Apollo of the Greeks. (See
Katya.) His mortal parents were Wafu-deva and De-
vaky. He was foftered by an honeft herdfman named
Ananda, or the happy, and his amiable wife Yafuda; and
. paffed his youth in dancing, fporting, and piping among
a multitude of young Gapas, or cow-herds, and Gopias,
or milk-maids, from whom he felected nine as favourites.
As a fpecimen of the tales of the Bhagavata, it may fuffice
to relate, that on one occafion the Gapia, his playfellows,
(that is, the Mufes) complained to Tafuda, that he had
pilfered and ate their curds; and being reproved by his
fofter mother, he defired her to examine his mouth, in which,
je amazement, fhe beheld the whole univerfe in all
its plenitude of magnificence. Another of his miracies is
given under Ka/fya, which fee.

Tnnumerable are the extravaganzas related of Krifhna,
whom fome French writers have impioufly compared with
Jefus Chrift. On this fubjeé& the following paflage occurs,
in Moor’s Hindoo Pantheon, whence chiefly this article is
taken. Delfcribing a plate of Krifhna deftroying Kaliya,
“ ft has,” he fays, « been furmifed by refpeétable writers,
that the fubje@ here reprefented has reference to an awful
event figuratively related in our feriptures, and Krifhna is
fot only painted, as feen in the plates, bruifing the head of
the ferpent, but the latter is made to retort by biting his
heel. Among my images and pictures of this deity (and
they are very numerous, for he is enthufiattically and

KRI

exténfively adored, and his hiftory affords great {cope for
the imagination) I have not one original, nor did I ever
fee one, in which the fnake is biting MKrifhna's foot ; and
I have been hence led to fufpe&, that the plates engraved in
Europe of that aétion are not folely of Hindoo invention or
origin. I may eafily err in this inftance ; but I am farther
ftrengthened in the fufpicion, from never having heard the
fa& alluded to, in the many converfations that I have held
with Brahmans and others on the hiftory of this avatara.

«¢ Sonnerat was, I believe, the firft who exhibited Krishna
crufhing a fnake: how, otherwife would he or any one kill
it fo eafily and obvioufly, as by ftamping onits head? Nor
can the reptile in any mode retort but by biting the foot.
of its affailant. Zeal fometimes may have in its refults the
fame effets as infidelity ; and one cannot help lamenting
that a fuperftruéture requiring fo little fupport, fhould be
encumbered by awkward buttreffes, fo ill applied, that they
would, if it were poffible, diminifh the ftability of the
building that they were intended to uphold. Of this deferip-
tion were the zea!ous refearches of {ome miffionaries, who 1m
Brahma and Sarafwati eafily found Abraham ard Sarah;
and the Chriftian Trinity is as readily difcovered in the mon-
ftrous Trimurti of the Hindoos.” (See Saraswati and
Trivett.) Of this defcription aifo, 1 am difpofed to
think, are the attempts at bending fo many of the events
of Krifhna's life to tally with thofe real cr typical of Jefus
Chrift?s. That Krifhna, according to his hiftorians, pafled
a life of a moft extraordinary and incomprehenfible nature,
may be admitted ; and that his name, and the general out-
line of his ftory, exifted long anterior to the birth of our
Saviour, 1s very certain, and probably to the time of
Homer. His miracles are amazing, but ridiculous; a
term that may, perhaps, be applied to a majority of the
legends detailed with fuch prolixity in the modern poem,
the Sri Bhagavata. He is reprefented as the meekeit,
tendereft, and mot benevolent of beings; itill, however, he
fomented the terrible war defcribed in the Mahabarat : he
wathed the feet of the Brahmans: he exhibited an appear-
ance of exceflive libertinifm:; but it was, they fay, all maya,
or delufion, for he was pure and chaite in reality ; he up-
lifted mountains, raifed the dead, (fee Kasya,) defcended™
into hell, and performed {uch motley exploits, as induced
fir William Jones (Af. Ref. i. 274.) to think that “ the
{purious gofpels, which abounded in the firit ages of Chrii-
tianity, were carried to India, and the wildeft parts of them
repeated to the Hindoos, who engrafted on them the cld
fable of Kefava, the Apollo of Greece.”’

Krifhna has eight regular wives afligred him, whofe names
are r. Rukmeni or Radha, an incarnation of Lakfhm;
2. Yamuminti; 3. Kalenderi, a water nymph, daughter of
Surya, or the Sun; 4. Satyavama; 5. Lakfhmeni;
6. Mitravinda; 7. “Satya; 8. Vrundi. Of thefe fome-
thing is faid under their names refpeétively. He befides at-
tached to him 16,000 women that he found virgins in the
ample feraglio of a five-headed tyrant, who, for his manifold
crimes, Krifhna flew. The legendary tales defcriptive of
thefe events are of great length and variety. Each of thefe
16,008 women bore him ten fons, and each fuppofed herfilf
the exclufive favourite of her lord. Kama, the god of love,
is faid to have been the offspring of his firft wife Rukmeni ;
and in this birth he was named Pradyamna. (See Kama.)
On the death of Krifhna, Rukmeni became a fat: (fee
Sati), and, with feveral cther of his wives, burned herfelf,
with a view to an immediate reunion with her lord in Vai-
kontha. See VAIKONTHA.

Krifhna’s names, like other. deified perfonages, are nu-
merous. He being Vifhnu, they enjoy feveral in com-

iN 2 MOR,

K RI

5

mon, Marari, Heri, Madhava, and Baghavan, among them ;
Govinda, Gopala, Gokala, are derived from his occupa-
tion of herdfman ; Gopinatha, or the Gopia’s god ; Mur-
lidur, the tuneful; Keffu, Kefava, or Kefavi, are faid to
refer to the finenefs of his hair; Vanimali to his pendant
garland ; “Yadava, Varfhneya, and Vafudeva, to his tribe
and family,

He is ulually painted of a dark blue colour ; his name
Krifhna denotes this ; and with four arms; elegantly dreffed
rofution of jewels, and often playing ona pipe.
tates of him are given in the Hindoo Pantheon, from
images and pictures, and many legends are there
related, conretted with their fubjeéts. In the Gita Go-
vinda he is thus deferibed. «* His azure breaft glittered with
pearls of unblemifhed lultre, like the full bed of the ceru-
lean Yamuna, interfperfed with curls of white foam. From
his graceful wailt flowed a pale yellow robe, which refem-
bied the golden duit of the water lily fcattered over its blue
petals. His paffion was inflamed by the glances of-Radha’s
eyes, which played liie a pair of water birds with azure
plumage, that fport near a full blown lotus, on a peol in the
feafon of dew. Bright ear-rings, like two funs, difplayed,
in full expantion, the flowers of his cheeks and lips, which
gliftened with the liquid radiance of imiles. His locks, in-
terwoven with bofloums, were like a cloud variegated with
mcon-beams; and on his forehead fhone a circle of ‘edorous
eils, extraéted from the fandal of Malaya, like the moon
jail appearing on the dufky horizon; while his whole bedy
feemed ina flame, from the blaze of unnumbered gems.”

In that very curious work tranflated by Mr, Wilkins, en-
titled Bhagavat-Gita, Arjun, the fon of Pandu, -addreffes
Krifhnaas “the fupreme Brahm: the moft holy ; the moft
hizh god; the divine being before all other gods; without
birth ; the mighty lord; god of gods; the univerfel lord.’’
In different parts of the Gita he fays of himfelf, «« 1 am, of
things tranfient, the beginning, the middle, and the end: the
whole world was {pread abroad by mein my inyifible form.
At the end of the period kalpa (fee Kapa) all things
return into my primordial fource ; and, at the beginning of
another kalpa, I create them all again. I am the creator of
all mankind, uncreated, and without decay. There is not
any thing greater than I, and all things hang on me, as pre-
cious gems onaftring. I amthe underflanding of the wife,
the glory of the proud, the itrength of the -ftrong. I am
the eternal feed of all nature ; I am the father and mother of
this world, the grandfire and the preferver ; I am death and
immortality ; I am entity and nenentity ; I am never failing
time ; I an all-grafping death, and I am the refurrection.”—
«‘ Tam the emblem of the immortal, and of the cerruptible ;
of theeternal, of jultice, and of endlefs blifs.”—** Neither
the fun nor the moon, nor the fire, enlighteneth that place,
whence there is no return, and which is the fupreme manfion
of my abode.”

Sanjay, one of the interlocutors of the Gita, defcribes
Krifhna, as he revealed his * million forms divine,” to Ar-
jun, ‘covered with every marvellous thing ~ the eternal god,
whofe countenance is turned on every fide. The glory and
amazing {plendour of this mighty being may be likened to
the fun, rifing at once into the heavens with a thoufand times
more than ufual brightnefs. ‘The fon of Pandu then beheld
within the body of the god of gods, ftanding together, the
whole univerfe divided forth into its vatt variety.””? Arjun,
terrified at this wondrous exhibition, exclaims —“ Thou
art the fupreme being | I fee thee without beginning, without
midele, and without end ; of valour infinite, of arms innume-
rable; the fun and moon thy eyes; thy mouth a flaming
fire ; and the who!e world fhining with thy reflected glory,

KRI
Having beholden thy dreadful teeth, and gazed on thy

countenance, emblem of time’s Jat fire, I know not whicln
way to turn ; I find no peace. Have mercy then, O god of
gods! thou manfion of the univerfe! and fhow me thy: ce-
leftial form, with the diadem on thy head, and thy hands
armed with the club and chakra. Atfume then, O god of a
thoufand arms! image of the univerfe! thy four-armed
form.’”’—Krifhna is here, as ufual by his feétaries, identified
with Vifhnu, and as * emblem of time’s lat fire,’? and other
paffages of the above extraéis, is apparently alluded to in the
charaéter noticed under Karpa, as the ruling Kalfva-rupi,
or Chronus.

It is believed by fome of the moft refpe&able refearchers
into Hindoo theology, that the worfhip of Krifhna, Rama,
and other deified perfonages, is modern compared with the in-
ftitutions of the vedas (fee Vrpa), in which no mention is.
made of fuch deities. As noticed under the article JAGANA-
THA, one of the names of Krifhna, he is principally worfhipped
at that extenfively revered temple. Under JaMBAVANTIIs ree
lated a legend of this frolicfome deity, who efpoufed a bear
of that name. (See alfo Kansa.) Many plates, and le-
gendary particulars and fpeculations, are given of Krifhna
and his extravagant hiltory, in the work whence this article

is taken, to which we refer the reader defirous of farther in- -

formation thereon.
The name of Krifhna is varioufly written in European

languages: Crifhna, Criftna, Kruttna, Kifhna, Kiftnah, ~

Quixena, Kifhen, &c. and is differently pronounced in *dif-
ferent provinces of India.

KRISS. See Creese.

KRITANTA, a name of Yama, the Hindoo Pisto..
Kritamala is the name of a river conneéted with the hiltory:
of this perfonage under fome of his forms, and may have x
common origin. See YAMA.

KRITIKA, in Afronomy, the Hindoo name of the
Pleiades, refpe&ting which their poetical’mythologilts have
related many pleafing tales, every thing conneGted with Hin-
doo fcience being veiled in allegories. This conttellation
perfonified is, as one of the mantions of the moon, or Soma
({ee Soma), fabled to be a beautiful nymph receiving the in-
conttant deity in his noéturnal wanderings. (See Naxsua-
TRA.) ‘The fix Kritikas are feigned alfo to have been the
wet-nurfes of Kartikya, as meutioned under that article.
Other legends make them the wives of the Rithis, who, among
other characters, are made to fhine the feven bright flars in
Urfa major; but being unequal in number, farther fables.
became neceffary to reconcile the difference, and an attrono-
mical legend is related in the Hindoo Pantheon, affording a
{pecimen of the manner in which the Brahmans have buried,
in mythological fictions, hiitorical or feientific fa&s, and of
the coincidence of thofe fictions with the tales of weltern
fabulilts. «* Itis related that Agni, or Pavaka, the ardent
deity of fire (fee Pavaka), was charitably and gallantly
difpofed to communicete a portion of his warmth to thefe
ladies, wives of the frozen Rifhis; and fituated as they were
in the arctic circle, their complacency to {uch a comfortable
fuitor is not fufprifing. Dut it is faid that he had not, in faét,
complete fucceis, for that his wife (fee Swana), dreading
the refentment of the holy Rifhis, alfumed fucceffively the
fhape and countenance of each of their defirable wives, and
thus perfonifying them, fatisfied her hufband's ardour.
Arundhati, however, the wife of Vafifhta (fee Vasisu7a)
having always been exemplary as to holinefs and fanétity,
was not fufpeéted on this unlucky occafion ; but the other
fix Riihis, in confequence of feandalous reports, not only
difmiffed their fparkling fpoufes, but, like great bears, drove
them out of the arctic circle, and they now fhine the Sica <

t

|

——

KRO

_ Et would appear that they had qualified themfelves for wet-
nurfes, and accordingly nurfed young Kartikya, as noticed
under that article, or were entrufted with his education, and
were placed by him in the zodiac.”” In this wild tale we fee
an allufion to the difappearance of the feventh ftar of the
Pleiades. Arundhati, the wife of Vafifhta, is retained by
him. The {tar called by his name is in lat. 61° N. and fhe
‘is the {maller ftar near him. They are proverbial for con-
flancy ; and astrologers carefully watch their motion, as
their influences are varioufly modified: whatever newly mar-
ried couple fee them in an aufpicious conjunétion or pofition,
are furely to live happily together for a hundred years. Peu-
rile as thefe {tories appear, they are matched by others that
we have been taught to lilten to with more attention perhaps
than they deferve. ‘* The Pleiades, acording to mytholo-
gilts in the weft, were entrulted likewife with the education
of Bacchus (who, acording to Macrobius, was the fame with
Mars, or Kartikya), andon that acconnt he tranflated them
iatoheayen. According to thofe writers they fuffered a real
bodily pollution; and the feventh, fays Hyginus (Poet.
Aftro. p. 471.) left her fifters and fled to the regions of the
heavens: and this is the Arundhatiof the Hindoos. Hin.
Pan. p. $8.

KRIVENA, in Geography, a town of European Tur-
bey, in Bulgaria, on the Danube ; 33 miles E. of Nico-
poli.

KROBE, or Sutcava, a town of the duchy of War-
faw ; 32 miles S. of Pofen.

KROEPELEIN, a town of the duchy of Mecklenburg ;
12 miles W. of Roltock. :

KROKEK, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; 11
miles N.E. of Nordkioping.

- KROKINOW, a town of Samogitia; 22 miles E. of Ro-
enne.

KROKY, a town of Samogitia; 18 miles S.E. of Ro-
fienne.

KROLENDORF, a town of Auftria; 16 miles E-of
Steyr.

KROMAYER, Jonx, in Biography, a learned Ger-
man divine, who acquired a very high reputation as a
preacher, and was appointed chaplain to the court of the
duchefs dowager of Saxony. The duke Weimar afterwards
nominated him fuperintendant-general of the churches in that
diftriét, and the fenate of that city chofe him as paftor of
their church. He died at the age of fixty-feven. He was
author of “Harmonia Evangelittarum ;” ‘ Hiftorize Eccle-
fiaftice Compendium ;’? <‘ Specimen Fontium, Scripture
facre apertorum;” ‘ A Paraphrafe on the Prophecy and
Lamentations of Jeremiah,” &c. &c.

Kromayer, Jerome, nephew of the preceding, was
brought up chiefly at Leipfic, where he took his degree of
M.A. in 1632. From that time he became lecturer on logic;
rhetoric; natural philofophy, and aftronomy. In 1643, he
was appointed profefior of hiftory and oratory in the lefler
coliege of-princes, at Mifnia. Four times he was called to
the office of dean of the univerfity ; twice he prefided as pro-
chancellor, at the creation of mafters, once he was chofen
rector ; and in the leffer collexe he was honoured three times
with the po't of provoft: He filled feveral other high potts
in the univerfity with great advantage to the place, and died
at the age of fifty, in the year 1670.. He was author ‘of
« Commentaries on divers Parts of the Hely Scriptures ;’’ of
an ‘ Ecclefialtical Hittory,’’ and other, works,

KROMI, in Geography, a town of Ruiffia, in. the go-
vernment of Orel ; 16 miles S. of Orel.

KRU

KROMME, a river of Africa, forming a bay at its
mouth in the Indian fea, S. lat. 34° 6’. ‘

KRONENBURG. See Cronenpure.

KRONHAMN, a {mall ifland on the W. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N: lat. 62% 25’. Ey long, 17° 26/.

KRONOBY, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Ulea; feven miles S: of Gamla Karleby.

KRONORN, a fmall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia: N, lat. 63° 27’. E. long. 19° 8’.

KRONOTSKOI Noss, a cape in the northern part of
Kamtfehatka, about which the land is very high. N, lat.

poe a EM longs r62% 17%

KROPPA, a town of Sweden, is the province of
Warmeland; 30 miles N.E. of Carlttadt.

KROPPENSTADT, a town of Weltphalia, in the
ee oa of Halberftadt ; nine miles E.N.E. of Halber-
ttadt.

KROPSUNKARI, a fmall ifland on the FE. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N.lat.65° 10’. E. long. 25° 6’.

KROREN, a lake of Norway; 33 miles N.W. of
Chrilliania.

KROSKA, a town of Servia, on the right bank of the
Danube; 10 miles S.S.E. of Belgrade.

KROSNO, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia; 25
miles N.W. of Sanock.

KROTTAU, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bolef-
lau; 46 miles E. of Drefden. f

KROUNA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Chrudim. , :

KROUSTA, in the Ancient Mufic, is a term purely
Greek, implying’ the third fpecies of mufical inftruments,
which the Latins term pul/ati/ia, and the Englith, inffruments
of percuffion ; their tones being produced by beating with the
hand, as drums, tabours, timbrels, &c. or with {mall fticks
or iron rods, as the pealtry, cymbal, and dulcimer, or by
being ftruek with hammers, as. bells, gongs, pianofortes,
&e.

Reprefentations and’ defériptions of all thefe inftruments -
may be feen in Lufcinius, Merfennus, Kircher, Bonanni,
Laborde, and in almott all hiitories of mufic.

KROZE, in Geography, a town of Samogitia; 20 miles
N.W. of Rofienne.

KRUCKEN, a townof Pruffia, in Natangen; 19 miles
S.E. of Brandenburg. ‘

KRUDOSEL, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Ghilan; 12 miles S.E. of Refhd:

KRUDZEWO, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate,
of Wilna; 16 miles S.E. of Wilna.

KRUG, Louis, in Biography. See-Grrman School of
Engraving:

KRUGLIKIN, in Geography, a town: of European
Turkey, in Moldavia; 12 miles S.-of Choczim,

KRUMPACH, a town of Auftria; 20.miles S. of :
Ebenfurth. ;

KRUPA, atown of Poland, in Volhynia; 60: miles E. -
of Lucko.

KRUPKA, a town of Lithuania, in. the: palatinate..of
Minik ; 6o miles N.E..of Minfk.

KRUPULIK, a town of European Turkey, in Mace-
donia; 84 miles N.N.W. of Saloniki.

KRUSCHIN, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; 24 miles E. of Culm.

KRUSZWICA, or Krurswicza,.a town of. Poland,
in the palatinate of Brzefe ; 28 miles W. of Brzefc. This

place deferves. to. be recorded, as it was. the. birth-place as
Piaf,

ae

Pialt, who, ‘occupying the ftation of a private citizen, was
elected king of Poland in 842.

KRUTATA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolik, on the Irtifch ; 36 miles N. of Omflc,

KRUTEN, a town of Courland; 32 miles S,S.W. of
Goldingen.

KRUTOGORSKOI, an oftrog of Ruffia, in Kamtf
chatka. N.lat. 54° 50. E. long. 155° 54’.

KRUWOTOW, a town of Auttrian Poland, in’ Gali-
cia; 22 miles S.E. of Halicz.

KRYLOW, atown of Galicia; 10 miles N. of Belz.

KRYOLITE, or Cryonire; Alumine fluatée alcaline,
Haiiy. The colour of this mineral is fnow-white, fome-
times brownifh-yellow, by the admixture of a {mall portion
‘of iron ochre.

It occurs maffive, generally in angular fragments with
faint ftrie, indicating a rhomboidal nearly cubical nucleus ;
fecondary forms have not yet been obferved.

Its luttre is vitreous, often inclining to pearly.

Fra€ture imperfeétly foliated, {mooth in one direétion,
and uneven in ‘another,

It is tranflucent even in fragments of confiderable fize ;
{mall pieces approach to tran{parent, and when immerfed in
water for fome time become completely fo.

It is foft, fo as to be {cratched by fluor, particularly in the
principal diretion of the Jaminz.

It is eafily frangible.

The fpecific gravity of kryolite is 2.928; that of a {mall
fragment immerfed in water for twelve hours was 2.941,
Schumach. Hay ftates it to be 2.949; Karlten 2.9575
and Andrada 2.969.

Before the blow-pipe it foon melts, (though certainly not
with fufficient eafe or rapidity to warrant the incorreét ap-
pellation of kryolite, f{uppofed to be derived from that cir-
cumitance ;) and is afterwards converted into a white opaque
pearly flag, of a flightly alkaline tafte. With borax an
opaque pearl is formed, which, fome time after cooling, fhews
a degree of deliquefcence. It is not operated on by
the muriatic and nitric acids, but is diffolved by concen-
trated fulphuric acid under developement of greyifh-white
vapours that corrode glafs.

Profeffor Abildgaard, who was the firlt who analyzed this
mineral, which had before been miftaken for a fubftance re-
lated to barytes, found it to be compofed of alumine and
fluoric acid. Vauquelin, who examined it after him, obtained
the fame refults, and both chemifts accounted for the fmall
proportion of alumine which they found, by the poflibility
that part of the earth might have been carried off by the
fulphuric acid. Klaproth was enabled to affign the true
caufe of the apparent difproportion by the difcovery of a
confiderable proportion of foda, till then but little known as
an ingredient of ftony fubftances. His analyfis, and the
fi unicgnen one by Vauquelin, have given the following
reluits.

‘Klaptr. Beitr, Vanquelin A. de Ch.
Alumine

24 21

Soda 36 32
Fluorie acid and water 40 47
100 100

The only place where kryolite has been hitherto found is
Greenland; but nothing is known relpecting its geognoftic
fituation. Werner, we are told, has adopted this mineral
as a {pecies of a genus of his, called the Hallite genus, which is

K UF

to comprehend fuch fubftances as bear great refemblanee |
to foffil falts, without poflefling all the requifite charaéters
to entitle them to be enumerated as fuch.

KRZEMIEN, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw; 34 miles S.W. of Bielflc.

KRZEMINIEC, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 40
miles S.S.E. of Lucko.

KRZEPICE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Cracow; 52 miles N.W. of Cracow.

KTEIPHE, a town of Syria, anciently called Adarifi ;
the lait town in the pachalic of Damafcus, encompafled with
walls, as a defence againft the Arabs; 22 miles N.E. of
Damafcus.

KUAN, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan ; 16 miles $.S.W.
of Schiras.

KUAR. See Kawar.

KUASHKIR, a town of Imiretta; 21 miles S.S.W.
of Cotatis.

KUAVER, a town of Perfia, in Ghilan; go miles N.W.
of Refhd.

KUBA, a town of Perfia, in Schirvan; 30 miles S. of
Derbend.

KUBAN. See Cusan.

KUBBET-CHIAR, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 44,
miles N. of Chamir.

KUBBOOLEAH, atown of Hindooftan, in the fubah
of Moultan ; 45 miles E. of Moultan.

KUBENSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Vologda, on a lake of the fame name, about 40 miles
long and eight broad; 16 miles N,W. of Vologda. :

KUBLICZ, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles S.E. of
Braclaw.

KUBUCHANSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk, on the Amul; 86 miles S.E. of Dore-
ninfk.

KUCHAVIE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of.
Kiev; 60 miles N.N.W. of Kiev,

KUCHTA, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Olo-
netz; 52 miles N. of Povonetz. : ;

KUCKENDORYF, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland;
24 miles S.W. of Heilfberg.

KUDA, a town of Mingrelia, on the coaft of the Black
fea; 1o miles §.S.E. of Iori.

KUDACOIL, a town of Bengal; 26 miles S:E. of
Doefa.

KUDAMIA, a town of Egypt, on the E. branch of
the Nile ; 20 miles N. of Cairo.

KUDASEISKO, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Tobolfk. N. lat. 65° 15’. E.long. 81° 14'.

KUDDA, atown of Hindooltan, in Vifiapour ; 20 miles
N. of Poonah.

KUDDANDO, a town of Africa, in Bergoo; 65 miles
N.W. of Wara. -

KUDEEL, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar ; 20 miles
W. of Ramgur.

KUDEZEVA, atown of Ruffia, in the government of
Kolyvan; 28 miles S.E. of Kuznetik.

KUDINSKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Irkutik ; 32 miles N. of Irkutfk.

KVETLI, a town of Turkifh Armenia; 27 mile
W.S.W. of Akalziké. ok

KUFFSTEIN, or Kopsrern, a town of the county of
Tyrol, near the borders of Bavaria, on the Inn; built at the
foot of a ftupendous rock, on which is a caftle, that ferves

for a fortrefs; 32 miles E.N.E, of Infpruck. N. lat. 47°
g2!, KE. long. 12? 14ts
KUGNA,

KUH

KUGNA, a river of Beffarabia, the waters of which be-
gin to expand into a lake at Tobak, 30 miles from its union
with the Danube.

KUHDEAL, a town of Bengal; 34 miles W. of Ram-

ur.

KUHESTEK, a fea-port of Perfia, at the entrance of
the Perfian gulf; 36 miles W. of Ormus.

KUHISAR, a town of Caramania; 15 miles N.W. of
Akferai. j

KUHMOIS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta-
vattland ; 39 miles N.N.E. of Tavatthus.

KUHMONIEMI, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Ulea; 50 miles E.S.E. of Cajana.

KUHN, Joacuim, in Biography, a learned critic, fon
of a rich merchant at Gripf{walde, in Pomerania, was born
in 1647. He ftudied at the univerfity of Jena, and after
vifiting feveral parts of Germany, was appointed, in 1669,
principal of the college at Oetingenin Suabia. In 1676, he
was chofen profeffor of Greek and Hebrew at Strafburg.
He died in 1697, and after his death appeared his “ Quet-
tiones Philofophie ex facris Veteris et Nov. Teft. alufque
{criptoribus."’ He is well known in the learned world by
his editions of /Elian, Paufanias, and Diogenes Laertius.

KUHNAU, Jouann, the fon of a fifherman of Gry-
fingen, a town near Altenberg, on the borders of Bohemia,
four miles diftant from Drefden, was a learned and fkilful
mulician of the higher clafs, among thofe who have formed
and eftablifhed the German {chool of mufic, particularly in
the ecclefiaftical ftyle, and in organ playing.

In the year 1684, he was organift of the church of St.
Thomas at Leipfic ; and while in that ftation, he wrote a dif-
fertation ‘* De juribus circa muficos ecclefiafticos,’? and
afterwards defended it againft the cenfures of his adver-
faries.

In 1689, he publifhed leffons for the harpfichord in two
volumes, and in 1696 feven fonatas, entitled Ciavici fruchte,
fruits of the keys or of keyed inftruments ; and in 1700,
fix fonatas, entitled %ibluche Diftori, a bible narrative.
Here Luftig of Groningen, ina Dutch treatife entitled « In-
leiding tot de Mufikkunde,”’ takes notice of this work, and
fays that it is a lively reprefentation, in mufical notes, of Da-
vid manfully combating Goliah. In the fame year (1700)
Kuhnan, to filence the clamours of fome ignorant men of his
profeffion, who, envying his merit and reputation, had li-
belled him, he wrote a {mall traé&, which he entitled “«* The
Mufical Quack, or Mountebank.”? In the fame year (1700)
Kuhnau was appointed dire@or mujfices of the univerfity of
Leipfic, in which ftation he died in 1722, in the 63d year of
his age ; and was fucceeded in that honourable poft by John
Sebaftian. Bach. Kuhnau was celebrated immediately after
his death in a Latin difcourfe by a count palatine and ma-
giltrate of Merfeberg for his fkill, not only in mufic,. but
theology, law,eloquence; poetry, foreign languages, algebra,
and mathematics.

Matthefon, in his life of Handel, as the higheft praife he
could beltow on his performance, fays, that he was even
more powerful on the organ than the famous Kuhnau of
Leipfic, who was then (in Handel’s younger days) regarded
as a prodigy.

KUHNFELD, in Geography, a town of Bavaria; 17
miles S.S.W.of Bamberg.

. KUHNIA, in Botany, fo named by Linneus, after his
pupil Adam Kiihn, a native of Pennfylvania, who travelled to
Upfal for the fole purpofe of improving himfelf in natural
hiftory, and brought this plant with him for the examination
of Linnzus; in whom it excited confiderable attention, as

having diltin@ anthers, though in every other refpect ap-

EU

pearing to belong to the clafs Syngenefa. Arduino; who
had obtained the fame from Siberia, had referred it to Lupa-
torium, noting the peculiar ftruéture of its anthers, which
he defcribes as * divided into two or three bodies,’? or fets.
He further adverts to the feathery feed-down, as differing
from E£upatorium ; and Linnezus remarks that the leaves, be-
ing alternate, afford another diftinétion, as to habit. On
thefe grounds KuAnia was eftablifhed as a genus in*Pen-
tandria Monogynia. ‘So it remained till Gertner, in his 2d
vol. p. 411, having acquired another fpecies, which he mif-
took for the original, and finding its anthers firmly united
into a tube, took upon him to fay that the Linnzan chara¢ter
of Kuhbnia was “altogether fictitious,’ and that the genus,
differing from Zupatorium in having an evidently feathery feed-
down, thould be referred to the Critonia of Browne ; fee
Browne’s Jamaica, 490 and 314. Now this Crifonia is Eu-
patorium Dalea of Linneus, a true Lupatorium, with oppo-
fite leaves and a briftly feed-down, rough indeed, but by no
means feathery, as is abundantly evident in Browne’s own
f{pecimen now before our eyes. -But the author laft men-
tioned defcribes it ‘* pappo ramo/fo,’? which. it feems Gertner
adopted upon truft. We are well aware that the diftinG@ion
between feathery and rough feed-down, is only a difference
in degree ; but by this many good genera are difcriminated,,
and upon it, as a technical character, Kuhnia mutt chiefly
depend ; for more recent examinations have found other ex-
amples of diftinét anthers in compound flowers, witnefs fe-
veral {pecies of Tu/fflage, and one of Siege/beckia ; and as the
genus in queftion has, according to the above authors, one
{pecies with united, and another with more or lefs diitiné&
anthers, it is beft placed with its natural allies in the Synge~
nefia,, to which cla{s we fhall follow Willdenow in removing
it-—Linn. Gen. g5..Schreb..129. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.1772.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Juff. 177. Lamarck. Di@.v. 3. 370...
Illuftr. t. 126. (Critonia ; Gertn..t. 174; but not Browne
Jam. 490.)—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia equalis.
Nat. Ord. Compofite difecidee, Linn. Corymbiferz, Jail.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, imbricated ; feales.
linear-oblong, ereét, unarmed, unequal ; the outermoft
fharpeft and. fomewhat ovate; innermoft bluntifh, flightly
membranous at theend, Cor. compound, uniform, difcoid ;
florets from 10 to 15, all equal, perfec, fertile, of one pe-
tal, funnel-fhaped, with a regular, five-cleft, ere& border.
Stam. Filaments five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers oblong,
either all united into-one tube, or into two or three fets, or
entirely diftinét, each opening at the top, with a projecting
lip. if. Germen oblong, furrowed ; ftyle thread-fhaped,
longer than the corolla, cloven down to the top of the an-
thers ; ftigmas two, flightly club-fhaped, bluntifh, fpread-
ing. eric. none, except the permanent calyx. Seeds. foli-
tary, oblong, angular, rough ; down feffile, long, feathery.
Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Down feathery, feffile.
Calyx imbricated, oblong. Style prominent, cloven half
way down, divaricated.

Obf. If the above charaéters be finally judged fufficient
to eftablith Kuhnia, the word feathery mutt be itruck out of
the chara¢ter of the feed-down in Lupatorium ; {ee that ar-
ticle.

1. K. eupatorioides. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1662. Linn. fil. Dec.
21.t. 14. (Eupatorium alternifolium ; Ard. Spec. Alt. 40..
t. 2@.)—Leaves lanceolate, toothed, ftalked.. Anthers fe—
parate.—Native of Pennfylvania, from whence feeds-were
brought to the Upfal garden in 1762, and the piants they
produced, kept in the green-houfe, flowered the fame year
in November.. Root fibrous, perennial. Stems feveral, her-
baceous, a foot and half high, erect, round, leafy, mi-

; nutely:

KUL

nately downy, bearing a few fhort axillary branches.
Leaves alternate, on fhort channelled bordered footitalks,
lanceolate inclining to ovate, near two inches long, pointed,
{lrongly and varioufly toothed, decurrent at the bafe, fome-
what triply nerved, green, roughifh, or minutely downy,
on both fides, with pale rib and veins. J"Yowers corymbole,
terminating the {tem and branches, white, with a itriated
roughifh calyx.—We find no reafon to doubt Ardvino’s
Siberian plant, in the Linnzan herbarium, being the fame
{pecies with that from the Upfal garden.

>. K. Critonia. Willd. n. 2. (Critonia Kuhnia; Gertn.
v. 2.411. t. 1743 the fynonyms wrong. )— Leaves linear,
nearly entire, feflile. Anthers united.—Native of Pennfyl-
wania and Virginia, according to Willdenow, who had it
alive. Root perennial. Stem round, {mooth. Leaves an
inch and half Jong, attenuated at each end, feffile, alternate,
almoft perfeatly entire, fmooth. Corymbs of few flowers,
divaricated, at the top of the ftem and branches. Wild.

Neither of thefe plants is known in the gradens of Eng-

nd. 5S.
= KUHU, in Mythohgy, is the Indian goddefs of the day.
It is moft likely one of the many names of Parvati; but
refpecting her very little has yet been made known.

KUIA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, on the coaft
of the White fea, in the government of Archangel ; 20 miles
N. of Archangel. :

KUIATZKAIA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutfk, on the Dzonmuren, built in 1728 for carrying
on commerce between the Ruflians and Chinefe ; it coniilts
of two parts, one inhabited by the people of each country ;
44 miles N. of Irkutfk. N. lat. 52° so!. E. long. 105° 14°.

KUINUC, a town of Natolia; 20 miles N. of Etki-

ehr.
rs KUIVAINEMIL, atown of Sweden, in the government
of Ulea; 20 miles E.S.E. of Tornea.

KUIVASMAKL, a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wala; 106 miles S.E. of Wafa. ’

KUKA, a town of Sweden, in the government of Abo ;

2 miles S.E. of Biorneborg.

KUKALAR, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo ; 38 miles E. of Abo. At ’

KUKERPEH, a town of Natolia; 32 miles W. of
Boli. ’

KUKI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon; 70
smiles N. of Meaco.

-- KUKKAISTENMAA, a {mall ifland on the E fide of

the gulf of Bothnia. N, lat. 60° 53'. E. long. 21° 2.

IKLUKU, an extenlive country of Africa, bordering on
the defert of Libya, and partaking of its nature. It lis
to the N.E. of Taguaand Bornon, and on the N.E. joins

to Al Wahat. Its capital of the fame name is fituated at -

20 journies to the N. of Kauga, and about 250 miles N.E.
of Bornou. N. lat. 21°45', E.long. 24° 45'. A river runs
from N. to S. by Kuku, and is received into a lake at
a great diftance from it; perhaps the Jake of Kauga ;
and the river itfelf may form a part of that, which is
{aid to run near Angini, a city eight days’ journey from
Matthan, and fix from Tagua, and towards Nubia and the
Niger ; confequently to the S.E. of Matthan, and appa-
rently not far to the norchward of Kauga.

KUKUS, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Koni-
gingratz, famous for its baths; 11 miles N. of Konigin-
gratz.

KUL, or Koon,
slave or servant. whos

Meninflcy telis us, the name is given to all the foldiers in
the Ottoman empire, particularly to thofe of the grand

a Turkifh term, probably fignifying a

KUL

feignior’s guard, and the infantry. The captains of the
infantry, ard thofe who command the guards, are called did
zabytlers, and the foldiers of the guard kapu hilkeri, i.e
flaves of the court, Others inform us, that alls who hold
any’places depending on the crown, or receive wages from
it, ina word, all who are, in arty meafure, the grand feig-
nior’s fervants, take the title of /i/, cr kool, i.e. flave, as
more creditable than that of fubject; even the grand vizir and
the bafhaws value themfelvesupon it. A kil, or flave, of
the grand feignior, has authority to abufe any who are only
his fervants ; but a fubjeét, who fheuld affront a kal, or
flave, would be feverely punifhed. The kils are entirely
devoted to the will of the grand feignior, and leok on it
as a kind of martyrdom, that merits heaven, when they
die either by his order, or in the execution of his
commands.

KULALI, in Geography, an ifland of Ruffia, in the Caf-
pian fea. N. lat. 45°,

KULB, a town of Auflria; 10 miles S.S.W..of St.
Polten.

KULBAEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Upha; 48 miles E. of Menzelinik

KULDATZKOI, atown of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutik, on the borders of China; 80 miles S.W-.
of Seleginfk.

KULEBAKINA, atown of Ruffia, in the government
of Irkutik, on the Lena; 20 miles S.of Kirenfk. .

KULEBRUN, atown of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 12 miles S. of Elbing.

KULEBUGAGE, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania ; 40 miles N. of Tarfus. ;

KULICHOW, a town of Auitrian Poland, in Galicia ;
10 miles N.N.E. of Lemberg.

KULING, atown of Grand Bucharia, in the kingdom
of Balk; 30 miles N.E. of Balk,

KULLA, Daz, a {mall country of Africa, fituated to’
the S.W. of Dar-Fur. The natives of Kulla are partly.
negroes, and partly of a red or-copper colour. heir lan-
guage is nafal, but very fimple and eafy. It is faid they
worfhip idols) They are very cleanly, to which the abun-
dance of water in their country contributes, and they are re-
markable for honefty and even pun¢tilious in their tranfaétions
with the Jelabs. They have ferry boats on the river, which
are impelled partly by poles, partly by a double oar, like
our canoes. Slaves are obtained in Dar-Kulla, either b
violence, or by the following method. The fmalleft trefpafs on
the property of another is punifhed, in this country, by en-
flaving the children or young relations of the trefpaffer,
The leaft offence in this way is followed, after previous proof,
by the forfeiture of a fon, daughter, nephew, or niece of
the offender to the perfon aggrieved. Accidents of this kind
are continually happening, and produce a great number of
flaves. A commiffion to purchafe any thing.in a diftant
market, not exa‘'ly fulfilled, is attended,with a like forfeiture.
But above all, if a perfon of note die, the family have no
idea of death asa necefiary event, but fay that it is effe&ed
by witchcraft. To difcover the perpetrator, the poorer
natives, far and near, are obliged to undergo expurgation
by drinking a liquor, which is called in Dar-Fir « kilingi,””
or fomething that refembles it; and the perfon on whom the
fuppoled figns of guilt appear, may either be put to death,
or fold as a flave. The people of Kulla are ftrangers to
venereal complaints, but are fubjeét tothe fmall-pox. In
that part of the country that is vilited by the Jelabs, there is
a king ; the reft is occupied by {mall tribes, each of which
is ruled by the chief who happens to have mott influence at the
time., The « Kumba,” or pimento tree, is found there in fuch

4 plenty;

KUM

plenty, that a rotal or pound of falt will purchafe four or
five mid, each mid about a peck. The trees are fo large,
from the quantity of water and deep clay, that canoes are
hollowed out of them of fuflicient capacity to contain 10
perfons. ‘The Jelabs of Bergoo and Fir fometimes journey
to this country in order to procure flaves, The chief article
they carry hither is falt, 12 pounds of which are eftimated
as the price of a male flave, about 12 or 14 years of age.
A female brings three pounds more, whimfically computed
by the natives, as a pound for the girl’s eyes, another for
her nofe, and a third for her ears. If copper be the medium,
two rotals are efteemed equal to four of falt. ‘* Hoddtr,’’
a large fort of Venetian glafs beads, and tin, are in great
eftimation. Of the latter they make rings, and other orna-
ments. Brown’s Travels in Africa, p. 30, 8vo.

Kura, a town cf Sweden, in the province of Upland ;
17 miles N_E. of Stockholm.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in
Abo; to miles E.5.E. of Biorneborg.—Alfo, a town of
‘Hindooltan, in Guzerat; 60 miles $.W. of Gogo,

KULLAPOLLAY, a town of Hindoottan, in the cir-
car of Guntoor ; 32 miles N.N.E. of Mootapilly.

KULLAUT, a town of the kingdom of Candahar; 55
miles I. of Candahar.

KULLEN, atown of Sweden, in the province of Skone;
15 miles N. of Helfingborg.

KULLERWAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Gurry
Mundella; 35 miles E. of Mundella.

KULLO, a country of Africa, E. of Konkodco.

KULLOWGUY, a town of Africa, in the country of
Kullo. ' N. lat. 12° 24'. W. long. 8 28’.

KULM. See Cut.

Kum, a town of Grand Bucharia, in the country of
Balk; 30 miles N.E. of Balk.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz ; 9 miles S.W. of Kamnitz.—
Alfo, a mountain of Dalmatia; 15 miles N. of Ragufa.

KULMALAX, a town of Sweden, in Tavattland; 31
miles N. of Tavafthus.

KULMEETAS a town of Algiers, on the left fide of
the Shellif, near its mouth; 6 miles N. of Muftygannim.

KULSAGE, or Suganr-Jown, a little Cherokee town
in the vale of Keowe.

KULSI, a river of Ruffia, which takes its rife in the
government of Archangel, and falls into the White fea, in
the diftri& of the town of Mefenfk.

KU-LONG-TCHAT, a town of the north coatt of the
ifland of Formofa. N. lat. 25° 16’. E. long. 121° 34'.

KULSUTANSKOTL, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Irkutfk ; 100 miles S.W. of Nertchinfk.

KUMADER, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ni-
phon; to miles N.E. of Morifa.

KUMALA, a town of Sweden, in the province of Ta-
vaftland ; 65 miles N.N.E. of Jamfio.

KUMANO, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
miles N.E. of Ixo.

KUMANT, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
zo miles N.N.W. of Meaco.

KUMBO, a kingdom of Africa, near the mouth of the
Gambia.

KUME Jacus, a town of Egypt; 16 miles 8. of
Girgé.

KUMEGAN, a.town of Pruffia, in the province of
Samland; 16 miles N.W. of Kenigtberg.

KUMARA, in Hindso Mythology, a name of Kartixya,

which fee.

KUMBA, and Nixumpa, names of fiends, in Hindoo
mythological legends, faid by fome accounts to have been
dellroyed by Krifhna; according to others, by Kama,

Vou, XX.

K UM
KUMI, in Geography, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,

the mot wefterly in a clufter of fix or feven others, from
which it is feparated by channels from cisht to ten leagues
wide, between Formofa and Japan, feen by M. la Peroufe,
who did not land upon it. Thefe iflanders are neither Ja-
panefe nor Chinefe, but feem to be a mixture of both:
people. They were covered with a fhirt anda pair of cot-
ton drawers. Their hair, tucked up on the crown of the
head, was rolled round a bodkin, which appeared to the
voyagers to be gold. Each of them had a dagger, the
handle of which was alfo gold. Their canoes were made of
hollowed trees, and they were awkward in the management
of them. Veffels that had been long at fea might procure
wood, water, and provifions in this ifland, and alfo trade
here in a {mall degree. But as it is fearcely three or four
leagues in circumference, its population does nat probably
exceed four or five hundred. N. lat. 24° 33!. E. long. 123°
16’. Peroufe’s Voyage, vol. ii.

KUMINGE, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Ulea; rz miles N.E. of Ulea.

KUMISS, or Koumiss, a kind of liquor made in Tar-
tary, ufed by the natives as their common beverage, and
often ferving them inftead of all other food. It is faid to be
fo falutary and nourifhing, that the Bafchkirs, though
emaciated in winter, return to the ufe of it in fummer, and
become ftrong and fat. The Ruffians have borrowed it from
the Tartars, and ufe it medicinally. It is made with fer-
mented mare’s milk, according to the fol'owing receipt,
communicated by Dr. Grieve in the Edinburgh Philofo-
phical Tranfa@tions, vol. i. p. 151. as he obtained it from
a Ruffian nobleman, who vilited that part of Tartary where
it is made, for the fake of the medical ufe of it :—** Take
of frefh mare’s milk, of one day, any quantity ; add to it
a fixth part of water, and pour the mixture into a wooden
veffel ; ufe then, as a ferment, an eighth part-of the fourett
cow's milk that can be got: but at any future preparation,
a {mall portion of old koumifs will better anfwer the purpofg
of fowring ; cover the veflel with a thick cloth, and fet it in
a place of moderate warmth; leave it at reit twenty-four
hours, at the end of which time the milk will have become
four, and a thick fub{tance will be gathered on the top:
then with a flick, made at the lower end in the manner of a
churn-ftaff, beat it till the thick fubftance above-mentioned
be blended intimately with the fubjacent fluid. In this fitu-
ation, leave it again at reft for twenty-four hours more ;
after which pour “it into a higher and narrower veflel, re-
fembling a churn, where the agitation muft be repeated as
before, till the liquor appear to be perfeétly homogeneous ;
and in this {tate it is called koumifs, of which the tafte ought
to be a pleafant mixture of {weet and four. Agitation mutt
be employed every time before it be ufed.’’-—T'o this detail
of the procefs the nobleman fubjoined, that, in order to ob-
tain milk in fufficient quantity, the Tartars have a cuftom
of feparating the foal from the mare during the day, and
allowing it to fuck during the night: and when the milk is
to be taken from the mare, which ts generally about five
times a-day, they always prodyce the foal, on the fup-
pofition that fhe yields her milk more copioufly when it is
prefent.

To the above method of making koumifs, our author has
added fome particulars taken from other communications
with which he was favoured by Tartars themfelves. Ac-
cording to the account of a Tartar who lived to the fouth-
ealt te Orenbourg, the proportion of milk and fouring
ought to be the fame as above; only, to prevent changing
the veffel, the milk may be put at once into a pretty high
and narrow vellel ; and in order to accelerate the fermenta-

tion,

KUM

tion, fome warm milk may be added to it, and, if neceffary,
more fouring.—From a Tartar whom the door met with
at the fair of Macarieff upon the Volga, and from whom he
purchafed one of the leathern bags which are ufed by the
Kalmucks for the preparation and carriage of their koumifs,
he learned that the procefs may be much fhortened by heat-
ing the milk before the fouring be added to it, and as foon
as the parts begin to feparate, and a thick fubftance to rife
to the top, by agitating it every hour or oftener. In this
way he made fome in the doétor’s prefence, in the fpace of
twelve hours. Our author learned alfo, that it was common
among fome Tartars to prepare it in one day during fum-
mer, and that with only two or three agitations ; but that in
winter, when, from a deficiency of mares’ milk, they are
obliged to add a great proportion of that of cows, more
agitation and more time are feceflary. And though it is
commonly ufed within a few days after the preparation, yet
when well fecured in clofe veffels, and kept in a cold place,
that it may be preferved for three months, or even more,
without any injury to its qualities. He was told farther,
that the acid fermentation might be produced by four milk
as above, by a four pafte of rye flour, by the rennet cf a
Jamb’s ftomach, or, what is more common, by a portion of
old koumifs; and that in fome places they faved much time,
by adding the new milk to a quantity of that already fer-
mented ; on being mixed with which, it very foon undergoes
the vinous change.

It was according to the procefs firft mentioned, however,
that all the koumifs which the do&tcr employed in medicine
was prepared. It has been found ferviceable in hectics and
in nervous complaints; and our aythor relates fome very
ftriking cafes which the ufe of it had completely cured. All
thofe who drank it, our author informs us, agreed in fay-
ing, that, during its ufe, they had little appetite for food ;
that they drank it in very large quantities, not only without
difgutt, but with pleafure; that it rendered their veins tur-
gid, without producing languor; that, on the contrary,
they foon acquired from it an uncommon degree of {pright-
Hnefs and vivacity ; that even in cafes of fome excels, it was
not followed by indigeftion, headach, or any of the fymp-
toms which ufually attend the abufe of other fermented
Kiquors.

The utility, however, of this preparation as a medicine,
fuppofing it completely afcertained, would among us, as
our author obferves, be greatly circumfcribed by the fear-
city of mares’ milk in this country. ‘ Hence,” fays he,
inquiries will naturally be made, whether other fpecies of
milk admit of a fimilar vinous fermentation, and what pro-
portion of fpirit they contain. As thefe have never been
the objeG&, however, of my attention, 1 will here give the
fubftance of what I have been able to learn from others
refpeting that which is the moft common, the milk of
cows. 7

*¢ Dr. Pallas fays, that cow’s milk is alfo fufceptible of
the vinous fermentation, and that the Tartars prepare a
wine from it in winter, when mares’ milk fails them; that
the wine prepared from cow’s milk they call airen; but
that they always prefer koumifs when it can be got, as it
is more agreeable, and contains a greater quantity of {pirit ;
that koumifs, on diftillation, yields of a weak fpirit one
third; but that airen yields only two ninth parts of its
whole quantity, which fpirit they call arika.

« This account is confirmed by Oferetfkowfky, a
Ruffian, who accompanied Lepechin and other academi-
cians, in their travels through Siberia and Tartary. He
publifhed lately a differtation on the ardent fpirit to be ob-
tained from cow’s milks

KUN

«« From his experiments it appears, that cow's milk may
be fermented with, or even without, fouring, provided fuf-
ficient time and agitation be employed ; that no fpirit could
be produced from any one of its con(tituent parts taken fe-
parately, nor from any two of them, unlefs inafmuch as
they are mixed with fome part of the third; that the milk
with all its parts in their natural proportion was the moft
produétive of it; that the clofer it was kept, or, which is
the fame thing, the more difficultly the fixed air is allowed to
efcape during the fermentation, (care beinz taken, however,
that we do not endanger the buriting of the veffel,) the mare
fpirit is obtained. He alfo informs us, that it had a fourer
{mell before than after agitation ; that the quantity of fpirit
was increafed, by allowing the fermented liquor to repofe
for fome time before diftillation ; that from fix pints of milk,
fermented in a clofe veffel, and thus fet to repofe, he ob-
tained three ounces of ardent f{pirit, of which one was con-
fumed in burning ; but that from the fame quantity of the
fame milk fermented in an open veflel, he could {carcely ob-
tain an ounce.”

KUMLA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the pro-
vince of Nericia; 7 miles S. of Orebro.—Alfo, a town of
Sweden, in Eaft Gothland; ro miles S.S.W. of Nord-
kioping.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland; 25
miles W. of Stockholm.

IUMLINE, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, between the
continent of Finland and the ifland of Aland, with a towns
upon it. N.lat. 60° 17!. E..long. 20° 37’.

KUMO, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo, on a river of the fame name; 23 miles S.E. of Biorne-
borg.

KUMRI, a chain of lofty mountains in Africa, in which
are the fources of the Nile and Bahr Kulla, lying, accord-
ing to Browne, in N. lat. 7°, and probably running acrofs
the continent.

KUMUK, a province bordering on the Cafpian fea, part
of the territory included between the rivers Terek and Kur,
and lying between the Trek and Koifu, comprehends a
fertile plain watered by thefe rivers, as well as the Akfai
and Kafma, and the next adjoining mountains to the weft.
It is under the government of feveral Kumuk Begs, of
whom the two moit powerful refide in the cities Akfai and
Endors, (called by the Ruffians Andrewka,) at the foot of
the mountains; and is inhabited by the Kumuk and Nogai
Tartars, and by Armenian and Georgian merchants, who
dwell in the cities. In winter the Lefgians defcend likewife
with their herds from the mountains into the plain; for the
liberty of doing which they pay a tribute. The Nogai
Tartars keep numerous herds, and dweil in moveable felt-
huts, near the walls and banks of the rivers and canals. The
length of this province is about 11, and the breadth 8,
German miles. The Kumuks are vaflals to Ruffia.

KUNA, a town of Lithuania; 15 miles S.E. of Brace
law.

KUNASSYR, one of the Kurile iflands, 150 verfts
long, and 50 broad, and entirely furrounded by mountains
with lofty fummits; but in the middle of the ifland are
low plains. Firs, larches, birch, &c. grow here. At the
fouthern extremity, a flat fandy beach extends from the
lofty mountains, where the fea brings up a {pecies of pearl-
bearing mufcle in valt abundance ; fome of the fize of a de-
fert-plate. The ifland has lakes and broad ftreams that
abound with fifh, It is inhabited by Kurils, who are rated
at 41 perfons.

KUNCKEL, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated chemift,
was born at Hufum, in the duchy of Slefwick, in the year
1630. He was eriginally intended for the praGtice of phar-

macy ;

KUN

_ macy; but having applied himfelf with equal diligence to
the ftudy of chemiltry and metallurgy, he obtained great
reputation for his fill in thefe departments, and was ap-
pointed chemift to the eletor of Saxony. He afterwards
went to the court of Frederic William, elector of Branden-
burg, with a fimilar appointment ; and fubfequently to that
of Charles XI. king of Sweden, who gave him the title of

_ eonfeiller metallique ; and, in 1693, granted him letters of
nobility, under the name of Kunckel de Loewenftern. He
was eleCled a member of the imperial Academia Nature
Curioforum, under the name of Hermes III. He died in
Sweden, in March 1703.

Kunckel laboured in the praétical purfuit of chemical
knowledge for upwards of fifty years, and obtained @n extra-
ordinary fill inthe art. His patrons defrayed the expence
of all the operations which he chofe to undertake; and, as
directer of the glafs-works, he had many opportunities of
exercifing his talent of acute obfervation. His theoretical
knowledge, however, was very imperfe€t: for it is allowed
that he was altogether deftitute of the leaft tinéture of phi-
lofophy, and was even faid to have been one of the fearchers
for the philofopher’s flone. He is now principally known
as the difcoverer of pho/phorus, which he prepared from
urine, and which bears his name in the fhops. He was the
author of feveral works, written in German, in a very bad
ftyle, and with as little method as the reft of the alchemifts.
His treatife “« On Phofphorus’’ was printed at Leipfic in
1678, and his “ Art of Glafs-making” in 1689. ‘Two or
three of his effays have been tranflated into Latin. Eloy.
Dict. Hilt.

KUNDAL, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 20 miles
S.E. of Comiilah.

KUNDALLAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Dowlata-
bad; ro miles EF. S.E. of Tooliapour.

KUNDAWILSA, a town of Hindooftan, in Cicacole ;
20 miles S.W. of Cicacole.

KUNDERA, a town of Hindooftan; 35 miles W. of
Poouah. ‘

KUNDJEH, a town of Turkifh-Armenia, on the Eu-
phrates; 65 miles S. of Erzerum.

KUNDOZERSKATA, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Archangel ; 128 miles S. of Kola.

KUNDRUTCHIA, a town of Ruflia, in the coun-
try of the Coffacks, on the Donetz; 68 miles N.E. of
szoph.

KUNGIPARA, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Delhi; 10 miles S.E. of Tannafar.

“KUNGUR, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the go-
vernment of Perm, on the river Sylva; 40 miles S. of
Perm.

KUNK, Concao, or Cune, a fea-port town of Perfia,
in the province of Lariftan, ou the coa{t of the Perfian guif,
oppofite the ifland of Kifhme; 60 miles S.E. of Lar. N.
lat. 267 44’. E. long. 54” so’.

KUNNERSDORF, a town in the Middle Mark of
Brandenburg, remarkable for a battle fought between the
Pruffians and the united forces of the Auftrians and Ruffians,
Augult the rath, 1759; 3 miles E.N.E. of Francfort on
the Oder.

KUNNIPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares; 15
miles E. of Merzapour.

KUNOE, one of the Faroer iflands.

' KUNOSY, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Novogrodek ; 34 miles E.S.E. of Novogrodek.

KUNOVATSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Tobolfk, on the Oby ; So miles S. of Obdorfkoi,

K U P

KUNOW, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of San-
domirz ; 16 miles §.S.E. of Radom.

KUNTE, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Xicoco; 18
miles S. of Tjo.

KUNTZEN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Samland, on the Curifch Nerung; 28 miles N. of Ko-
nigtberg.

KUNZEN, Anotpn. Cart., in Biography, born at
Wittembury in 1720, was an excellent performer on the
harplichord and organ, who in early youth, about the
middle of the laft century, came to England, where his
matterly and powerful manner of treating thefe inftruments,
both as a performer and compofer, may be ftill remembered
with pleafure by thofe who heard him. On his return to
Germany, he was appointed organift of Lubec, where he
died in 1771.

KUOPIO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, and capital
of Savolax, and that part of Carelia referved to Siveden,
formed into one province under the appellatien of Hoe-
dingedorne of Kuopio. The town flands on the welt fide
of an extenfive lake; 150 miles S.S.E. of Ulea. N. lat.
62° 54'. E. long. 27° 28’.

KUORTANE, «a town of Sweden, in the government
of Wala; 52 miles E.S.E. of Wafa.

KUPENKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Voronetz; 128 miles $.S.W. of Voronetz.

| ae ae a town of Natolia; 35 miles W.N.W. |
of Boli.

KUPFENBERG, a town of Bavaria, in the bifhopric
of Bamberg; 32 miles N.E. of Bamberg. —Alfo, a town
of Bavaria, in the bifhopric of Aichftadt ; 10 miles E.N.E.
of Aichitadt. ;

KUPFFER Nicker. See Nickgt.

KUPFERBERG, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in
the principality of Jauer ; 15 miles S.S.W. of Jauer. N.
lat. 0° 4o'. E. long. 15° 55’°.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Saatz; 22 miles W.S.W. of Saatz. N.
lat. 50° 23’. E. long. 13° 5’.

KUPH, a decayed town of Syria, bearing among ft its
ruins marks of ancient {plendour. [ts houfes are con-
ftruéted of yellow hewn ftone ; the wells are about eichteen
inches thick, and are neither taftened with iron, nor hid in
mortar. The houfes are built round courts, and appear
like palaces. Croffes over the doors indicate that they were
erected by Chriltians; and from the flyle of archite@ure,
Dr. Pococke fuppofes that it was about the fourth or fifth
century ; 35 miles S.S.W. of Aleppo.

KUPHE, a name given by Guettard to a petrifa@ion,
the body of which is conical, the anterior part blunt, and
the potterior part forked, while the interior is divided into
two hollows or tubes.

KUPINATZ, in Geography, a town of Croatia; 14
miles E. of Carlitadt.

KUPISZKI, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Troki; 30 miles S.S.E. of Birza.

& +i & Saag IES a town of Natolia; 16 miles S. of
inob.

KUPPENHEIM, a town of Baden; 3 miles S.S.E.
of Raitadt.

KUPPOREAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar
of Sirhind ; 50 miles S.W. of Sirhind.

KUPRI, a river of Natolia, which runs into the gulf of
Satalia, N. lat. 36° 59!. E. long. 37°.

KUPRIBAZARI, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania; 6 miles W. of Satalia. ‘

KUPSINGA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gangpour; ro miles S.S.W. of Gangpour.

Ola ‘KUR,

K U2
KUR, ariver of Afia, the ancient Cyrus (which fee),

rifes in the Caucafian mountains, and purfuing a rapid courfe
through Georgia, Schirwan, &c. falls into the Cafpian fea,
50 miles S,S.W. of Baku. In the vicinity of this river the
land is fubje& to inundations, and overgrown with high rich
grafs ; towards the fea it is brackifh and barren, but fertile
towards the mountains. About 14 miles upwards from its
mouth, the Kur receives from the right the Aras, or ancient
Araxes; and there on the left bank is fituated a large vil-
lage, named Dfchawat. After its junction with the Aras,
the Kur is ebout 70 fathoms broad, and only fo far navi-
gable; the rocks in the bed of the river hindering the navi-
gation higher up. At about four German miles from the
fea, it branches out into a number of arms, the northern-
moft and fouthernmoit of which are the mott confiderable.
The iflands thus formed belong to Schirwan. On the
nerthern main arm lies the town of Sallian, which-properly
confifts of a number of villages extending along the river,
and owes its profperity to the uncommonly produétive
fifhery of the Kur; for this river abounds with fturgeon and
other fifh. Between the Kur and the Terek lies a tra&t of
land, along the Cafpian fea, extending in length from the
goth to the 44th degree of N. latitude, and of various
breadth, though for the moft part inconfiderable in propor-
tion to its length. This tract contains fomewhat more than
2500 French fquare miles, and is divided into three pro-
vinces, viz. Kumak, Dagheftan, and Shirwan, of which the
firk is now dependeat on Ruffia, and the two latter on
Perfia. See each refpectively.

KURA, a fimall ifland in the Cafpian fea, with fteep
thores roundit. N. lat. 39°.

KURABAD, atown of Candahar; 8 miles W. of
Attock:

KURAGGI, a-town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon;
45 miles N.N.E. of Jedo.

KURCH, a town of Natolia; 34 miles W. of Sinob.

KURDIUM, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Saratof, on the Volga; 16 miles N.N.E. of Saratof.

KURGAN, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the go-
vernment of Tobolik. on the river Kurgan; 68 miles S.W.
of Yalutorovfk—Alfo, a river of Afia, which rifes in
Khorafan, and rans into the Cafpian fea, W. of Aftarabat.

KURIAT, atown of Arabia, in the country of Oman,
at the mouth of a river of the fame name, which runs into the
Arabian fea, S. of cape Kuriah; 20 miles S.E. of Mafcat.

Kuarat, Cape, or Ras Kuriat, a cape on the coalt of
Arabia. N. lat. 23°27! E. lons.:57- 50’.

KURJAUN, a town of Hindooltan, in the circar of
Gohud; 25 miles S.W. of Gwalior.

KURIKKA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wala; 36 miles N.E of Chiiftineftadt.

KURILA, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 20
miles S.W. of Braheltad.

KURILAUT, a town of Kharafm; 60 miles S.S.E.
of Urkorje.

KURILE, or Kuritskor, J/lands, a chain of iflands,
running in a S.W. direétion from the fouthern promontory
of the peninfula of Kamtfchatka, or the Kurilloy Lopat-
ka, to Japan, extending from N. lat. 51° to45°. They ob-
tained this name from the inhabitants of the neighbourhood of
Lopatka, who being themfelves called Kuriles, gave their own
name to thefe iflands, on firlt becoming acquainted with
them. Some of them are inhabited and wooded, others
quite bare and rocky, and a few that are volcanic. Ac-
cording to Spanberg, they are 22 in number, without
reckoning the fmall ones. Of the two Kurile iflands that
lie nearelt to Lopatka, the firft accounts were brought to

KUR

Ruffia in the year 1713. The others have been fucceflively
known from that period to 1779, by means of Ruffaa
mariners, who, at the time, put them under contribu-
tion to the crown. The 22 iflands are Shoomtfhu or
Shoomfka, Poromufhir, or Paramoufir, Sherinki, ‘Ma-
kan-Kur-Affey, Anakutan, Ar-Amakutan, Syafkutan,
Ikarma, Tfhirinkutan, Muffyr, Rach-koke, Mutova, Raf-
fagu, Uflaflyr, Ketoi, Semuffyr, Thhirpa-Oi, Urup, or
Ooroop, Etorpu, Kunaflyr, Tfhikota, and Matmai. Ana-
kutan is diftant from the fourth ifland (in the order of enu-
meration) 35 verlts; itis about 100 vertts long and 15 broad ;
has three elevated fummits of mountains, of which two have
exhaufted craters; the wood is ferubbed and feanty ; red
foxes are pretty numerous, but on the coaft are few fea-
beavers, &c. Several ftreams of hard water flow from it
into the fea. From this Ar-Amakutan is diftant fix verfts :
its length is twenty verlts and breadth ten ; in the centre of
the ifland is a rocky mountain, which was formerly a vol-
cano, and towards the {firait between it and the fifth ifland,
on the eaftern fhore, ftands another, which is reperted to
have been a burning mountain. This iflard is uninhabited,
and is only vifited by the Kurils, on account of the chace,
as it abounds with foxes ; and on the fhores are fea-lions
and fea-otters. Ikarma is about 12 verfts from the feventh
ifland, and is eight verfts long. Uvon it is a voleano, which
occafionally emits flames ; the fhore is tlony, prefenting here
and there a fulphureous fpring. It has neither lakes nor
ftreams ; and with refpeét to wood and animals, it is in the
fame itate with Syafkatan. For an account of the other
iflands, fee the refpeétive articles. Of thefe 22 Kurile
iflunds, the firlt 21 are fubje& to Rufiia; and all of thefe
do not pay tribute. The iflanders are reported by their
miffionary, the paftor of Paratounca, who vifits them once
in three years, to be a friendly, hofpitable, generous, hu-
mane race of people, and excelling their Kamtfchadale
neighbours, not lefs in the formation of their bodies than in
docility and quicknefs of underftanding. Of thefe iflands
it is faid, that four only are inhabited, and their population
is eftimated at 1400 perfons. ‘The inhabitants are generally
hairy, wear long beards, and live eatirely upon feals, fifh,
and the produce of the chace. The more foutherly and in-
dependent iflanders fometimes pafs in canoes the channel that
feparates them from the Ruffian Kuriles, in order to give
fome of the commodities of Japan, fuch as filk, cotton,
iron,- &c, in exchange for furs, dried fifh, and oil. The in-
habitants of as many of the iflands as are brought under the
Ruffian dominions are, at prefent, converted to Chriltianity ;
and probably the time is not very diftant, when a friendly
and profitable intercourfe will be brought about between
Kamtfchatka and the whole of this chain of iflands; which
will be followed by a communication with Japan itfelf.
Thefe iflands extend from N, lat. 42° to 51°. Tooke’s
Roff. Emp. vol. i. Cook’s Third Voyage, vol. iti.
KURISONDA, a town of Afiatic ‘l'urkey, in Cara-
mania; 60 miles N.N.E. of Tocat. 4
KURISSIMA, a town of Japan, in the ifland ef Xico-
co; 16 miles W. of Ijo. :
KURK, atown of Candahar; 25 miles E. of Cabul.
KURKIN, a town of Bengal; 11 miles N.E. of
Ramgur. :
KURKUMBA, town of Hindooftan, in the cirear of
Ruttunpour; 32 miles E. of Ruttunpour.
KURKUNA, a town of Hindoottan, in the circar of
Surgooja; 25 miles N.E. of Surgooja.
KURKSTAT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland; 18 miles W. of Hellingfors,
KURMA,. See Kourma.

KURMA-

KUR
KURMAVATARA, in Mythology, the fecond of the ten

incarnations of the Hindoo god Vifhnu, of which the follow.
ing account is given in the Hindoo Pantheon. ‘ The fe-
cond grand avatara of Vifhnu, in the form of a tortoife,
evidently refers alfo to the deluge. In that of Matfya, or
the fith, (fee MarsyavaTara,) we find the neceflity of a
‘deluge to cleanfe the world from its finful taints. By the
demon Hyagriva haying ftolen the Vedas while Brahma was
dofing, we mutt underftand the dereliction of mankind from
the doétrines and condu& prefcribed in the fcriptures, and
the criminal indifference of their paftors. The preferving
attribute of the deity interpofed, faved a remnant of crea-
tures from deflrution, and by recovering the fcriptures,
reclaimed mankind to purity of faith and condu&. For the
purpofe of reltoring to man fome of the comforts and con-
veniences that were loft in the flood, Vifhnu is fabled to
have become incarnate azain in the form of a tortoife; in
which fhape he fultained the mountain Mandara placed on
his back to ferve as an axis, whereon the gods and demons,
the vaft ferpent Vafoky ferving as a rope, churned the ocean
for the recovery of the amrita, or beverage of immortality.’
(See Keru.) Plate 49, of the Hindoo Pantheon exhibits this
procefs, where Vifhnu is feen in his place with the two other
great powers oppofed to the Afuras, or demons; and ap-
pears again on the fummit of the mountain, and again be-
neath it in the form of the tortoife. The hiftory of this
avatara forms an epifode in the Mahabarat, and Mr. Wil-
kins has introduced a fine tranflation of it in his elegant
verfion of the Gita, where, however, the metamorpholis of
Vithnu into the tortoife is not dire&tly mentioned. But fuch
is-the ufual mode of telling and receiving the ftory, which
is one of the moft popular, both in recitation and painting,
among the monftrous mafs of fubjeéts derived from the co-
-pious Pantheon of the Hindoos.

Kurma, or Koorma, is the Sanfcrit appellation of the
avatara. Among the Mahrattas, and others in the weftern
parts of India, it is more commonly called Katch, that word,
or Katchiva, meaning, like Kurma, a tortoife or turtle. The
refult of the operation, in view to which the incarnation

appears to have occurred, was obtaining from the churned

ocean fourteen articles, ufually called fourteen gems, or
chaterdefa-ratana ; in common language chawda-ratny; ufu-
ally thus enumerated : 1. the Moon, Chanda or Soma;
2. Sri or Lakfhmi, the goddefs of fortune and beauty ;
3. Sura, wine, or Suradevi, the goddefs of wine; 4. Oochif-
rava, an eight-headed horfe; 5. Kuftubha, a jewel of in-
eftimable value ; 6. Paryata or Pariyata, a tree that fponta-
neoufly yielded every thing defired; 7. Surabhi, a cow fimi-
larly beautiful; 8. Dhanvantara, a phyfician, or the god of
phyfic; 9. Iravat, the elephant of Indra with three probofci ;
ro. Shank, a fhell conferring vi€tory on any one who
fhould found it; 11. Danufha, an unerring bow; 12. Bikh,
poifon, or drugs; 13. Rhemba, a beautiful woman, corre-
{ponding in many points ‘with our popular Venus; 14. The
Amrita, or beverage of immortality, which appears, though
laft obtained, to have been the primary cbjeét of this
churning procefs; the other gems appear to have been ob-
tained incidentally.

Under moft of the articles whofe foreign names occur in
this, fome notice is taken of them, and we refer thither
refpeCtively and generally for farther information thereon.

KURMDYA, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 55
miles S.S.W. of Doefa.

KURMIUKI, a town of the principality of Georgia;
105 miles S.E-> of Teflis.

KURMYE, a town of Ruffia, and diftri&t of the go-

KUR

vernment of Simbirfk, on the Sura; 104 miles N.W. of
Simbirfk!

KUROPATNIKI, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga-
licia; 45 miles E.S.E of Lemberg.

KUROSAKI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Ximo ;
27 miles N. of Taifero.

KUROW, a town of the duchy of Holftein; 9 miles
N.N.W. of Lubeck.

KURRA, a river of Hindooltan, which runs into the
Beema; 32 miles N. of Vifiapour. .

KURRABAGH, a town of Candahar, in the province
of Ghizni; 20 miles W.S.W. of Ghizni. N. lat. 33° 30',
I. long. 67° 50'.

KURRERA, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Gohnd; 12 miles S.S.E. of Narwa.

KURRIGOORA, a town of Bengal; 45 miles S.S.W.
of Doefa.

KURRYA, a town of Bengal; 30 miles S.E. of
Palamow.

KURSK, a government of Ruffia, which was formerly
part of that of Bielgorod; comprehending 16 diitriéts : it
is bounded on the N. by the government of Orel, on the
E. by that of Voronetz, on the S. by Voronetz and Khar-
kof, and on the W. by Tchernigof; about 112 miles from
N. to S., and generally veo from E. to W., extending,
however, by a narrow part, about 12 miles. wide, 40
miles further weft,—Alfo, the capital of the above-men-
tioned government, on the river Tukar, which falls into flie
Seim or Sem. N, lat. 53° 40’. E. long. 36° 24’.

KURSY, a town of Hindooftan, in Candeih ; 45 miles
S.W. of Burhanpour.

KURTACULAC, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in Al2-
dulia; 25 miles S.E. of Adana.

KURTAPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore ;
to miles S. of Jallindar, =

KURTCHI, an order of foldiery among the Perfians.

The word, in its original, fignifies army, and is applied to
a body of cavalry, confifting of the nobility of the kingdom
of Perfia, and the polterity of thofe conquerors, who placed
lfmael Sophi on the throne. They are in number about
eighteen thoufand men.

Their commander is called Lutchi bafchi, which was for-
merly the firft pott in the kingdom ; equivalent to a confta-
ble in France.

KURTUS, in Ichthyology, a genus of the jugulares, con-
filting only of a fingle {pecies, called Jndicus from its being
an inhabitant of the Indian feas.. The bedy in this genus is
carinated each fide, the back elevated, and the gill-membrane
furnifhed with two rays. The fpecies known fubfifts on
crabs and fhells, or teftaceous animals: the body is fhort,
flender, golden, and appearing as if covered with filvery
plates: the head is large, compreffed, and obtufe; eyes very -
large, with black pupil, and iris above blue, beneath white ;
mouth large ; jaws with numerous teeth; tongue fhort and
cartilaginous ; lateral line ftraight, and commencing above
the pectoral fin; firft ray of the dorfal and ventral fins hard,
and two firit of the anal {pinous.

KURU, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the go-
vernment of Abo ; 63 miles E.N.E. of Biorneborg.

Kuru, in Hindoo Mythological Legends, was the brother
of Pandu, who was the father of the five heroes of the Ma-
habarat. Kuru hada hundred fons, whofe conteits with the
Pardus are the fubjeét of that poem, which is a continued
allegory of the ftruggles between man’s virtues and vices, per-
fonified in the offspring of the brothers. See Mauasparat,

and Pannu.
KURUMA,

K U.S

KURUMA, in Geography,’ a town of Japan, in the
ifland of Ximo; 16 miles E.N_E. of Ikua.

KURYMA, a town of Hungary; 12 miles N.E. of
Szeben, .

KUSA, in Botany, the foecies of grafs poa cynofuroides,
efteemed by the Hindoos very facred and myftical, and
ufed by the Brahmans in many of their facred or fuperiti-
tious ceremonies. Among this race of fabulifts fome poeti-
cal legend exiits, accounting, in their way, for every [ubjeét
and allufion in their complex mythology and theogony. Of
the kufa grafs this is related in the Hindoo Pantheon.
** Some legends make Garuda the offspring of Kafyapa and
Diti. (See Kasyara.) This all-prolific dame laid an egg,
which, it was predi&ed, would produce her deliverer from
fome great affliction: after a lapfe of five hundred years,
Garuda or Superna (fee Surerna) fprang from the eg,
flew to the abode of Indra, extinguifhed the fire that fur-
rounded it, conquered its guards, and bore off the amrita,
(fee KurmavaTara,) which enabled him to liberate his mo-
ther, at that time affi@ed in captivity. A few drops of
this immortal beverage falling on the kufa, it became a grafs
eternally confecrated ; and fome {nakes, greedily licking up
the ambrofia, fo l.cerated their tongues with the {harp
blades of the grafs, that they have ever fince remained
forked: but the boon of eternity was infured to them alfo
by their thus partaking of the immortality-conferring, fluid.
(See Keru.) This caufe of fnakes having forked tongues
is {till popularly, in the tales of India, attributed to the
above greedinefs.”” P. 341.

KUSAMO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the

overnment of Ulea; 85 miles FH. of Tornea.

KUSBAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares; 22 miles
Vr.N.W. of Benares.

KUSCAN, a town of Perfia, in the province of Se-
gettan ; 21 milcs N.E. of Kin.

KUSCARI, a town of Mingrelia ; 30 miles N.N.E. of
Anarghia. ;

KUSCHAITL, a town’of Ruffia, in the government of
Tobolfk ; 28 miles S. of "Fomik.

KUSHA, a town of Poland, in Podolia; 32 miles E.
of Kaminiecz.

KUSHAL, Kusnet, or Kuthal, a fortrefs of Afia, in
Kuttore. N, lat. 35°17’. E. long. 70° 39/.

KUSHKAT, a town of Great Bucharia; 72 miles W.
of Kojend.

KUSKO, a town of the duchy of Warfaw ; 18 miles
W.S.W. of Kalifch.

KUS-KHUSER, a town of Perfia, in Farfiftan; 3I
miles N. of Schiras.

KUSMA, a {mall town of Arabia, ftanding upon a high
hill, in the province of Yemen, inhabited by free Arabs ;
somiles E. of Hodeida. The mountains, which extend
far into the country, produce coffee.

KUSSI, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ; 65
miles N.E. of Jedo.

KUSSNACHT, a bailiwick of Switzerland, in the
canten of Zurich.—Alfo, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Schweitz, near which is a chapel, ereéted on the
fpot where William Tell flew the Auttrian governor; Io
miles W. of Schweitz. $

KUSSOOR, a town of Hindooftan, in Lahore; 26
miles W.N.W. of Firofepour.

KUSTANGI, or Cutusrener, a town of European
Turkey, in Bulgaria, on the Black fea, formerly called Con-

antia. N. lat. 44° 30. E. long. 28° 37’.
KUSTER, Lunotrn, in Bicgraphy, was born in 1670,

KUT

at Blomberg, in Weftphalia, of which town his father was
amagiftvate. He ftudied under his elder brother at the
Joachim college of Berlin, and was afterwards appointed
tutor to the two fons of the count Schwering: On quitting
that flation, with a penfion, he went to Frankfort on the
Oder, and there publifhed, in 1696, his «¢ Hiftoria Critica
Homer." He was promifed a profeflerfhip in the univer-
fity of Joachim, and till that fhould be vacant he refolved to
travel, and vifited Leyden and Utrecht ; at the latter place
he delivered a courfe of le@tures on the law of nations, and
publithed his « Bibliotheca Librorum.” He then went to
England, and thence to France, for the purpofe of collating
MSS. for a new edition of Suidas. Having furnihed him-
felf with many very valuable materials and ragments for his
work, from the king’s library, he returned to England.
Here he lived in great familiarity with Bentley and other
learned men, and upon the publication of his work, which was
printed partly at the expence of the univerfity of Czm-
bridge, he was honoured with the degree of doétor of laws.
Several advantageous offers were made him if he would re-
main in England, but he was called back to Berlin, and in-
{talled in the profefforfhip promifed to him. The fituaticn
did not anfwer his expetations, he was rendered uncomforta-
ble by difputes refpecting his falary, and by having incurred
the fufpicion of being addiéted to the principles of Arianifin,
fo that ina fhort time he found it expedient to retireto Am-
fterdam. Here be was reduced to abfolute poverty by the
failure of his banker. He afterwards went to Antwerp, em-
braced the Catholic religion, and was rewarded by a pen-
fion from the king, and with an admiffion into the Academy
of Infcriptions. He died at the age of forty-fix. He was
a great nalter of the Latin tongue, and wrote ‘well in it ;
but his chief excellence was his fkill in the Greek language,
to which he almoft entirely devoted himfelf. Befides
the works already referred to, he publifhed “ Jamblicus
Porphyrius, et Anonymus apud Photium de Vita Pytha-
gore’’ A new edition of Dr. Mill’s Greek Teftament.
«* Ariflophanes Gr. et Lat.” “ De vero ufu verborum me-
diorum,”? which has been much efteemed as a grammatical
treatife.

KUSTUBHA, in Hindso Legends, is an ineftimable gem,
of which many wonderful tales are related, It is one-of the
fourteen precious things recovered from the ecean when

churned for the amrita, by gods and demons, in the Kurma-

vatara ; which fee.

KUTALI, in Geography, a {mall ifland, in the fea of
Marmora. N. lat. 40° 30. E. long. 27° 22.

KUTAN, a town of Hindooitan, in Oude; 30 miles
E. of Kairabad.

KUTATS, a town of Japan, in the ifland of Niphon ;
25 miles E. of Meaco.

KUTINA, atown of Sclavonia; 33 miles W.N.W. of
Pofzega.

KUTSCHINA, atown of Servia; 16 miles S.S.W. of
Orfova.

KU-TSING, a city of China, of the firft rank, in the
province of Yun-nan; furrounded with mountains, about
which the foil is fruitful. Its jurifdiction comprehends five

towns of the fecond clafs, and two of the third. The in-
habitants are induitrious in cultivating the ground. N. lat.

25° 34'. E. long. 103° 27.

KUTS KOJI, atown of Ruffia, in the government of Ir.”

kuti, onthe Kuta, where it joins the Lena; 60 miles E. of
Ilimfk. N. lat. 56’ go’. E. long. 123° 20'.
KUTTENBERG, or Kutna-Hora, a town of Bo-
hemia, in the circle of Czaflau, famous for its filver mines,
By formerly

or au =, »
ee,

KU Y

formerly abundant, difcovered by a monk in 1237; 4 miles
NW. of Czaflau. N. lat. 49° 52!. E. long. 15° 19’.

KUTTORE, a tra& of country between the N.E. part
of Cabul, and the N.W. of Cachemire, now fubjeé&t to Can-
dahar- This tract borders-on the N. of Sewad, Bijore,
Puckholi, &c. It has obtained from the Mahometans the
name of Caferiflan, or land of infidels, and is clafled by the
people of Hindooftan as a dependency of Cafhgar. It
occupies nearly the place of Ptolemy’s Comedi, and anfwers
to it in defcription, being entirely mountainous. _ An author,
cited by Rennell, ftates that Kuttore contains a great num-
ber of towns and villages, and is exceedingly populous _ Its
principal towns are Towkul, called alfo Showkul, and Jour-
kull; thefe being the refidence of its rulers. It abounds in fruits,
fuch as grapes, plumbs, &c. Itlikewife yields rice, wheat,
and other forts of grain. The natives are exceedingly fond
of wine and hog’s flefh; although their country is well-
ftocked with cows and goats. They havea diftin& language
not at all refembling that of any other people; and their
arms confift of the bow and arrow, the fabre and the fling.
Another author fays, that they are, for the moft part, idola-
ters; that they are of a robult make, and that their com-
plexion is a mixture of red and white. .

Kurrore is alfo a town and fortrefs in the above de-
fcribed country ; 100 miles N.E. of Cabul. N. lat. 35”
27’. E.long. 70° 17’.

KUTTRY. See Raspoorts.

KUTTUHDUA, a {mall ifland in the bay of Bengal,
near the coaft of Aracan, inhabited chiefly by fifhermen.
It is well wooded. N. lat. 21° 52’. E.long. gi° 45’.

KUTUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Benares; 10 miles
N.E, of Bidrigur.

KUTZABAR, a town of Perfia, in Mazanderan; 40
miles S.W. of Fehrabad.

KUVA, a fmall town of Perfia, S. of Derbent ; the
refidence of a khan.

KUVERA, in Hindoo Mythology, isthe regent of wealth,
correfponding with the Plutus of the weftern Pantheon.
He is defcribed, in refpe& of externals, as a mere man,
gloomy, feliith, and deformed ; but as a magnificent deity,
refiding in the fplendid city Alaka, and borne through
the fky in a gorgeous car, called pufbpaka, or flowery.
He is alfo called Vitefla, Paulaftya, and Dhanada; and as the
fon of afage named Vifrava, he is called Vifravana, a name
likewife of Ravena, half brother, by the fame father, of
Kuvera. (See Ravena.) His fervants and companions
are the Yakfhas and Guhyakas, into whofe filthy forms
tranfmigrate the fouls of thofe men who im this life are ad-
di&ed to fordid and bafe paffions, or abforbed in worldly
profperity. The term Guhyakais derived from gh (ordure)
a word retained in feveral diale&s. He has a confort named
Kauveri, which fee; but neither would be invoked by a
Hindoo, for the boon of riches, but Lak/bmi, which fee.

The Hindoos have affigned regents to each cardinal and
intermediate point of the compafs. (See Marur.) Ku-
vera rules the north.

KUWANA, or Quano, a fea-port of Japan, in the
province of Owari.

KUYALIT, a town of European Turkey, in Romania ;
27 miles E.S.E. of Filippopoli,

KUYNDER, a fea-port town of Holland, in Friefland,
onthe W. fide of the river of the fame name, at its entrance
into the Zuyder fee; 23 miles S. of Lewarden. N. lat.
52 48. E.long 5° 46’.

KUYP, or Cuyp, ALBERT, in Biography, a painter who
ranks among the beft and mot original artifts. He was
born at Dort in 1606, and was the fon of Jacob Gerritz

3

K Y A

Kuyp, a land{cape painter of much merit. From his father
he firft learnt the rudiments of the art; but furpaffed him
infinitely in his progrefs. He was one of the moft agree-
able painters that ever lived; imitating with the greateft
perfection the purity and brilliancy of light. No artilt
ever reprefented the atmofphere which furrounds all objects
more completely than Cuyp; not even Claude: and in the
effe& of fun-fhine, none ever approached him. ‘The
fimpleft fcenes and combinations of objeéts were fufficient
for him to exert his talents upon ; and he never failed to give
an intereft to them by the {weetnefs of his colour, and the
beauty of his light and fhade.

Little or nothing is known of his life. His works are
numerous, and therefore he mutt have lived long ; for they
are of fo highly finifhed a quality that he muit have given
much time to them.

In the various colle&tions among the nobility in England,
works of his fhine with almolt unrivalled luttre ; and are
not very uncommon. At the marquis of Stafford’s is a
very fine one of the landing of prince Maurice at Dort.
There are alfo feveral others of great merit.

KUZNETCHICHA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia,
in the government of Simbiril, on the Volga; 16 miles
N.E. of Simbirfk.

KUZNETZK, a town of Ruffia, and diftri& of the go-
vernment of Saratof, feated on a rivulet, falling into the
Sura; 96 miles N.N.E. of Saratof. ,

Kuznetzk, a town of Ruflia, and diftri@ of the go-
vernment of Kolyvan, fituated on the river Tom, oppotite
to the mouth of the Kondama; built in 1618, ona place
whither the Tartars generally reforted, and colonized from
Tomfk, and fome other towns. It contains about 300
houfes, and the inhabitants are chiefly employed in the
manufacture of iron; 188 miles E.S.E. of Kolyvan. N.
lat. 53° 40’. E. long. 86° 49’.

KUZNETSKOI Mowunxratns, a range of mountains,
forming one of the fub-divifions of the Ruffian fhare of the
Altaian mountains, the other being the Oby and the Yenif-
fey. See ALTal.

KUZNIK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Viatka ; 48 miles S.S.W. of Glazov.

KUZOMEN, a town of Ruflia, in the government of
Archangel, on the coait of the White fea; 124 miles N.W.
of Archangel.

KUZREKA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Archangel, on the N. coaft of the White fea; 140 miles
S.S.E. of Kola. :

KWASSITZ, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Hra-
difch ; 14 miles N. of Hradifch.

KWASSOWA, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 28
miles N. of Zytomiers.

KYANITE, or Cyanite, Wern.;.Di/thene, Hatiy ; Sap-
pare, Sauffure. Other names derived from fancied refem-
blarices, are blue-fhorl, blue talc, blue mica, foliated beryl,
fapphir fpar, blue feldf{par, &c. Hatiy’s name implies the
power this {ubftance poffefles of acquiring both vitreous and
refinous eletricity ; all the other denominations are expref-
five of its charaferiftic.

Colour, which is generally azure-blue, light Pruffian blue,.
or fmalt-blue ; but it is alfo feen blueifh-grey, milky, greyifh.
and greenifh-white, and more feldom feladon, and other
fhades of blueifh-green. ‘Thefe colours are either uniform
or mixed: the blueifh-grey, itriped or flamed with various:
fhades of Pruffian blue, is the moit common mixture.

It occurs maffive, difleminated in blunt-edged pieces, and
cryftallized, The following are the modifications we are
acquainted with: 1. The oblique quadrangular prifm,

: (which

K ¥ & :

{which appears alfo to be the primitive form of this fub-
itance,) with two oppofite fides very narrow, which give the
cryttal a contracted tabular form. 2. The lateral edges
formed by the acute angles of the preceding cryttals, inter-
cepted each by a plane, or truncated; this plane is generally
very narrow. 3. The lateral edges formed by the obtufe
angles of N’ x, intercepted each by a plane, or truncated.
This modification appears to be very fcarce. 4. Four of
the terminal edges of N> 2, intercepted each by a plane,
which, if they met in a point, would form a four-fided pyra-
mid. . This we have obferved in a {mall cryttal included in
rock-cryttal.

Thefe cryflals, efpecially thofe from Mount St. Gethard,
are not unfrequently {een as twin-cryftals, or macles.

They are moftly middle-fized, but alfo {mall, and very
fmall; and occur imbedded, either fingly, or in groups,
interfe€ting each other, They are not unfrequently feen
curved and twilted, as if they had futtained preffure, when
not yet hardened. ;

The internal, and generally alfo the external luftre of the
cyanite is fhining and fpleadent; itis a perfeGly pearly
luitre.

The longitudinal fracture of the cryftals is foliated, with
two-fold cleavage, one ef which is much more diltin& than
the other. In the uncryttallized varieties the fra@ure is
broad, ftraight, or curved-radiated, fometimes pafling into
foliated. ‘he fragments are f{plintery, wedge-thaped, or
even approaching the rhomboidal figure. ‘The wedge-fhaped
diftinét concretions, in which it occurs, are often grown
together in all direétions.

The maflive cyanite is faintly tranflucent ; but the cryftals
are often perfectly tranfparent : refra¢tion fimple.

It is femi-hard, nearly foft : a ftecl needle eafily feratches
the broad planes of the cryftals, but not the narrow and trun-
eating planes.

It is flightly flexible, but not elaflic: and eafily fran-
gible.

Its {pecific gravity is ftated to be 3.517 by Sauffure, 3-622
(the Siberian) by Herrmann, and 3.092 (the blueifh-grey
var. from Tyrol) by Kirwan.

The following are the refults of the analyfes made of this
fubitance,

Sanffure, fen. Sauflure, jun.

Silica - 12.81 29.2
Alumine - 66.2 55-0
Lime - 1.71 ear
Magnefia - 13.25 2.0
Oxyd ofiron 5.48 6.65
Lofs and water 0.0 5.0

100.17 100.

Struve. Herrmann,
Silica - isiiticy 23
EN im Es ee Ys 30
Lime - 4.0 3
Magneha - 30.5 ~ 39
Oxyd of iron 5.0 2
Lots and water 4.5 3

{0O. 100

The two following analyfes differ fiom the preceding,
particularly in the abfence of magtefia and lime;

KYL

Laugier. Klaproth.
Silica = 38.5 es
Alumine - 555 * 55-50 he.
‘Lime - O.5 be GRO ,
Oxyd of iron 2.75 0.50

Lofs and water 2.75 ' Sada a trace

Cyanite is infufible before the blow-pipe, a property which,
according to Sauflure, renders it a convenient fupport for
fubitances to be tried by that inftrument.

This fub{tance is found only in primitive mountains, im-
bedded in mica flate and tale flate, accompanied by grana-
tite or ftaurolite and garnets, with now and then iron
ochre, tron pyrites, calcareous fpar, &c. In Moravia and
Saxony it occurs in fmall groups imbedded in a variety of
a primitive rock called weils-itein, or white-ftone.

Its principal localities are Switzerland (efpecially at
Airolo, on the fouth fide of Mount St. Gothard) ; Saltzborg
and Tyrol (in the Zillerthal) ; Carinthia fon the Sau-
Alpe) ; Scotland (Aberdeenthire, near Banchory, and in
the Mainland, one of the Shetland iflands); France (in the
neighbourhood of Lyons) ; it has alfo been found in Nor-
way, in Siberia, in Brafil, &c.

When cut and polifhed it refembles in colour fome varieties
of fapphir, and {pecimens of it are fometimes exhibited under
this name ; but, not to mention the {trie always obfervable
in the interior of cyanite ftones, their inferior luftre, and
comparative foftnefs, will foon clear up all doubts refpeét-
ing their nature.

Sauffure has endeavoured te introduce the name Sappare
for this mineral, and he tells us, that in Scotland it is known
by that appellation. Some authors have lately criticifed
this name as being derived from the bad pronunciation of the
word fapphire, with whtth the cyanite is faid to have been,
confounded by the perfon who pointed it out to Sauffure :
but this is a miftaken notion, the name fappare being known
to occur in feveral old works on mining; and as it appears to
have been a very eve fort of name, it is not improbable
that it may alfo have included the fubje&t of this article.

KYBAR, in Geography, a town of Norway ; 6 miles
8.S.W. of Wardhuys.

KYBURG, a bailiwick of Switzerland, in the canton of
Zurich. ;

KYDREBAD, a town of Hindooftan, in Oudes 8
miles N.E. of Fyzabad.

KYHOLM, a faiall ifland of Denmark, near the ifland of
Samfoe.

KYL, a town of Sweden, in the province of Warme-_
land ;° 25 milvs S.E. of Carlitadt.— Alfo, a town of Sweden,
in the proviyce of Nericia; 8 miles N.W. of Orebro. aS

KYLA, a town of Sweden, in Warmeland ; 23 miles
S.W. of Carlitadt.

KYLE of Durnsfs, a bay on the N. coaft of Scotland, at
the mouth of the river Durnefs: the entrance, W. of
Farout-head, is in N. lat. 58° go!. W. long. 4° 42!.

Kye of Rhea, a narrow firait between the ifland of Sky,
and the main land of the county of InvernefS, N, lat. 57°
15'. W. long. 5? 40!.

Kyxe Scowie, a bay on the W. coalt of Scotland, and
county of Sutherland. N. lat. 58? 16". W. long. 5° Be

Kyxe of Tongue, abay on the N. of Scotland, and county
of Sutherland ; 13 miles W.S.W. of Strathy-head. Ny»
lat. 58°35’. W. long. 4° 13!.

KYLLINGIA, in Botany, fo called by Rottboll, in
memory of his countryman, Peter Kylling, a Dane, who,
in 1688, publifhed at Copenhagen, the Viridarium Danicum,
which is a catalogue in Latin, Danifh, and German, of the

hate

KYL

native plants of Denmark, making 174 quarto pages.—
Rottb, Gram: 12. Linn. Fil. Nov. Gram. Gen. 24. t, 1.
Am. Acad..v. 10. 2. 24. t. 1. Suppl. rr. Schreb. go.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 256. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 125. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl.
v. 1.218. Juff. 27. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 38.—Clafs and
order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calamaria, Linn,
Cyperoidee, Jul. :

Gen. Ch. Flowers aggregate, in an oblong fealy head.
Cal. Glume of two unequal valves, compreffed, nearly
fingle-flowered, fingle-feeded ; valves lanceolate, channelled,
acute, much fhorter than the corolla. Cor. Glue of two
unequal valves, comprefied, larger than the cay keeled,
{preading; the larger lanceolate, folded, very a&ute, em-
bracing the fmaller. Stam. Filaments three, awl-fhaped,
flat; anthers terminal, linear, ere&t. Pi? Germen fupe-
rior, obovate, compreffed, gibbous at one of its edges, with-
out any briftles at the bale; ftyle thread-fhaped ; ftigmas
two or three, capillary. ' Peric. none, except the permanent
corolla. Seed oblong, triangular, beardlefs.—The fame
calyx fometimes centains alfo either a male or a neutral
flower. ;

Eff. Ch. Flowers aggregate, in an oblong, imbricated,
head. Calyx of two vglves. Corolla of two valves. Seed
without briftles at the bafe.

This genus, adopted from Rottboll by the younger
Linaeus, had by his father been confounded with Schoenus,
which its. flowers in fome meafure refemble ; but the habit,
efpecially the aggregate, long, floral leaves, are akin to
Cyperus. In the Supplementum tour {pecies are defined ; Will-
denow has eight; and a new one, K. intermedia, is defcribed
by Mr. Brown in his Prodromus, as found at Port Jackfon,
_ New South Wales—They are all natives of warm countries,

chiefly in the Eaft or Weft Indies, and moift fituations,
Their roots feem to be perennial. Their herbage is flender.
Stem fimple, triangular, ftriated, and roughifh. Leaves
narrow, rough-edged. Heads pale whitifh, terminal,
ufually feffile, among the floral leaves, either folitary or feve-
ral together, roundifh or oblong, confifting of numerous,
fmall, denfely crowded flowers, whofe glumes are more or
lefs ribbed or ftriated, deftitute of awns.

Examples of this genus are, ;

K. monocephala. Rottb. Gram. 13. t. 4. f. 4. (Schoenus
coloratus; Linn. Sp. Pl. 64.)—Stem flender, triangular.
Head globofe, feffile, folitary. Floral leaves three, very
long:—Native of both Indies. Root creeping. Stems -foli-
tary, a {pan high, bearing two or three /eaves at the bale,
and three as long at the top, accompanied fometimes by a
f{maller one. The head of flowers is fcarcely bigger than a
large pea, whitifh, very denfe.—Thryocephalon nemorale of
Forfter, from Otaheite, appears to. be precifely this pl.nt.
§.K. triceps. Rottb. Gram. 14. t. 4. f. 6: (Scirpus
glomeratus; Liun. Sp. Pl. ed. 1. 52. Schenus niveus ;
Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 81.) —Heads about three together, cluf-
tered, feffile, fomewhat ovate.—Native of both Indies.
Rather larger than the laft, of which, in the 2d edition of
Species Plantarum, it is made a variety, but it is a fmoother
plant, and the cluftered rather lefs globular heads diftinguifh
the prefent {pecies:

* K. incompleta. Jacq. Coll. v. 4.101. Ic. Rar. t. 300.—
Umbe! compound. Spikes numerous, cylindrical. “Calyx
of one valve.—Native of the Caraccas. This is a very
Jarge {pecies, with a fharply triangular /lem three or four
» feet high, very long floral leaves under the general umbel,
and many fmall leaves under the partial ones. The nume-
sous cluttered heads, or rather /pikes, are oblong, various in
Vou. XX.

4

ee . ‘

fize, greenifh, of numerous fpreading flowers, whofe calyx,
according to Jacquin, has but one valve.

K. monocephala, triceps, and umbellata, are cultivated in
the floves at Kew, where they flower in fummer or autumn,
but probably excite little attention, except among curious
botanifts.

KYLY, or Kyeva, in Geography, a fea-port on the W.
coaft of the ifland of Celebes, with a {pacious harbour. S.
lat. 1° 45’.

KYMITS, an ifland in the Baltic, near the coaft of Fin-
land ; 20 miles long, and from one to two broad. N, lat.
60’ 16'.

KYMMEN, a river of Finland, which flows from the
lake of Pejend, or Pejana, into the centre of the gulf of
Finland.

KYNE, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 18 miles
N.E. of Wafa.

KYNETON. See Kiveton.

KYNTO, a lake of Ruflia, inthe government of Olo-
netz, about 48 miles long, and from 12 to 16 broad. N.
lat. 65 40. E. long. 28 qo’, ;

KYPER, Apert, in Biography, a phyfician, was born
at. Konigfberg, in Pruffix, and probably took the degree of
M. D. at Leyden, where he was ftudying in the year 1642.
He was afterwards chofen firlt profeffor of phylic,-in the
new medical fchool eftablifhed at Breda in 1646: but he
quitted this {tation two years afterwards, in order to take
poffeffion of a medical chair, to which he was eleéted, at
Leyden ; an appointment which he held till his death, which
occurred in September, 1655, at the time when he was rector
ef that univerlity. He publifhed feverel works. <‘ Me-
thodus Medicinam rite difcendi et exercendi,”” Leyden,
1642. Inititutiones Phyfice,” ipid. 1647. Anthro-
pologia, corporis humani contentorum, et anime naturam et
virtutes, fecundum circularem fanguinis motum, explicans,’?
ibid. 1647, &c. Inftitutiones Medice ad hypothefin de
circulari fanguinis motu compofite,’’ Amfterdam, 1654.
** Collegium Medicum, xxvi. Difputationibus breviter com-
plectens que ad Inftitutiones pertinent,’’ Leyden, 1655.
This volume contained alfo fome mifcelianeous and political
traéts. Eloy. Dict. Hitt. de Med,

KYPHONISM, Kyrnowismcs, or Cyphonifmus, an an-
cient punifhment, which was frequently undergone by the
martyrs in the primitive times; wherein the body of the
perfon to fuffer was anointed with honey, and fo expofed to
the fun, that the flies and wafps might be tempted to tor~
ment him. This was performed in three manners; fome-
times they only tied the patient to a ftake ; fometimes they
hoifted him into the air, and fufpended him in a bafket;
and fometimes they ftretched him out on the ground, with
his hands tied behind him. The word is originally Greek,
and comes from xv?s, which fignifies either the flake to
which the patient was tied, the collar fitted to the neck, or
an infirument wherewith they tormented him ; the {choliatt
on -\riftophanes fays, it was a wooden lock, or cage; and
that it was called fo from xuzis», to crook or bend, becaufe it
kept the tortured in a crooked bowing po‘ture; others take
the xvgwv for a log of wood laid over the criminal’s head to
prevent his ftanding upright: Helfychius defcribes the xP.»
as a piece of wood, whereon criminals were ftretched and
tormented. In effect, it is probable the word might fignify
ali thefe feveral things. It was a generical name, whereof
thefe were the fpecies.

Suidas gives us the fragment of an old law, which punifhed
thofe-who treated the laws. with contempt, with kyphonifm
for the {pace of twenty days ; after which they were to be
precipitated from a rock, drefled in women’s habit.

KYRA,

Es
KYRA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in Rohil-

cund ; 20 miles S. of Budavoon.

KYRADAW, a town of Hindooftan, in Malwa; 7
miles S.W. of Kimlaffa.

KYRADEE, a town of Bengal; 14 miles W.S.W. of
Curruckdeagh.

KYRALFALVA, a town and caftle of Hungary; 12
miles S.W. of Sivat. _

KYRANTY, a town of Bootan ; 60 miles S. of Tafla-
fudon.

KYREZYCE, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Volhynia ; 56 miles N.W. of Zytomiers.

KYRIE, in Ecchfiaflical Mfufic, the firft word of every
mafs in mufic. It furnifhes, with e/ei/on, the only articula-
tions of the firft movement of all mafles ancient and modern.
Kyrie, the vocative cafe, implies O Lord, and joined with
eliffon, is a, to ‘ Lord have mercy on us.” Kyrie, in
{peaking of a mafs in mufic, is often ufed fubftantively, as
«© there 1s a well written kyrie in that mafs or fervice.’’

KYRILA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in Eaft
Bothnia ; 36 miles E.N.E. of Chriftianftadt.

KYRITZ, a town of Brandenburg, in the Mark of
Pregnitz; 40 miles N.W. of Berlin, N, lat. 52° 26’.
E. long. 12° 26,

L,

EL, a femi-vowel, or liquid confonant, making the
Te eleventh letter of the Englifh alphabet, and always
preferving the fame found.

The /is pronounced by applying the tongue to the pa-
late.

Pafferat obferves, that / was frequently ufed among the
ancients for 8, as in cilliba for cibille ; for d, as alipe for adipe ;
for c, as mutilafor mutica ; for n, as arvilla for arvina, belle for
bene, colligo for conliga; for r, as fratellus of frater, balatrones
for baratones ; for f, as ancille of am and cefum, equilio for
equifio ; for t, as equifelis, for equifetis, Thelis tor Thetis. See
By Es acc.

The // is a modern contrivance, and was never ufed among
ancient Roman authors: they wrote alium, not allidm ; ma-
eelum, not macellum ; polucere, not pollucere.

The // of the Greeks was fometimes changed by the Ro-
mans into /, asin oArones, falio s ardor, alius 3 GvrA07, folium +
r has alfo been turned into J] ; as hira, illa ; furare, fatullare ;
&c. and / into x, or xill; as ala, axilla; mala, maxilla ;
velum, vexillum ; d was alfo ufed for /, n for W/, and r for 27.
See R, &c.

Lis alfo frequently ufed inftead of d, as in Uhfes, from
the Greek OdSvecus, in that /Bolic diale& Ydvcon, Thus

K ZI

KYRKAS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Jamt-
land ; 7 miles N.E. of Otterfund.

KYRKSTATT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland; 16 miles W. of Helfing.

KYRO, a town of Sweden, in North Finland, on a Icke
of the fame name ; 42 miles E. of Biorneborg.

Kyro, Lille, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 12
miles E.S.E. of Wafa.

Kyro, Stor, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 20
miles S.E. of Wafa.

KYSCHAW, a town of Pruffia, in Pomerelia; 32
miles S.E. of Dantzic.

KYSGIS, Kuss, in Anatomy. See Cysris, °

KYTEE, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S.
of Burdwan. N. lat. 23°3!. E. long. 88°.—Alfo, atown of
Hindooftan, in Bahar; 28 miles S.S.W. of Arrah.

KYTEKIEHL, or Kyrzsunt, a town of the county
of Tyrol; 45 miles N.E. of Infpruck.

KYUQUOT, a large found or bay on the N.W. coaft
of N. America, haying on one fide of it Robert's ifland.
N. lat. 50°. W. long. 127° 20!

KZILKAN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, on the Tigris ;
21 miles N. of Tecrit.

KZIKEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey ; 15 miles W. of
Merdin. ’

alfo for dautia, we fay lautia; for dacruma, lacryme, &c.

See D,

There are feveral people, for inftance, the Chinefe in
Afia, the Illinois in America, &c. who cannot pronounce
the r, but always change it into / Thus, when any of
them have been baptized by the name of Petrus, Fran-
cifeus, &c. they always pronounce it Petlus, Flancifcus, &c.
See R. *

Among tke Saxons the / was afpirated, and the Spaniards?
and Welth ufually double it at the beginning of a word,
which {bunds nearly the fame with our A/or ff. At the
end of a monofyllable it is always doubled, except after
a diphthong. The monofyllables in which it is doubled, as
Kill, vill, full, were originally written fille, ville, fulle, and
when the e firft became filent, and was afterwards omitted,
the H was retained, to give force, according to the analogy
of our language, to the foregoing vowel. In a word of
more fyllables it is written fingle. It is fometimes inferted
before e, and founded feebly after it, fo as to be almofg
mute ; as table, /huttle.

The figure of our L we borrowed from the Latins, they
from the Greeks, and they again from the Hebrews, is
, lamed

LAS

Tamed is much like our L, excepting that the angle is fome-
what more acute.

L was alfo a numeral letter among the ancients, and is ftill
fo in the Roman cyphering, fignifying ji/ty ; according to
the verfe, '

“ Quinquics L denos numero defignat habendos.”?

When a dath was added at the top, thus, L, it flood for
Sify thoufand.

L was ufed for fifty, being half a C, which fignified a
hundred, and was formerly written thus C, which, according
to Pafquire, makes two LL, the one upright, the other in-
verted.

The French Louis-d’ors have a crofs on them, confifting
of eight L’s interwoven, and difpofed in form of a crofs.
The letter L is marked on the money coined at Bayonne.
The epochas on Greek medals are ufually written with the
ancient /ambda, L ; which, according to the tradition of the
antiquaries, ftands for AvxoSwvro-, a poetical word, unknown
in common fpeech, fignifying ano, and which it is probable
was more ufed in Egypt than Greece. ,

L as an abbreviature ftands for Lucius; and LLS. fora
felterce. In Englifh, it denotes a pound iterling.

LA, in Mujfic, is the fixth found of the Guido feale.
Gammor, and SoLmIsATIOoN.

LAAB, or Lava, in Geography, a town of Autftria, on
the river Taya; 26 miles N. of Vienna. N. lat. 48° 39’.
E. long. 16° 16’.

LAADSTEE, a town of Norway; 112 miles N. of
Bergen. ‘ 3

LAAGE, atown of Mecklenburg; 14 miles S.E. of
Rofigick. N. lat. 55° 58’. EE. long. 12° 30'.

~ LAALAND, or Laranp, an illand of Denmark, fitu-
ated at the entrance into the Baltic, from the Great Belt $
about 50 miles long, and 20 in its medial breadth, and
¥eckoned the mott fertile {pot in the 7 a dominions. It
produces variety of grain, particularly wheat, and alfo
peafe ; and is chiefly appropriated to the cultivation of corn.
Its woods, in which it is not deficient, are more frequent in
the eaft, than on the welt fide of the ifland. As its fituation
is low, the air is damp and the climate is infalubrions. Of
all the inhabitants, the clergy are mott liberally provided for,
according to their rank. The nobility are numerous, and
poflefs large eftates -with fine houfes. This ifland, like
‘Tealfter, has a peculiar governor ; but both are under the
{piritual jurifdiétion of the bifhop of Funen. The capital
is Nafkow. N. lat. 54° 40! to 59°. E. long. 10° 59! to
Protest

LAALGUNGE, a town of Hindooltan, in Oude; 25
miles E. of Manichpour.

LAARET, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 50
miles in circuit. S. lat. 6° 48’. E. long. 132° 36!.

LAAS, or Loscu, a town of Carniola, with a citadel ;
23 miles E.N.E. of Triefte. N. lat. 45-58’. E. long.
TA 2s

LAASPHA, or Laspa, a town of Germany, in the
connty of Witgenttein; 64 miles E. of Cologne. N, lat.
§0° 53’. E. long. 8° 30',

LAB, a town of Germany, in the bifhopric of Wurz-
burg; 6 miles E.S\E. of Volkach.

' LABAAR, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Agra; 75 miles S.S.E. of Agra. :

LABACCAN, a northern province of Celebes, which,
together with Bougero and Sageree, are the plains lying
between’ Tello and T’anete, the proper granaries of Celebes.

See

LAB

Labaccaa has one native regent, who has the appellation of
*¢ Crain.”’

LABADDA,a town and diflri&t of Africa, on the Gold
Coatt.

LABADIE;, Joun, in Biography, a celebrated enthuhatt,
was born at Bourg, in Guienne, in the year 1610; when he
was fix years old he was fent to Bourdeaux to be inftruéted
in the Jefuits’ {chool, and was at an early age admitted into
the order, of which he continued a member fifteen years;
He was fo highly efteemed for piety and learning, that it
was with the utmoft difficulty he obtained his difmiffion when
he afked for it. At length he auitted the fociety and be-
came an itinerant preacher. The aufterity of his manners,
his great zeal, and affected piety, procured him many ad-
mirers wherever he went. At Amiens he obtained a ca-
nonry, but being detected in fome criminal intrigues, the
bifhop ordered him to be arrefted; he, however, efcaped,
and concealed himfelf at Paris. On this and fome other
parts of Labadie’s conduét, Bayle makes the following re-
marks, which, in fome degree, are probably applicable to
religious enthufialts of other countries befides France: * ]
do not,” fays the biographer, ‘ warrant the certainty of all
thefe faéts, but I affirm that it is very probable, that fome of
thofe {piritual devotees, who make people believe that a
ftrong meditation will ravifh the foul, and hinder it from per-
ceiving the aétions of the body, have a mind to toy with
their devout fifters with impunity, and to do ftill worfe,
In general, there is nothing more dangerous to the mind
than too myttical and too abitra¢ted devotions ; and, doubt-
lefs, the body in that cafe runs fome hazard, and many are
glad to be deceived.'’ Juabadie became a diredior of a con-
yent of nuns, among whom he introduced a new rule, and
the notions of the Quietilts, with additions of his own, viz.
that the fcriptures. were not neceflary to falvation: that
outward worfhip is of no avail: that all prayer ought to be
mental ; and that there are two churches, that of Chriflians
in degeneracy, and the other regenerate. About the year
1650, Labadie renoynced the Romifh religion at Mon-
tauban, at the fame time declaring he had contemplated
this meafure more than fifteen years. His converfion ex-
cited much converfation and many difcuffions among the
Catholics ; feverd attempts were made to engage him to
return to the bofom of the true church, but without pro-
ducing any effect on his mind. His licentious practices
were now expofed, and probably very much exaggerated :
the Proteftants, proud of fo important a convert to their
caufe, would liften to none of the accufations, and he was
chofen pattor of the reformed church at Montauban in the
year 1651. Here he exercifed: the duties of the minifterial
office for eight years, and then, on accoount of fome dif-
putes on fubjeSts which he was unable to juitify, he went
to Geneva. Here his devout manners and popular preach-
ing gained him a valt multitude of adherents, but by others
every means was taken to drive him from the town, .and in
1666, thefe peop'a accomplifhed their purpofe, by procur-
ing an invitation to be fent to him from the Wa!loon church
at Middleburgh, the capital of Zealand, which he readily
accepted. He made many converts in this place, among
whom was the celebrated Anna Maria Schurman, of Utrecht,
whofe great learning rendered her fo famous in the republic
of letters during the feventeenth century. Labadie fent
difciples to propagate his doétrines, and to gather con-
tributions in different parts of Holland, on which account
he was obliged to withdraw to Erfurt, the capital of Vhu-
ringia, and from thence to Altona, where he died at the
age of fixty-four, in the year 1674. Aster his death, the
community fettled at Wievert, in North Holland, where it

P 2 found

LAB

found a peaceful retreat, and foon fell into oblivion, La-
badie was author of many works which are full of mytti-
cifm: but they carry evident marks of a lively and glow-
ing imagination. Bayle. Motheim.

LABADISTS, or Laspanists, in Ezcle/iaftical Hifory,
a fet of relivionifts, followers of the opinion of Jean de
Labadie, who lived in the 17th century, and was contempo-
rary with Mademoifelle Bourignon.

Some of his tenets were, that, 1. God could and did
deceive men. 2. That in reading the feriptures, greater
attention fhould be given to the internal infpiration of the
Holy Spirit, than to the words of the text ; that the ferip-
ture was not fufficient to lead men to falvation, without
certain illurninations and revelations from the Holy Ghott ;
and that the efficacy of the word depended upon him that
preached it. 3. That baptifm ought to be deferred till
mature age. 4. That the good and the wicked entered
equally into the old alliance, providing they defcended from
Abraham, but that the new admitted only fpiritual men.
5. That the obfervation of Sunday was a matter of indif-
ference. 6. That Chrift would come and reign a thoufand
years on earth. 7. That the eucharifl was only a comme-
moration of the death of Chrift; and that though the fym-
bols were nothing in themfelves, yet that Chrilt was {pi-
ritually received by thofe who partook of them in a due
manner, 8. That a contemplative life was a flate of grace,
and of diyine union during this life, the fummit cf perfection,
&c. g. That the man whofe heart was perfectly content
and calm, half enjoys God, has familiar entertainments with
him, and fees all things in him. 10. ‘That this eftate was to
be come at by an entire felf-abnegation, ty the mortification
of the fenfes and their objets, and by the exercife of men-
tal prayer. He alfo maintained, that the faithful ought to
have all things in common, and that there is no fubordination
or diftin@tion of rank in the church of Chrilt. It is faid
that the Brownifts, and afterwards the Quakers, offered to
connect themfelves with this fectary, but were rejected.
See Journ; des Scavans for Odtober, 1727, where we have
fome account of Labadie and his followers, which were
mottly women; and with fome of whom, it has been faid,
he took criminal liberties.

LABAREES, in Geography, a town'of Spain, in the
provice of Afturia; 12 miles W. of Santillana, °

LABARIFERI, among the Romaus, ftandard bearers,
who carried the labarum.

LABARIUM, a loofenefs of the teeth.

LABAROUM, in Antiquity, the banner or ftandard borne
before the Roman emperors in the wars.

The labarum confitted of along lance, or pike, witha
ftaff at the top, crofling it at right angles; from which
hung a rich ftreamer, of a purple colour, adorned with pre-
cious ftones, and curioufly inwrought with the images of the
reigning monarch and his children. {

Till the time of Conftantine, this ftandard had an eagle
painted upon it; but that emperor introduced in lien of it
acrefs. Accordingly, the fummit of the pike fupported a
crown of gold,.which inclofed the myf{terious monogram,
at once expreffive of the figure of the crofs, and the initial
letters wf the name of Chrift, as reprefented under the
article Cross. The fafety of the labarum was entrufted
to 50 guards, of approved valour and fidelity ; their fta-
tion was marked by. honours and emoluments; and fome
fortunate accidents foon introduced an opinion, that as long
as the guards of the labarum were engaged in the execution
of their office, they were fecure and invulnerable, amidit the
darts ol the enemy. ‘This ftandard the Romans took from

LAB

the Germans, Dace, Sarmate, Pannonians, &c, whom they
had overcome. \

The name labarum was not known before the time of
Conftantine ; but the ftandard itfelf, in the form we have
deferibed it, abating the fymbols of Chriltianity, was ufed
by all the preceding emperors.

In the fecond civil war Licinius felt and dreaded the
power of this confecrated banner, the fight of which, in the
dittrefs of battle, animated the foldiers of Conftantine with
an invincible enthufiafm, and fcattered terror and difmay
through the ranks of the adverfe lepions, Eufebius (in-
Vit, Conttantin, 1, ii. c. 7, 8, .9.) introduces the Jabarum
before the Helvic expedition ; but his narrative feems to
indicate that it was never fhewn at the head of an army, till
Conttantine, above 10 years aiterwards, declared himfelf the
enemy of Licinius, and the deliverer of the church. The
Chriltian emperors, who refpected the example of Con-
{tantine, difplayed in all their military expeditions the ftand-
ard of the crofs; but when the degenerate fucceflors of
Theodofius had ceafed to appear in perfon at the head of
the armies, the labarum was depofited as a venerable, but
ufelefs, relic in the palace of Conftantinople. Its honours
are {till preferved on the medals of the Flavian family.
Their grateful devotion has placed the monogram of Chrift
in the midft of the enfizns of Rome. The folemn epithets
of, fafety of the republic, glory of the army,’ reftoration
of public happinefs, are equally applied to the religious and
military trophies; and there is {till extant a medal of the
emperor Conttantius, where the ftandard of the labarum is
accompanied with thefe memorable words, ‘‘ By THIS sIGN
THOU SHALT CONQUER.”’

The derivation. and meaning of the word /abarum, or la-
borum, which is employed by Gregory Nazianzen, Am-
brofe, Prudentius, &c. itill remain totally unknown; in
{pite of the efforts of the critics, who have ineffectually
tortured the Latin, Greek, Spanith, Celtic, Teutonic,
Illyric, Armenia, &c. in fearch of an etymo'ogy.

Some derive the word from /ador, as if this finifhed their
labours ; fome from evreSux, reverence, piety ; others from
‘AxuGavens to take; and others from AzQupx, /poils The la-
barum has afforded very ample matter for criticifm, and has
been difcourfed of by Fuller, Alciatus, Cujas, Gyraldus,
Lipfius, Meurfius, Voflius, Hoffman, Valois, Du-Cange,
&c.

LABAT, Jonx Baptist, in Biography, was born at
Paris in 1663: at the age of twenty he entered into the
Doininican order, and made his protefiion in 1685. Having
completed his {tudies he became profeffor of philofophy at
Nantz, after which he was, in 1693, fent by his fuperiors
to America as a miffionary. He returned to Europe in
1705, and being landed at Cadiz, he travelled through
Spain and Italy, where he refided fome years. During this
period he employed himfelf in drawing up a narrative of his
obfervations, which he publifhed at Paris, in 1722, with the
title “ Nouveau Voyage aux Ifles de l Amerique, &c.”
in fix volumes, A fecond edition was given to the world
in eight volumes, in the year 1741. He was author like-
wife of « Travels in Spain and Italy,’’ in eight volumes: .
and he edited the following, viz. “* New Relation of Wefl-
ern Africa,” 5 vols. : * Voyages of the Chevalier Merchais
to Guinea :”’ ‘* Hiftorical Relation of Weftern /fithiopia :’”
and * Memoirs of Chevalier d’Arvieux,’”? in 6 vols. La-
bat died at Paris in 1738. Moreri.

LABATA, in Geography, atown of Spain, in Aragon ;
to miles E. of Huefea.

LABATIA, in Botany, named by profeffor Swartz, in
memory of John Baptult Labat, a Dominican monk, who,

between

LAB

between the years 1700 and i413, invefligated the plants of

Africa and the Welt Indies, of which he drew up numerous
deferiptions, colleing every thing’ memorable refpecting
their economical ufes, and their modes of cultivation and
preparation. Haller fpeaks of him as a fhrewd man of
butinefs, rather than an able naturalift.—Swartz. Prodr. 32.
Fl. Ind. Oce. v. 1. 263. Schreb. 790. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.
623. (Chetocarpus ; Schreb. 75. Pouteria; Aub!, Guian.
v. 1. 85. Juff. 156. Lamarck [lluftr. t..72.)—Clafs and
order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Bisornss, Linn.
Guaiacane, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, permanent, of four
leaves ; the two oppolite ones erect ; two fmaller ovate, ob-
tufe, concave, internal. Cor. of one petal; tube fome-
what bell-fhaped, fhorter than the calyx ; limb in four mi-
nute, erect, bluntifh, equal fegments, with two oppofite,
{maller, intermediate, lanceolate ones. Stam. Filaments four,
the length of the corolla, ereét, awl-fhaped, clofe to the
piftil; anthers erect, pointed. Pi. Germen fuperior,
roundifh, minute; ftyle awl-fhaped, equal to the ftamens ;
ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Capfule large, roundifh,
rough, of four celis and four valves. Seeds folitary, oblong,
compreffed.

Eff. Ch. Calyx inferior, of four leaves. Corolla fome-
what bell-fhaped, four-cleft, with two {maller intermediate
fegments. Capfule of four cells. Seeds folitary.

1. L. fffilifora. Sw. Fl. Ind. Occ. t. 6.—Flowers feffile.
Leaves tilky.—Tound by Swartz in bufhy parts of the
mountains of Hifpaniola. ‘ The fem is fhrubby, fix feet or
more in height, ereét, {mooth, with a greyifh rufty bark ;
the branches alternate, itraight, bearing upright, round,
rufty fimaller branches. eaves alternate, ftalked, oblong-
lanceolate, pointed, entire, wavy, rigid, two or three inches
long, elegantly ribbed and veined beneath; the young ones
fhining and filky, with a golden rufty hue; the older more
filvery. Footfalks fhort. round, ruity. Flowers axillary,
feffile, moftly folitary, whitith, very fmall. Fruit the fize
‘of a nutmeg, roundifh, rough and rufty, the internal parti-
tions yellow. Sometimes there are but two cells and as
many feeds, the fruits of this natural order being liable to
vary greatly in the number of their divifions. The flowers
appear in May and June; the fruit ripens in December and
January. :

2. L. pedunculata. With. n. 2. (Pouteria guiannenfis ;
Aubl. Guian. t. 33.)—Flowers ftalked. Leaves f{mooth —
Native of woods in Guiana, where it is called by the
Indians Pourowma-Pouteri. Aublet found it bearing both
flowers and fruit in November. The ¢run/, according. to
this writer, is 40 feet high, and a yard in diameter, with a
rough reddifh bark, and hard, clofe-grained, white wood ;
the branches long and fubdivided, leafy at their extremities.
Leaves obovate, pointed, entire, fmooth, three or four
inches long, on foot-ftalks nearly halfthat length. Fusqwers
fmall, greenifh, on fhort fimple axillary ftalks, two or three
together. Fruit oval, hard, rough with rigid fhort hairs,
red internally, as is likewife the fkin of the feeds.

LA BATIE NEUVE, in Geography, a town of France,
in the department of the Higher Alps, and chief place of
a canton, in the diftriG of Gap. The town contains 200,
and the canton 3130 inhabitants, on a territory of 125 kilio-
metres, in cight communes. :

LAPBE, Puicip, in Biography, was born at Bovrges
in the year 1607, and at the age of fixteen he entered the
fociety of the Jefuits, and became diftinguifhed as a teacher
of the languages, of rhetoric, and philofophy, in the college
of his native place. He was afterwards profeffor of moral

theology at Paris, where he refided till his death, which

LAB

happened in 1667. He was reckoned.a man of profound
learning, and indefatigable induftry. He was author of
many works, of which feveral relate to the hiltory cf bis
own order; the moit important is “* A General Colleéiion
of Councils,’ with notes, in feventeen vols. fol. His gram-
matical work for the ufe of ftudents in the lancuages, ene
titled * Eruditz Pronuntiationis Catholici Indices,’’ has
been frequently reprinted in this country.. The edition by
Edward Leedes is well known in our fchools. Its objeét
is to point out the quantity of Latin proper names of per-
fons, places, &c. Moreri.

Lasse, in Ornithology. See Larus parafiticus.

LABBOCK Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E.
coaft of the ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 6° 2'. E. long. 117?

**F ABDACISM, AzvOdaxicuo:, in Rhetoric, the too fre-
quent repetition of the letter L, as /ol et luna luce lucebant,
and alba levi ladea. ‘

LABDANUM, in the Materia Medica.
NUM.

LABDARA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf
of Venice. N. lat. 44° 14'. E. long. 15° 10).

LABEL, a long thin brafs ruler, with a fmall fight at
one end, and a centre-hole at the cther; commonly ufed
with a tangent line on the edge of a circumferentor, to take
altitudes, &c.

Laxet, in Law, is a narrow flip of paper, or parchment,
affixed to a deed or writing, in order to hold the appending
feal. Any. paper annexed by way of addition, or explica-
tion, to any will or teftament, is alfo called a label, or
codicil,

Among apothecaries Jikewife, the flip of paper round
their phials, containing diretions how to ufe the- medicine,
is called a label.

Laset, in Heraldry, a kind of addition to the arms of
the heir or firft fon, to diltinguifh him from the others. See
FILe.

Although the file or label be ufed as a diftin@ion of
houfes, it is neverthelefs properly placed by Holme, as an
ordinary, becaufe it 1s varioufly borne and charged.

The label is efteemed the moft honourable of all differs
ences ; and is formed by a fillet ufually placed in the middle,
and along the chief of the coat, without touching its extre-
mities. Its breadth ought to be a ninth part of the chief.

It is adorned with pendants fomewhat like the drops un-
der the triglyphs in the Doric frieze. When there are above
three pendants, the number muit be fpecified in blazoning..
There are fometimes fix.

The label, varioufly charged, is the difference generally
affixed on the coats of arms belonging to any of the royal:
family ; when his majelty fhall think fit co command that.
arms be granted them. y 5

LABELLA Leporina, in Surgery. See HAReE-Lip.

LABELLED Line, in Heraldry, a term ufed by fome
to exprefs the line in certain old arms, called more ufually
urdée or champagne. Others apply the fame word to ex-
prefs the patce or dove-tail line, called alfo the inclave line by
Morgan. It fomewhat refembles the joint called a dovetail:
by our joiners, and its points, as they proceed from the
ordinary, whether chief or fefs, refemble the ends of labels...
See Urp£r and Pater

LABEQO, C. Anristivs, in Biography, an. eminent
Roman lawyer, the fon of one of the perfons who confpired.
againtt the life of Julins Cefar, was a difciple of Trebatius,.
and lived under Auguftus. He became a very learned man,
preferved a free and independent fpirit under the rule of a.
Gefpot, and thewed on various occafions that he had not for~

gotten,

See Lapa-

LAB

rotten, nor was carelefs of the liberties of his country.
Fis great rival in jurifprudence was Atcius Capito, and
Tacitus, {peaking of thefe two rivals, calls them ‘ the two
ornaments of peace in their dge:”? he however celebrates the
incorrupt freedom of the latter, which was the caufe of his
rifing no higher than the preetorfhip ; while the obfequiouf-
nefs of the former was rewarded with a confulate. Labeo
‘divided his time between bufinefs and ftudy, {pending tix
months at Rome, in giving advice and attending to public
duties, and living the other fix in a country retreat. He
wrote a number of books chiefly relating to jurifprudence.
Aulus Gellius refers frequently to the commentaries of
Labeo, on the twelve tables. Suetonius, Lempriere.

Lazeo, in Jchthyoley, a name given by the old Latin
writers to the fifh ufually called cheilon and chelon. . See
‘Cyprinus Labeo.

LABER, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the prin-
cipality of Newburg; nine miles W.N.W. of Ratifbon.

LABERIUS, Decrimus, in Biography, a writer of dra-
matic pieces, fimilar in fome refpects to our pantomimes, was
a knight by birth. He was fixty years of age when Julius
Cefar, in the plenitude of his power, urged him, by the pro-
mife of a liberal reward, to appear on the {tage, in one of
his own pieces. ‘The poet confented with great relu€tance,
and fhewed his refentment during the ating of the piece, by
throwing fevere afperfions upon Julius Cxfar, and by broadly
hinting at the tyranny and defpotifm of which he was guilty.
In pronouncing the following line, he fixed the eyes of the
whole afflembly upon the ufurper :

«* Necefle eft multos timeat quem multi timent.”’
«* Many he dreads in turn, whom many dread.”

Cefar reftored lim to the rank of knight, which he had
Joft by appearing on the ftage, but he could not fo eafily
yeltore him to the good opinion of his friends. When he
went to take his feat among the knights, no one offered to
make him room, even his friend Cicero farcaftically faid
* Recipiflem te nifi angufté federem ;” J would make you
room if I were not fo much crowded: to which Laberius re-
plied, « Mirum fi anguilé fedes, qui foles duabus fellis
federe,”? I wonder you /hould be crowded, who ufually fit upon
éwo feats at once ; alluding to the orator’s meannefs and du-
plicity, during the civil wars between Czfar and Pompey.
Laberius died in the year 44, B.C. Some fragments of his
poetry remain, and are given in Mattaire’s Corpus Poeta-
rum: the titles of his feveral pieces are preferved in Aulus
Gellius. Horace alludes, but without any refpeét to the
snimes of Vaberius, this was, probably, rather in contempt of
the fpecies poetry, than the author.

LABES, in Geography, a town of Hinder Pomerania; 30
miles S. of Colberg. N. lat. 53° 39'. E. long. 15° 30).

LABEZ, a province, fometimes called a kingdom, of
Algiers, S. of Boujeah.

LABIA, or Lies, in Anatomy. See Drcruririon.

LABIAL, a term in the Trench law, ufed in the fame
fenfe with oral.

Lawtan Letters, among Grammarians, are thofe whofe
pronunciation 13 chiefly effeGed by the motion of the lips.
By which they ftand contradi{tinguifhed from palatal, dental,
guttural, &c. letters:

Lastan Ofers are fuch as are only made by word of
mouth, or even by writing, where there is no valuable con-
fideration. In courts of equity thefe are not regarded,

LABIALIS, in Anatomy, an epithet given to certain
parts belonging to the lips, as the arteries, veins, glands,
&c.

LABIAT, in Botany; a natural order of plants, fo

LAB

called, after Tournefort, from /abium, a lip, in allufion to
the fhape of the corolla, which refembles the mouth and lips
of an animal. This order, the 39th of Juffieu’s-fyftem, and
the fixth of his eighth clafs, is equivalent to Linnzus’s 42d
natural order, Verticillate ; or to the Didynamia Gymnofpermia
of his artificial fyftem ; except that the latter neceflarily ex-
cludes fuch genera of /abiate as have but two ftamens, and
which are therefore referred to his fecond clafs, Diandria.

The characters of Juffieu's eightlf clafs are— Cotyledons
two. Corolla of one petal, inferior.” (See GENTIANZ.)
‘He defines the order in queftion thus.

Calyx tubular, either equally five-cleft, or two-lipped.
Corolla tubular, irregular, generally two-lipped. Stamens
four, two longer and two fhorter, fituated under the upper
lip of the corolla; in fome cafes only two, the others being
abortive. Germen four-lobed ; ftyle folitary, fpringing out
of the receptacle, between the lobes of the germen; ftigma
cloven. Seeds four, naked, ereét, affixed to the receptacle
by their bafe, and concealed in the permanent calyx. Embryo
deftitute of albumen. Stem quadrangular, oppofitely branched,
for the moft part herbaceous, but fometimes fhrubby.
Leaves oppotite. Flowers oppofite, often bratteated, or
attended by briltles, folitary or whorled, corymbofe or
fpiked, terminal or axillary,

The feGiions are four.

1. Stamens gwo fertile, two abortive. This contains
Lycopus, Amethyflea, Cunila, Ziziphora, Monarda, Rofma-
rinus, Salvia and Collinjonia, to which are added by Mr.
Brown (Prodr. v. 1. 503.) Weflringia, Smith’s ‘lraéts, 277.
t. 3, Microcorys, Hemigenia and Hemiandra of Brown; fee
the two latter articles in their places.

2. Stamens four, all fertile. Upper lip of the corolla
wanting, or nearly fo.—Ajuga of Linneus, (which Juffieu
choofes to call Bugula after Yournefort), and Teucrium, with
Anifameles anew genus of Mr, Brown’s,

3. Stamens four, all fertile. Corolla with two lips.
Calyx five-cleft.—Saturcia, U7 yjopus, Nepeta, Perilla, Hyptis,
Lavandula, Sideritis, Meatha, Glechoma, Lamium, Galeopfis,
Betonica, Stachys, Ballota, Marrubium, Leonurus, Phlomis
and Moluccella, to which are to be added Fi/bolizia (fee
that article), and Zeucas of Burmann and Brown.

4, Stamens four, all fertile. Corolla with two lips.
Calyx two-lipped.—Clinopodium, Origanum, Thymus, Thym-
bra, Meliffa, Dracocephalum, Horminum (now reduced to
Meliffa), Melittis, Ple&ranthus (which is Germanca of La-
marck and Juflieu), Ocymum, Trichoflema, Prunella, Scuiel-
laria, Prafium and Phryma, with Chilodia and Cryphia of
Brown, and BES cra of La Billardiere. ;

The plants of this natural order are, for the moft part,
agreeably aromatic, or bitter, none of them poifonous.
The root is generally perennial. Flowers of various coleurs,
feldom fragrant in themfelves, except as they partake of the
aromatic quality of the herbage. The ftamens and ftigma
are, as Linnzus obferves, fo well fheltered, in moft inftances,
from the rain, while the air has free accefs at the fides, that
impregnation rarely fails. JZentha, however, forms an excep-
tion, the itamens being prominent, and the corolla open ;.
and as its {eeds are {carcelv ever prolific, no plant has a more
ample increafe by the roots.

LABIAU, in Geography, a town of Prevffia, in the pro-~
vince of Samland, with an ancient caftle, on the Deim; 20
miles E..N.E. of Konighberg. N, lat. 547 10’. E. long. 21°
TS.

LABIEZ, a town of ‘the duchy of Warfaw; 32 miles
N. of Gnefna, ,

LABIN, in Natural Hifery, a term ufed by the
authors who have written of Switzerland, and other moun-

tainous

LAB

sprees countries, to expre{s thofe vaft mafles of fnow, which
metimes fall from the hills and bury houfes, or even whole
towns; and when hardened by the frolts, as is often the
cafe, into folid fubftances, they overthrow woods, villages,
and whatever itands in the way of their courfe, as they roll
down the fteep fides of the precipices in their way. Some
authors have alfo extended the word to a larger fenfe, and
made it exprefs the falling of yaft rocks, or parts cf moun-
tains, and their rolling down in the fame manner into the flat
country: this isa mhiet very frequent in the fame places,
after froits, and often very fatal. See GLaciers.

LABIUM, in Anatomy, a term given to various parts in
the body, which, from their prominent figure, admit of being
compared to the lips. Thus the labia pudendi are the two
folds of fin which bound the external female organs of gene-
ration laterally. (See Generavion.) The edges of the
crilta of the os innominatum are called its labia.

Lasiom Leporinum, in Surgery. See Hare-iir.

LABO, in Geography, a town on the W. coatt of the
ifland of Sumatra, which chiefly trades in pepper. N. lat.

° 20'.

LABOMAS, a town of the ifland of Cuba ; feven miles
$.E. of Spiritu Santo.

LABON, a town on the W. coaft of Sumatra, cele-
brated tor gold duft and camphire; but the inhabitants are
referyed in their traffic with ftrangers: 150 miles S.S.E. of
Acheen. N. lat. 3° 10’. E.dong. 96° 40’.

LABOON, a diitrict of Sumatra, on the banks’ of the
river Gattown, bounding the country of the Rejangs on the
N. or inland fide. — Alo, a town on the E. coatt of the ifland
ef Borneo, feated on a peninfula that projects into the fea.
N lat. 5° 9. E. long. 119° 5'.

LABOR, a town of New Navarre; 280 miles S.E. of
Capp Grande.

‘LABORATORY is a place furnifhed with chemical
apparatus, and entirely devoted te the different operations
of chemiftry, whether on the fcale of chemical manufacure,
or for the purpofe of experimental refearch, In the prefent
article, however, we fhall confine ourfelves to the latter,
fince it is more proper to defcribe the apparatus ufed in the
large way under the manufaGture of the refpeCtive articles.
Although many of the moft diftinguifhed labourers in che-
mical {cience have been content with fuch apparatus as they
have made themfelves, or converted from the common do-
mettic utenfils; it muift, neverthelefs, be obvious, that they
would have fucceeded better with well contrived and appro-
priate apparatus, and their refearches wouldy in all proba-
bility, have been much more extended.

Every chemical experimenter will find a confiderable ad-
vantage in fo much mechanical talent, as will enable him to
make, or repair at leaft, the moft common of his apparatus.
For this purpofe he fhould poffefs a fet of mechanical tools,
fuch as a lathe and vice, with files and rafps for metal and
wood. The tools for making {erews, as well in the lathe as
by the ferew-plate and tags, will alfo be neceffary. To
thefe fhould be added a {mall forge, anvil, and hammer, for
the purpofe of forging {mall articles. A fet of brazier’s
and tinman’s tools will be found very ufeful, and a little
experience will enable the operator to make any article of
tin or copper, which is not very complicated. In addition
to the above, the glafs-blower’s lamp and bellows will be of
effential fervice for fealing and bending glafs tubes, and other
purpotes.

Some of thefe may appear unneceflary, efpecially in large
towns, where the different artifts may be found, but it will be
ftrongly in the recolle€tion of all who have had occafion to get
apparatus made, that they can feldom get them conftructed to

~ perpendicularly, and of the loweft poffible temperature.

LAB

their wifh, although they fland by the artit. The want of
proper tools, and a little mechanical dexterity, have fre-
quently prevented or put an end to experimental invelliga-
tions of confiderable importance. Independent of the apart-
ment containing the mechanical apparatus, the chemift will
require at leait one dillinét room for a laboratory. Two
rooms, however, fhould be employed when it is convenient.
The principal room of the laboratory fhould be on a ground
floor, for feveral reafons. A furnace for great heat fhould
be ina low room, in order to have the greateft length of
chimney. The afh-pit of this furnace fhould terminate in a
cellar under the laboratory, in order that the air may enter
See
Furnace.

That fide of the laboratory allotted for furnaces fhould
have an arch projecting into the room about three or four
feet, and of fuch height thata perfon may freely walk under
it. In the kigheft part of this arched portien mutt be am
opening into a chimney diftin& from the reft, and built up
in the fame ftack.

It will be found more convenient to ufe portable furnaces
for moft purpofes, having none fixed but for producing very

great heats, upon a larger fcale, and what are generally de-

nominated melting furnaces.

The iron chimney of the portable air-furnace may be car-
ried to any height, and placed under or within the chimney,
ufed for the efcape of {moke and vapeurs.

A chimney witha funnel may, in the fame way, be placed
ever the mouth. of the portable blaft furnace, invented by
Mr. Aikin. This furnace may be fo contrived that when
the body of it is removed, the bafe may form a forge hearth,,
which will be found very ufeful. For the varieties of fur-
naces ufed in the laboratory, fee FurNace..

On another fide of the laboratory mutt be placed a ftone:
trough or fink, joined to a tub or cilterm-of water, wliich can
be hiled and emptied at pleafure, by means of a ftop-cock
over it, and a plug in the bottom, Over the fink-flone
fhould be fufpended a rack for holding bottles and glafles
to drain after wafhing. On the fame fide may be placed a.
large block of wood or ftone, for the purpofe of holding a,
mortar or anvil occafionally.

A third fide of this room mufl be occupied by cupboards
and fhelves, for holding the different apparatus of glafs and:
earthen ware, and for the d#ferent fub{tances hereafter to be.
mentioned.

The fourth fide, which fhould be the lighteft, muft be
provided with a table the whole length of this fide, in the
front of which, down to the fleor, fhould be a number of °
drawers for holding all the dry fubftances. This table is
for making the experiments upon, and for holding the appa--
ratus in ufe at any time.

If poffible, every labcratory fhould be joined to a fecond
room, however {mallit may be, in which to perform the very
nice and delicate experiments, and for keeping a few books,
and choice initruments of metal, fuch as balances, &c..
This room fhouid be kept very clean and dry, and as free as
poffible from fteam and the fumes of acids.

f any part of the furniture require to be painted, thé
paint fhould be made with fulphat of lead, fince it isnot a@ed.
upon by acids. This fubftance has been ufed by Dr. Henry
not only for this purpofe but for repairing broken glafs and
labelling bottles. The following are the moit particular ap-.
paratus with which a laboratory fhould be furnifhed.

Mortars.—Thefe are of various kinds, caft-iron,. bronze, ,
fteel, and Wedgewood ware. The caft-iron mortar is gene-.
rally ufed for vegetable fubitances, and fuch as are not lable
to grind off the irog.. The. hardnefs. of this. inflrument is:

i much,

LABORATORY.

much increafed by cafting the interior furface upon a metal
mould, of the greater weight the better.

The hardnefs of the bronze mortar, which is generally
ufed for the fame purpofes, may be increafed by the fame
means.

The fteel mortar is ufed for reducing very hard minerals
into {mall bits, fitted for grinding in the mortar of agate.
It confiits of a cylinder of hardened tteel, with a flat bottom,
and a peltle of the fame made to fic the mortar, accurately,
from top to bottom. It is ufed by putting the pieces of the
mineral into it, and ftriking the peftle with a hammer. By
this means it can be reduced into tolerably fmall particles,
without grinding off any portion of the mortar.

Hardened fteel mortars of the common fhape would be of
great ufe, but it would be difficult to harden fo large a mafs
without cracking. It might perhaps be made by welding
a plate of cait fteel upon a thick piece of iron, and afterwards
working it into the required fhape, and polifhing it in the in-
fide. If the fubftance is not very particular, it may be
ground in a mortar of Wedgewood ware. If, on the con-
trary, it be very hard, the matter from the mortar will be
liable to be mixed with the powder. In this cafe the agate
mortar is much to be preferred ; fome {tones are, however, fo
hard as to aét upon the agate. In this inftance, the matter
to be ground fhould be weighed before and after grinding,
and the increafe of weight may be fafely deemed filex, and
allowed for in the analyfis accordingly.

Balance.—This inttrument is of great importance to the
analytical chemift, and ought to weigh r1co grains to the
+ thofa grain. A very matterly account of the principles
and conitruGtion of the balance will be found under the ar-
ticle BALANCE.

It will be almoft unneceffary to obferve, that fo delicate an
inftrument fhould be, kept ina feparate apartment from the
laboratory where fumes of acids do not prevail. It fhould
be clofely fhut up in a glafs cafe having a fliding door in
the front. The ftrings to which the fcales are fufpended,
fhould be of fine gold or filver cord, and the {cales of filver
or platina, and very thin. One of the {cales fhould be pro-
vided with a loofe pan of very thin platina, and balanced
with the other, for the purpofe of holding the fubftance to
be weighed. ‘The weights for chemical fubftances fhould be
reckoned in, and marked with grains and decimals of
grains.

Lamp.—This valuable inftrument is a very great improve-
ment upon the fand-bath. its heat is regular, and may, by
means of the concentric wick, be made of fufficient intenfity
for moft purpofes. Its greatelt advantage, however, confifts
in the facility with which it can be applied or withdrawn with-
out lofs of time. See LAmp. F

For nice and delicate purpofes, where the heat of the lamp
is required, alcohol, inftead of oil, gives an intenfe and fteady
heat, and is not very expenfive when a proper veffel is ufed
for burning it. The lattér kind of lamp is particularly
adapted for a public leGure.

Fig. 1. Plate XVI. Chemifiry, is a ftand fupporting the
lamp, and at the fame time the fubitance to be heated, and the
connecting apparatus A B is aframe of wood. Fa pillar of
wood or iron, fmooth and cylindrical throughout, fo as to
admit of the fliding rings, fuch as g, to move freely without
fhaking. Cis the Argand lamp, having a chimney at 0 of iron.
This chimney confilts of two concentric tubes, connected
together by {mall wedges of baked clay, or fome other
incombuttible fubitance which is a bad conductor of heat.
This contrivance not only economizes the heat, but keeps
the outer tube fo cool, that it may be taken hold of with
the fingers. In this lamp the wick is raifed by the fcrew,

inftead of the rack, which is
chimney round.

The funnel-fhaped ring D is an improvement upon the com-
mon ring ufed for fupporting the retort. It confifts of a
number of conical hoops, one fitting upon the other, fo as
to hold different fized retorts. The fmalleft hoop is about
two inches in diameter, and the largeft, which is attached to
the fliding part, about five inches. The conical furface
directs the heat to the retort, which on the common plan
only ferves to annoy the fingers and face of the operator,
and at the fame time heats ‘the neck of the retort, where
the condenfation of the vapour fhould take place: f is a re-
tort fupported by the ring : gisa flider, having two prongs at
pto keep the retort from falling fideways: E is a receiver
to receive the contents of the retort, which may be either
ufed alone, or with Woulfe’s bottles a, b, c, hereafter to,
be deferibed. G is a ftand, with three inclined prongs of
wocd to fupport receivers of different fizes, and which
may be placed at different elevations by means of the
f{erew n.

Retort.—Fig. 2, This isa chemical utenfil of very arcient
origin, and is the moft fimple apparatus for diitillation.

etorts are of glafs, earthen-ware, and metal. Thofe of
glafs are fometimes of green glafs, particularly when fuch
heat is employed in the naked fire, as might foften the more
fufible white glafs. Thofe of flint-glafs fhould be as thin as
poffible, in order to avoid bred&ing by an unequal expanfon.
When the retort is provided with a glafs topper, as at a, it
is faid to be tubulated. '

This appendage is neceflary only, when fome fluid, fuch as
anacid, has frequently to be added, or when it would be

- difficult to get the materials into the mouth of the retort.

Tn order to add any fluid from time to time while the procefs
is going on, the vetlel (fig. 3.) called an acid holder is made
to fit in the place of the {topper of the retort, the part d be-
ing ground to fitthe fame. The acid is put into this veflel,
and let into the retort, bya little at once, through the glafs
ftop-cock c.

When the retort is ufed for purpofes of diftillation, the
neck is fitted or luted into the neck of the receiver (fig. 4.)
This receiver is ufed for the diftillation of liquids, the va-
pours of which are ealily condenfible, fuch as water or al-
cohol. When the vapours, coming over, are accompanied
with elaftic fluids, which are incondenfible, the receiver
(fig. 5.) is better adapted. If the elaftic fluid be of no
importance, and inoffenfive, it may efcape at the conical
ftopper of the latter veflel every time the preffure is fufficient
toraifeit. 1t is, however, fometimes neceflary to colle& the
gafeous fluid. In this cafe the bended tube (fg. 6.) is put
into the place of the {topper (fig. 5.), the other end terminat-
ing ina pneumatic apparatus where the gasis collefted. In
the diftillation of very volatile liquids, fuch as ether, it is
fometimes neceffary to remove the receiver to a diltance from
the retort, by placing between them an intermediate veffel,
(fig. 7.) called an adopter. The receiver (fig. 8.) is em-
ployed for colle&ting the product of different degrees of
ftrength by the application of the bottle 4.

In the dittillationof fubitances, which require a greater
heat than glafs will bear, earthen retorts are employed.’
They are of the fame fhape with thofe already defcribed,
and fhould be made of the materials with which crucibles are
made. This fort of retort is generally ufed for the diftillation’
of phofphorus. If its texture be not clofe, the phofphorus
will efcape in vapours through the pores. This, however,
may be prevented by covering the furface with fome’
glazing material. Iron retorts, from their great firmnefs, are
well adapted for diftiling fuch fubftances as will have no*

8 chemical

performed by turning the

LABORATORY.

chemical a&tion upon them. Hence they are unfit for dif-
tilling {ulphur, phofphorus, and acids, but are extremely
yoper for ammenia, mercury, and pitcoal. A retort of
ad is ufed for the diftillation of fluoric acid, owing to
that acid combining with the filex of glafs.

Woulfe’s Apparatus. —In the diftillation of fubftances
which are merely to be raifed into vapour by heat and con-
denfed by cold, the retort, or ftill, with the receiver and
the proper means of producing cold, are the only apparatus
meceflary. There is another diltinct branch of dittillation,
in which the produc& is a gas, which is incondenfible at
the common temperature, and requires to be abforbed by

water, or by fome other fubftance diffolved in that liquid..

In thefe proceffes, therefore, the temperature and fize of
the receiving veflels are not of fo much importance as
the expofure of the gafeous produét to the greatett poflible
quantity of the abforbing liquid. Before the difcovery of
this moft ufeful apparatus by Mr. Woulfe, from whom it
takes its name, the common retort and receiver were ufed for
all purpofes. The elaftic fluids were in confequence either
compreffed, and the operator was con{tantly in danger of
being injured by the buriting of veffels, or, to remedy that
evi), they were {uffered to efcape, and he was perpetually
annoyed by the fuffocating fumes which were fet at liberty.

In fig. 1. the retort contains the materials for furnifh-
ing the elaftic fluid to be abforbed by fome liquid con-
tained in the receiver E, and the fucceeding bottles a,
4, c, with their connecting tubes r, 4, ¢: v conftitutes
the Woulfe’s apparatus. A certain portion of the gas
is taken up by the liquid in the receiver E. The excefs
pafles through the tube r to the bottom of the liquid
into the fecond receiver, by which another portion of
the gas is abforbed. ‘The refidual gas paffes along the tube
/ tothe third receiver, which gives the gas a third chance
of abforption. In this way it may be made to pafs
through any number of bottles, according to the greater or
leffer facility with which the gas isabforbed. The lait tube
v, which is provided with acolumn of mercury, conveys the
remaining gas, which is prefumed to be unabforbable, into the
atmofphere, orit may be collected by a jar in the pneumatic
apparatus. When the gas ceafes to be furnifhed from the re-
tort, ina quantity equal to the abforption in the receivinz vef-
fels, a retrograde motion will begin to take place. Atmo-
{pheric air will enter at thetube v. The liquid in the lait re-
ceiver will be forced by its preffure into the preceding one, and
if the abforption were to become complete, the whole of the
liquid would be carried into the firft receiver, and from thence
to the retort. This evil has been very completely removed
by what is called a tube of fafety /, J, «.

Fig. 1.—The bulb / contains as much mercury as will be
contained from g tow, fo that when the gas, from defective
abforption, accumulates in E, till its force is equal to the
preflure of fuch a column, the excefs of gas will bubble
through the mercury into theatmofphere. Onthe contrary,
when the abforption of the gas exceeds its evolution, the
preflure of the atmofphere, to reftore the equilibrium, will
caule the mercury to occupy the ball /,and common air will
bubble through it into the veflel E. Although this ingenious
contrivance completely prevents any evil arifing from the
inequality of internal preffure, it is very objectionable, owing
to its delicate {tru€ture, on which account it is con{tantly
liable to be broken,

Weare indebted to Mr. Knight for a great improvement
‘on the tube of fafety. This confiits in having a valve of
glafs, fimilar to that of the Nooth's apparatus (deferibed be-
Jow), placed between the firft and fecond veflel, fo that the
liquid in the fucceeding bottle can never have a retrograde
motion. To this valve there is no other objeCtion than the

Vou. XX.

difficulty of getting it made in places diftant from the metro-
polis, and its liability to be faft, efpecially in making cryf-
talline falts, fuch as the oxymuriat or carbonat of potahh.

The fame objection which we have made to the tube of
fafety, we are forry to fay applies to the whole of the
Woulfe’s apparatus. ‘The conneéting tubes are with very great
difficulty ground into bottles, which makes the apparatus
very expenfive, and then are fo liable to be broken, as to
render it frequently ufelefs.

We have before hinted, that the effential part of fuch an ap-
paratus, is to expofe the greatett poffible quantity of the gas
and the liquid to each other in a given time. In the Woulfe’s
bottles, this advantage does not obtain in fo great a degre=
as might be effected ina fimpler apparatus. We fhall here
fubjoin a defcription of an apparatus of this kind, anfwer-
ing all the purpofes to which the Nooth’s and Woulfe’s ap-
paratus are feparately applied. Although it has not beea
before made known, it has been ufed with great fuccefs
by the writer of this article, and will no doubt be found an
acquifition to the experimental as well as the manufaéturing
chemitt.

Fig. 9. Plate XVII. Chemiflry, is a reprefentation of
the apparatus for the abforption of gafes. A is a re-
tort from whence the gas is furnifhed, conne&ted with
the firft bottle B, which contains the liquid to be im-
pregnated, and into which the tube a is ground, reaching
near to the bottom, fo that when the gas enters this
veffel, the liquid will be raifed into the bottle C; at
the fame time the tube will be conftantly filled, with the
exception of the fpace occupied by bubbles of gas pafl-
ing through it. If the gas is not all abforbed during its
paflage through this tube, the excefs will pafs down the tube
é into the bottle'D, which aifo contains the abforbent liquid.
The fame takes place in this bottle which is obferved in that
of B. The liquid afcends into the bottle E, the gas fol-
lowing it as before. The refidual gas, fhould there be anys
may either be conveyed into another bottle fituated like D,
or may be colleéted in a pneumatic trough, or efcape through
the tube of fafety e. ;

This apparatus was invented for the purpofe of making
the oxymuriats of the earths, for which it is admirably
adapted. The earths which are mixed with the water be-
ing conftantly at the bottom, if not kept in agitation, the
abforption.is very flow and imperfe@t. In this apparatus
no agitation is neceflary. The earth, which is at the bottom
of the veffels B and D, is firft raifed into the tubes a and c,
and becomes as much expofed to the gas as any part of
the liquid medium. The tubes a and ¢ are each about two
feet long, but they do not require to be fo long for molt
experiments of this kind. Their diameter is about 2 inch,
fo that in the courfe of about one minute, no lefs than
about nine ounces are brought in contaé with the gas, in-
dependent of the circular furfaces in the bottles.

In the common fized Woulfe’s bottles, the tubes through
which the gas enters feldom dip more than three inches into
the fluid, fo that we may fafely rate the apparatus propofed
as equal to at leaft eight of Woulfe's bottles. Thefe bottles
are the fame with thofe of Woulfe’s; the tubes are much
fimpler, and being ftronger are lefs liable to break. An-
other great advantage is that of its not requiring a tube of
Jafety. The great facility with which it can be applied to
all the purpofes of the Nooth’s apparatus, as well as the
Woulfe’s, and with much more effeét, will be foon appre-
ciated. Under the article Wourre will be found the defcrip-
tion of a differently conitruéted apparatus. See Plate V.
Chemiftry.

Nooth’s Apparatus. — This is reprefented in fig. ro.
Plate XVI. it contilts of three veffels fitted together by

Q ground

LABORATORY.

ground joinings. It differs in its ufe from the Woulfe’s,
in being folely adapted for impregnating water and other
bodies, with fuch gafes as are difengaged from their com-
binations without heat, fuch as the carbonic acid, and
fulphuretted hydrogen. The lower veflel A contains the
fubfance from which the gas is obtained, fuch as car-
bonat of lime; the fulphuric acid being introduced occa-
fionally at d; the gas enters the veflel B through the
glafs valve ad. ‘This is magnified in fig. 12. The tubes 6
and dave at firft in one piece and ground into the part ae;
the portion ¢ is then cut away, to make room for the hemi-
fpherical valve, the under fide of which is ground flat,
to fit the end of the tube 4. The valve, on being raifed
by the gas,- inftantly falls and prevents the water from
defcending into the lower veflel. The air then enters the
liquid in B, fig. 10, through {mall holes to difperfe it as
much as poflible. When the gas accumulates in B, a por-
tion of the liquid is driven up into the veflel C, the bubbles
of air following it tending fill more to promote the ab-
forption. The air in C, if not abforbed, will at certain inter-
vals raife the conical itopper e. This ftopper fhovld be fo
heavy as’ juft to rife before the veflels would burft, and
fhould be fo conical as not to flick in the leaft degree. After
the liquid is impregnated it is drawn off at the cock D.
Fig. 11. isa fimpler and better apparatus for this purpofe,
invented by Dr. Hamilton. © It is fimpler, becaufe the
yeflels are fewer, and the valve, which is complicated and liable
to be fait, is difpenfed with; and it is better becaufe the
gas comes in contaét with more of the liquid in a given time,
and confequently the abforption is effected fooner. ‘The
gas is furnithed by the retort B, ground into the veffel A.
From the latter the abforbing liquid is raifed into the veflel C,
till the air bubbles go through it, and if not abforbed paffes
out at d. This apparatus wants nothing more than a tube
of greater length, for the gas to pafs through, to make it
complete.
In comparing the two laft with that of fig. 9, the latter
will be found much fuperior even to that of jig. 11.
Gafometer and Gas Holder. —The difference between thefe
two vellels, confilts merely in one having the means of mea-
furing the quantity of gas which it contains at any time,
and the other not, while both are employed as gas holders.
The gafometer was made a very expenfive and magnificent
apparatus by the celebrated Lavoifier, at the time he profe-
cuted his experiments upon elaftic fluids. This inftrument,
much: fimplified, we fha'l deferibe in fig. 13. PlateXVIL. A
is a veflel containing water or fome other liquid, which will
not be aéted upon by the gas to be held in it. B isia veflel in-
verted in the veffel A, and capable of moving up and down
in it. E and F are cords by which the veffel, B is fufpended,
the weights and pullies being concealed in the tube C D.
Fig. 14. is a feGtion to fhew the interior parts of this appa-
ratus. K Lis an interior veflel of the fame fhape, with the
velfel B foldered to the bottom of the veflel A, fo that no
water or other liquid in A can communicate with the infide
of it. This is done for the fake of ufing lefs of the liquid
employed, which in the mercurial gafometer is very de~
firable, as well for the fake of economy, as making the ap-
paratus more portable; @ is a pipe pafling through the
middle of the veffel K L, and communicates with the tubes
eandd. The air isintroduced at the fton-cock e, and pafling
along the pipes o and a, raifes the veflel B, which is counter-
poifed by the weights » and g. Thefe weights are con-
dacted down the middle of the tube C Ds by the {mall pullies:
waand yy. The tube d, which, with that of 0, is common

to the tube a, is to let the air out of the gafometer at the:

ftop cock f, fo that the air paffes through a, both in its
entry gndits exit: gy fig, 13, isa flexible tube, ferving to cons
6

ground into the calt iron.

duét the air to a pneumatic trough for examination, or for .

ufing the blowpipe when the veflel contains oxygen. This
apparatus is provided with a graduated feale G, which tells
the number of cubic inches contained in it. It is this feale

which conflitutes it a gafometer, without which it would be-

fimply a gas-holder.

The mercurial gafometer is on the fame plan with the
above, but the materials mult be unfufceptible of the action
of the mercury. The veffels are genera!ly made of cait-
iron. The outer and the fixed inner veflels may be caft in
one piece. "Che moveable veilel may be of the fame metal, or
of ¢lafs. The pipes mutt be of wrought iron, and accurately
Two gafometers with water,
and one with mercury, will be indifpenfable in experiments
in gafeous chemiitry.

A very ingenious apparatus, anfwering the common pur-
pofes of gas-holder and gafometer, and in many inftances
the pneumatic trough, has been mvented by Mr. Pepys.
It confifts of a tin veffel A, fig. 15, and a pan or tray B
connected with it by pillars. The pipe a opens into the middle
of the tray, and proceeds in a contrary dire€tion near to the
bottom of the veffel A: v is another pipe which alfo com-
municates with the tray, and jutt enters the veflel A: rs is
a glafs tube cemented firmly into two brafs fockets, which
communicate with the top and bottom of the veflel A. This
tube is graduated, and fhews how high the water ftands in
the veflel, and confequently tells the quantity of air con-
tained in it. The veflel A 1s firft filled with water by open-
ing the cocks aand y, and fhutting that of 2, C being clofed
at the fame time. The tray is now filled with water, which
defcends through the tube @ into A, while the air in the
fame efcapes at the opening into the tray, from v. When
the veflel A is full of water, the cocks a and v muft be
clofed, and the plug may be taken out of C. If the veffel
and pipes be air-tight above, no water will be difcharged
at C, fince this pipe is inferted at fuch an angle into A, that
the lowelt part of the outer end is higher than the higheft part
of the inner end. The next thing is to fill the veflel with gas,
and for this purpofe the neck of a retort, or other tube from
which the gas is to proceed, fhould be introduced at ¢ till it
paffes the inner end of the fame. The gas will rife in bubbles
into the upper part of the veffel, while the fame quantity of
water will run out at the pipe C into an open velfel placed
under it. When the water ceafes to run out, and air-bubbles
efcape at C, the tube from whence the gas was furnifhed
may be withdrawn, and the {erew-plug put in its place.

In order to transfer the gas from this veflel into a jar, the
tray muit be filled with water, and alfo the jar, which muff
then be placed over the aperture from v. On opening the
ftop-cock v, that of a being previoufly opened, the air wilk
afcend into the jar, while the fame quantity of water will
defcend into the veilel A, to fupply its place.

This apparatus may be ufed for feveral other purpofes,
A bladder may be tied to the flop-cock #, which being
opened at the fame time @ is opened, the) bladder will be
filled with the gas. A flexible tube may be ferewed on the
fame ftop-cock for making experiments with the blow-pipe:
The gafometer, fig. 13, will be found better for the blow-
pipe, on account of the equable preffare in the apparatus
lait defcribed. Y

Pneumatic Trough —This is a fimple trough or ciftern made
of tin or copper japanned, and is uled for colle&ting different
gafes. he fize is generally about 18 inches long, 12 wide,
and 12 deep. Fig. 16. Plate XV1. reprefents this trough:
A isa fliding fhelf which can be taken out. ‘It is formed of
two plates laid together; the under plate is made fo eon-
cave, that when the convex fide touches the upper plate in
the middle, they are dittant at the edges about one inch,

A zim

LABORATORY.

A rim being foldered round the two gives the fhelf the ap-
pearance of a folid, concave on the under fide and flat on the
upper fide.

Any gas coming from: the retort B, paffing under the
fhelf in any fituation, mu{t be determined to the round hole
in the middle, which is about half an inch wide. he
trough, when ufed, is filled with water about an inch above
the fhelf, the jar C being filled with the fame, and placed
over the aperture through which the bubbles afcend. The
ftand D, having a foot of lead or iron, will be found very
ufefai for fupporting a retort or other veffel in thefe expe-
rimepts. “When a number of veflels are occupying the
fhelf, and frequently fome are very tall, and of {mail dia-
meter; it will be found neceflary to fupport them to prevent
their being thrown over. This may be effected by having a
number of fupporters of different fizes, fuchas A. This is
better reprefented infig. 17. At dis a focket to fit the pins
which furround the fhelf; 2, 0, are {pringing claws to embrace
the glals.

In making experiments upon gafes, a number of velfels,
fuch as fig. 18, will be neceffary. Thefe are generally called
eudiometer tubes, fome of them are graduated into cubic
inches, for the purpofe of meafuring the volume of gas ufed,
or refulting from any experiment. See Evpromerry.

Befides the trough already defcribed, which is ufed with
water, it is neceflary to be provided with one for mercury.
Tadeed the latter is abfolutely indifpenfible when the gafes,
which are the fubje& of experiment, are abforbable by wa-
ter: fuch as the muriatic acid gas, and ammoniacal gas.

Fig. 1g. is a view of the mercurial troughs it is gene-
xally made of a folid block of fome hard wood, or of mar-
ble ; or it may be made much neater, and with lefs labour,
of pieces of wood joined together, clofely and firmly by
iron ferews. The frit cavity, a ¢4, may be about eight
inches long, four inches broad, and one inch in depth: the
fecond or lower cavity, d, fhould be about 64 inches long,
1% wide, and the fame depth: c isa fmaller cavity, about
2 of an inch wide, ri long, and one inch deep. The cavity
d is intended-to receive the glafs jar, fig. 20, for the pur-
pofe of filling it with mercury: a, , are {mall cavities ‘in
which to introduce the fingers for the purpofe of raifing the
jar when full of mercury. The cavity at ¢ is to place the
inverted jar over, for the purpofe of introducing any gas
-into it. The fide @ ¢ anfwers as a fhelf to reft the tn-
verted jars upon: fg. 21. isaring of iron, with a leg to flip
into holes on the fide of the trough, for the purpofe of fup-
porting the jars, which would otherwife be liabie to fall on
account of their fmall bafe.

Eudiometer —Formerly the ufe of this inftrument was'con-
fined to the analyfis of the atmofphere. It has now, how-
ever, become of great importance in gafeous chemiftry, and
has been confiderably improved within thefe few years.

In order to afcertain the nature of, and to-diftinguifh the
different gafes, chemilts have generally recourfeto fome fub-
itance capable of abforbing the gas under examination.
‘The eudiometer is the veflel which contains, or communi-
cates with the fubitance which is to abforb the gas, and the
tube being graduated marks out the quantity abforbed, and
fhews how much of that particular gas was prefent.

The firft inftrument of this kind, adapted to general pur-
pofes, was invented by Dr. Hope, of which a defcription
will be found under Eupiomerry: Under the fame article
will be found Mr. Davy’s eudiometer for the analyfis of
the atmofphere.

Mr. Pepys has lately invented a very good eudiometer :
it differs from Dr. Hope’s in the bulb, which holds the ab-
forbing liquid, being an elaftic gum bottle inftead of glafs,

face.

A glafs neck is tied into the neck of the bottle, into which
the graduated tube is ground. When this eudiometer is
ufed, the elaftic bottle is filled with the abforbing liquid
(lime water, for inftance), and the.tube filled with the gas
under examination (fuppofed to be carbonic acid’), intro-
duced into the neck.

On agitating the liquid to mix it with the gas, as the ab-
forption goes on, the elattic bottle collapfes, by the atmo-
{pheric preflure, and the liquid occupies the place of the
abforbed gas in the tube.

The only objection to this eudiometer is its want of
flexibility, and this varying under different circumftances, fo
that the denfity of the contained air can never be accurately
known. The writer of this article has done away the above
objection, by ufing a bag of oiled filk inftead of this elaftic
gum bottle. ‘he tilk muft be very well coated, and the
coating completely dry.

The eudiometer of Volta, which is found very ufeful in
the prefence of the eleGtric machine, is alfo called the deto-
nating far. It is ufed with oxygen to deteét the prefence
of hydrogen, and vice verfa. This inftrument, fig. 22, con-
fits of a very thick glais tube A B, having two bits of
metal a, d, pafling into the tube oppofite to each other, the
inner ends being feparated from each other a {mall diftance,
fo that ‘an eleétric fpark pafling between them, may be capa-
ble of inflaming hydrogen with oxygen.

The gas to be examined. is introduced into this jar, and
the eleétric fpark pafled through it. If hydrogen and
oxygen be prefent, in fufficient quantity, they will explode,
forming water, and producing a diminution of volume equal
to the original bulk of gafes which have entered into com-
bination. In the explofion of thefe gafes the water or mer-
cury is apt to be thrown in various direétions by the concuf-
fion. We are indebted to Mr. Pepys for an ingenious
method of preventing’ this evil. The tube A B is fecured)
to the iron itand D E by means of a focket'C. D is an irow
tube containing a fpiral {pring, fimilar to that of the {pring
Jfrel-yard. The rod d, which atts upon the fpring, is faftened
to the foot E, which is fo heavy as not to be raifed by the
force exerted upon the {prmg. When the detonation of
the gafes takes place, the force is exerted equally upon
the inftrument and the liquid, in which it is immerfed, when’
they are both at liberty. Inftead of being all exerted upon
the latter, it caufes the tube'to rife, the {pring in the focket
D giving way; and thus’ prevents'the liquid from being ‘dif-
peried. All the gafeous. bodies containing hydrogen can
now be analyfed by this inftrument. Dr. Henry has dif.
covered that ammonia, which does not appear combvttible,’
ean be exploded with oxygen : its hydrogen forming water
with that fubttance. See Eupromerry. :

Evaporating Veffzis —Thele are of metal, ‘earthen-ware,
and glafs. ‘I'hey are generally made broad and fhallow, aa
feen in fig. 23, in order to expofe a greater evaporable fur-
During the evaporation of any liquid, a current of
air fhould conftantly be pafling over its furface. This obje@
can be eafily attained by placing the veflel under the mouth
of a chimney into which there is ‘a ‘confiderable draught.
By this means alfo the vapour is prevented from coming
into the room.

Thefe veffels are of filver for expelling the water from’
alkalis, and of glafs, or Wedgewood ware, ior'acids and fome
folutions of falts.

Sand and Water Baths.—The fand bath, although fuper-
feded by the Argand lamp, for diftillations in the {mall way,
is; neverthelefs, very ufeful for digefting fubftances fub-
jected to folution, and for evaporation. Its heat ismuch more:
regular than the naked fire, but it may fometimes be too

Q2z kot

LABORATORY.

hot for fubftances which ate liable to be decompoled, fuch
as infufions of vegetable or animal matters. The mott ufeful
fand bath is made of a plate of caft iron, under which the
flame of a fire plays, and a rim of caft or wrought iron
laid upon it and filled with fine Calais fand.

A fand-bath frequently confifls of an iron difh or pan
made to fit the mouth of a furnace. See Furnace.

When an uniform heat, not higher than 212° of Fahren-
heit, is required, or when it will be fufficient, the water bath
is found highly ufeful. Inftead, however, of placing the
f{nbftance to be heated in a veffel of boiling water, which
was formerly the cafe, the bath may be heated with fteam
at any diltance from the boiler. ‘This bath may be a veffel
of any fhape, having a cavity for fteam on the outfide,
thickly covered with flannel, or any bad conductor of heat,
and the infide filled with fand. This hath is admirably
fitted for the evaporation of folutions of animal and vege-
table fubllances, and for drying precipitates and other
fubftances liable to be decompofed or changed by great
heat.

Mattras.—This is a veflel ufed for making folutions of fub-
flances. It is generally of a {pherical form, flattened at the
bottom, as feen in fg. 24, having a long neck to allow the
fluid to condenfe and return into the veflel. This ufeful
apparatus is made of glafs, and thin at the bottom, in order
to prevent its breaking. The common Florence flafk is a
good fubftitute for the mattras. A fmaller veffel of this
kind is ufed for boiling a lefs quantity of any liquid; thefe
are called proof glaffes. See fig. 25.

Precipitating Glaffes.—See fig. 26.—Thefe are tall cylin-
drical veffels, in which precipitations are performed, in order
to collect the feparated matter into lefs room. In wafhing
precipitates it is found, that when hot water is poured into
the giafs, if the bottom be thick it is liable to break. This
evil has exifted more or lefs in all the precipitating glafles in
general ufe. In making this veffel at the glafs-houfe, the
part to form the bottom fhould be blown out thin, like the
mattras, and then pufhed inwards to make it ftand firmly.
Very fmall veflels in this fhape are ufed for fmall quantities
of any fubftance, Thefe are called te? glafes.

Gas bottles, fuch as fig. 27, are veflels for obtaining hy-
drogen, carbonic acid, and other gafes. ‘The materials,
{uch as water and zinc filings, are introduced into the bottle
A. The fulphuric acid being put into the bottle B, the
plug 4, which is ground into the neck 4, can be raifed to
‘let in the acid as it may be wanted. The gas efcapes through
the crooked tube C, which may be put under the fhelf of
the pneumatic trough.

Funnels are ufed generally for filtration; they are com-
monly, and always ought to be ribbed for this purpofe, in
order to form channels between the paper and the glafs,
which greatly facilitates the procefs. In lieu of a ribbed
filter, it is common to place a number of {traws, or pieces of
glafs, between the paper and the veflel, which anfwers very
well.

The feparatory funnel, fg. 34, is ufed for feparating
fluids, fuch as water and oil, which do not mix from the
difference in {pecific gravity.

The following articles are alfo effential to the laboratory,
which it will be unneceffary to deferibe,

‘Thermometers and a barometer. Bottle for afcertaining
the {pecific gravity of liquids.

A common ftill to furnifh diftilled water.

_ AA fmall one of filver for nice purpofes,

The different blow-pipe apparatus, with platina, {poon,
and leaf platina.

A filver crucible, and one of platina.

Crucibles and crucible ftands of earthen ware. See figs. 29»
0, and 32.
: Muffels and cupgels. See figs. 28 and 33.

Iron retort and jointed tube for procuring oxygen gas,
Fig. 35.

Git jars of different fizes for colleGting gafes. ,

Filtering paper, and papers coloured with litmus, tur-
meric, and red-cabbage.

A general affortment of glafles, to filter liquids into,
&e.

An affortment of earthen veflels for common purpofes.
Thofe made of the fame materials as the foda water bottles
are to be preferred.

Capfules of glafs, and watch-glafles. The former may
be cut out of broken retorts and receivers with a {mall hot
iron.

Glafs tubes of different fizes, and a {pirit lamp for bending
them.

Glafs and porcelain rods and {poons for ftirring acids, &c.

Jars of glafs and earthen ware, with grooves round the
top, for luting them clofely from the air. Thefe fhould be
ufed for containing falts in cryttals.

Ruted paper for labels; copal varnifh to cover the fame,
to keep off the dampnefs and fumes of acids.

Sheets and wires of different metals.

Silk and thread of different {trength.

Stands made of wood or rufhes, for fupporting veflels
with round bottoms.

Tron ladles of different fizes.

Hammers, fhears, and plyers.

Corks, bladders, and fponge.

Tongs of various forms.

Files, diamond, and magnet.

Lutes, linen, cloth, and tow. See Lutr.

The following philofophical apparatus ;

Air-pump for condenfing and exhaufting.

Syringes, microfcope, and burning lens.

EieGiric machine and Galvanic apparatus.

Zinc plates and wire, for minor experiments.

Hydroftatic balance and hydrometer.

We fhall conclude this article with a lift of the chemical
fubftances neceflary to be kept in a chemical laboratory.
Thefe are divided into wet and dry fubitances. The firit of
thefe muft, of neceffity, be kept in well-ftopped bottles.
The latter fhould alfo be kept in bottles, the necks of
which fhould be wider than thofe for liquids.

Subftances in common ufe fhould be kept in larger quan-
tity than thofe which are kept as mere {pecimens, or only
ufed occafionally and in {mall quantity.

Liquids in common Ue.

Sulphuric acid, pure.
common.
Nitric acid, pure. —

» common.
Muriatic acid, pure.
-) common.

Acetic acid,
Water faturated with ammonia.
Solution of potafh.
- carbonat of potafh.
- potath,
———-— l{uper-carbonat of potafh.
- foda, and carbonat of foda,
- carbonat of ammonia.
Lime water.
Diftilled water,
4 Alsohol,

LAB
. Alcohol, pure.

» common.

The bottles in which the above are kept fhould hold from
&@ pint to a quart each.

After a change of temperature in the air from cold to
hot, we find at the tops of bottles, about the ftopper, a quan-
tity of the liquid which has diltilled up to the ftopper, and
been forced out by the expanfion of the air in the bottle.
This is very troublefome, efpecially with acids, and may be
remedied by giving to the mouth of the bottle a flight funnel
fhape, which forms a recefs for the liquid.

The following are the dry fubftances in common ule.

Oxyd of mangauefe, and common falt.

Filings and rods of iron, tin, zinc, copper, and lead.

Chalk and powdered marble.

Quick lime, pipe clay, and fand.

Magnefia, common and calcined.

Sulphurets of potafh, iron, and lime.

Hfinglafs and nutgalls.

Brazil wood and turmeric.

Calcined plaiter of Paris, and bone afhes.

Black flux and white flux, See Frux.

Charcoal powder and faw-dutt.

Sulphat of lead, as a body for lutes.

Nitre in cryttals.

Borax and alum.

The following are bodies in folution, ufed as tefts and
kept in fmall quantities, in bottles from one to two ounces
in fize. The bottles fhould be fhaped at the mouth as
above recommended, and the diameter fhould be half the
height in the cylindric part.

Sulphat of potafh,

Oxymuriat of mercury.

foda. Phofphat of foda.
alumine. ammonia.
ammonia. Fluat of potath.
magnelia, ammonia.
zinc. Borat of foda.
filver. Carbonat of potafh.
Oxy-fulphat of iron. foda.
Nitrat of potafh. —__—— ammonia.
— foda. Acetat of potath.
barytes. barytes.
ftrontian. ftrontian,
— lime. — alumine.
filver. ———— iilver. ,
copper. ———— copper
- Ee — lead.
bifmuth. Oxyacetat of iron.

Muriat of potafh.
———— foda.

Oxalat of foda and ammonia.
Succinat of ammonia.

— barytes. Tartrat of ammonia.
ftrontian. Pruffiat of potafh and iron.
—— lime. — lime and iron.
ammonia. Pure gallic acid in alcohol.
— gold. Infufion of galls in alcohol.
platina. of litmus.
— tin. Acetic acid, pure.
cobalt. Hydrofulphuret of potafh.

The following fubftances fhould be kept in the folid ftate,
and free from the contaé& of air and moitture:
Sulphat ot iron kept ia alcohol.

Muriat of lime.

Oxymuriat of potafh.

Barytic earth.

Strontian earth, and all pure earths.

Pure potath.
— foda,

LAB

Potaffium and fodium, kept in naphtha.
sium and Sopium.

Sulphurets of potafh, iron, and lime.

Phofphuret of lime.

Phofphorus.

Pyrophorus.

It is alfo proper that the chemift fhould poffefs as great a
variety of all the known chemical bodies as poffible, both
fimple and compound. They are worth poffeffing even as a
matter of curiofity. But they will be highly valuable in
giving a familiar knowledge of the different {ub{tances which
the experimentalift may expe& to meet with, and enable him
to diltinguifh them from what may be new.

Lazoratory of an Ho/pital, is a place where the chemi-
cal, &c. remedies are made up

Lasoratory, ina Camp, is a tent were the fire-workers
and bombardiers prepare their works, drive their fufecs, fix
their fhells and careafes, make quick-match, &c.

LABORDE, M. pz, in Biography, author of an ample
and comprehenfive work, entitled “« Effai fur la Mufique,
ancienne et moderne,’ publifhed at Paris 1780, in four
vols. 4to, The accumulation of curious materials for this
publication is fuch, as nothing but a long and unwearied
diligence could amafs. It has, however, frequently given
us much concern, in confulting this work, to fee the fpirit
of fyitem operate fo ftrongly on the author, as to affe@ both
his candour and confiitence. The critique upon mufical
writers in the third volume, feems only a vehicle for general
cenfure of all that have not fubferibed to the fundamental
bafe of Rameau, the triple progreffion of the Abbé Rouf-
fier, and praife of all that have. There is no middle ftate,
no mufic or mufical merit of any kind, theoretical or praGti~
cal, unfanétioned by thefe dogmas. But will M. de La-
borde venture to affert, or can he even believe, that till the:
publication of Rameau’s “ Syftéme de la Baffle fondamen-
tale,’? and the Abbé Rouflier’s «« Memoire fur la Mufique
des Anciens,” there was no good mufic in the world, or that
all which has been produced fince, by innumerable great
matters in feveral parts of Europe, who never ftudied or
heard of either, is execrable? That there are great method.
and merit in the fyitems of both thefe theorilts, no candid
judges of the fubject will deny ; and perhaps there are few
who will not grant that the principles of harmony have not
been formed into a code, equally luminous and ufeful to:
ftudents, by any other writers, and yet will not fhut their
ears to all mufic not built upon their principles. "I'he incon
fiftency of individually praifing Italian compofers in fuch:
glowing terms, and yet feizing every opportunity to cenfure
and fneer at Italians and foreigners in general, prove the-
work to have been compiled by perfons of different prin-
ciples. What a coil is made (v.itl. p. 690.) about a fharp.
fitth ufed merely as an appoggiatura, or note of tafte, with.
which the bafe or harmony has nothing to do, and which,.
therefore, has no effeét on the modulation! And yet M.
de Laborde can bear the quinte fuperfius, and have patience
to give a rule for its ufe in compofition! Can any one
fincerely praife the compofitions ef Piccini, Sacchini, and.
Paefiello, who is difguited by thofe happy licences, in.
which the very foul of Italian mufic confifts ?:

M. de Laborde gives us his mufical creed in pretty plain:
terms, (v. li. p. 639.) in anfwer’toa remark of Mr. Jamard,.
who exprefles his {urprife, that “the Itahans, without any
formal fyftem, compofe better mufic than the French, who:
are in poffefion of the true principles of harmony.?? This:
M. de Laborde is fo far from granting, that, on the contrary,
he is certain the French mufic, with réfpect to counterpoint,
is infinitely fuperior to the Italian; and that the Italians fur—

pais.

See Poras-

LAB

pafs the French in nothing but dramatic mufic, which is not
like other mufic, fubfervient to the laws of counterpoint !—
«© We will allow,’’. continues he, “ that the Italians are
fuperior to us in melody ; but they in return muft granc,
that with refpe&t to sarmony we write in a manner fuperior
to them in correétnefs, purity, and elegance.’” What!
fuperior to Leo, Féo, Durante, Abos, Jomelli, Caffaro,
add Manna? But neither melody nor harmony, alone, can
conttitute good mutfic, which confifts in the union of both;
and melody without harmony, or harmony without melody,
is as imperfe@ as a man with one arm, or one leg, to whom
nature has originally given two.

With refpect to all the feuds and contentions lately occa-
fioned by matic in France, they feem to have annihilated the
former difpofition of the inhabitants to receive delight from
fuch mufic as their country afforded. There are, at prefent,
certainly, too many critics, and too few-hearers with a dif-
pofition to be pleafed in France, as well as elfewhere. We
have feen French and German /oi-difant connoiffeurs lifter’
to the moft exquilite mufical performance, with the fame
fang-froid as an anatomift attends a difleGtion. It is all
analyfis, calculation, and parallel; they are to be wife, not
pleafed. Happy the people, however imperfeé their mufic,
if it gives them pleafure! But when it is an eternal object
of difpute ; when each man, like Nebuchadnezzar, fets up
his own peculiar idol, which every individual is to fall down
and worfhip, or be thrown into the fiery furnace of his hatred
and contempt, the blefling is converted into a curfe.

LABOUR, in Agriculture, the work which is neceffary
to be performed upon a farm, in order to render it fruitful
and produétive. It is of various kinds, and for the moft
spart either performed by hired fervants or day labourers.
Where: proper attention is paid by the farmer, to fee that
the labourer underftands his bufinefs, &c. agricultural labour
is probably, in general, beft done by the piece, or what in
fome places is termed tafk-work. The expence or price of
Jabour varies confiderably in different diftriéts, from parti-
cular circumftances ; fuch as the fituation, the ftate of ma-
nufactures, the condition’ of agriculture, the facility of get-
ting employment, and the manner of living. See La-
BOURER.

In the Survey of the County of Middlefex, it is flated,
that agriculture may very properly be confidered as the art
of manufaGturing the foil, and unqueftionably ranks the
higheft in the clafs of manufactures ; fince it not only makes
a greater return for the labour beltowed, than all the reft
put together, but it is alfo of the firft neceffity, the demands
for its produéts being urgent and irrefiltible. Any other
manufactory, Mr. Diron remarks, may be laid down at
pleafure, but agriculture muit be fupported, as it is the
hinge’ upon which both our lives and actions turn ; and the
ultimate and only certain refource of the ttate, both for men
and money.

In the above point of view the feed-grain, amounting to

about 15s, an acre, may be faid to conititute, according to”

the writer of the Survey of the County of Middlefex, the
raw material. When the corn and ftraw, produced from
this feed, are dreffed and fent to market, the greater part
of it is then fit for confumption, and may be called a finifhed
manufacture. The additional value above 15s. is entirely
the produce of labour, at leaft, in a conjunction with the
affittance of nature; but as not one fhilling could be pro-
cured for the natural products of the world, without the ap-
plication of labour, the whole may therefore be faid to be
derived from labour ; and amounts to about 9/. 5s. an acre,
or 1233/. per cent. on the coft of the raw material. Wheat
is {till farther manufactured into bread ; but, exclufive of

.

LAB

the operations of the miller and the baker, this is certainly
not above the average for the produce of the arable land of
this county ; and fome parts of Surrey, Kent, and Effex,
yield in the fame proportion, The raw material, on an
average of the arable of the whole of South Britain, amounts
to about 16s. per acre, which is increafed in value by labour
to sl. or 525/. per cent. Hence the labour beflowed on
fifteen millions three hundred thoufand acres, produce a
return of 64,260,000/. ‘{terling. ,
And the cattle and implements may, it is fuppofed in a
manufagturing point of view, be deemed the itock ; the
amount of which, on the meadow-land in this county, is
about 4/. an acre, and the produce 1o/.’ The labour and
profits of ftock, therefore, are 150/. per cent. On a farm
purely arable in this county the frock would be 5/. and the
produce 10/. or 100/. per cent: "There are not any grazing-
farms in the county; if there were, their ftock would be
greater, and they would not yield fo large an increafe. “The
farming capital of South Britain is 5/. an acre, or 200 mil-
lions ; anc its annual produce is about 130, that is, 65 per
cent.
He particularizes the annual produce of the foil in this
way :
The arable lands, as before ftated, -
The hop-gardens make returns to the
amount of 3o0/. an acre, for the produce
of labour, or about a - -
Nurfery grounds produce upwards of 65/.
per acre. Dedu& the raw material, and
the procuce of labour will not be lefs
than 6o/..0a 10,000 acres,, is 2 4
The fruit and kitchen-gardens are the moft
valuable refources for labour, andmake the
greateft return, probably.to upwards of
1oo/. per acre, On an average of Great
Britain; but he only eftimates them at .
that fum on 50,000 acres, is - - 5,000,000
The grafs land and cider counties, cultivated .
in South Britain, make returns to the
amount of 3/, on twenty millions of acres,
is = - - - -
The commons, eight millions, at 15. 3d.
an acre - - - -

Total -

£64; 260,000

1,000,000

609,000

69,000,000

500,000

#£131,360,000

It is not prefumed to offer the foregoing ftatement, as one-
that either is, or can be made out with accuracy and preci-
fion. But, undervall the circumftances of the cafe, it may,
it is believed, be fairly ftated, that the annual agricultural
produce of South Britain is not lefs than one hundred and
thirty millions ; which mutt be allowed to furpafs. all other
manufaétures that can be brought into competition with it,
not only as to the grofs amount, but alfo as to its duperior
ufefulnefs. scattded

And if it be further fuppofed, that there are two millions
and.a half of perfons employed in agriculture, their average
earnings will be, for men, women, and children of all ages,”
52/. which is a fum fo much exceeding their expences, that
it is evident this employment mutt enrich iociety ;, and itis
equally clear, that it contributes at once its furplus, wealth,
atid population, to make up the deficiencies of the other
departments both in men and money. ‘This furely places
the importance of rural labour in fuch a point of view, as
fhould urge the cultivation of as much land of the kingdom
as poflible,

Lazour,

”
LABOUR.

Laxour, in a general fenfe, imports the exertion of
human (trength in the performance of any kind of work,

The annual labour of every nation, fays Dr. Smith in his
Inquiry into the Nature and Caufes of the Wealth of
Nations,”’ (vol.i.), is the fund, which originally fupplies it
with all the neceflaries and conveniences of life, which it
annually confumes, and which confift always, either in the
immediate produce of that labour, or in what is purchafed
with that produce from other nations. As this produce, or
its value in purchafe, bears a greater or a {maller proportion
to the number of thofe who are to confume it, the nation
will be better or worfe fupplied with all the neceffaries and
conveniences for which it has occafion. ‘This proportion, in
every nation, is regulated by two circumftances, viz. the
fkill, dexterity, and judgment with which its labour is gene-
rally applied, and the proportion which the number of thofe
who are employed in ufeful labour, bears to that of thofe
who are not fo employed. Whatever be the foil, climate,
or extent of territory of any particular nation, the abun-
dance or feantinefs of its annual fupply mutt, in that parti-
cular fituation, depend upon thefe two circumftances ; and
chiefly upon the former of them, which has ferved to im-
prove the produGtive powers of labour. ‘This improvement
thas very materially depended on the divifion of labour, as
we may illuftrate and evince by a fingle example taken from
a manufacture, that is,’ on the firft view of it, very trifling ;
viz. that of pin-making. A workman, not educated to this
bufinefs, (which the divifion of labour has rendered a diftin&

trade), nor acquainted with the ufe of the machinery em- .

ployed in it, (to the invention of which the fame divifion of
labour has probably given occafion), could fcarcely, with
his utmoft imduftry, make one pin in a day, and certainly
could not make twenty. But as the bufinefs is now con-
du&ed, not only the whole work is a peculiar trade, but it
is divided into a number of branches, confitting, for the molt
part, of peculiar trades. One man draws out the wire, an-
ether ftraightens it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a
fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; and the
making of the head requires two or three diftin& operations ;
the putting of it on is a peculiar bufinefs, and the whitening
of the pins is another; the putting of them into the paper
is a trade by itfelf. Thus the important bufinefs of making
a pin is divided into about 18 diftinét operations, which, in
fome manufactories, are all performed by diltin& hands,
though in others, the fame man will fometimes perform two
er three of them. Dr. Smith mentions a fmall manufaCtory
of this kind, where 10 men only were employed, and where
fome of them confequently performed two or three diftin&
operations. But though they were poor, and their machinery
indifferent, they could, with exertion, make among them
32 pounds of pins in a day; each pound confilting of up-
wards of 4000 pins of a middling fize; thefe 10 perfons
could therefore, among them, make upwards of 48,000 pins
in a day ; fo that each perfon might be confidered as making
4800 pins ina day. Butif they had all wrought feparately
and independently, and without having been previoufly edu-
eated to this peculiar bufinefs, they certainly could not each
of them have made 20, perhaps not one pin a day; that is,
certainly, not the two hundred and fortieth, perhaps not the
four thoufand eight hundredth part of what they are at
prefent capable of performing, in confequence of a proper
divifion and combination of their different operations. This
exemplification is applicable, in a certain degree, and with
fome modifications, to other arts and manufaétures ; and it
fhews that the divifion of labour, as far as it can be intro-
duced, occafions, in every art, a proportionable increafe of

the productive powers of labour, The feparation of. dif-

-

ferent trades and employments from one another, feems te
have taken place in confequence of this advantage. The
great increafe in the quantity of work, which, in confe-
quence of the divifion of labour, the fame number of people
are capable of performing, is owing to three different ,cir-
cumitances ; jir//, to the increafe of dexterity in every par-
ticular workman ; /econdly, to the faving of the time which
is commonly loft in paling from one fpecies of work to
another; and /o/ly, to the inventionsof a great numbex of
machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one
man to do the work of many. ‘his invention and intro-
duétion of machinery feem to have been originally owing to
the divifion of labour. Of machines conffruéted for abridging
and expediting labour, many have been devifed by common
workmen, who have been employed in fome yery fimple
operation, and whofe attention has been wholly direGed to
an eafy and ready method of performing it. Many improve-
ments have alfo been made by the ingenuity of the makers
of the machines, when the conftru€tion of them became the
bufinefs of a particular trade ; and fome by that of thofe
who are called philofophers and men of fpeculation, whofe
obfervation has enabled them to combine together the powers
of the moft diftant and diffimilar objets. A fub-divition of
employment in philefophy, as well as in every other bufinefs,
has taken place among perfons of this defcription ; in con-
fequence of which dexterity is improved, and. time is faved_-
Each individual, appropriating to himfeif a particular branch,
performs more work upon the whole, and contributes in a-
confiderable degree to augment the quantity of fcience. It
is the great Eisltiplionsda of the produétions of all the dif~
ferent arts, in confequence of the divifion of labour, which
occafions, in a well-governed fociety; that univerfal opulence-
which extends itfelf to the loweft ranks of the people.
Every workman has a great quantity of his own work to»
difpofe of beyond what he himfelf has occafion for; and
every other workman being exactly in the fame fituation, he
is enabled to exchange a great quantity of his own goods for~
a great quantity, or, which comes to the fame thing, for
the price of a one quantity of theirs. He fupplies them:
abundantly with What they have oceafion for, and they ac-
commodate him amply with what he has occafion for; and’
a general plenty diffufes itfelf through all the different ranks-

of the fociety.
The divifion of labour, from which fo many advantages:
are derived, is not originally the effect of human wifdom,.
which forefees and intends that general opulence to which:
it gives occafion. It is the neceflary, though very flow and:
gradual, confequence of a certain propenfity in human:
nature which has in view no fuch extenfive utility ; the pro—
penfity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for an-
other. Avs it is the power of exchanging that gives occa=
fion to the divifion of labour, fo the extent of this divifiom:
muft always be limited by the extent of that power, or, in.
other words, by the extent of the market. . When. the
market is very {mall, no perfon can have any encouragement
to dedicate himfelf entirely to one employment, for want of
the power to exchange all that.furplus part of the produce
of his labour, which is over and above his own con-
fumption, for fuch parts of the produce of other men’s-
labour as he has occafion for. ‘This leads-us to obferve,.
that by means of water-carriage a:more extenfive market is-
opened to every fort of induitry, than what land-carriage:
alone can afford it ; fo it is upon the fea-coaft, and along the
banks of navigable rivers, that induftry of every kind natu--
rally begins to fubdivide and improve itfelf ; and itis fre--
quently not till a long time after that thefe improvements
extend themfelves to the inland parts of the covntry. ep we
aavert.

LABOUR.

advert to fact, we fhall find, that the nations which appear
to have been firft cultivated, were thofe that occupied the
countries around the coaft of the Mediterranean fea. And
of all thefe countries, Egypt feems to have been the firfl,
in which either agriculture or manufactures were cultivated
and improved to any confiderable degree. Upper Egypt
extends itfelf no where abave a few miles from the Nile,
and in Lower Egypt this great river breaks itfelf into many
different canals, which, with the affiftance of a little art,
feem to have afforded a communication by water-carriage,
not only between all the great towns, but between ail the
confiderable villages, and even to many farm-houfes in the
country; much in the fame manner as the Rhine and the
Maefe do in Holland at prefent. The extent and facility
of this inland navigation, was probably one of the principal
eaufes of the early improvement of Egypt. The fame ob-
fervation is verified by extending our views to the provinces
of Bengal in the Eaft Indies, and to fome of the ealtern pro-
vinces of China, where the Ganges and other great rivers,
with a multitude of canals, formed an inland navigation
favourable to internal commerce, long before foreign com-
merce was much, if at all, regarded; the cafe is very different
with refpeé&t to the inland parts of Africa, and all that part
of Afia, which lies at a confiderable diftance N. of the
Euxine and Cafpian feas, the ancient Scythia, the modern
Tartary and Siberia, which in all ages of the world feem to
have been in the fame barbarous and uncivilized flate in
which we find them at prefent. See Cana, ComMERrcz,
and NavIGATION.

When the divifion of labour firft began to take place, the
power of exchanging, upon which it chiefly depended, muit
frequently have been very much clogged and embarraffed in
its operations. In order to avoid part, at leaft, of the in-
convenience refulting from this ftate of fociety, every pru-
dent man, in every period of fociety, after the firft divifion
ef labour, mult naturally have endeavoured to manage his
affairs in fuch a manner, as to have at all times by him, be-
fides the peculiar produce of his own induftry, a certain
quantity of fome one commodity or other,:fuch as he ima-
gined few people would be likely to refufe in exchange for
the produce of their induftry. Many different commodities,
it is probable, were fucceflively both thought of and em-
ployed for this purpofe. In the rude ages of fociety, cattle
are faid to have been the common initrument of commerce.
Thus we find, accerding to Homer, that the armour of Dio-
mede coit only nine oxen; but that of Glaucus coft 100
oxen. Salt is faid to be the common medium of commerce
andexchanges in Abyffinia; a {pecies of fhells in fome parts
of the coal of India; dried cod at Newfoundland ; tobacco
in Virginia; fugar in fome of our Weft India colonies ; hides
or drefied leather in fome other countries; and Dr. Smith
mentions a village in Scotland in which it was not uncommon
for a workman to carry nails inftead of money to the baker’s
shop or the alehoufe. Metals, however, have been preferred
for this purpofe to every other commodity; and different
metals have been appropriated by different nations to this
ufe. See Corn and Money.

After the divifion of labour has been once thoroughly
eftablifed, it is but a very {mall part of the neceflaries
and conveniences of life with which a man’s own labour can
fupply him. The far greater part of thefe he muft derive
from the labour of other people; and he muft be rich or
poor according to the quantity of that labour which he can
command, or which he can afford to purchafe. The value
of any commodity, therefore, to the perfon who pofleffes it,
and who means not to ufe or confume it himfelf, but to ex-
change it for other commodities, is equal to the quantity of

labour which it enables him to purchafe or command. La.
bour, therefore, is the real meafure of the exchangeable value
of all commodities. This, however, is not the meafure by
which their value is commonly eftimated. It is often difficult
to afcertain the proportion between two different quantities
of labour. The time {pent in two different forts of work
will not always alone determine this proportion. The dif-
ferent degrees of hardfhip endured, and of ingenuity ex-
ercifed, muft likewife be taken into account. But it is not
eafy to find any accurate meafure either of hardfhip or inge-
nuity. Hence it happens, that every commodity is more
frequently exchanged for, and thereby compared with, other
commodities than with labour. When barter ceafes, and
money has become the common inftrument of commerce,
every particular commodity is more frequently exchanged for
money than for any other commodity. Neverthelefs, labour
alone, never varying in its own value, is the ultimateand
real ftandard by which the value of all commodities can at
all times sand places be eftimated and compared. It is their
real price ; money is their nominal price only. But though
equal quantities of labour are always of equal value to the
labourer, yet to the perfon who employs them, they appear
fometimes to be of greater and fometimes of fmaller value.
He purchafes them fometimes with a greater and fometimes
with a {maller quantity of goods, and to him the price of la-
bour feems to vary like that of all other things. It appears
to him dear in the one cafe, and cheap in the other. In
reality, however, it is the goods which are cheap in the one
cafe, and dear in the other. In this popular fenfe, therefore,
labour, like commodities, may be {aid to have a real anda no-
minal price. Its real price may be faid to confiit in the
quantity of the neceffaries and conveniences of life which are
given for it; its nominal price, in the quantity of money.
The labourer is rich or poor, is well or ill rewarded, in pro-
portion to the real, not to the nominal price of his labour.

The real value of all the different component parts of
price, fays Dr. Smith, is meafured by the quantity of la-
bour, which they can, each of them, purchafe or command.
Labour meafures the value, not only of that part of price,
which refolves itfelf into labour, but of that which refolves
itfelf into rent (of land), and of that which refolves itfelf
into profit. Inevery fociety the price of every commodity
refolves itfelf into fome one or other, or all, of thefe three
parts; and in every improved fociety, all the three enter,
more or lefs, into the price of the far greater part of com-
modities. In the moft improved focieties, however, there ’
are always a few commodities of which the price refolves
itfelf into two parts only, the wages of labour and the pro-
fits of ftock; ard a itill {maller number, in which it confilts
altogether in the wages of labour.

The produce of labour conttitutes the natural recompence
or wages of labour. In that original {tate of things, which
precedes both the appropriation of land and the accumula-
tion of ftock, the whole produce of labour belongs to the
labourer ; as he has no landlord or matter to fhare with him.
If this ftate had continued, the wages of labour would have
augmented with all the improvements in its productive
powers, to which the divifion of labour gives occafion. All
things would gradually have become cheaper. ‘They would
have been produced bya {maller quantity of labour ; and as
the commodities produced by equal quantities of labour
would naturally in this ftate of things be exchanged for one
another, they would have been purchafed likewile with the
produce of a {maller quantity. But this original flate of
things, in which the labourer enjoyed the whole produce of
his own labour, could not lait beyond the firft introduétion
of the appropriation of land and the accumulation of ftock.

As

LABOUR.

As foon as land becomes private property, the Jandlord de-
mands.a fhare of almoft all the produce which the labourer
ean either raife, or collet fromit. His rent makes the firft
deduction from the produce of the labour which is employed
upon land. A fecond deduétion is made by the profit ac-
cruing from the produce of the labour that has been fo
employed. The produce of almoft all other labour, in all
arts and manufactures, is liable to the like deduétion of pro-
fit. What are the common wages of labour, depends every
where upon the contraét ufually made between the two par-
ties, to whom belong: the profits of ftock, and the wages of
labour; and the interefts of thefe parties are by no means
the fame. The workmen defire to get as much, the matters
to give as little, as poffible. The former are difpofed to
combine in order to raife, the latter in order to lower, the
wages of labour. The mafters commonly fucceed; for
being fewer in number, they can more eafily combine ; and
befides, the law authorizes, or at leaft does not prohibit,
their combinations, while it prohibits thofe of the workmen.
But though in difputes between mafters and workmen, the
former muit generally have the advantage, there is, however,
acertain rate, below which it feems impoffible to reduce, for
any confiderable time, the ordinary wages even of the lowelt
fpecies of labour. The wages ofa labourer muft at leaft be
fufficient to maintain him; and indeed, on moft occafions,
they ought to be fomewhat more; otherwife it would be
impoflible for him to bring up a family, and the race of fuch
workmen could not laft beyond the firft generation. ‘There
are certain circumftances, which fometimes give the la-
bourers an advantage, and enable them to raife their wages
confiderably above the rate. already {pecified ;. which: is evi-
dently the loweft that is confiftent with common humanity.
When in every country the demand for thofe who live by
wages, labourers, journeymen, fervants of every kind, is
continually increafing ; when every year furnifhes employ-
ment for a greater number than had been employed the year
before, the workmen have no occafion to combine in order
to raife the wages. The fcarcity of workmen occafions a
competition among matters, who bid again{t one another, in
order to get workmen, and thus voluntarily break through
the natural combination of matters not to raife wages. This
demand for thofe who live by wages, itis evident, cannot in-
creafe but in proportion to the increafe of the funds, which
are deftined for the payment of wages: thefe funds are of
two kinds: firft, the revenue which is over and above what
is neceflary for the maintenance; and fecondly, the ftock
which is over and above what is neceffary for the employ-
ment of their mafters. The demand for thofe who live by
wages, therefore, neceffarily increafes with the increafe of
the revenue and ftock of every country, and cannot poffibly
increafe without it. The increafe of revenue and {tock is the
increafe of national wealth. tis this continual increafe, and
not the whole amount, of national wealth, which occafions
a rife in the wages of labour. Accordingly, it is not in the
richeft countries, but in the moft thriving, or in thofe which
are growing rich the fafteft, that the wages of labour are
the higheft. England is, without doubt, a- much richer
country than any part of North America; yet the wages of
labour are much higher in. North America than in any part
of England. Altheugh North America is not yet fo rich
as England, it is more thriving, and advancing with greater
rapidity to the further acquifition of riches. ‘The molt de-
cifive mark of the profperity of any country-is the increafe
of the number of: its inhabitants. In Great Britain, and in
moft other European countries, they are not fuppofed to
double in lefs than 500 years. In North America, it has
been found, that they double in 20 or 25 years. _ Labour is
» Vou. XX.

there fo well rewarded, that a numerous family of children,
inftead of being a burthen, isa fource of opulence and pro-
{perity to the parents. The labour of each child, before it
can leave their houfe, is computed to be worth rool. clear
gaintothem. ‘he value of children is evidently the greateft
of alf encouragements to marriage. In North America the
people generally marry very young; and notwithttanding
the great increafe occafioned by fuch early marriages, there 1s
a continual complaint in that country of the [carcity of hatids.
The demand for labourers, the funds deftined for maintaining
them, increafe, it feems, ftill falter than they can find la-
bourers to employ. Another circumitance deferves to be
mentioned, wiz. that the price of provifions is every where
in North America much lower than in England, fo that a
family can be maintained at a much cheaper rate. Upon the
whole, if the money price of labour be higher there than it
is here, its real price, the real command of the neceflaries
and conveniences of life which it conveys to the labourer,
mutt be higher in a flill greater proportion. The liberal
reward of labour, as it is the neceflary effect, fo it is the na-
tural fymptom of increafing wealth. ‘The {canty mainte-
nance of the labouring poor, on the other hand, is the na-
tural fymptom, that things are at a ftand, and their Tee
condition that they are going faft backwards. The libera
reward of labour, as it is the effect of increafing wealth, is
alfo the caufe of increafing population.

It deferves to be remarked, that it is in the progreffive ftate,
while.the fociety is advancing to the further acquilition ra-
ther than when it has acquired its full compliment of riches,
that the condition of the labouring poor, of the great body
of the people, feems to be the happieft and the mot
comfortable. It is hard in the ftationary, and miferable in
the declining ftate. The progreffive ftate is in reality the
chearful and the hearty ftate, to all the different orders of
the fociety. The ftationary is dull, the declining melan-
choly. The liberal reward of labour not only encourages
the propagation, but it increafes the induftry of the common
people. Where wages are high, we fhall always find the
workmen more diligent, ative, and expeditious, than where
they are low: in England, for example, than in Scotland ;
in the neighbourhood of great towns than in remote country
places. Some workmen, however, when they cau earn in
four days what will maintain them through the week, wiil be
idle the other three. But this is by no means the cafe with
the greater part. Workmen, on the contrary, when they
are liberally paid by the piece, are very apt to overwork
themfelves, and to ruin their health and conttitution in a few
years. Dr. Smith obferves, that if mafters would always
liften to the diftates of reafon and humanity, they have fre-
quently occafion rather to moderate than to animate the ap-
plication of many of their workmen: and it will be found,
he fays, in every fort of trade, that the man who works.fo
moderately, as to be able to work conftantly, not only pre-
ferves his health the longeft, but, in the courfe of the year,
executes the greateft quantity of work.

Although the variationsin the price of labour not only donot
always correfpond with thofe in the price of provifions,
but are frequently oppofite, we mult not, upon this account,
imagine that the price of provifions has no influence upon that
of labour. The money price of labour is neceflarily regu-
lated by two circumftances ; the demand for labour, and the
price of the neceffaries and conveniences of life. The for-
mer determines the quantity of the latter which mutt be
given to the labourer; and the money price of labour is
determined by what is requifite for purchating this quantity.
Though the money price of labour, therefore, is fometimes
high, where the price of provifions is low, it would be ftill

R higher,

LABOUR.

higher, the demand eontinuing the fame, if the price of pro-
vifions were high. It is becaufe the demand for labour in-
creafes in years of fudden and extraordinary plenty, iid di-
minifhes in thofe of fudden and extraordinary fearcity, that
the money price of labour fometimes rifes in the one and
finksin the other. ‘The increafe in the wages of labour ne-
ceflarily increafes the price of many commodities, by increaf-
ing that part of it which refolves itfelf into wages, and fo
far tends to diminifh their confumption both at home and
abroad. The fame caufe, however, which raifes the wages
of labour, the increafe of flock, tends to increafe its pro-
duétive powers, and to make a fmaller quantity of labour
produce a greater quantity of work. The owner of the
itock, which employs a great number of labourers, necefla-
rily endeavours, for his own advantage, to make fuch a pro-
per divilion and diftribution of employment, that they may
be enabled to produce the greateft quantity of work poffible.
For the fame reafon, he endeavours to fupply them with the
beft machinery which he or they can think of. There are
many commodities, which, in confequence of thefe improve-
ments, are produced by fo much lefs labour than before,
that the increafe of its price is more than compenfated by the
diminution of its quantity.

Labour is diftinguifhed by Dr. Smith into productive and
unproduétive : the former is that which adds to the value of
the fubje&t upon which it is beftowed; the latter ‘is that
which has no fuch effet. Thus, the labour of a manufac-
turer adds, generally, to the value of the materia!s upon
which he works, that of his own maintenance, and of his maf-
ter’s profit. The labour of a menial fervant, on the con-
trary, adds to the value of nothing. ‘Though the manu-
faturer has his wages advanced to him by his matter, he, in
reality, cofts him no expence, the value of thefe wages being
generally reftored, together with a profit, in the 1mproved
value of the fubjeét upon which his labour is bettowed. But
the maintenance of a menial jervant never is reftored. A
man grows rich by employing a multitude of manufacturers ;
he grows poor by maintaining a multitude of menial fervants.
The labour of fome of the moft refpeGtable orders in the fo-
ciety, is, like that of menial fervants, unproductive of any
value, and does not fix or realize itfelf in any permanent
fubject, or vendible commodity, which endures after the
Jabour is paft, and for which an equal quantity of labour
could afterwards be procured. The fovereign, for example,
with all the officers, both of juftice and war, who ferve un-
der him, the whole army and navy, are unproduGtive labour-
ers. They are the fervants of the public, and are maintained
by apart of the annual produce of the induftry of other
peopie. Their fervice, how honourable, how uleful, how
neceilary foever, produces nothing for which an equal quan-
tity of fervice can afterwards be procured. The protection,
fecurity, and defence of the commonwealth, the effect of their
labour this year, will not purchafe its proteGtion, fecurity,
and defence for the year to come. Jn the fame cla{s muft be
ranked fome both of the gravelt and moft important, and fome
of the moft frivolous profeffions: churchmen, lawyers, phy-
ficians, men of letters of all kinds, players, buffoons, mufi-
cians, opera-fingers, opera-dancers, &c. like the declama-
tion of the aétor, the harangues of the orator, or the tune
of the mofician, the work of all of them perifhes in the
very inftant of its produ@tion. Both produétive and unpro-
éudtive labourers, and thofe who do not labour at all, axe all
equally maintained bythe anaval produce of the land and la-
bour of the country. This produce has certain limits ; and
according as q {maller or greater proportion of it is in any
one year employed in maintaining unproductive hands, the
more in the one cafe and the lefs in the other will remain for

the productive, and the next year’s produce will be greater
or {maller accordingly ; the whole annual produce, if we
except the fpontaneous productions of the earth, being the
eflect of produétive labour. ‘This produce naturally divides
itfelf into two parts: one of thefe parts, and frequently the
largett, is deftined for replacing a capital, or for renewing
the provilions, materials, and finifhed work, which had been
withdrawn frony a capital ; the other for conitituting a reve-
nue either to the owner of this capital, as the proft of his
flock, or to fome other perfon, as- the rent of his land.
This is the cafe with refpeét both to the produce of land and
of a great manufactory. ‘The part of the annual produce
of the land and labour of any country, which replaces a ca-
pital, never is immediately employed to maintain any but
produétive hands; it pays the wages of produétive labour-
ers only. That which is immediately deitined for contlituting
a revenue either as profit or as rent, may maintain indifferent-
ly either produétive or unproductive hands. The rent of land
and the profits of {tock are every where the principal fources
from which unproductive hands derive their fubfitence.
And, therefore, the proportion between the produétive and
unproductive hands depends very much upon the proportion
between that part of the annual produce, which, as foon as
it comes from the ground or from the hands of the produc-
tive labourer, is de{tined for replacing a capital, and that
which is deftined for conftituting a revenue, either as rent
or as profit. ‘The latter part is not only much greater
in rich than in poor countries, but bears a much greater
proportion to ‘that which is immediately ~deitined for
conitituting a revenue, either as rent or as profit. The
funds dettined for the maintenance of productive labour
are not only much greater in the former than in the
latter, but bear a much greater proportion to thofe which,
though they may be employed to maintain either pro-
ductive or unproduétive hands, have generally a predilection
for the latter. The proportion between thefe different
funds neceffarily determines in every country the general
character of the inhabitants as to induttry or idlenefs. The
proportion between capital and revenue feems every where
to regulate the proportion between induttry and idlenefs.
Wherever capital predominates, indultry prevails ; wherever
revenue, idlenefs. Every increafe or diminution of capital,
therefore, naturally tends to increafe or diminifh the reak
quantity of induftry, the number of productive hands, and
confequently the exchangeable value of the annual produce
of the land and labour of the country, the real wealth and
revenue of all its inhabitants. See on this fubjeét Smith’s
Caufes of the Wealth of Nations, paffim.

Lazovr, in Midwifery. By the term labour is meant
the aét of detruding a fetus or child from the uterus; and
during the time this procefs is going on, the woman is faid
to be in labour. The exertion or efforts ufed by the wo-
man, or any other animal, in effecting the expulfion of the
fetus, are called labour pains, or throes, a Saxon word,
meaning fuffering or enduring. ;

Labour pains return at intervals of longer or fhorter dura-
tion. In the commencement of labeur, the pains only recur
once in an hour or two; but as the labour advances, the re-
turn of the pains becomes more frequent; and at length
they are almott continual, one pain being f{carcely finifhed
when another begins: but in this there is a great variety,
not only in different women, but in the fame woman in fub-
fequent labours. ‘

The immediate or exciting caufe of labour is the exiftence
of a foetus, with its placenta and membranes, in the uterus,
now ripe, and fit for exclution.

Phytiologifts have in vain attempted to explain why the.

uterus

LABOUR.

wterus fhould bear the burthen of the ovum until the con-
tained foetus has arrived at jts maturity, and fhould then
attempt its expulfion, The moft general and prevailing
‘opinion has been, that the feetus having acquired fufficient
fize and ftrength, and finding itfelf prefled upon, and
ftraightened, it labours to free itfelf from its confinement, and
that the pains are occafioned by its kicking againit the fides
and fundus of the uterus. But as pains equally ftrong are
excited to expel a dead as a living foetus, or to force away
the placenta after the birth of the child, and as the eggs of
oviparous animals are excluded by timilar efforts, it is plain
the fcetus is paffive in the bufinefs.

If the bulk of the foetus was in any way inftrumental in
occafioning labour, then the period of geftation would vary
according as the foetus happened to be larger or {maller,
which, we know, is not the cafe; except when it is dif-
turbed by accidental circumftances, as by falls, hurts, fever,
or other difeafes. ‘T'o every animal there is an allotted time
for utero-geftation. This law in the economy of nature is
fo uniformly attended tc, that even when the foetus is con-
tained in one of the Fallopian tubes; or ina fac, in the cavity
of the abdomen, at the end of nine calendar months, the time
appointed for women to carry their young, exertions for its
exclufion are excited, in the fame manner as they would
have been if it had been contained in the uterus.

When the fruit is ripe, its connection witi the parent tree
is gradualiy loofened, and at length it falls to the ground.
When the foetus has acquired that degree of maturity it is
intended to attain to in the uterus, the fibres or veffels that
connect the ovum, or bag in which the foetus is contained,
become loofened, and are gradually diffolved or broken;
and the ovum, now an extraneous body, would, like the
fruit, fall or flide through the vagina, if it were not pre-
vented by the ftraightnefs of the paflage through which it is
@o pafs. It is for the fame reafon, viz. that they are be-
come extraneous bodies, that abortions of two, three, four,
or more months, are excluded foon after they ceafe to live.

Labours are divided or diftinguifhed by the terms natural,
preternatural, or laborious.

Labours are called na‘ural, when the vertex of the head
of the child prefents to the uterine orifice, the face inclining
towards the facrum, the hind-head towards the pubes of
the mother; the fize of the head of the child being aifo fo
adapted to the pelvis of the mother, that the expulfion of it
may be effected folely by the powers of nature, or by the
pains, and within the {pace of a few hours.

Labours are called preternatural, when any other part of
the child than the head prefents to the uterine orifice, as the
feet, the breech, a fhouider, oran arm. In all thefe cafes,
more or le{s of manual affiftance will be required to complete
the birth.

Labours are called /aborious or difficult, in which the
head of the child prefents, but either in confequence of its
offering in a wrong pofition, or with an ear, or the face to
the uterine orifice, or on account of its difproportionate fize,
or from fome difeafe in the os uteri or vagina, or diftortion
of the pelvis of the mother, it cannot be brought fafely into
the world, without great difficulty, or without the afliftance
of inftruments. _

Progrefs and Management of a natural Labour —Two
or three weeks before the completion of the term of gefta-
tion, the abdomen of the pregnant weman is obferved to
f{ubfide, and become lefs prominent; there is a fecretion
of mucus from the glands of the vagina, and perhaps from
the cervix uteri. This {erves to foften and relax the paflage,
and to render it more eafily dilatable. ‘The uteras finks
gtadually lower into the pelvis, and the os externum is fre-

uently, from this caufe, in a {mall degree thruft outward:
fn fome women, flight pains, recurring every three or four
hours, are excited in the courfe of this procefs; and mill
flows from the breafts. Thefe preliminary fymptoms occur,
but perhaps in a lefs degree, in preternatural and laborious,
as well as in natural labours.

The term of ge{tation being completed, the fundus uteri
begins to contra¢t, and to propel the foetus downwards, by
which the labia of the os internum, called alfo os tince, are
ftretched, made thin, and at length forced open, at firft to
the fize only of a fixpence, or fo as fearcely to admit the end
of the fore-finger of the affiftant, if he fhould happen to ex-
amine the woman at this time. This advance in the labour
is ufually announced by the difcharge of a thicker mucus
than what had been difcharged before, and ofteu tinged with
blood, effufed probably by the {mall veffels which had con-
tributed.to conneét the membranes to the cervix uteri. This
difcharge of mucus tinged with blood is by the womaa
called a /hew. :

Though it may be proper, and is ufua'ly expected, that
the accoucheur or midwife fhould examine into the ftate of
the uterus, early in labour, by pafling the fore-finger of his
right hand, anomted with lard, into the vagina, ia order to
difcover what part of the child prefents to the os uteri, and
to repeat the examination every hour or two, to afcertain the
progrefs of the labour; yet having found it is the head of
the child that prefents, and that there is no unnatural ob-
ftacle to the birth, he mutt be careful to do this in fo gentle
a manner as to give no pain to the woman; and he is on no
account to attempt to haften the dilatation of the os inter-
num, or any part of the paffage, that being only fafely to
be dose by the natural pains.

By the continuance of the uterine contra¢tions, aided by
that of the diaphragm and mufcles of the abdomen, the ori-
fice at the womb becomes more and more thin-and dilated,
until it is fufficiently open to admit, during the pains, a
portion of the membranes, filled with the liquor amnii, or
fluid in which the foetus is fufpended. This bag, which is
gradually enlarged, contributes materially in opening the
uterine orifice, until 1t becomes fufficiently extended to ad-
mit the vertex of the head of the child,-when it ufnally
burfls, and the contained fluid ruthes forth generally with
violence. The women call this the dreading of the waters.
and they expect the birth of the cluld will {oon follow ; and
if the bufinefs has been entirely left to the agency of the
pains, this ufually happens in the fpace of one or two
hours. ,

After the burfting of the membranes, there is ufually a
fufpenfion of the pains for the {pace of ten or fifteen mi-
nutes, when they are again renewed, and the head of the
child is forced down, until it preffes againft the perineum
and the os externum, or outward orifice. In defcending to
this pofition, the head of the child makesa half turn, to
bring the forehead to the facrum, the hind-head to tke
pubes of the mother. The perineum of the woman he-
comes now fo much diftended, that the diftance from the
edge or frenum of the os externum to the anus amourts to
three niches, or more. The pains now become more ftrong
and frequent, diftending and enlarging the os externum,
until it is fufficiently opened to allow a paflage for the head
of the child, which is at length forced into the world, when
it is ufual to fay the head of the child is born. The pains
are now again fufpended for the fpace of ten or fifteen mi-
nutes, during which time the fundus uteri gradually con-
tracts, until it comes again into contaé& with the breech of
the foetus. ‘T'wo, three, or more pains are required to
expel the fhoulders; and as many more to bring the re-

R 2 mainder

LABOUR.

mainder of the body of the child into the world. The child
being born, the woman now enjoys a degree of happinefs,
of which, if it be her firft child, fhe had never been con-
{cious before. But her trouble is not completely over; for
at the end of fifteen, twenty, or a few more minutes, frefh
pains arife, but not fo violent as thofe fhe had before ex-
perienced. By thefe the placenta is gradually loofened
from the uterus, and thruft down into the vagina, and at
length expelled from the body.

After the birth of the child, but particularly after that of
the placenta, there is a confiderable difcharge of blood,
particularly from the placenta, but, principally, from the
uterus. This is called the lochia, and it continues flowing,
in greater or: lefs. plenty, for five, fix, or more days; di-
minifhing every day in quantity, and becoming thinner and
paler, and is at length colourlefs. This is occafioned by
the gradual contraction of the veffels of the uterus, which
continues until that vifcus is reduced to nearly the fize it
was before the woman conceived.

With firft children, and, in a few inftances, with fubfe-
quent births, this contraétion of the uterus goes on almoft
imperceptibly to the woman, moreordinarily pains are excited,
fimilar to labour pains, and are called after-pains. As they
are not attended with danger, and generally fubfide, and en-
tirely ceafe by the end of three or four days, it is not often
found neceflary to attempt appeafing them by medicines ;
but when they are unufually frequent and violent, prevent-
ing fleep, they may be quieted by opening the bowels with
fome purging medicine, as cattor oil, an infufion “of fenna,
with fome of the neutral falts, or by an emollient and
opening clyiter, and at night giving a draught with ten,
fifteen, or twenty drops of the tincture of opium.

The above is the ufual progrefs of a natural labour, but
there is a great variety in the number, itrength, and fre-
quency of the pains required for the expulfion of the child
in different women, as well as in the time taken in complet-
ing the labour, which in fome women is effe@ted ina few
minutes, and with very little pain; more ordinarily, it
takes from two to fix, eight, orten hours. In fome cafes,
when the pains are tardy, the term may be extended to
twenty-four hours. If delayed beyond that time, the la-
bour will be denominated laborious or difficult, as fome
affiftance will be required to haften the birth, leit the foft
parts of the mother fhould be hurt, or the itrength of the
child exhauited, by its too long continuance in a ttraightened
fituation.

During the progrefs of the labour, the woman is to be
allowed to be fitting, walking, or lying down, as fhe feels
herfelf moft difpofed. The friends about her, and perhaps
the nurfe, generally advife her to hold in her breath, and to
prefs down as ftrongly as fhe can with every pain, and to
enable her to do this, they are inceffant in offering her cau-
dle, or other heating drinks. But thefe things are not only
unneceffary, but likely todo mifchief. The accoucheur or
midwife will therefore interpofe his advice. They mutt take
eare to keep the room coo’, and not permit more than one or
two of the friends of the woman to bein the room toge-
‘sher. They may affure the parturient woman, that the pains
are of themfelves fufficient for the expulfion of the child,
and that by endeavouring to increafe their force, fhe will
only unneceflarily fatigue herfelf; and that by taking warm
fpiced drinks, fhe will become hot and feverifh, the parts
will become more irritable and tender to the touch, whence
fhe will indeed {uffer more pain, but the birth of the child,
inftead of being accelerated, will be retarded, and rendered
more difficult.

To afluage her thisft, if that fhould be troublefome, toaft

and water, baum-tea, or any fimilar beverage, will be much»
more ufeful than wine or other heating drinks.
If the is coftive, and feels uneafinefs from that caufe, an
emollient and gently opening clylter may be advantage-
oufly adminiftered. When the pains become more ftrong
and frequent, and from the complaints of the woman it is
apparent that the head of the child is fatt defcending, it will:
then be proper that the woman be laid on the bed, either on
one fide or at the foot of it, according as the nurfe has ar-.
rangedit. The ufual and moft convenient pofture for the:
woman is, that of lying on her left fide, her head and.
fhoulders raifed, her knees drawn up to her belly, and with)
her feet fupported ou the knees of an affiftant, or prefling
againit the bed-poft. She is now to be covered with fuch a:
portion of the bed-clothes, as the feafon of the year, or the
temperature of the air, may feem to render neceflary. The:
accoucheur will fit down behind her, and taking advantage
of a pain, he will introduce his fore-finger into the os exter-:
num, which, if the labour is as far advanced as has been
fuppofed, he will find on the full {tretch, and the perineum
much diftended. This is the only part in which the affiftant
need or ought to give any manual affiftance in a natural
labour. It will now be his duty to endeavour, with the: °
greateft care and diligence, to prevent a rupture of the:
frenum, and of the perineum, which may happen if the:
head of the child fhould be a'lowed to pafs into the world
with too much rapidity. This diftrefling accident, which,,
when the rupture is confiderable, extending to the anus,
is hardly remediable by any art, rarely happens but with a.
firft child, nor often perhaps with firlt children, but when
means have been ufed, early in labour, to accelerate the birth..
With the view of preventing it, if, on examination, the os
externum and the perineum fhall be found to be ftrongly:
prefled upon, and diftended during the pains, and yieldmg:
with difeulty, the accoucheur muft ferioufly admonifh the
woman to moderate her exertions, affuring her, at the fame
time, that the child wiil f{peedily be born. During the
pains he‘muit furround the part of the head of the child
which protrudes, or is in the world, with the fingers and
thumb of his right hand, the points of them reiting on the
edge of the osexternum. In this po&tion, the end of his
thumb will touch the frenum, the part likely to give way
firft. If he finds that part fo much diitended as to be in
danger of buriting, he will refit the further defcent of the
head during the pain. This operation will be aflilted, by
keeping his left hand, covered with a cloth, firmly prefled
upon the diftended perineum. When one-half of the head
of the child has, by this cautious procedure, been conducted
into the world, the accoucheur will find the occiput of the’
child rifing upwards, turning on the pubes of the woman,
and drawing the forehead and face from under the perineum.
The head cf the child being born, it is ufual with midwives
to draw the fhoulders and the reft of the body foon after.
But experience has fhewn, that it is fafer and better to wait
for the return of the pains, as during the fufpenfion of them,
which lafts, as has been before mentioned, fifteen or twenty
minutes, the fundus of the uterus contracts and defcends
until it comes again in contact with the breech of the child.
By this means the finufes and veffels of the uterus are gradu«
ally emptied, and diminifhed in fize, whence one of the caufes
of inordinate hemorrhage is removed, at the fame time'the
placenta is loofened and prepared for itsexit. The firlttwo
or three pains occurring after the birth of the head of the
child, are ufually expended in giving a favourable turn to
the fhoulders, vx. in bringing one of them to the pubes, and
one to the facrum of the mother; they are then gradually
forced into: the world, and foon after the reft of the body
% the

LABOUR.

the aceoucheur ufing the fame precautions in fupporting the
perineum, as has been recommended during the paflage of
the. head.

The child ufually announces its birth, oe ing more or
lefs violently according to its {trength. This ferves to open
the veffels, and to facilitate the circulation of the blood
through the iungs. The child may be allowed to lie fome
minutes under the clothes, before feparating it from the pla-
centa, taking care that none of the clothes lie upon its face,
which might impede its refpiration. In that interval the af-
fiftant sill lay his hand upon the abdomen of the mother,
which, if there fhould be another child, he will find nearly
as much diltended as it was in the commencement of the
labour. In that cafe, it will be neceflary, having previoufly
difpofed of the firft child, that he make a ligature on the end
of the funis, which hangs out of the vagina of the woman,
but he is on no account to make any effort to bring away the
placenta or membranes, which are ufually found to be ad-
herent to thofe containing the twin. As foon as the pains
re-commence, which they ufually do at the end of three or
four hours, (though fometimes they do not return until fix,
eight, ten, or more hours,) the accoucheur will pafs the
fore-finger of the right hand into the os uteri, to difcover the
pofition of the foetus. If tne head prefents, he will conduct
the labour in the manner above defcribed, but as the parts
have been previoufly completely opened, there will be lefs
difficulty to the woman, and lefs danger of any accident
happening to the perineum. If the face, or any other part
than the head of the child fhould prefent, it will be neceflary
that he immediately proceed to turn the child, and deliver
it by the feet, in the manner to be defcribed under the ar-
ticle Lasour, Preternaiural. Ifthere fhould not bea fecond
child, the abdomen, particularly the upper part of it, will be
found loofe and flaccid, and the accoucheur will perceive
the fundus uteri contratted to the fize of the head of a child.

The more the uterus is contraéted, and the lower it is
funk down in the abdomen, with fo much the greater eafe
and fafety the placenta will be expelled. The affiftant will
now make a ligature upon the funis umbilicalis, or navel-
ftring, about five inches from its infertion into the navel of
the child, and having done this he will, with a fharp pair of
feiffors, divide the navel-flring, about an inch beyond the
ligature, leaving the other end of the funis hanging out of
the vagina. Having then examined the child to tee that it is
perfect, and that no blood efcapes through the ligature or
the funis, he will place it in a proper receiver (a flannel cap
being firft put upon its head) and deliver it to the nurfe.
By this time, or foon after, the woman will have a bearing
pain, preffing down the placenta, or perhaps, at firft, only
forcing away a clot of blood. During this and fubfequent
pains, the affiftant will aid their effe&t, by drawing down the
funis. If, after waiting twenty or thirty minutes, the pla-
centa fhould not come away, he will pafs his fingers, or, if
neceflary, his hand, into the vagina, until he gets hold of the
placenta, and by this means he will ufually eafily extraét it.
It fometimes happens, though rarely, if the labour has been
properly condu¢ted, that the cervix of the uterus contraéts,
and prevents the defcent of the placenta, and fometimes the
placenta continues adherent to one fide, or to the fundus
of the uterus, long after the birth of the child. In either
cafe, the accoucheur muft pafs one of his hands, gradually
and flowly up into the uterus, until it reaches the placenta,
whieri the fingers, and by degrees the whcle hand, mutt be
infinuated between the placenta and the uterus, until it
be completely feparated ; it mutt then be brought down
by the vagina, whence it will be eafily extracted by the

unis. pthioe

.

In this cafe the difcharge of blood will be fometimes fo
great, ds to endanger the life of the woman. This accident
rarely happens but when the birth has been improperly and
prepotteroufly accelerated, by giving affiftance, as it is called,
in the early part of the labour; that is, by dilating the os
internum and vagina during the pains, to make room for the
head of the child to come down ; by giving the woman hot
and ftimulating drinks to increafe the pains, and by advifing
her to bear down ftrongly during the pains, As the uterus
may from exhaultion have become torpid, and not difpofed
to contract, fo as to leffen the capacity or fize of the blood-
veflels, large flannels wrung out of cold water, to which
about a fourth part of vinezar has been gdded, fhould be
laid over the abdomen, and over the os externum of the wo-
man. Thefe applications muft be renewed every five or fix
minutes, or as often as they become warm, and they will
ufually have the effect of exciting the aétion of the fibres
of the uterus, on which the cure eptir ly depends. In the
mean while the woman is to be kept, if pratticable, in a
quiet and eafy pofture, her head only moderately raifed, and
covered with a fingle blanket, the door, or one of the win-
dows of the room being opened, and every five or fix mi-
nutes fhe fhould take a fpoonful or two of a mixture, con-
fifting of fix ounces of diflilled water, half an ounce of
{pirit of nutmegs, as much fyrup of red poppies, fifteen
drops of the tin¢ture of opium, and as much of the vitriolic
acid as will make it, grateful to the palate. By thefe means -
the heat of the body will be diminifhed, and the rapidity
of the circulation checked. When the pulfe, which was
fcarcely to be perceived while the difcharge was violent,
begins to acquire ftrength, and on examination it appears that
little or no blood now flows from the vagina, the cold and
wet cloths may be removed, the proper clothes may be put
upon the woman, and fhe may then be placed in the bed in
fuch a pofition as may be moft agreeable to herfelf,

The procefs by which a child is produced, or brought into:
the world, is with great propriety called /zbour, as it is
rarely effected without confiderable exertion, which has the
ufual effect, that of exhaufting the itrength and fpirits of
the woman. ‘Thefe are to be recruited in the fame manner
as if the wafte had been occafioned by any other kind of
exercife ; viz by reft, and by taking a moderate portion of
plain and fimple food at fmall intervals. In the choice of
their food, the women may generally be allowed to confult
their own taites, which will rarely, at fuch times, incline
them to fpiced meats, or to drinks that are heating. It will
be proper that they be kept in a recumbent pofture for the
firlt four or five days, only leaving their beds fo long as may
be fufficient to open and refrefh them. By that time the
veffels of the uterus will be fo much contraGed,. as to re-
move all danger of hemorrhage, or of an inconvenient de-
fcent of that vifcus, which is fometimes the confequence of
leaving the bed too early, It is proper alfo, on the fecond,
or at the lateft, on the third day after being delivered, to
procure ftools, either by fuch purging medicines as have
been before defcribed, or by giving a clyfter. By this
means the fever which is ufuaily excited by. the fecretion of
the milk will be moderated. his, which is called the mil
fever, is of fhort duration, lafting only three or four days,
and is not attended with danger. In the cure nothing is
required but to keep the body open, and to fupply the
patient with diluting drinks, taken warm, with the view of
inducing a gentle perfpiration. The child fhould be put to
the brealls a few hours after the completion of the labour,
that it may get fome mouthfuls of the thin whey-like
fluid which is at firft fecreted. This will ftimulate its
bowels, and’enable them to difcharge the meconium, or black

vilcid ;

LABOUR.

vifcid excrements with which they are always filled. It will
alfo keep the breafts of the mother from being too much
diftended, the, pain occafioned by which, if it is not the
caufe, yet it certainly tends to increafe the milk-fever.

But there is another fever to which women are at this time
fubjected, which is attended with confiderable danger, and
which not unfrequently proves fatal. Itis called, from an
opinion that it is peculiar to this ftate, the puerperal-fever.
Its commencement is almoft always marked by a itrong fhi-
vering fit, which is followed by a quick pulfe, head-ache,
Jaffizude, and dejeétion of the fpirits, It fometimes makes
its attack during the labour, more frequently on the next
or fubfequent day. It is fometimes miltaken for the milk-
fover, but belides that its attack is earlier than that of the
milk-fever, which never comes on until the third day after
delivery, the fecretion of the milk is in this fever inter-
rupted, and the breatts, inftead of being full and turgid,
remain flaccid. From after pains, with which it is {ometimes
confounded, it is to be diftinguifhed by the quicknefs of
the pulfe, arifing yéry foon to 120 ftrokes in a minute, by
the head-ache, naufea, and other concomitants of fever.
Tendernefs of the abdomen, increafing to extreme forenefs
and pain, foon come on, which are increafed by drawing in
the breath, and are rendered almoft intolerable by coughing.
As there is always a high degree of inflammation of the
peritoneum prefent in this fever, and perhaps of fome of
the contained vifcera, we cannot be too early in taking away
eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood from the arm, accord-
ing to the ftrength of the patient. If the abdomen appears
diftended, attended with forenefs and pain, fix or eight
Yeeches may be advantageoufly applied to that part, which
may be afterwards fomented with flannels wrung out of a
deco&tion of camomile and marfh-mallows moderately heated,
and then covered with a poultice made with linfeed-meal.
A draught with infufion of fenna and fome neutral falt
may be given to procure two or three ftools. The bowels
may afterwards be kept open, and the pain relieved by
giving a drachm of purging falt with two or three drops
of the tin@ure of opium, in a fafficiency of water to dif-
folve the falt, every two or three hours. There are few
cafes that will require or bear a repetition of the bleeding.
If, however, the pulfe fhould appear to be {trong, and the
pain, with the difficulty in breathing, require it, that may be
done on the fecond or third day, and a blifter may be ap-
plied over the part of the abdomen which is mott diltreffed.
A blilter applied to the nape of the neck, fucceeds remark-
ably in relieving the pain of the head. There is rarely deli-
rium, at the leaft not to any confiderable degree, attending
this fever. The patient fhould be nourifhed with hght
broths, panada, and fuch like mild food, and drink barley-
water, gruel, baum-tea, toal! and water, or, where pre-
ferred, table-beer. By perfifting in the ufe of thefe reme-
dies, the fever is frequently fubdued by the end of four,
five, or fix days, when recourfe may be had to a light de-
coétion or infufion of Peruvian bark, Columho, or fome
other tonic taken twice in the day to recruit the {trength.
"Yoo often, however, thefe and all other means that have
been devifed prove infufficient, and the patient dies, fome-
times as early as the third or fourth day ; at others, not
until the fixth, eighth, tenth, or twelfth day. Puerperal
fever is by no means to be confidered as folely the confe-
quence of tedious and difficult parturition ; it full as often
makes its attack after natural, eafy, and expeditious labours,
en which account it was thought proper to delineate the
hittory and treatment of it here, rather than at the end of
this diflertation.

Puerperal fever occurring in lying-in-hofpitals, or where a

great number of fick or wounded perfons are confined, at
fome times, that is, under certain difpofitions and tempera-
tures of the atmofphere, becomes infectious, almoft every
perfon delivered in the ward where the fever rages partaking
of it in a greater or lefs degree. At fuch times, a larger
proportion than ufual of thofe who are delivered in their own
houfes are fubjeéted to it. When it has made its way into
a lying-in ward, the women fhould be removed, and fepa-
rated, where it can be fafely done, and no more perfons ad-
mitted until the ward has been weil ventilated and purified.
It is recommended, that the floors be feoured, the walls and
cielings fcraped and lime-wafhed ; that the beds be taken
down, and the bed-clothes, and the whole room be expoled
to the vapour of burning fulphur, or fumigated with the
vapour of the marine or nitric acid. All this may with
fafety and propriety be done, but experience does not war-
rant us in faying that they have any effect in extinguifhing
the fever, which, like the yellow fever, or the plague, does
not, it is pre»able, quit the places where it has made its
appearance, until the temperature, or other quality of the
atmofphere, to which, perhaps, it owed its origin, is
changed,

It fometimes happens that women are troubled with hz-
morrhage, or difcharges of blood from the uterus, during
pregnancy, recurring at intervals of two, three, four, or
more weeks... Such difcharges happering early, that is,
within the firft, fecond, or third month of geflation, ufually
terminate in abortion, which fee. When the hemorrhage
makes its firft appearance in the fifth or fixth month, or
later, if it is not very violent or frequent, the woman may
go onto the end of her term. The immediate caufe of the
difcharge is a partial feparation of the placenta from the
uterus ; and it may be occafioned by taking too much exer-
cife, by reaching down any article placed at an inconvenient
height, by frequenting affemblies or crowded rooms, by
dancing, alfo by any fudden fright or alarm, or by falls,
blows, or other accidents. To whatever caufe hemorrhage

may owe its origin, it is only to be reltrained, and the ill

effects of it to be prevented, by reft and retirement, and by
avoiding all occafions of exertion; by keeping the air of
the room of a moderate temperature, and uling a diet that
is plain, fimple, and eafy ot digettion, If coltive, the
body fhould be kept open by the ufe of mild cathartics, or
glyfters. When a contrary habit of body prevails, and the
patient is dilturbed with purging and griping pains in the
bowels, a dram of any purging falt diflolved in two or three
fpoonfuls of water, with three or four drops of the tinéture
of opium, given every two er three hours, rarely fails of
appeafing the tumult, and of re{training the hemorrhages
But though the difcharge may by thefe means be checked,
it will return on the commencement of labour ; on which it
will have fo much influence, that even when the prefenta-
tion of the child fhould be fuch as to bring it under the clafs
of natural labour, yet it will be neceflary, in conduéting it
to its termination, to deviate confiderably from the rules
that have in thofe cafes been recommended.

On examining, it will be found that the os uteri, in the
earlieft ftage ef the labour, is more open, foft, and yield-
ing, than in ordinary cafes; the pains are alfo generally kefs
bearing and efficient. It will therefore be proper to affilt.
in dilating the opening, by gently moving the end of the
fore-finger round. its edge. Lf it is the head of the child
that is coming down, which will be eafily perceived through
the membranes, and the difcharge of blood is not conitant,
or very confiderable, it will be beft to let it come in that
polture ; continuing, at intervals, to affift in dilating the os
uteri. When that orifice is cémpletely dilated, fo as to ade

5 mit

a

LABOUR.

mit the head of the child, the membranes may be opened, by

feratching them with the nail of the fore-tinger, that the

‘ waters may be difcharged. This will enable the uterus to
contraét, and prefs the placenta again{t the head or body of
the child, and fo itop the further effufion of blood. The
completion of the labour may now be effected by the pains,
as in common cafes. The placenta being in part detached,
ufually comes down foon after the birth of the child. If,
however, it fhould be delayed, and the difcharge of ,blood
continue, it may be brought away in the manner before de-
feribed. But when the difcharge of blood is fo confiderable
as to endanger the life of the woman, (and this will be the
eafe when the placenta is placed near to, or, as it fometimes
happens, part of it lies over the os uteri,) then it will be
neceflary, even althouch the child is coming down in a na-
tural pofture, as foon as the os uteri is fufficiently dilated,
to break the membranes, or to pierce through the placenta,
and gradually and flowly to pafs firft the fingers, and then
the whole of the hand through the rupture into the bag, and
to take hold of the feet of the child, and bring them down
into the vagina. Time muft then be given that the uterus
may contract, fo as to prefs upon the head and fhoulders of
the child, when the labour mutt be completed in the manner
deferibed under the next article.

It fometimes happens that, on the burfting of the mem-
branes, the funis umbilicalis or navel-{tring falls down into
the vagina, before the head or other part of the child that
prefents. In this cafe, it has been ufual to recommend that
the prolapfed funis be folded in a piece of foft linen, and
returned into the uterus: but experience has fhewn, that
however carefully this be done, it conitantly returns ‘n a
few minutes. If the accoucheur fhould be prefent at the
time of the rupture of the membranes, or foon after, and
find a pulfation in the navel-ftring,—a fure fign that the child
is living, he will then, in whatever pofture the child may
happen to prefent, treat it as a preternatural labour; that
is, he will pafs his hand into the uterus, and turn the child,
and bring it by its feet: for if the butinefs be left to nature,
the preflure on the funis will put a ftop to the circulation of
the blood, and the child will die long before it would be
expelled by the pains.

In fome irritable conftitutions, the women become con-
vulfed inthe courfe of the labour. This accident more fre-
quently occurs with firit than with fubfequent children. At
whatever time convulfions make their attack, they never com-
pletely leave the woman until the labour is over, and fome-
times not until the next or fubfequent day. In very mild
cafes, the brain feems but little affe@ted by the convulfions,
which partake of the nature of hytteric complaints. Thefe
cafes are eafily curable, or give way fportaneoufly when the

_ labour is completed. More commonly the convulfions are
attended with coma, and other affeCtions, indicating oppref-
fion on the brain. Thefe are of more difficult management,
and often prove fatal even under the molt cautious and judi-

‘cious treatment. Of whatever nature, or from whatever
caufes puerperal convulfions may proceed, they affilt very
much in forcing down the child.

At whatever petiod or fate of the labour the accoucheur
may be called in, he will generally find it expedient to take
away fix, eight, ten, or twelve ounces of blood from the
arm; and in the fpace of two hours after, (unlefs the child
is coming into the world,) this fhould be followed by a
clyfter to empty the bowels. After the operation of the
cly iter, from twenty to thirty drops of the tincture of opium
may be advantageoufly given, which will generally fucceed
in making‘ the fits lefs frequent and violent. The labour
mu{t now be conducted in the fame manner it would have

been, if it had not been interrupted by the convulfions. Tf
the child prefents in a natural pofture, and the pelvis of the
woman is of the natural form and dimenfions, it will be
found that the convulfions have affifted much in dilating the os
internum, and in accelerating the completion of the labour.
If any other part than the head of the child prefents, as
foon as the internal orifice is fufficientty dilated, the ac-
coucheur will pafs his hand into the uterus, and turn the
child, and bring it by its feet. If, on the other hand; the
birth of the child fhould be retarded, rendered difficult, or
impoffible, without the aid of inftruments, from diftortion
of the bones cf the pelvis, the accoucheur will ufe the lever,
forceps, or crotchet, whichever fhall be required, in the
manner directed under the article Lazoun, dificult.

Lasour, Preternatural. In all preternatural labours,

the defcent of the uterus and the dilatation of its orifice pro-
ceed more flowly than in natural labours: hence it often
happens that the part of the child prefenting cannot be dif-
tinétly perceived, even though the woman has been feveral
hours in pain. If, therefore, on examining a woman in
labour, during a pain, whofe pelvis is of a proper form and
-dimenfion, no part of the child can be perceived, the ac
coucheur may be aflured that it is fome other part than the
head that is coming down. Nothing, however, will be ne-
ceflary to be done in this cafe, until the child is fo far thrut
down by the pains, and the os uteri is fo much dilated, as to
enable him to perceive the prefenting part through the
membranes, or until, by the burfting of the membranes, and
the difcharge of a part of the liquor amnii or waters, a part
of the child is forced into the pelvis. Ifthe breech, or one
or both of the lower extremities are coming down, the
operator will leave the expulfion of the child principally to
the effe&ts of the pains, only giving the affifance directed
under the articles Breecn and Feet Prefentations. But if
the fhoulder, arm, breaft, or any portion of the upper part
of the trunk of the child fhail be found to have entered the
os uteri, by the general confent of practitioners, the child
mutt be turned, and extra¢ted by the fect. To effeét this,
the accoucheur will immediately, and before the whole of
the waters are drained away, pafs his hand flowly and pra-
dually into the uterus, until he comes to the feet of the
child, which will often be found at or near the fundus, and’
grafping them in his handy bring them down into the vagina ;
then pauling a little while, {till holding the feet in his hand,
he will, by another effort, bring them through the os ex-
ternum, or into the world.
* This operation, if undertaken foon after the burfting of the
membranes, will generally be performed with great eafe and
fafety, and with little pain to the woman: but if it be not
begun until the waters are entirely evacuated, and the uterus
is contra&ted, and come into clofe conta& witlr the body of
the child, it will require a much greater degree of force to
introduce a hand fo far into the uterus, as to be enabled to
take hold of the feet of the child; and the whole of the de-
livery wili be attended with much more pain, difficulty, and
hazard.

From a due confideration of thefe circumitances, the fol~
lowing praCtical inference may be drawn, viz. that when-
ever, on examining a woman in the commencement of la-
bour, no part of the child can be felt, or, if felt, not fo
diftiné&tly as to enable the accoucheur to decide whether it is
the head that is prefenting, he fhould by no means leave the
woman, or be far abfent from her, that he may. be at hand
to turn the child, if neceffary, foon after the buriting of the
membranes. But fuppofing this opportunity to have been
neglected, or the accoucheur not to be fent for, until nearly

the whole of the liquor amnii or waters are drained off, pee
c

LABOUR.

the uterus has contraéted fo as to come into contact with,
and {tri€tly to embrace the body of the child, yet, even in
thefe cafes, if the pelvis of the woman is of the proper form
and dimenfions, and the child is not difproportionably large,
by proceeding flowly and cautioufly in the manner about to
be defcribed, the relittance of the uterus may be overcome,
and the delivery effected with perfect fafety to the mother
and child.

Method of turning a Child in the Uterus, in preternatural
Labours, and bringing it by the Feet.—'The woman being
laid acrofs the bed, on her left fide, with her knees drawn
up to her belly, a woman fitting on the fide of the bed, to
hold her feet, and keep her fteady, the accoucheur mutt in-
troduce, firft one, then a fecond, third, and fourth finger of
either of his hands, anointed with hog’s lard, into the vagina,
which he will gradually dilate, fo as to make room for his
whole hand, with which he will {till further dilate the paf-
fage. Then, paufing a little while, until the ftraining, on
the part of the woman, which the introduétion of his hand
will have occafioned, fhall have fubfided, he muft again puth
his hand gently upwards, until it has paffed the brim of the
pelvis and entered the uterus; then, again paufing until the
woman ceafes to {train down, he muft again pufh his hand
upwards in the intervals between the pains or {trainings of
the woman, until he reaches one or both of the feet of the
ehild, at which time the whole of his arm nearly, to the
elbow, will be in the paflage.

When the refiftance of the uterus has been very great, it
fometimes happens that the hand of the operator is fo
cramped and benumbed, that he has no power to grafp and
bring down the feet of the child. In that cafe, he muit flowly
and gradualty withdraw his hand, and wait fome minutes
until he has recruited his ftrength, and the woman is a little
refrefhed, and then re-introduce the fame, or his other hand,
with whichever he thinks (from the knowledge he has now
acquired of the pofition of the child in the uterus) he fhall
be beft able to complete the delivery. ‘This re-introduction
of his hand he will be able to effe€t much more eafily than
before, the uterus being fomewhat ftretched and loofened
by his former effort. He will now feduloufly endeavour to
get hold of, and bring down, both the feet of the child;
but if that is abfolutely impracticable, he muft be contented
with one of them, which he will bring down flowly, and by
intervals, as he had introduced his hand. It will fometimes
happen that the operator will not be able in this way to
bring the foot into the world, the contraction of the uterus
around the body of the child being fo confiderable, as
to prevent its turning by any ‘effort he can make in this
way. He mutt then withdraw his hand, and, after recruit-
ing his ftrength, return it again into the vagina, with a noofe
or fillet over it, until he has got hold of the foot of the child,
and then, with the fingers of his other hand, pufh up the
enoofe until it paffes the ankle of the child, by which means
he will have a double purchafe ; then drawing down with
the end of the fillet that hangs out of the vagina with one
hand, and with the other grafping and pulling down the
foot, he will ufually, in a few minutes, fucceed in bringing
the leg of the child through the external orifice.

The operator may now again pafs his hand up into the
uterus to fearch for the other foot of the child, and bring it
alfo down ; or, not fucceeding in this attempt, he will wrap
the leg that is in the world in a foft cloth, and draw it down-
ward iteadily with both his hands, and with fufficient force
to bring the breech of the child into the vagina: He will
now paufe a few minutes, both to allow the woman to recover
her ftrength and {pirits, and to give time for the uterus to
contract, and come again in contact with the head and

trunk of the childs then, renewing his efforts, he will cor-
tinue drawing down the thigh, until the breech has freed
the external orifice. He muit now examine the pofture of
the child, and if the fore-part of the child lays to the pubes
of the mother, he will turn it round to the facrum; then
taking hold of the breech with both his hands, he will con-
tinue drawing downward fteadily, at the fame time moving
it from fide to fide, until the whole of the body is born ; he
will then pafs a finger firft along one, and then the other arm
of the child, to the joints of the elbows, and draw them
down, and if the child be now living, which may be known
by a pulfation being felt in the navel-itring, he will haften
the birth, drawing down fteadily and ftrongly by the
fhoulders. If he finds miuch refiftance, with a view ee
lerating the birth of the head, he muft pafs the fore-finger
of his left-hand along the back part of the vagina to the
mouth of the child, and draw down the under-jaw, at the
fame time that he extraéts by the fhoulders with his right-
hand. The child being born, he will complete the delivery,
in the manner direéted under the article Lazour, Natural.
Some writers and teachers of midwifery are very particular
in prefcribing the pofture in which the woman fhould be
laced as moft convenient for the operator in. turning a
child, which they think fhould vary according to the pofi-
tion of the child in the uterus, as whether the face or fore-
parts of the child be turned to the back, belly, or one of the
fides of the mother ; they alfo, from the fame circumftances,
determine which hand will be moft proper for the accoucheur
to ufe in performing the operation. But as the exact pofi-
tion of the child can rarely or never be known until the
operator has a¢tually introduced his hand into the uterus,
there feems no neceflity for embarrafling him with regula-
tions of this kind. ‘The moft convenient pofture will gene-
rally be found to be that in which women are ufually placed
ina natural labour, and, as has been now defcribed, viz. ly-
ing on her left fide, with her knees drawn up towards her
belly, her feet in the lap of an affiftant. In refpeét to
which hand the operator fhould ufe, he will be guided by
eircumilances, or by his habit or cuftom: moit perfons ufing
one of their hands more dextroufly than the other. The
moft important rule is, that the whole operation be performed
flowly and gradually. Other writers have advifed that we
by no means attempt to turn a child in the uterus, fo long
as the woman continues to have pains, left the uterus fhould
be ruptured. But as, at every pain, the uterus contracts,
becomes thicker, embraces the body of the child clofer, as
well as thrufts the prefenting part lower into the pelvis, it
is evident that by waiting the difficulty of performing the
operation will be increafed. It will be fufficient, in addi-
tion to what has been faid of the ngceffity of proceeding
flowly and leifurely, to warn the operator only to pufh his
hand on in the intervals of the pains.
It was fuppofed, by the early praCtitioners of midwifery,
that when an arm of the child prefented, and became con-

fiderably {welled, which it always is, when it has con- »

tinued long in the vagina, that it fo filled up the paflage, as
to add very much to the difficulty of paffing a hand into the
uterus, and fometimes even rendered it impoffible to be done,
until the arm was removed ; and, accordingly, it was pretty
much the praétice in the beginning of the laft century, firit
to attempt returning the arm into the uterus, but as that
was rarely or never practicable, it was ufual in thefe cafes
io make an incifion through the integuments, under the

arm-pits of the child, with a pair of fciflors, or a fealpel, .

and then twilt off the limb; and in this mutilated ftate the
children were fometimes born alive. This praétice has long
fince been abolifhed; experience having fhewn, that the

obftacle

LABOUR.

obftacle oppofed by the tumid arm is very inconfiderable,
only affecting the firft part of the operation, and by perfe-
verance is ealily overcome. + J

* We have been lately told, by a praétitioner of eminence,
that when an arm or fhoulder prefents, and, by the conti-
nuance of the pains, has been thruft fo low into the pelvis,
that it is abfolutely impraCticable to turn the child (where
the pelvis of the mother is too narrow to admit the hand of
the operator, we prefume the writer means), that by pafling
a blunt hook over the neck of the child, and drawing down
ftrongly to feparate the vertebrz of the neck, and then twilt-
ing the hook round, the integuments of the neck will break,
and the head be diffevered from the body, which may after-
wards be drawn away with the crotchet. From the facility
with which this operation is faid to be performed, it is to
be feared, that perfons of lefs fkill and fagacity than the
writer here alluded to, may be tempted to try the experi-
ment onchildren fuppofed to be dead, but which are not fo,
or when there is fufficient room in the pelvis to bring away the
child without mutilating it, and thus fome lives be loft that
might otherwife be preferved. This operation, therefore,
fhould never be performed but in confultation.

It has in a few cafes happened, when an arm or fhoulder
prefents and enters firft into the pelvis, and the woman has
been negleéted, or the affiftant, not being ealled in time,
was not able to turn the child, that by the continuance of
the uterine contractions, or pains, the breech has been
gradually forced down, the head and fhoulders receding
and mounting upwards, and in this pollure, viz. breech
foremolt, the child has been expelled. This turning of the
child in the uterus, by the fole agency of the pains, has
been called by Dr. Denman the fpontaneous evolution of
the foetus, and it has fometimes happened, we are told, that
the child has, in this way, come into the world alive. It is
well, as Dr. Denman juttly obferves, to know thefe facts,
as in fome extreme cafes it may afford confolation both to
the patient and the attendant ; but the exiflence of the
uterus muit be very great indeed to induce a practitioner,
who regards either his fame or his feelings, to trult to fuch
an event, as in a great majority of cafes the child would be
loft, and not uncommonly the woman would lofe her life

fo,

? It fometimes alfo happens, in cafes where the arm, fhoulder,
or breaft of the child prefents, and the expulfion of it has
been left entirely to the pains, that at the end of many hours,
or of two or three days continued labour, the child becomes
foft and putrid, and inftead of making the evolution de-
{cribed, is thruit down through the pelvis, and into the world
doubled, the head lying on the breatt or back, and yet the
woman has furvived, ;

This, however, is rather to be expeéted in premature births,
that is, when the woman is only advanced five, fix, or feven
months in pregnancy. At thefe periods, particularly at the
two firit, it will generally be right to let the fcetus come
into the world in whatever pofture it may prefent ; as both
the lin.bs of the foetus are then too tender to bear any con-
fiderable degree of force or extenfion, and the capacity of
the uterus is too ftraight to admit the introduction of the
hand of the operator to turn the foetus, and deliver it by the
feet.

~ Labours of the third and laft clafs are thofe which are
called dificult or laborious. Thefe vary much in degree,
according as the caufes vary. When the difficulty is folely
occafioned by a mal-prefentation of the head of the child,
as when it offers by its face, or by one ear, the head will be
frequently forced down in that polture by the pains, and
very little more affiltance will be neceflary than what is given

Vor. XX,

in natural labours, from which it will only differ by its re-
quiring a greater number of pains, and taking up a longer
{pace of time for its completion. The faine will happen
when the birth is retarded by a difproportion between the
head of the child and the pelvis through which it is to pats ;
that is, when a woman whofe pelvis is {mall, but perfe& in
its form, produces a large child, or when the head of the
child is more than ufually offified. By the continued force
of the pains, the bones of the heads of the generality of chil-
dren, which do not ordinarily meet, or come in conta with
each other, will be prefled together until they ride, or lap
one over the other, and fometimes until the bead afumes
a conical form, the vertex being the apex or point of
the cone, and in this ftate it will come into the world, The
midwives are accuftomed to call the heads of children that
have been fo preffed, and altered in their fhape, meuld-fl.ot
heads, or horfe-fhoe moulds, and are bufy, when dreffing the
children, in forcing the bones back into their place’.’ But
this is not neceffary, the heads never failing, in time, to affume
their proper figure. Children who have been fubjeéted to
fuch a degree of preffure as to occafion an alteration in the
fhape of the fkull, fhould they be born alive, will generally
be found to be fo much weakened by the injury they have
fuffered, as not to be preferved without great care and diffi-
culty.

It has here been fuppofed, that the expulfion of the head of
the child has been left, as in natural labours, to the power
of the pains, which will generally be fufficient for the pur-
pofe ; but this will not happen, in fome cafes, until, by the
long detention of the head of the child in the paflage, the
foft parts of the woman fhall be fo bruifed and injured, by
the preffure they have fuffered, that fuppuration or mortifica-
tion of the vagina fhall enfue, penetrating into the bladder,
or rectum, and fometimes into both, making the vagina the
common channel for the urine and the ftools. T’o avoid
thefe diftrefling accidents, which, when they occur, admit ne
remedy, or are only in a {mall degree alleviated by time,
various contrivances have been invented to bring away the
head of the child, when it is enclavée, or fixed in the pelvis,
earlier than it would be forced away by the pains. Thofe
which have been preferred, and which are now almoft
univerfally ufed, are the forceps, the invention of Dr.
Hugh Chamberlen, and the lever of Roonhuyfen, (fee
the articles Forcers and Lrver,) the time and manner
of ufing which will now be defcribed.

In all cafes requiring the afliltance of inftruments to com-
plete the delivery, the progrefs of the labour will be found,
from its commencement, to be flower than in thofe labours
which are denominated natural. ‘The obfervation of this cir.
cumftance will induce the praGitioner to be careful that the
woman be kept cocl, and that no efforts be ufed to accelerate
or itrengthen the pains ; that fhe be encouraged from time
to time to void her urine; that her bowels be kept open by
clyfters, or by giving her a gently purging medicine, and
that ten or twelve drops of the tincture of opium be given
at night to procure fleep. By thefe means, (which mett be
purfued the fecond day alfo if neceffary,) her ftrength wiil
be preferved, and fhe wil be enabled to meet thé difliculties
fhe will have to encounter, Before the end of the fecord
day it will generally be found that the os uteri is completely
dilated, that the bafis, or largeit part of the head of the
child, has been forced into the brim of the pelvis, that the
membranes have burit, and that the greater part of the waters
has been difcharged, At this period, as if nature was tired
with the confli@, the pains ufally remit, both in frequency
and ftrength; it now, therefore, hecomes neceflary to watch
over the fafety of the woman, and if, at the end of two or

S three

LABOUR.

three hours, the head continues {till unmoved, to proceed,
(having previoufly informed the woman and her friends of
your intention,) to the ufe of the proper means for expediting
the delivery.

Manner of ufing the Forceps. — Having laid the woman on
the bed, in the ufual pofition, the accoucheur will fit down
behind her, and will introduce two or three fingers of his
right hand into the vagina, and continue pufhing them gently
upwards, until he feels an ear of the child, which will gene-
rally be found under, or near, the os pubis; he will then
take a blade of the forceps, previoufly anointed with lard,
and introduce it between his fingers, and the head of the
child, continuing to pufh it upwards until it pafs over the
ear, and fo on until the whole of the blade is in the vagina ;
he willthen withdraw his fingers, and raife the handle of the
forceps towards the pubes of the woman, while he introduces
the fecond blade in the ame cautious manner, direétly op-
polite tathe firit. He will then bring the handles together,
and lock them, and that they may not flip, he will confine
the handles together with a handkerchief, or any appro-
priate ligature. It generally happens, that the’force ufed in
applying the forceps gives frefh itrength to the pains.
During each pain the accoucheur will flowly, and gradually,
draw the handles of the forceps downwards, with his right
hand, moving them, at the fame time, from fide to fide,
keeping his left hand againft the perineum of the woman,
which he will, through the whole procefs, carefully guard,
to prevent, if poffible, its being ruptured, an accident more
likely to occur in firft, than in fublequent labours, Having
in this cautious manner extra¢ted the head of the child, the
remainder of the delivery will be conducted as directed under
the article Lanour, Natural.

Many prattitioners in thefe cafes prefer the ufe of the
lever, which may be confidered as a blade of the forceps,
and is to be introduced into the vagina between the fingers
of the accoucheur and the head of the child, as before cj-
re€ted, and pufhed on until it paffes over the ear of the
child, that lies under or near the pubes of the mother. The
accoucheur will then withdraw his fingers from the vagina,
and grafping the handle of the lever with his right hand, he
will, during every pain, raife it over the pubes, guarding
the perineum with his left hand, and continue this move-
ment from time to time, until the head of the child is
brovght into the world. The plain and fimple form of
this inftrument, and the greater facility with which it is
ufed, have given it a deferved preference over the for-
ceps. Fora fuller account of the manner of ufing the for-
ceps and lever, and for an account of their comparative
merit, the reader is referred to Dr. Denman’s valuable ‘Intro-
duétion to the Pra&tice of Midwifery, and for the hiftory of
the invention of the inftruments, to Dr. Bland’s Account of
the Invention and Ule of the Lever of Roonhuyfen, pub-
lifhed in the fecond volume of Medical Communications, in
the year 1790. Itis proper to obferve, that in all cafes in
which it becomes neceflary to have recourfe to the ufe of in-
ftruments to finifh the delivery of the child, and, in fa&, in
all lingering labours, the operator fhould pay particular at-
tention to the itate of the urinary bladder, and if the urine
has been fupprefled, he mult draw it off with a catheter, be-
fore he begins to operate.

In the cafes that have been defcribed, where the labour
has beenretarded, and rendered difficult by the caufes above
enumerated, the methods recommended will generally be
found to be-competent to bringing it to a conclufion, with-
out occafioning much injury to the mother or ta the child.
But when the obftacle arifes from diftortion of the bones of
the pelvis of the mothey, altering the fhape of the pelvis,

and diminifhing its capacity, means muft then be ufed to
leffen the volume or bulk of the head of the child, other-
wife both the mother and child muft inevitably perifh.
The perfons in whom this defeét in the pelvis 1s foundy.
are ufually fhort and delicate women, whofe grewth had been
checked in infancy by the rickets, or who had been confined,
too rigidly in their youth, toa fedentary poiture, in order to
acquire a proficiency in mufic, drawing, or fome other ac-
complifhment, and liad thence been prevented taking that
portion of exercife in the open air, which is neceffary Be the
growth and itrength, as well as for the health of the
body.

When called upon to attend a perfon labouring under this
infirmity, the accoucheur will find, on examining, the lower
vertebra of the loins, and the uppzr portion of the facrum,
projecting forward, fo as to prevent the head of the child
from entering the brim of the pelvis, and the offa ilia, which
form the fides of that cavity, approaching too near to each
other, thus ftraightening the capacity of the pelvis, and
changing its form from an oval to a triangular figure. On
his difcovering this derangement, it will be his duty to inform
the friend to the woman ofthe manner :n which he propofes
to conduct the labour, and of the neceffity he belicves there
will be of opening the head of the child, in order to preferve
the life of the mother. To the parturient woman he will
only fay, that the labour will be flow and tedious, that it
will be neceflary that fhe avoid all heating drinks, and that
fhe manage her {trength and her {pirits in the belt manner fhe
is able. The bowels muft be kept fupple and open by
clyfters, the urine mult be drawn off, iffupprefled, with the
catheter, and an opiate given at night, as in ordinary cafes
of difficult labour. At the end of the fecond or third day,
according as the pains have been more or lefs fevere, and fre-
quent, the water being nearly all of it drained off, and the
uterus contracted fo as to be in contaét with the body of the
child, a {mall portion of the vertex, or prefenting part of the
head, or perhaps only of the tumid fealp, will be found to be
thruft through the brim of the pelvis. As no farther aflilt-
ance can be expected from the pains, which now would only
tend to exhauit the ftrength of the woman, and to excite
fuch a degree of heat and fever, as might not afterwards be
extinguifhed, it will be neceffary to proceed to opening the
head of the child, and in that manner complete the delivery.
The woman being laid on the bed in the manner before
defcribed, and the accoucheur placed behind her, he will in-
troduce two or three fingers of his left hand into the vagina,
and pafs them upwards until they touch the protruded part
of the head of the child, and endeavour to find the fonte-
nelle, or the part where the parietal bones meet ; he will
then, with his right hand, flide the perforator up into the va-
gina, which will be guided by his fingers to the place, which
it will readily enter, and having, by opening them in various
direétions, made an aperture into the {kull fufliciently large,
he will withdraw the perforator, and alfo the fingers of his
left hand, both to givea refpi e to the womar, and to allow
the pains to force a larger portion of the {kull, now yielding
more eafily to the preflure, through the brim of the pelvis.
At the end of two or three hours he will re-commence the
operation, and will pafs his left hand, or as much of it as he can,
into the vagina, and introduce one or two of his fingers into
the aperture of the fkull of the child; this will ferve as a
guide to the crotchet, which he will now ufe. Having
further broken the texture of the brain with the crotchet, he
will move it about within the cranium, until he finds it firmly
fixed, when he will beg to draw downwards, and continue
this action at intervals, until he finds he has brought the
whole of the head of the child into the vagina. It is ufeful

to

; LAB

to keep the left hand, or two or three fingers of it, in the
paflage, that if the crotchet fhould flip, they may prevent
any injury being done to the vagina. Having paufed again,
for the fpace of an hour, to give the uterns opportunity of
contracting, he will eafily bring the head of the child, now
emptied of its contents, into the world, and the remainder of
the labour wiil be conducted asin ordinary cafes.

In labours of this clafs, that is, in difficult labours, as the
progrefs of them is always flow, giving opportunity to the
uterus to contract, the expulfion of the placenta is ufually
performed fooner, and more eafily, than in natural la-
bours.

LABOURED Accompaniment.
MENT.

LABOURER, in dgriculture, a perfon who performs
the manual or moft laborious part of the butinefs of a farm.
Labourers are moftly fuch perfons as live in cottages, or
{mall houfes in the vicinity of the farms, or in the houfes of
the farmers themfelves.

The author of Modern Agriculture, after premiling that
in all civilized ftates, the great body of the people live by
labour ; and that, of whatever nature it may be, the wages
received muft be more than fufficient to maintain the la-
bourer, as, were it otherwife, he could not bring up his
family, and confequently this clafs of men would foon be-
come extinét; obferves, that in every county or diltriG,
where the ufeful arts are-in a flourifhing ftate, and where
thofe employed in carrying them on are moft fuccefsful -in
accumulating riches, the rate of wages, or price of labour,
is higheft. Luxury is a never-failing attendant on riches,
and the number of fervants always increafes with the means
of maintaining them, ‘Therefore an increafing demand for
fervants or labourers, whether for carrying on agriculture,
the purpofes of trade, or for adminiftering to the artificial
wants created by luxury, naturally tends to advance the price
of labour. The very great recent advance in the rate of
wages in fome counties in Scotland, as Lanark, Renfrew,
Perth, Angus, Fife, &c. amounts, it is fuppofed, to the
moft pofitive evidence, that commerce, manufaCtures, and
improvements in agriculture have rapidly increafed, The
ftill low price of !abour in the counties of Caermarthen, Pem-
broke, Cardigan, &c. in Wales; and Nairn, Invernefs, and
the other northern counties of Scotland, notwithftanding the
great emigrations of labourers to thofe parts of the ifland,
where they are more certain of finding employment, isa {ure
fign that in thefe remote diftriéts the arts have {carcely ever
been intreduced. It fhews alfo, that little attention is
beftowed by the proprietors to improve the fituation of the
peafantry, either by inuring them to habits of induflry, or
inftructing them in the advantages to be derived from a
proper divifion of labour. In thofe counties where the arts
have been introduced, and where the rate of labour has con-
tinued for a number of years nearly the fame, it will be found
that agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, although
perhaps formerly in a profperous ftate, are at prefent ftation-
ary, and that a national exertion is neceflary, in order to fet
them again in motion.

And further, that the wages of farm-fervants, and of
labourers, who are occafionaliy engaged in the operations of
hufbandry, vary nearly as much in the different diftricis of
Great Britain, as they do in the feveral kingdoms of
Europe. Inthe counties in England, where commerce and
manufaétures are carried on to the greateft extent, as Mid-
diefex, Surrey, Kent, Lancafter, Chefter, the welt-riding
of Yorkfhire, &c. the wages of farm-fervants and day
Jabourers may, it is conceived, be ftated as follows;

See AccomMPanI-

LAB

Averare.

i, 1d

A ploughman by the year, from o/. to 15/. - 12 0 0

A female fervant, do. from 4/. to 6/. - °°
A labourer in the fummer, from 1s. 6d. to

25. iy ie - - - or g
A labourer in winter, without board, from

Is. to Is. 2d. - - - OPE x

A mafon ditté, from 1s. tod. to 2s. 2d. - a, * «©

A carpenter ditto, from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 4d. + o 20

Where agriculture is the chief employment of the people,
asin Hertford, Buckingham, Rutland, Northampton, Wor-
cefter, Northumberland, &c.

A ploughman’s wages may be ftated from Average,

71. to 121. - - . 9 0 6
A female fervant, from 3/. tos. to 5/. - 4°50
A labourer in fummer, without board, froin i

1s. 4d. to 15. 8d. - - . 0) 5546
Ditto in winter, ditto, from ts. to 15. 2d. - Or Tul tk
Amafon, ditto, from 1s. 10d. to 25. 2d. - o 20
A carpenter, ditto, from 1s. 8d. to 2s, 4d. - a4 2-90

In thofe counties in Wales, where improved modes of huf-
bandry are little praGtifed, and where there are fearcely any
commerce or manufa‘iures,

A ploughman’s wages are from 4J/. ros. Average.
to 7/. - - - - 5 15 0
A female fervant, from 2/. 10s. to 4/. 45. - 2 See
A day-labourer in fummer, without board,
fron 8d. to Is. - - - © 0190
Ditto, in winter ditto, from 6d. to 8d. - ro oI
. /
A mafon, ditto, from 1s. 6d. to 2s. = OES
A carpenter, ditto, from 1s ad. to 1s. 8d. - AEs 16

It has been obferved, that the rate of wages has advanced
very rapidly of late years, in many counties in Scotland. In
that part of the kingdom fouth of the Grampian mountains,
the rife in the price of labour has, he fays, been general, .
and is now nearly double what it was twenty years ago.

Average.
A ploughman's wages is from 7/.to12/, + 9 10 0
A female fervant, from 3/. to 4/. 10s. - L3G
A day labourer, in fummer, without board,
from 1s. 2d. to 15. 6d. - - - Oy i0 4.
Ditto in winter, ditto, from rod. to 1s. 2d. 6 “1.26
A mafon, ditto, from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 4d. - (ors teh
A carpenter, ditto, from 1s, 4d. to 25, = oes

In the northern divifions of the kingdom, where there is
little commerce or manufactures, and where improvements
in agriculture are only partially introduced,

Average.

A ploughman receives from 3/. to 6/. - 410 0
A female fervant, from 2/. 2s. to 3/. 145. . = 215.90
A day labourer, in fummer, without board,

from 8d. to Is. - - - °o O10
Ditto, in winter, ditto, from 6d. to 8d. = 0; 017
A mafon, ditto, from 1s. to 15. 6d, - Cyr 3
A carpenter, ditto, from Is. to 15. 4d. - OUI ve

From the above averages, the following table, which may
be confidered as containing pretty nearly, he fays, the me-
dium rate of agricultural labour in thefe kingdoms, at the
prefent period, is formed:

52 A ploughman

LABOURER.

General Average.

£. s. d.

A ploughman - . . : 7 3 6
A female fervant - ; x 2 37.0
A day labourer, in fummer, without board Ohiit 03
Ditto, in winter, ditto - - - O° apr
A mafon, ditto - - - - oli ato
z\ carpenter, ditto - < “ « of 1 8

Tn the above ftatements, the difference in the rate of wages
does not, it is fuppofed, appear fo confiderable (except in
Wales, and the north of Scotland, compared with the better
cultivated parts of Great Britain), as, had it been poflible
to afcertain the price of labour in each particular ¢ounty,
would have been evident ; local circumftances frequently
operating to augment or deprefs the rate of wages in par-
ticular diftri€s, which is not difcernible when numbers are
claffed together.

But the rates of wages, or prices of labour, have increafed
in the proportion of, from a quarter to a half, fince the pe-
riod in which the above was written, which is only a very
few years. Thefe are, he conceives, affected by fome or all
of the following caufes, viz. 1ft, The increafe of commerce
and manufaétures: 2dly. The depreciation in the value of
money, and its prefent nominal value, compared with the
price of the ordinary articles of provifions: 3dly. The ge-
reral introdu€tion of improvements, and of new modes of
cultivation ; whereby, although fewer hands are neceffary,
thofe poffefling fuperior {kill become more in requett :
athly. The eafe or difficulty of finding conftant or regular
employment : and, sthly. The mode in which a farm-fervant,
or labourer, maintains his family.

With refpe@ to the firft, it is fuppofed, that the increafe of
commerce and manufactures of the towns has contributed
to the improvement of the country, as well by affording a
ready market for the produce of the foil, as by various
other means, will not be denied; but that the rapid increafe
of them within thefe few. years has had a great effect in
raifing the price of labour is equally evident. ‘The great
numbers of people crowded together in large cities and ma-
nufaéturing towns, are not only againit the increafe of
population, but alfo againft longevity. There are befides
feverai forts of manufa€tures, which are well known to be
deftru@tive of the human conftitution ; not to mention the
many accidents to which thofe employed in the various
branches of commerce and manufactures are expofed, tend-
ing to fhorten life, and frem which thofe engaged in the
operations of hufbandry are exempted. For thefe reafons,
there is a conftant demand for people from the country, in
order to keep up the population, and to carry on the com-
merce and manufaétures of thetowns. The great additional
price commonly paid for commercial and manufacturing, be-
yond that for agricultural labour (except where the influence
of the former affects the latter), and the habits of luxury,
in which the labouring part of the community live in towns,
compared with the generality of their neighbours of the
fame clafs in the country (particularly in Scotland), are
itrong inducements, it is contended, with many of the pea-
fantry, either to remove to the towns, or fend their children
thither: while others, in confequence of the too general
practice of adding farm to farm, and demolifhing cottages,
are forced to feek that afylum in towns which is refufed
them in the country. ‘The demand for labourers from the
towns being complied with, the country is thereby drained
of ufeful hands, and the price of agricultural labour ad-
vanced. ‘This mult neceffarily happen, it is thought, in
every kingdom during the period that its commerce and

manufactures are on the increafe; and more efpecially in
thofe nations where the legiflature turns its attention to
fupport commerce and manufactures at the expence of agri-
culture.

The fecond, the depreciation in the value of money, is
alfo another and fubftantial reafon for the apparent rife in
the price of labour. The-increafe of commerce and ma-
nufaétures, which has been gradually taking place in this
ifland ever fince the beginning of the reign of queen Eliza-
beth, and the immenfe additions which have been made
almoft every year to the national debt within the prefent
century, feem to have rendered it neceflary to increafe, no-
minally, by means of bank-notes, promiffory-notes, bills,
&c. the quantity of money in circulation. That thefe fub-
ftitutes for fpecie have had the effeét to reduce the value of
money is an obvious fact. If, therefore, the value of money
has fallen, the labourer of the prefent day requires of courle
a greater quantity to carry to market than his predeceflors,
to purchafe even fuch articles as are confumed in the par-
ticular diftri& where he refides (whether right or wrong), as
indifpenfib'y neceffary for the maintenance of a peafant’s
family. Whether the Middlefex labourer goes to market
to purchafe beef or muttor, or the Aberdeenshire cottager
oatmeal, it will, it is conceived, be found that nearly double
the fum is required to purchafe the fame quantity now that
it did thirty years ago.

After this, fome facts are ftated in order to fhew that,
however much the nominal price of labour has increafed, its
real price, compared with that quantity of provifions it will
purchafe, remains all over the ifland nearly the fame, except
only where a variety of circumftances combine ; fuch as
contiguity to large towns, or extenfive manufactories and
public works ; and the want of due attention to the pro-
viding of work,- from improved modes of hufbanday, not
being introduced to raife or deprefs it beyond its ordinary
level. ;

In regard to the third, it is obferved, that befides forming
canals and turnpike-roads, which may be confidered equally
beneficial to the interefts of commerce and manufactures as
to thofe of agriculture, there have been many improvements
introduced in hufbandry, which, while they have contributed
to advance alike the profperity of the nation, the proprietors
and farmers have alfo been the means of bringing about a
confiderable alteration in the fituation of the inhabitants at
large, as well as in the price of labour. The immenfe
number of people neceffary for carrying on the various
operations of inclofing, draining, planting, ereting farm-
buildings, digging marle, quarrying and burning lime-ftone,
hoeing potatoes, turnips, and other green crops, muft firlt
have had the effeé&t of giving full employment to the peo-
ple in thofe diftri&ts where fal improvements were intro-
duced, and gradually to advance the rate of wages, in con-
fequence of the increafed demand for labourers. The
general introduction of new modes of cultivation, whereby,
alchough fewer people are neceflary, thofe pofleffing fuperio®
{kill become more in requett, is another reafon of the advanee
in the wages of the farm-fervants. This obfervation will
be confidered as well founded by all thofe who recolleé the
period, when ploughing with a man and two horfes, without
a driver, became common in Scotland. The number of-
horfes or oxen formerly worked in the plough varied ia
fome cafes, according to the nature of the fol; but was
more frequently regulated either by the cuftom of the dif.
tci€t, or the fancy of the farmer. When, in confequence
of the fpirited exertions of fome individuals in feveral coun-
ties, the practice of ploughing with two horfes was pretty
generally introduced, the farmers found themfelves pis:

relieve!

LABOURER.

relieved of a very great fhare of the annual expence of cul-
tivation ; but as it was then confidered a very arduous un-
dertaking to manage a two-horfe plough, every farmer
fele&ted the belt ploughman he could find ; and thefe be-
coming thereby in requeft, it was no difficult matter for
them to bargain for ay augmentation of wages, which the
farmers of that period could very well afford, and which
many now living will not hefitate to acknowledge they
granted on principles of economy.

In refpeét to the fourth, it is fuggefted, that the eafe or
difficulty which labourers frequently have in finding conftant
and regular employment; or, in other words, when labour-
ers are only partially employed, the rate of wages mult be
affeéted by that circumitance. It has already been obferved,
that thofe who live by labour muft receive fuch a compenfa-
tion as is more than fufficient for their fubfiftence. When a
labourer has conftant employment, whatever be the rate of
wages, as it mutt be equal to the price of the ordinary arti-
cles of provifions in whatever part of the ifland he is fituated,
his incomings and outgoings wii] be nearly the fame. Hence
it follows, that when, from the difficulty of finding employ-
ment, he can only procure work for three, four, or five
days in the week, he mutt receive the fame fum for thefe three,

four, or five days ‘that in the other cafes he would do for.

the labour of fix ; otherwife his incomings mult be lefs than
he is neceffarily called toexpend. When that happens, la-
bourers are often obliged to remove occafionally to another
quarter, or betake themfelves to fome mechanicalemployment ;
and in either cafe, their fervices are loft to the farming part
of the community where they refided. The want of con-
ftant employment, therefore, itis conceived, operates in two
ways to raife the price of labour ; firlt, by the neceffity the
labourer is under while he continues in that capacity of de-
manding as much for the work of three, four, or five days,
as is fully equal to his fubfiftence for a week ; and fecondly,
many of them being obliged-to betake themfelves to other
means for providing for themfelves and families, the number
of labourers becomes greatly diminifhed, and the remainder
of courfe more in requett.

And on the laft point, it is fuppofed that the various
modes in which farm-fervants and labourers maintain their
families mutt neceffarily have a very great influence on the
expence of agricultural labour in different parts of the
ifland. Inagreat part of England, butcher’s-meat, dump-
lings or puddings, bread made of fine flour, with beer, ale,
and yery commonly tea, are reckoned indifpenfibie articles
of cottage houfe-keeping: while in Scotland, oatmeal,
cooked in various ways, veg2tables, and now and then alittle
butcher’s-meat, are the chief articles which conititute the
food of the people employed in hufbandry, even in the belt
cultivated parts of the kingdom. This eflential difference in
the mode of living mutt, it is conceived, be a great additional
expence in the article of labour to the Englifh farmer beyond
what thofe in Scotland are fubjeét to, and might induce fuch
as are not acquainted with the various circumitances conneét-
ed with the hufbandry of both kingdoms, to give a decided
preference in favour of Scotland. It fhould, however, be
remembered, that this kind of additional tax paid by the
Englith farmer more properly affeéts the landlord, and is.
one of the principal reafons why lands in England are rented
lower than thofe of the fame quality in Scotland ; it being an
indifputable fa&, and which, in Scotland, daily experience
proves well-founded, that a great proportion of what’ the
farmers fave in the article_of labour, or by the introduétion
of more improved and lefs expenfive cultivation, fooner or
later finds its way into the landlord's pocket.

And avery refpeétable author, Dr. Smith, in his work
on the Nature and Ca: f.s of the Wealth of Nations, vol. i.
has obferved, that “ the difference in the mode of labourers?
fubfiftence is not the caufe, but the effeét, of the difference
in their wages ; although, by a flrange mifapprehenfion, I
have frequently heard it reprefented as the caufe.’? It is
farther sUded, that ‘¢ it is not becaufe one man keeps a coach.
while his neighbour walks a-foot, that the one is rich and the
other poor; but becaufe the one is rich he keeps a coach,
and becaufe the other is poor he waiks a-foot.’’

The author of Modern Agriculture thinks it will be ad-
mitted, that at the period when a general alteration has taken
place for the better in the eftablifhed mode in which labour-
ers maintain their families (as in the fouth of Scotland,
where the price of labour has nearly doubled within thefe
twenty years), the expence at which a cottager’s family is
maintained has advanced in the fame proportion. ‘They eat
better food, wear more expenfive clothes, and live in more
comfortable dwellings,—all which, he fays, no doubt, as
Dr. Smith obferves, is the effe&, not the caufe, of the 1e-
cent increafe in the price of labour.

But that in England, where the mode of maintaining a
labourer’s family has undergone little alteration for ages, it
is prefumed, that although the difference in the modes of
living was, at firft, the effect naturally to be expected from
a rife in the price of labour, yet it isnow one caufe why the
rate of wages continues in that kingdom to advance. ‘Thofe
articles which with that clafs were once deemed the luxuries,
are now confidered only as the bare neceffaries of life, and the
prices have advanced in nearly the fame proportion as their
wages. For inftance, thofe who in that country require labour-
ers, mutt either pay them fuch an advance of wages as will ena-
ble them to fubfiit according to the general mode eltablifhed
in the country, whatever the additional price of the ordinary
articles of provifion may be, or compel them to make ufe of
more fimple and lefs expenfive kinds of food, which were
ufed by that clafs of men a century ortwoago. As every
perfon who ftands in need of labourers, will adopt the firit
of thefe alternatives, it follows of courfe that the difference —
which has long taken place in the mode of maintaining a la-
bourer’s family in England, compared to that of ancient
times, is now one caufe for the advance in the rate of
wages. >

It is ftated, that it has now become a general complaint
among proprietors, merchants, manufacturers, and farmers,
that the price of labour is become too high. That, owing
to one or all of the caufes before-mentioned, it has advanced
in many diltriéts to a degree unknown in any former period
of the hiftory of thefe kingdoms, is a fa&t well k:own.
Thofe who regret that the price of labour is advanced,
(provided it is kept within proper bounds, and does not arife
from a national neglect of the fituation of the peafantry,)
ought to comfort themfelves with the reflection, that this
never happens in any ftate which is not increafing in wealth
and profperity. Itis owing to that caufe, and to no other
that the working-people in any nation are more libera'ly
rewarded for their labour ; and m place of regret it ought
to give pleafure to every friend to his country, that the great
body of the community are enabled, from the fruits of their
honeit labours, to procure themfelves a greater {hare of the
comforts of life. At the fame time, let it be obferved, that
thofe who have occafion to employ labourers pay attention .
to the advice of the author of the Seafons.

« Be mindful of the rough, laborious hind

That finks you foft ineleganee and eafe.” __
They

LABOURER.

They fhould alfo confider, that there are boutids beyond
which they ought not, in prudence, to pafs.

But the mode of maintaining farm-fervants in many places
of England is both abfurd, and, it is conceived, expenfive
in the extreme, and callsas loudly for reform as any error
in the whole range of Britifh hufbandry. In Northampton-
fhire, the breakfaft confifts of cold meat, with cheelé, bread,
and beer ; for dinner, roafled or boiled meat, with pudding ;
and for fupper, the fame as at breakfalt ; and befides ale,
which is allowed on extraordinary occafions, they have fmall
beer at command atall hours. And in the Rural Economy
of the Midland Counties, after noticing that the beer and
ale are brewed unreafonably ftrong, and that the quantity
allowed to a man is unneceflarily great, it is ftated, that, in
hay and corn harveit, the cuftomary allowance is a gallon
(upwards of five bottles) of beer a man per day ; and that,
during winter, the quantity of {mall beer ufed is not much
lefs chan in harve&. And it is farther noticed, that the in-
creafed expence in the mode of maintaining farm-fervants,
as now too generally practifed in England, is attributed to
the following caufes. Some few farmers in every county,
either from a miftaken idea, that the better their fervants are
fed the more work they will perform, or from pride, and from
a defire to gain popularity among that clafs of people, lead
the way, while their more fenfible neighbours, and even thofe
whofe fituations in life but ill accord with fuch additional ex-
pence, are forced to follow the example, by which means
extravagance in the maintenance of fervants has arrived at its
prefent height, and feems to be daily gaining ground.

Tt is fuggeited, that the wages paid for agricultural labour,
either to fervants by the year, or to labourers by the day,
throughout the better cultivated parts of Great Britain,
although confiderably different, are, neverthelefs, much lefs
fo than might have been expected, and appear by no means
fufficient to counterbalance the advantages which are derived
from fuperior climate, and more favourable fituations in re-
gard to markets. "The expenfive manner in which the farm-
fervants are maintained in the greateft part of England, when
compared with that of the more improved parts of Scotlend,
creates a much greater addition to the expence of cultivation
in the former kingdom, than that arifing from the difference
in the money-price of labour. In forming a jutt eftimate of
the difference which takes place in the expence of cultivation,
in particular diftrits, beyond that in others, it 1s neceffary, it
is faid, to confider not only the fum of money paid as wages,
and the expence of maintaining fervants, but alfo the quan-
tity of work performed, and the number of men and horfes
which, according to the praétice of particular diftricts, are
confidered as neceflary to cultivate the fame quantity of land.
The following {tatement will fhew at one view the difference
of keeping a team by the year, aud of ploughing an acre of
land, in Gloucefterfhire, in England, where five horfes are
commonly ufed ; and in the county of Angus, in Scotland,
where only two are confidered neceflary.

The County of Angus.

£.. 8. a.

Ploughman’s wages = = 10 0 0

Board, generally under - - 8 0 o

Maintenance of two horfes at 15/. each = 30 0 0
fear and wear of ditto, and accidents, 2/. each

per annum : - - 4 040

52: © ©

Gloucefterfhire.

£..8 a.
Ploughman’s wages - - 10 co
Board, 6s. per week - - A 15 12 0
Boy’s wages - - - - iG 1 AD
Board, 4s. per week - ee LOS TO BS
Maintenance of five horfes at 15/. each - FSM KO

Tear and wear of ditto, and accidents, 2/. each
per annum & - = = Io o 6
125.0 0
Annual expence of Angus farmer - 52. 0° OMD

Yearly difference againft Gloucefterfhire farmer 74 0 ©

It is ftated, that if thefe men and horfes were employed
in ploughing the whole year, and that they ploughed an
acre a-day, they would each have ploughed 313 acres in the
courfe of the year. The expence to the Gloucefterfhire
farmer would be $s. each acre, while the Angus farmer
would have the fame extent of labour performed at about
3s. 4d. per acre. “There is alfo as great a difference in the
expence of thrafhing grain. Since the introduétion of
thrafhing-machines in Scotland, the grain can be feparated
from the ftraw upwards of 50 per cent. cheaper, and to better
purpofe, than isto be done in England by manual labour.
‘This comparifon might be made to include other operations,
which are more or lefs expentive to perform, in confequence
of the peculiar cuftoms and praétices of particular diltriats.
But all that is propofed here is to give an idea of the proper
mode of calculating the expence of agricultural labour, and
an inftance or two of the faving which every farmer has in”
his power to make, by ufing well-conitruéted implements cf
hufbandry, and performing the various operations with as:
few men and horfes as poffible.

It is added, that the {carcity of farm-fervants and day-
labourers has of late been confiderably felt in many parts of
Great Britain, and feems to be gradually increafing. The
principal caufes to which this evil'is to be afcribed are, in
the opinion of the above writer, the inclofure bills in Eng-
land, the enlarging or engrofling farms in both kingdoms,
and the general increafe of commerce and manufadures.
But a more ferious and certain caufe of this evil is probably
to be found in the conftant ftate of warfare in which this
country has been engaged for almoft the whole of the Iaft
half century. The deficiency of labourers is an evil of fo
ferious a nature, (from whatever caufe it has originated,)
as ought to induce proprietors and farmers of all defcrip-
tions to adopt fuch meafures as appear molt proper for in-
furing a future and more abundant fupply. ‘That which
feems the moit likely to effeét this defirable objeé&t with the
greateft certainty is the building of cottages on every farm,
in numbers proportioned to the extent of hands neceflary for
its cultivation. Experience has proved that cottages are
the beft nurferies for ufeful farm-fervants and labourers ;
and while nothing would tend fo {peedily or fo effeétually to
fupply this defect as affording the labouring clafs of the
people the means of living comfortably in the country, tt
-would alfo be the means, in a great degree, of filencing the
rifing clamour againit enlarging or engrofling farms. In
this view it is fuggeited, that a tax on every proprietor and
farmer in Great Britain, who had not as many cottages
ereéted and inhabited, in a limited time, as there were
ploughmen required for the cultivation of the farm; or one
cottage for every certain number of acres. Such a tax, if
impoted for the exprefs purpofe of increafing the population_

8 °

LAB

of the country, and thereby keeping the price of all kinds
of labour moderate, could not fail in time, it is fuppofed, to
have the wihhed-for effec.

However, it is obferved alfo, that the practice of juining
two or three, fometimes half a dozen, {mall farms in one, and
the confequeat demolition of the cottages, has had the ef-
fect of bringing about a great alteration, in many counties,
in the defcription of fervants employed in hufbandry : as,
inftead of employing married men living in cottages con-
tiguous to the farm, and paying them partly in neceffaries
of life, young men, brought up in towns or villages, are em-
ployed, and their wages paid wholly in money,—from which
many bad confequences proceed. From the advantages to
be derived by employing married men, who have families re-
fiding on fome detached part of the farm, as ploughmen,
as well as from the acknowledged {earcity of labourers, may,
it is fuppofed, be inferred the propriety and even neceffity
of improving. by every proper means, the fituation of the
peafantry. ‘Lhe labourer’s fituation would be much im-
proved, were his employers’ to revert to the old prattice of
paying him a great part of his wages in the neceflary articles
of provifions: he would then be prevented from the neceflity
of having recourfe, for every article he requires, to thofe
worfe than pawn-brokers, the keepers of little paltry
chandler’s hops; a fet ef people who, without remorfe, ap-
propriate to themfelves, under the name of a reafonable
prot, a great proportion of the hard-earned wages of the
laborious peafant. And next to getting the great article of
provifions on reafonable terms, the allowing every cottager
the means of keeping a cow, and of planting a reafonable
quantity of potatoes and other vegetables, would tend, more
than any other circumitance, in the writer’s opinion, to his
happinefs and comfort ; as it would enable him to procure a
coufiderable fhare of the fuftenance of his family, without
the expenditure of money, or the rifk of impofition. It
would alfo, it is imagined, be a great {pring to the induflry
ef the labourer, to fet him all his labour by the great, or
piece. He would be induced to labour with more ftedfatt-
nefs and perfeyerance, when he was fatisfied that it was in
his power to apply the fruits of his extraordinary exertions
to the benefit of his family. And, laftly, to encourage, by
every proper means, the eftablifhment of friendly focieties
among the labouring clafs of people, as a means of provilion
~ againit accidents, ficknefs, and old age.

Farm labourers, Mr. Marshall thinks, as being the moft
valuable clafs of men that a populous country poffeffes,
fhould have every comfort provided for them that is com-
patible with their fituation, and conformable to the general
intereft of the community :—that their wages ought to be
every where, and at all times, fufficient for the maintenance
of themfelves and families while in health, with a furplus to
provide again{ft the day of ficknefs, without their being
under the debafing neceflity of making application to their
neighbours for relief. Perlons fo effentially ufeful to fociety
fhould not merely fupport exiftence, but have the comforts
of wholefome habitations, with fufficient {paces of ground
to furnifh them and their families with changes of proper
vegetable food, without much expence. - It is, after all,
this clafs of men that conftitutes the great bafis or prop of a
country.

Labourers confpiring together concerning their work or
wages, fhall forfeit 1o/. for the firft offence, 20/. for the
fecond, &c. and if not paid, to be fet on the pillory.
(Stat. 2 & 3. Edw. Vi. cap. 15.) Juftices of peace, and
ftewards of leets, &c. have power to hear and determine
complaints relating to non-payment of labourers’ wages.

(4 Edw. IY. cap. 1. 20.Geo, II. c. 19. 31 Geo. II. c. 11.)

LAS

And labourers taking work by the great, and leaving the
fame unfinifhed, unlefs for non-payment of wages, or when
they are employed in the king’s fervice, &c. are to fuffer
one month’s imprifonment, and forfeit s/. The wages ot
labourers are to be yearly affeffed for every county, by the
fheriff and juftices of peace, in the Eafter feffions ; and in
corporations by the head officers, under penalties. (5 Eliz.
cap. 4.) And the fheriff is to caufe the faid rates and affeff-
ments of wages to be proclaimed. (1 Jac. I. cap. 6.) All
perfons fit for labour fhall be compelled to ferve by the
day, in the time of hay or corn harve(t; and labourers in
harveft time may go to other counties, having teltimonials.
From the middle of March to the middle of September,
labourers are to work from five o’clock in the morning till
feven or eight at night, being allowed two hours for break-
faft and dinner, and half an hour for fleeping in the three
hot months; and all the reft of the year from twilight to
twilight, excepting an hour and a half for breakfatt and
dinner, on pain of forfeiting one penny for every hour’s ab-
fence. (5 Eliz. c. 4.) By ftat. 6 Geo. III. c. 25. artifi-
cers, labourers, and other perfons, abfenting themfelves
from the -fervice of their employers, before the expiration
of the term contraéted for, {hall be punifhed by imprifon-
ment, for not lefs than one month, nor more than three. Tf
any labourer fhall make an affault upon his matter, he fhall
fuffer asa fervant making fuch aflault.. (5 Eliz. c. 4.) See
MANUFACTURERS and SERVANTS.

LABOUREUR, Joun te, in Biography, was born, in
1623, at Montmorenci, near Paris. Ai the age of nineteen
he difplayed a turn for hiftorical refearches by publifhing
« An Account of the Tombs in the Church of the Celettines
at Paris, with brief Memoirs of the Perfons entombed ;’”
which was very well received. In 1644, he was at court,
in the charaSter of gentleman in waiting, when he was fent
into Poland, with the marfhallefs of Guebriant, on a miflion
to Ladiflaus [V. to whom the duchefs of Nevers was con-
traéted. After his return he. publifhed a narrative of this
embafly. He next entered into the ecclefiaftical profeffion,
and was made almoner to» the king, and prior of Juvigneé,
and in 1664 he was created’commander of the order of St.
Michael, and appointed almoner to the king. He wrote
the «* Hiftory of the Marthal de Guebriant :’’ and he was
editor of a new impreffion of the ‘ Memoirs of Michael ce
Caltelnau,” with feveral genealogical hiftories, in three vols. -
folio, 1731: this performance 1s reckoned to throw much
light upon feveral parts of French hiftory ; ,“Hiftory of
King Charles VI: tranflated from the: Latin of a MS.
in the Library of de Thou,” two vols. folio; “ A Trea-
tife on the Origin of Coats of ’Arms.”’ He left many
MSS. among which is ‘* A Hiftory of the Peerage.’?
Moreri. : P

LABOURSOME, among Stamen, implies a violent=
rolling or pitching motion of a fhip at fea, by which the -
matts and even the hull are in great danger. By pitching fud--
denly the maits are likely to be carried away, and by the
heavy rolling motion the mafts ftrain upon the fhrouds, and,
confequently, upon the fides, with an effort which increafes
as the fine of their obliquity, and the continued agitation of
the veffel gradually loofens her joints, and makes her extreme- -
ly leaky. :

* LABRADOR, in Geography, an extenfive country of
North America, fo called by the Portuguefe, who firft dif--
covered its coaft, comprehended in New Britain. It is.
bounded on the N. by Hudfon’s ftrait, on the S. by part
of Lower Canada and the river St. Lawrence, on the WT
by Hudfon’s bay, on the N. E. by the ocean and Davis’s
ftraits, and on the E. by the ftraits of Bellifle and the a
of:

LABRADOR..

of St. Lawrence. The extent of this country has been but
imperfectly afcertained: for our knowledze of the eaftern
coat and of its inhabitants, we are chiefly indebted to lieu-
tenant Roger Curtis, from whof> papers extra@s were made
and communicated to the Royal Society, in 1774, by the
honourable Daines Barrington (Phil. Tranf. vol. 64. part 2.)
and to Mr. Cartwright, who refided, at different intervals,
for fixteen years, in this defolate country, and whofe account
of it was publifhed at Newark in 1792. But the know-
ledge thus obtained principally relates to the coaft; for the
inland territory regains ftill unexplored. Thefe writers
concur in reprefenting the face of the country, as far as
they could difcover it, not only hilly, but mountainous ;
fome of the mountains being of a confiderable elevation,
From the fea the fouth coaft feemed to be fertile and to be
covered with a degree of verdure ; but the foil, on exami-
nation, was poor, and the verdure was that of coarfe plants,
which might ferve for deer and goats, but was not proper
fur horfes, kine, or fheep. ‘To the improvement even of
this part, the depredations of the bears and wolves furnifh
a formidable impediment and the cattle, on account of the
feverity of the climate, muft be houfed for nine months in
the year. The whole of the eaft coatt exhibits a very barren
appearance: the mountains rifing fuddenly out of* the fea
and being compofed of rocks, which are thinly covered with
black peat earth, that produce ftunted {pruces and a few
other plants ‘The adjacent fea, however, the rivers and lakes,
which are numerous, abound with fifh, fowl, and amphibi-
ous animals. Springs are rare, and the water is chiefly fup-

lied by melted fnow; neverthelefs, it is wholefome, and
thofe {welled throats which frequently occur in the Alpine
regions of Europe and Afia, are unknown in this country.
On the coaft are feveral fpacious and fafe harbours ; and at
a {mall diitance, and within its capacious bays, there are
thoufands of iflands of different fizes, on which eider-ducks
breed in large flocks, and which are ftocked with a multi-
tude of fea-fowl. On fome of the larger ifles there are deer,
foxes, and hares. All kinds of fifth, belonging to the Arc-
tic feas, abcund on this coaft ; and the rivers are frequented
by falmon and fea-trout, pike, barbel, river-trout, eels,
and other kinds. Ata {mall diltance from the coaft in the
inland territory, the air is milder; the foil is more fertile,
and trees, fome cf which are of a large fize, are moxe nu-
merous. ‘The ground is covered with fpruces and firs,
with an intermixture of larches, bireh, and afpens, particu-
laviy near the fhores of the bays, rivers, brooks, and ponds,
where alone they arrive at any degree of perfeGion.. Other
trees are mere fhrubs, and they are the alder, ofier, do:
berry, pears, currants, rafpberries, and a few others. The
fruits confilt of various kinds of berries, wiz. currants, rafp-
berries, partridge-berries, cranberries, apples, pears, whor-
tle-berries, and a {mail berry, the plant of which refembles
the ftrawberry, eaclr producing only a fingle fruit, of a
bright pink colour, granulated like a mulberry, and having
a delicate flavour. The vegetables fit for food are wild
celery, {curvy grafs, the young leaves of the ofier and of
the ground whortle-berry, Indian fallad, red docks, and an
Alpine plant, of which the rein-deer are very fond, The
foil, though of a light kind, is not deftitute of clay; no
ores, except thofe of iron, have been difcovered; but thefe
are plentiful, White fpar is common, and feveral famples
of that called Labrador f{par, have been picked up by the
Efquimaux. The birds of the country are the white-
tailed eagle, falcons, hawks, and owls of various kinds,
the raven, white groufe, ptarmigan, {pruce game, whiltling
csujew, grey ployer, various {pecies of fandpiper, and other

waders, geefe, ducks of various forts, ‘thags, gulls, di-
vers, {wallows, martins, fome few f{pecies of fmall birds,
fnipes and doves, the two laft being very fearce.” The
beafts are white and black bears, rein-deer, wolves, wolve-
rines, various fpecies of foxes,, martens, lynxes, otters,
mink, beavers, mufquafh, raccoons, hares, rabbits, and
moles, and probably other kinds, The climate, though fe-
vere, is falubrious; there is litle appearance of fummer till
about the middle of July, and in September winter indicates
its approach, fo that this latter feafon is long and the cold
is fevere. In fummer the heat fs fometimes unpleafant, and
in that feafon the weather is very moderate, and remarkably
ferene, without thofe fogs which are more prevalent in New-
forndland, and thofe yiolent gales of wind, to which fome
other parts of the globe are fubje&. At this feafon, the
mofquitoes and fand-flies, which are very numerous, are ins
tolerably troublefome. The winters are faid to be lefs fevere
than formerly. The greateft heat obferved at Nain (N_ lat.
57.) in the year 1780, was 84°, ard this was in July; the
greatelt cold in 1779 was — 36. On the fea-coatt it is much
cooler than farther inland, more efpecially when the wind
blows from the ccean, on account of the immenfe quantities
of ice that are contiguous to the coaft; and which, toge-
ther with the iflands already mentioned, render the naviga-
tion dangerous. Thefe fhoals of ice fet in from the north
in {pring and fummer. It is not an unknown phenomenon
in thefe northern and colder climates, that feveral beaits,
and fome of the birds, change their colour with the feafons,
In the winter, the prevalent colour is white ; and againft the
rigour of ‘the cold, moft animals are furnifhed by the order
of providence with a defence. The quadrupeds are clothed
with a longer thicker hair, or fur; and the birds have a
fofter down and feathers of a clofer contexture than thofe

of milder countries. .

On the coaft of this defolate country there were only a
few factories, till the Moravian clergy formed fmall fetrle.
ments, particularly at Nain, about the year 1764. Upon
barren rocks, covered with fnow for more than half the year,
and where the winters are fo rigorous, and of fuch long cons
tinuance, we cannot expect to find that the inhabitants are
very numerous. The native inhabitants of this country are’
mountaineers and Efquimaux, between whom there fubfifts:
an invincible averfion. The mountaineers inhabit the inte-
rior parts of the country, towards the north, and with re=

fpe& to colour refemble our gypiies, which is probably ac- _

quired by their being. expofed to the weather, and to the
{moke of their wigwams, They are of a robuft contlitution,
though their limbs are {mall, and their frame is well adapted)

to the rocky country, which they are continually traverlingy _

They haye no hair except on the head; and for many years
they have drefled their food, which they boil to a jelly,’
whereas the other Indians eat every thing raw. ‘They chief-

ly fubfiit on rein-deer, which they are very dextrous in killing, _

They-alfo kill foxes, martens, and beavers. As they live
a wandering kind of life, they never build houfes ; but the

conttruét a kind of tents, covered with deer-{kins and birch,’
and called wigwams; the {kins which they ufe for this pur-
pofe, as well as for clothes, are tainted in order to take off
the hair, then wafhed in a lather of brains and water, and’

afterwards well dried and well rubbed ; but for winter ule”

they have jackets of beaver, or deer-fkins, with the hair on,
They traverfe the country by the affiftance of canoes in the
fummer; and of rackets, or {now-fhoes, in the winter,
Their canoes are covered with the rind of birch ; and though
they are fo light as to be eafily carried, they are large
enough to contain a whole family, and the materials of their

trallic,

LAB

traffic. By means of the numerous ponds which are found
in this country, they thus convey themfelves to a great dif-
tance ina fhort time ; travelling by water or by land,‘as cir-
cumitances require. They bear fatigue with incredible re-
folution and patience ; and will travel twe days fucceflively,
without taking any fort of nourifhment. They are efteemed
an indultrious tribe; and for many years’ they had been
known to the French traders. heir chief employment is
to procure fur, and the neceflaries of life ; they are very illi-
terate, but generally good-natured, and faid to be lefs fero-
cious than other Indians ; and this foftnefs of manners they
have probably acquired by their long intercourfe with Euro-
peans. They come every year to trade with the Canada
merchants, who have feal fifheries on the fouthern part of the
coatt, and they bear the charaGter of juft dealers, fays Cur-
tis, though Cartwright charges them with a pronenefs to
theft. They are, without doubt, immoderately fond of {pi-
rits, for which, blanketing, fire-arms, and ammunition,
they truck the greateft part of their furs. With regard to
religion, they profefs themfelves Roman Catholics; but
know no more of it than merely to repeat a prayer or
two, count their beads, and fee a prieit whenever they go
to Quebec. It is their cuftom, fays Curtis, to dettroy
the aged and decrepid, when they become ufelefs to
the fociety, and burthenfome to themfelves. This practice
they vindicate from their mode of life ; alleging that thofe
who are unable to procure neceflaries, fhould not live merely
to confume them.
The £/guimaux (fee that article) who inhabit the northern
part of Labrador, are indifputably Greenlanders. They
are of a deep-tawny, or rather copper-coloured complexion ;
they are inferior in fize to the generality of Europeans, and
there are but few of them who are of a good ftature. They
are flat-vifaged, and have fhort nofes ; their hair is black and
very coarfe ; their handsand feet are remarkably {mall. The
women load their heads with large ftrings of beads, which
they faften to their hair above their ears ; and they are fond
of a hoop of bright brafs, which they wear as acoronet.
Their drefs is entirely of fkins; and confifts of a fort of
hooded clofe fhirt, breeches, ftockings, and boots. The
drefs of the different fexes is the fame, except that the women
wear very large boots, and their upper garment is orna-
mented with a tail. In the boots they occafionally place
their children ; but the youngelt is always carried at their
back, in the hood of their jacket. They have no fort of
bread, but live chiefly on the flefh of feal, deer, fifth, and
birds. In the winter they live in houfes, or rather caverns,
which are funk in the earth. In the fummer they occupy
tents, made circular with poles, and covered with skins.
They have no fort of beverage among them except water,
and are not fond of fpirituous liquors. They feem to have
‘no fort of religion, nor to have any objeét of adoration
among them. They have no kind of government; and
no man is fuperior to another, but as he excels in ftrength
‘or in courage, and in having the greateft number of
wives and children. They have no marriage ceremony ; a
wife is confidered as property ; and a hufband lends one of
his wives toa friend. The women marry young. The men
are extremely indolent, and the women are mere drudges, do-
ing every thing except procuring food. They few with the
finews of deer, and their needle-work is very neat. They
have few difeafes, and are confequently without phyficians ;
but they imagine, that tying to their neck or writs the par-
‘ticular part of fome fifh or animal, according to the com-
plaint, will effe& a cure. They have never heen vifited
with the fmall-pox. Thefe Indians cannot reckon numeri-
cally beyond fix ; and their compound numbers reach no far-

Vou. XX.

: part of the globe.

LAB

ther than 21; every thing beyond this is a multitude.
Their dread of the mountaineers makes them live always upon
the fea-fhores. Their canoes are extremely long in propor-
tion to their breadth, being upwards of 20 feet by two, and
contain only one perfon; they are covered with fkins, and
extremely light, fo that they are eafily overfet, and yet there
is not one among thefe people who can fwim. They nayi-
gate their fhallops without a compafs, in the thickelt fogs,
and are very good coafters. Their dogs, of which they
have a great number, ferve asa guard, and as food: their
fkins f{upply them with clothing ; and in winter they draw
their.fledges. They cannot bark, but make a molt hideous
howl; they are large, and have a head like a fox, whereas
the dogs of the mountaineers are very {mall. The weapons
of thefe Indians are the dart, and the bow and arrow, but
they are not very expertin the ufeof either. Their number
cannot be accurately afcertained ; Mr. Curtis made fome at-
tempt for this purpofe by counting the number belonging to
each tribe, eftimated by the number of boats, and by that
of the men, women, and children belonging to each boat s
eftimating them in this way, he reckons their number to be
1623. Mr. Cartwright fays, that thefe Efquimaux were the
beit tempered people he ever met with, and the moit docile ;
nor, as he fays, is there a nation under the fun with which
he would truft his perfon and property in preference to them $
although till within thefe few years they were never known
to have any intercourfe with Europeans, without committing
theft or murder, and generally both.

The bufinefs carried on by the Englifh with Labrador is
the fame with that on the ifland of Newfoundland. The
exports are cod-fith, falmon, oil, whalebone, and furs; but
the latter are much better than any of the fame kind obtained
upon that ifland, nor do few parts of the world produce
better. N. lat. 50° 30! to 62° 30’. W. long. 55° 30' to
78° 30.

Lasrapor Lake. See St. Peter's Lake.

Lasrapor Spar, in Mineralogy. See FELDSPAR.

Lasrapor Stone. See FELDSPAR.

Lasrapor Tea, in Gardening, the common name of
an evergreen plant of the more hardy kind. See Le-
DUM. ‘
LABRISULCIUM, a term in Surgery, derived from
labrum, or labiur, a lip, and fulcus, a deep fore, and fignifying
fometimes a chap of the lip; but frequently the difeafe well
known under the appellation of the cancrum or gangrena
oris. See GaAncrmna Oris.

LABRIT, in Geography,.a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Landes, and chief place of a canton, in the
diitri€&t of Mont-de-Marfan. The place contains 584, and
the canton 44>1 inhabitants, on a territory of 4974 kilio-
metres, in nine communes. ,

LABRUS, in Ichthyolozy, a genus of the thoracic order.
This tribe of fifhes is'extremely numerous, and comprehends
many fpecies of peculiar beauty and variety both in form
and colours ; their general afpeét is rather more diltinguifhed
for elegance than fingularity, but the diverfity of thofe
brilliant tints with which nature has embellifhed them is al-
moft endlefs. Weare little acquainted with their manners of
life; fuch as have occurred to our own obfervation appear
to be thofe of the natural inhabitants of the marine element ;
fome delight to refide in the fhallows and rocky bottoms of the
fea contiguous to the boldett fhores, but the far greater por-
tion of the fpecies are fo widely difperfed through the im-
menfity of feas as to rarely occur to notice; and tew, or in-
deed f{carcely any, are known in the regular fifheries in any
The fleth of thofe cccafionally introduced
for the table are of an agreeable and excellent flavour, fuch

as

.

LABRUS.

asthe ® old wife,”’ and fome others. The fmaller kinds are
nfed chiefly by the filhermen as bait.

"he confulion prevalent among authors refpecting this
family of fifhes is inconceivably great ; a circumftance the
more remarkable in our ideas, fince the obvious character of
the genus does not appear ambiguous. The confufion arifes
from that want of precifion in the definition of the true cha-
raéter which is too perceptible in the writings of ichthyolo-
gilts in the early part of the Jatt century, and which led them
to admit indiferiminately with the Labri many kinds that
ought not to have been included in the fame genus. Some
of thefe errors have been progreffively dete&ted and amended
by referring the fifhes improperly claffed as Labri to other
genera. But for others apparently not lefs exceptionable,
we mutt place our truft in their defcriptions only, the objects
defcribed being unattainable ; and while this uncertainty con-
tinues, it will be concluded the whole of the ~prefumed
fpecies of Labrus can never be reduced to very fatisfactory
order.

On aretrofpective view we need not perhaps refer beyond
the roth edition of the Linnean “ Syftema Nature ;” in
this we find the genus Labrus with the following eflential
charagter. Teeth acute ; gill membrane with fix rays, and
the covers fealy ; and the dorfal fin with a filiform {kin ex-
tending beyond the end of the pofterior rays. This is the
Linnean charaéter in its lateft ftlate of improvement, ex-
cepting only that it is added, with a laudable degree of cau-
tion, that the two genera Labrus and Sparus are fo clofely
allied, as to render it difficult to diftinguifh them: “ Labri et
Spari genera ob affinitatem etiamnum difficilius diftinguun-
tur.’ Linneus deferibes altogether about forty fpectes,
{ome of which had been deferibed in his former works as of
the Labrus, Sparus, and Sciena genera, and for thefe, with
the exception of a few new kinds in Muf. Ad. Fr. he ftood
indebted to the labours of his friend Artedi, or to thofe of
Gronovius, Ray, and Catefby, by whom fome were called
Labri and others Spari.

Cmelin endeavoured to amend the effential character of
Labrus by rendering it more. comprehenfive, and for this
yeafon adds to the charaéter before-mentioned that the lps
are fimple; the pectoral fins pointed, and the lateral hne
itraight. Still this was found infufficient, and is, in our
ideas, confeffedly inferior to the very excellent and concife
charaéter by which Bloch diltinguifhes the genus, namely,
the lips large, the upper one double and extenfile: the
genus poffefles other charaers, but this is the moft material.
‘Another attentive obferver of nature, Monf. Commerfon,
has offered fome improvements in the inflitution of the genus
Labrus, and has added to the genus many new {pecies.
One of the lateft and molt copious writers on this fubjeét
however remains to be noticed, namely, count Lacepede, a
naturalift who undertook the tafk of reforming the whole
fy {tem of claffification, and one to whom {cience is indebted
in a great meafure for the number of new f{pecies introduced
of late vears to the knowledge of the world.

To the Linnean naturalift, the arrangement propofed by
Lacepede will rather, we apprehend, appear an innovation,
than improvement. In this refpect, confidering the very
eoncife view the limits of our article will allow us to take of
this fubject, we are not difpofed to exercife much critical
remark, or we conceive it would not be impoffible to afcer-
tain that it partakes of the charaéter both of improvement
and innovation. Our own opinion is, that the Linnzan de-
finition, though extremely ufeful, is inadequate, and that the
charaéter afligned by Bloch, though ttill more concife, is bet-
ter. We allow, moreover, the neceffity of reformation;
many of the Linnzan Labri belong to other genera, and

there are, befides, fpecies more recently referred to the venus.
Labrus which rather conttitute new genera. Hence the ne-
ceflity of forming a larger number of genera, by dividing tiie
Labri, is admitted; but in allowing this, it {til remains a
queftion, whether Lacepede has not fallen into a greater error
than that he endeavours to reform ; for inftead of permitting
them to remain ina fingle genus, he conftitutes no lefs than
feven new genera of the Labri, and their immediate depen-
dencies. In extenuation, it may be indeed obferved, in the
language of one of his continental admirers, “this intelligent
writer found the genus (Labre) fo vitiated, that he was
under the neceflity of forming fo many new genera, This
increafe of genera might feem to have diminifhed the number
of fpecies in the Labyes toa trifling amount, but, on the con-
trary, by the introduétion of the new kinds very recently difs
covered, they are again advanced to the number of one hun-
dred and thirty fpecies.”’

_ The genera into which Lacepede divides the Labrus of
Linneus, and other authors, are LAsrus, Hiarura, Os-
PHRONEMUS, CHEILINUS, Lursanus, Tricnopopus, ‘and
CHEILODIPTERUS.

Lasrvs, according to this writer, is characterized by
having the upper lip extenfile; neither incifive teeth nor
grinders ; gill-covers deftitute of {pines and denticulations ;
dorfal fin one, extending nearly from the nape almoft to the
tail, and compofed of rays terminating in a filament. This.
genus (which Lacepede feparates, chiefly according to the-
furcated or rounded form of the tail, into three feétions) in-
cludes a great number of the Linnean genus Scizna, as.
the fpecies capa, lepifma,. unimaculata, gibba, cinerafcens,
armata, and fufca, with many others; and, on the contrary, the
number of Linnzan Labri is lefs extenfive than might be
imagined, it includes his fpecies lunaris, venofus, and guttatus 5
but the genus conlitts principally of new fithes..

Hiatura is a genus eftablifhed for one fpecies (Labrus.
hiatula) of Linneus, which, being deititute of any anal fin,
cannot, fays Lacepede, remain with the reft. This he calls.
Hiatule gardenienne.

Osenronemus isa genus inftituted by Commerfon, from
whom it was adopted by Lacepede. Its charaéter confiits
in having five or fix rays in each thoracic fin, the firft of which:
is a {pine, and the fecond terminated by along flament. This
genus contains only the fpecies Goramy and another.

Cueiinus is a genus eftablifhed for the reception of the
Linnean Labrus {earus, and a new fpecies obferved by Com-
merfon, the fpecies trilobé. The upper lp is extentile ;
gill-covers deftitute of {pines or teeth, and a fingle dorfal
fin.

Lursaxus was originally eftablifhed by Bloch, from
whom it was adopted by Lacepede ; this forms a molt exten-
five genus, and comprehends {pecies from feveral of the Lin-
nzan genera, as Perea fligma, ttrata, argentea, and nobilis 5,
Sparus virginicus, and Chetodon araunus, together with the
Latri ftviatus, feina, lapina, ramentofus, ocellatus, adriati-
cus, &c. Its character is, that one or more plates of the
gill-covers have a fmall tooth; the back a fingle dorfal fin,.
and fometimes a beard to the jaws.
’ 'Tricnopopus includes part of the Linngwan Labri;
the charaéter confilts in having a fingle ray longer than the
body to each of the thoracic fins, and one dorfal fin.

CueriLoprererus. The upper lip in this genusis exten-
file; it has neither ineilive teeth, nor grinders ;. the gill-
covers are deftitute of {pines or tecth,. and the back is fur-
nifhed with two fins. This lafs genus contains nine fpe=
cies.

Having thus far ftated the moft material alterations that.

have taken. place in this’ extenlive geuus, it only remains to.

enumerate

LABRUS.

enumerate the fpecies, the order of which, in conformity
with our original plan, will be reduced as nearly to the ar-
rangement adopted in the Gmelinian fyitem, as the introduc-
tion of the more recently difcovered kinds will permit.
Species.
* Tail forked.

Scarus. Tranfverfe appendages at the fide of the tail-
Linn. Scarus Audorum, Arted. Cheiline feare, Lacepede.

A native of the Mediterranean, where it appears in fhoals,
and feeds chiefly on fuci, and other marine plants. The
length is about twelve inches, the fcales large aud thin, and
the front teeth broad and blunt. The fleth.of this fpecies
was eiteemed a delicacy among the ancient Romans, aud in
their days of luxury, obtained, if we may credit Oppian,
the mott extravagant price, It feems to be moit abundant
near the fhores of Greece.

Ayrutas. Body entirely reddifh. Art.

Inhabits fouthern Europe and America. Gmelin con-
ceives, from the ferrated operculum, it may be a perca.
Bloch conttitutes of it a diftinct genus, under the name of
Anthias.

Crerensis. Teeth four, body greenifh. Art.

Inhabits Candia, and the adjacent places.

Heparus. Lower jaw longer; body with tranfverfe
black lines each fide. Art.

An European fpecies found in the Mediterranean fea, and
fometimes in the rivers adjacent. The dorfal fin has ten
{pinous rays, and twenty-one foft ones, and behind the former
a black fpot.

Guisevs. Tail fub-bifid; body fomewhat greyifh.
Gmel. Turdus pinnis branchialibus carens, Catefby.

A native of America. Catefby has figured this fpecies
without pectoral fins, fays Gmelin, and diltruits his accuracy ;
from a reference to the preliminary obfervations, it will be
however remarked, that Lacepede admits its correttnefs, and
inflitutes a new genus of this {pecies only.

Lunaris. Tail-fin truncated in the middle; dorfal and
anal witha purpie line; lips folded. Gmel. Labrus ob-
longus, &c. Gronov. . Le croiffant, Bonnaterre.

An inhabitant of the South American and Indian feas: The
body is oblong-violet, with bands of yellow difpofed tranf-
verfely ; the: dorfal and anal fin yellow, except the violet
. line.

Gattivus. Caudal fin truncated in the middle; dorfal and
anal with violet lines at the bafe ; lower lip with a doubling
each fide: Gmel. Scarus gallus, Fortk.

Defcribed by Forfkal among the fihes of Arabia: the
body is dufky green, with violet lines all over the body, the
belly with two blue itripes, and an intermediate one of gree: ;
feales lax, ftriated, membranaceous.at the edge, and marked

vith a tranfverfe purple band; eyes remote, with red pu-
pil; teeth in one row; tail yellow in the middle, violet to-
wards the fides, and edged with blue. The flefh of this
kind is accounted poifonous.

Purvureus. Caudal fin truncated in the middle; dor-
fal and anal with a longitudinal purple repandate {tripe at the
bafe. Gmel. Scarus purpureus, Fort.

Inhabits the fhores of Arabia ; the length eighteen inches ;
body fomewhat lance-fhaped and truncated, colour dufky-

reen, with three purple ftripes each fide, beneath blue ;

cales broad, rhombic, ftriated, and loofely imbricated ;
erown convex, naked and brown, w'th a purple triangle
each fide before the eyes ; gill-covers naked, witha {quare
purple fpot; lateral line ramofe. The fleth of this tifh is
efteemed good.

" Psirracus. Caudal fin truncated in the middle ; edge of

tthe fins, abdominal flripe, and marks om the head bles
Gmel. Scarus pfittacus, Yortk.

The body of this f{pecies is greenifh, with yellowith lines ;
eyes fmall and remote ; jaws of two bones, the lower one
with one tooth each fide, the upper three; gill-cover
with loofe feales ; lateral line fomewhat ramofe, and double.
the firft near the back, the other in the middle ; fins purple.
A native of Arabia. Perhaps of the fearus genus ?

Psirracutus. Green, with three longitudinal red ftripes
on each fidp ; dorfal fin yellow, with longitudinal red band.
LL. perrushe, Lacepede. Parrakeet labrus, Shaw.

Defcribed:from a drawing by Plumier. The fpecies iv-
habits the American feas. Over each eye is a black {treak ;
be yellow, with four or five curved bands of blue and
red.

Nicer. Tail truncated in the middle ; down the chit a
aul green longitudinal ftripe. Gmel. Scarus niger,
orl.

Au Arabian f{pecies found near the fhores of the fea. The
jaws are bifid, the blotches on the bead and outer margin
of the fins blue-green ; lips edged with red, and then green-
ifh-brown ; teeth in the upper jaw two, canine and white ;
fins violet-brown ; pectoral obfcure, ferruginous and brown-
ifh at the bafe ; tail greenifh, the angles lanceolate.

Cuanus. Head with three blueifh rivulets each fide,
under the eye a blue {quare fpot. Gmel.

Colour above brown, beneath white ; lower jaw longer,
between the eyes two furrows diverging behind ; anterior
gill-covers ferrated at the back part, poiterior tridentate ;
pectoral, ventral, and anal fins -yellow; dorfal and caudal
{potted with red. Inhabits Turkey, near Conftantinople,

Opercutatus. Body with ten brown bands; gill-co-
vers with a brown fpot. Linn. Amoen. Acad.

A native of Afia.

Pavo. Body varied with green, blue, fanguineous red, and
hoary. Gmel..Labrus pulchre varius, pinnis pedoralibus ro-
tundatis, Art. Labrus pavo, Haffelquilt. Peacock labrus.

Length twelve inches. Inhabits the Mediterranean fea,
near Syria.

Aurirus. Gill-covers fin-fhaped. Gmel. Perca fuvia-
tilis gibbofa, ventre luteo, Catetby.

Native of the frefh waters of North America; the tris is
yellow ; gill-cover with a long, obtule, black membrane at
the tip; the tail bilobate.

Tricnorrenus. Ventral fins with one ray.
Sparus, &c. Koelreuter.

Length four inches, the body carinated behind, flightly
undulated with brown and pale, the middle of the fides and

Pallas.

bale of the tail with around brown black fpot, furrounded

by a paler circle. An Indian ipecies of the marine kind,

Faucatus. Dorfal and anal fins faleated, the five firft
rays unarmed. Gmel.

Inhabits America, the.colour filvery, and length of the
bream ;-the teeth are acute, and the ventral fins imall.

Ruros, Tail lunate; body entirely tawny. Loefl.
Turdus flavus, Catetby.

An American f{pecies.

Zeytanicus. ‘Tail lunate; body above green, beneatk
pale purple. Ind. Zool.

An edible fifth. It inhabits Ceylon. The head is blue,
the gill-covers green, with purple lines; pe€toral fins with a
purple {pot in the middle, and edged with blue 5. ventral
blue ; dorfal and anal blueifh-purple edged with green ; tail
in the middle yellow, each fide ftreaked with red, at the
bafe blue. 3

AYENA.

_ Body filvery ; rays of the dorfal fin two—ifive,
and nearly unarmed.

Fortk.
+ 2 Inhabits

LABRUS.

Tnhabits the fandy fhores of Arabia. The length fix
inches; body oblong ; belly flraight, and fometimes marked
with interrupted {tripes ; the lips are equal, the upper pre-
traétile ; teeth numerous and very fhort ; lateral line nearer
the back, and almoit parallel; tail bilobate, the lobes
lanceolate, and the fins glaucous.

CarenuLa. Lower jaw longer; back elevated; on
each fide eight feries of very {mall equal fpots, and two
tran{verfe bands upon the nape. Le /abre chapelet, Lace-

ede.

Obferved by Commerfon in the Indian feas. This and
feveral of the following new fpecies are probably fpecies of
the Linnean Scizena.

Lonatrosrris. Snout much advanced; gill-covers of
two pieces. Le Jabre long-mufeau, Lacepede.

Found wit! the preceding. z

Mextaprerus. Fins black; head bare of {cales. Labrus
mzlepterus, Bloch. Le labre a nageoires molles, Buff. .

native of Japan.

Semi-Ruser. Four teeth in the upper jaw larger 3 an-
terior half of the body red, the polterior yeilow. Le labre
demi-rouge.

Obferved by Commerfon in the Indian feas.
of the pofterior part of the Corfal fins {ealy.

PunxcruLatus. Upper lip large, thick, and pleated;
three longitudinal rows of black dots on the dorfal fin, and
one on the pofterior part of the anal fin. Le dabre tetracanthe,
Lacepede. ©

Native country unknown.

Semipiscus. Pale, with numerous black tranfverfe
bands; tail terminated in a clear pale crefcent. Le labre
aemi-difque, Lacepede.

The bands acrofs the body of this fifh are about nineteen
in number, and the dorfal fin feftooned. A fpecies found
in the Indian feas.

Dotiatus, Grey, with about twenty-three tranfverfe
brown bands; caudal fin crefcent-fhaped. Le ladre cercle,
Lacepede.

A native of the Indian feas.

Hirsutus. Six larger teeth in the upper jaw; lateral
line hirfute with {mall {pines; body with numerous longi-
tudinal lines. Le Jabre hériffé, Lacepede.

Inhabits the Indian feas. .

Fureatus. Lower jaw longer; teeth fmall; lobes of
the caudal fin pointed and very long. Le /abre fourchu,
Lacepede.

Found in the fame feas as the former.

Sex-rasciatus. Opening of the mouth very {mall;
lower jaw longer; body with fix tranfverfe bands. Le /abre

fx bandes, Lacepede.

Obferved with the preceding by Commerfon.

Ocro-virtatus. Teeth in the upper jaw much longer ;
on each fide the body four fomewhat oblique rays. Le /abre
uit raies, Lacepede- é

Found in the Indian feas. ‘The tail in this kind is crefcent
formed.

Lzvis. Lower jaw longer; teeth large, recurved, and
equal; lateral line nearly fraight; body with five large
tranfverfe fpots or bands. Le /abre liffe, Lacepede.

A native of the Indian feas.

Govan. Each gill-cover compofed of three plates,
and terminating in a large rounded projection ; lateral line
obfolete ; between the thoracic fins a pointed procels. Le
labre gouan, Lacepede.

Country unknown,

Macsortsrus. A black fpot on the pofterior angle of

The bale

the gill-covers ; nearly all the rays of the fins terminating in
filaments. Le Jabre macroptere.

A {pecies met with in the Indian feas by Commerfon, in
his voyage round the world.

Prumieri. Head rayed with blue; body filvery, with
{pots of blue and golden-yellow, and curved tranfverle band
on the tail. » Le labre plumierien, Lacepede.

Found in the American feas.

Enneacantuus. Lateral line interrupted; body with
fix tranfyerfe bands, and two on the tail. Le /abre ennéa-
canthe, Lacepede.

Each jaw is furnifhed with two or four large and very
{trong teeth, and the feales are confiderable in point of fize.
Its native placeis unknown. —-

Kismina. Head with feven fmall blue rays each fide,
and four larger of the fame cclour each fide of the body ;
tail crefcent-fhaped. Le /abre kifmira, Lacepede.

Native of the Red fea.

Iris. Gill-covers compofed of four plates, and ending
in an angular prejection ; a large oval black fpot with white
annulation at the pofterior part of the dorfal fin.

‘Inhabits the frefh waters of Carolina, where it is very
common, and is efteemed as an edible fifk.

** With tail entire.

Hiarura. Anal fin none; body with fix or feven black
bands. Linn. :

Communicated to Linneus by Dr. Garden. The f{pecies
inhabits Carolina, and conftitutes the genus hiatula of Lace-
pede. Whether L. grifeus before mentioned be really of
this genus, or is defective only in the reprefentation, appears
uncertain. Should it a€tually be deftitute of the anal fin, as
defcribed, it'muit probably be placed in the fame genus
(hiatula) as this fpecies, notwithftanding the difference in
the form of the tail. :

The lip in the prefent fifh is retraétile, and wrinkled
within ; jaws befet with fharp teeth, thofe in the palate or-
bicular; gill-covers punGtured at the edge ; {pinous rays of
the dorfal fin equal, on the polterior part black.

Marernauis. Subfufcous; edges of the dorfal and pec-
toral fins tawny. Loefl. it,

Inhabits the ocean.

Ferrucineus. Sides blueifh, with a longitudinal,
tawny, indented ftripe each fide. Gmel.

An Indian fpecies.

Ivuis. Body above fufcous and green; beneath white,
with a fulvous dentated ftripe each fide; two fore-teeth
longeft. Donov. Brit. Fifhes. Labrus iulis ; /upra fufcus
viridifque fubtus albus vtita fulva utringue dentata, dentibus
duobus primoribus fupra longioribus, Ibid. Labrus iults,.
Linn. Labrus iulis, Bloch?

“© Difcovered on the coaft of Cornwall in the year 1802.
As a native of the Mediterranean fea, this fifh is mentioned
by various writers; but asa Britihh fpecies it is perfeéily
new, not having been recorded as fuch either by Wil-
lughby, Ray, Borlafe, Pennant, or any other writer on
the zoology of this country.’’—‘* This fifh has arrefled the
attention of many ichthyologifts among the ancients as well
as moderns, the former of whom pronounced it the mofk
beautiful of European fifhes. It may be collef&ted from the
works of lian, Ariftotle, Salvian, Aldrovandus, and
others, that this fifh is common at certain feafons in the
Mediterranean. Elian {peaks of it, however, as a pol-
fonous fifh, and of fuch a venomous nature that it would be
unfafe to eat it, or even the flefh of any other fifh that had
been touched by it. Galen: mentions it, on the contrary,
as wholefome food. The male of this {pecies is diltin-

guifhed,

.

LABRUS.

guifhed, according to fome writers, by having the back of
a black colour, inftead of green, as in the female; but it ap-

ears in this and other refpects to be an extremely variable
Fretics. Neither are its habits and manners correétly known.
It is generally afferted that it fwims in fmall fhoals: Avif-
totle ipeaks to this effet ; but this is contradicted by Salvian
and others, who defcribe it as a more folitary fifh, &c.’’
Vide Brit. Fifhes.

The ufual length is about feven or eight inches.

Paroricus. Lateral line curved; fins rufous; gill-
covers cxrulean blue. Linn. Muf. Ad. Fr.

Native of India.

Suittus. Dorfal fin filamentous; above the tail a black
fpot; dorfal {pines nine. Linn, Fn. Suec. Sparus berg
JSaylira, It. Wg.

Inhabits the fhores of Europe.

Sraiarus. Dorfal fin filamentous; body with white
and brown lines. Linn.

Native of America.

Guaza. TFufcous; tail rounded, the rays extending be-
yond the membrane. Loefl.

Inhabits the ocean.

Ocettanis. Dorfal fin filamentous; an ocellate {pot at
the bafe of the tail. Linn. F

Country unknown.

Puncratus. Dorfal fin filamentous; body with longi-
tudinal lines {potted with brown. Gmel. Sciena, Kc.
Linn. JLabrus, Gronov.

Found in Surinam.

Me tops. Dorfal fin filamentous, and with the anal va-
riegated ; behind the eyes a brown crefcent. Linn.

Inhabits the fouth of Europe.

Nizoticus. Dorfal, anal, and caudal fins clouded.
Linn. Labrus niloticus, Halffelq.

Inhabits Egypt.

Ossrrracus. Lips doubled; dorfal fin with thirty rays.
Linn.

An European fpecies.

Rurestris. Dorfal fn filamentous; tail with a brown

{pot at the upper edge. Gmel. Sciena, &c. Linn. Ca-
radfe, Stroem.

Found on the rocky fhores of Norway.

Onitis.
nereous and brown.

Country unknown.

_Virints.. Green, with a blue line each fide.

Inhabits the Mediterranean.

Linrzarus, Fins greenifh, the dorfal one ramentous ;
body green, with numerous yellowifh longitudinal lines.
Donov. Br. Fifhes.

« A new and highly interefting {pecies, defcribed on the
authority of an example found by captain Bray on the coatt
of Cornwall. ‘This fpecimen, which is in our poffeffion, is
feven inches in length; the prevailing colour greenifh, with
the belly yellowifh,” &c. Vide Br. Fithes.

Luscus. All the fins yellow; upper eye-lid black.
Lina.

Country unknown.

Linn.
Art.

Livens. Tail rounded; dorfal fin filamentous; body
livid brown, Linn.
Exoretus. Dorfal fin filamentous; body lineated with

blue ; anal fin with five [pines. Mill. Zool. Dan.

Inhabits the Atlantic and Norway feas, and alfo Green-
land, though rarely.

Srvensis. Dorfal fin filamentous; body livid; crown
retufe. Gmel.

An Afatic fpecies.

Dorfal fin filamentous; belly fpotted with ci--

Jaronicus. Fine yellow. Houttuyn.

Length fix inches, and inhabits Japan.

Boors. Lower jaw longer; dorfal fin two. Houttuyn.

Found in Japan with the latter.

Tinca. Dorfal fin ramentaceous; body yellowifh, va-
riegated with blue and red fpots; fins red, with fufcous
margins, and-dotted with white. Donov. Br. Fifhes.
Pinna dorfali ramentacea, corpore flavefiente ceruleo variegato
rubroque maculato, pinnis rubris fujco marginalis albo-guttatis,
Ibid. Labrus tinca, Linn. Labrus vetula, Bloch. Turdus
vulgatifimus, Will. Vielle, poulle de mer, gallot, Belon.
Wraffe, or old wife, Ray.

Mott writers concur in admitting the labrus tinca as a fifh
almoft, if not exclufively, peculiar to this country. ‘ Ha-
bitat in maris Britannici profundis feopulofis,”? fays Gmelin ;
and this opinion is fanctioned by the countenance of Lace-
pede and others. Hence it cannot be improper to regard it
chiefly as a Britifh produdtion; and as fuch, it will not be
amifs to repeat fome obfervations that have been already de-
livered by us on this fubjet, in the volumes of Britifh Fifhes
to which we have before adverted.—* This charming
fpecies of wrafle cannot but be confidered as one of the molt
beautiful of the fith tribe obferved to this time on the coatts
of Britain,’ &c.—* We have obtained this fpecies from
Scarborough, and other eaftern coalts of England, more
than once; we have received it alfo from Cornwall, from the
Skerry iflands, north of Anglefea, and from Scotland; but
have been uniformly led to believe it a {pecies not very com-
mon on either of thefe coafts, except near Scarborough.
The ufual length of this fpecies is about fifteen or eighteen.
inches, and its form rather bulky in proportion to the
length. ‘The prevailing colour is yellowith, inclining to
greenifh or olivaceous on the back, and white towards the
belly ; the markings variable in form, and diff-ring much in
colour. The whole of the back and fides are fpotted with
red, varying in different fpecimens from a deep or purplifh
crimfon to a reddifh-orange, and even in fome varieties al-
mott to fulyous, and curioufly marked with irregular lines,
dots, and fpecklings of cerulean blue, efpecially about the
head ; the tins are red, with a broad duflcy border inclining
more or leis to purple, and elegantly marked with numerous
roundifh dots of white. Bloch confiders the dufky border
ef the fins (which in the fpecimen he delineates is black) as
a fufficient indication of the fpecies. In his fith, the black
border was diftin& only in the ventral, anal, and caudal
fins; to which may be added, that the dorfal fin is com-
monly dufkky or purplifh, as well as thefe before men-
tioned,

“¢ Bloch defcribes this fifth under the title of labrus vetula,,
and as a native of the coafts of Britanny, Normandy, and
the North fea; from the laft of which he received it through
the medium of his friend, M. Spengler. Gmelin, as before -’
remarked, {peaks of it as an inhabitant of the Britifh coafts,
probably on the authority of Ray and Willughby. But
the fpecies is not confined to Europe: a fpecimen of it,,
taken among a variety of other fifhes by captain Cook in
the South feas, is at this time in our collection.

«« The haunts of this fifh are deep waters on the boldetft-
rocky fhores, where it fubfifts on crabs and teftaceous ani-
mals ; for the maceration of which,. the three tuberculated
bony procefles of its throat are admirably conftruéted,
This fifh takes bait eagerly, and is more commonly caught.
with the hook and line than in the net,, or by any other
mode of capture.

*¢ Tt appears Mr. Pennant had not confidered the varieties.
of this fifh attentively, or, we think, the ballan wraffe would
not have heen deicribed as a {pecies diftin¢t from the labrus.

tinca..

.

LABR.WUS.

tinca. The ballan wrafle of that writer is certainly the fame
as our fith, from which it differs only in being of a paler
colour, and in having the body marked with yellowifh in-
ftead of orange or red. Such pale coloured varieties occur
pretty frequently, and are indeed more common than thofe
of deeper or more lively colours, Dr. Turton fufpeéts the
ballan wraffe to be a variety only of the labrus tinca of
Linnzus, though he -deferibes it as a fpecies with this dif-
tinctive character; Body yellow, fpotted with orange ;
above the nofe a deep fulcus; farther gill-cover with a deep
depreffion radiated from the centre.’? In thefe particulars
Dr. Turton was mifled by the account given by Mr. Pen-
nant, without reflecting that the fame characters apply pre-
cifely to labrus tinca. Mr. Pennant informs us, the ballan
wrafle ‘¢ was the-form of the common wrafle, only between
the dorfal fin and tail was a confiderable finking ; above the
nofe was a deep fulcus; on the fartheit cover of the gills was
a depreffion radiated from the centre.”? It is already fhewn
that the {pots on this fifh yary confiderably ; to which may
be added, that the finking between the dorfal fin and tail is
confpicuous in all the varieties of labrus tinca, and fo alfo is
the fuleus above the nofe. With regard to the la{t charac-
teriftic, the radiated depreffion on the gill-covers, one, two,
or more fuch depreffions are apparent on thofe parts, when
divelted of the large feales that adhere to them; every {cale,
of which there are feveral on the gill-covers, leaving fuch a ra-
diated depreffion on the thin membrana eous {kin, when taken
off. Thofe particulars inclined us to believe Mr. Pennant
was in fome meafure deceived by the imperfect ftate of the
Scarborough fpeecimen he examined; and our opinion has
been fince confirmed by various cireumitances. Mr. Travis,
the fon of the medical gentleman who furnifhed Mr. Pen-
nant with the {fpecimen he defcribes, informs us the -ballan
wrafle is the individual fifh commonly known by the name
of old wife among the fifhermen on the Scarborough coatts,
where it appears in fhoals during fummer, and that there is
/nly one fort found in thofe parts. This kind we have ex-
amined, and have no hefitation in: {tating it to be the ballan
wratile of Pennant, and the-labrus tinca of every other ich-
thyologiit.”” Vide Brit. Fifhes, vol. iv.

In the details above mentioned will be found fome further
arguments on this {ubje&, which the limits of our article
cannot permit us to repeat. For the length of the prefent
digreflion we mult indeed offer an.apology, and this will
donbtlefs be accepted on the following grounds. The
Ballan wraffe of Mr. Pennant has been almoft uniformly
admitted as a {pecies by the beft writers ; when the account
from which the preceding extraéts were taken was pub-
Kifhed, we were aware it was received as a fpecies by feveral
ye{pectable writers, and fince that period, we have obferved
it included as fuch by a modern continental writer, Monf.
Bofe, under the name of le labre ballan; he fpeaks of
it on the authority of Englifh authors, and as a native of
this country only. To corre& this error, it will be ad-
mitted, was delirable, and it was certaiuly no lefs incumbent
in declining to defcribe the ballan wrafle, to explain our
motives for fuch omiffion.

Vanriscarus. Red, with about four irregular parallel
olive itripes on the fides, and an equal number of blue
ones. Donov. Br, Fifhes. Labrus variegatus, Gmel. Striped

wraffe.

ie elegant and local Britifh fifh, To Mr. Pennant
we are indebted for an account of this {pecies; he was fo
fortunate as to difcover it fome years ago; he found it on
the coalt of Anglefea, aff the Skerry iflands. he length
of his fpecimen was ten inches, but we procured both fexes
at the fame place, and of a fize rather Jarger, the female

meafuring fourteen inches in length, and the male twelve.
Brit. Fifhes, vol. i. ’

Cromis., Dorfal fin nearly united; fecond ray of the
anal fin very large, thick, and compreffed. Linn. Brown,
&e. Coracinus brafilienfis, Ray. Guatucupa, Mareg.

Native of Carolina.

Lixraris. Oblong; all the rays of the dorfal fin
{pinous, except the lait. Linn.

Inhabits South America ,and India. i

Perpica.. Tail even; back ftraight; crown fmooth ;
body with indented yellowifh firipes each fide. Forfk:

This and the two following f{pecies inhabits the fea about
Contlantinople.

Scrxa. Body greenifh, with white and yellow waves 5
between the eyes an impreffed hollow, and before the hollow
a groove. Forfk.

The middle teeth large; anterior gill-covers flightly
ferrated behind, pofterior unarmed ; lateral line interrupted;
pectoral fins yellowifh and without {pots, the reft obfcure,
yellow, {potted with blue.

Larina.. Peétoral fins yellow ; ventral blue, the reft
violet fpotted with blue. Fortk.

Body oblong-oval, above brown, beneath whitifh, the
fides greenith-yellow, with three lines each fide, each com~-
pofed of a double row of red fpots.

Ramexroscs. Greenifh-brown ; filament of the firft dor-
fal {pines twice as long asthe ray. Forfk.

Native of Arabia; the body lanceolate, fpotted with
violet on the fins, crown, and under the eyes ; or fometimes
fine green; feales large, rounded, entire, and difpofed in
nine rows from the belly to the back.

Cce.tarus. Greenifh, with a {earlet ccellate {pot be-
hind each eye. Forfk. [

Inhabits the fhores of Syria; the body fuboval, back
yellowifh-brown, and the head marked with blue irregular
lines.

Lunvuratus. Greenifh-brown with darker bands, feales
with each a ferruginous band; breaft f{peckled with red,
Forfk.

Length one foot ; fezles broad and entire. ‘This fpecies
inhabits Arabia. j

TrimacuLatus. Red; on each fide at the bafe of the
dorfal fin two dark fpots, and a third between the dorfal
fin and tail. Donov. Br. Fifhes. Labrus trimaculatus,
Gmel. Labrus carneus, le» Pacn rouge, Bloch. Trima-
culated wraffe.

«“ The length of this fpecies is about twelve inchés ; its
form is graceful, and ‘the colours, when recent, of peculiar
elegance and delicacy. A fine orange varying to red upon
the back, and becoming paler ard whiter towards the belly,
is the chief and moft pervading colour. "The dorfal fin and
tail are tine orange, the former itrongly marked. with dark
purplifh-black, and prettily edged with blue; and the reft
of the fins paler. The three dark {pots at the poiterior ex-
tremity of the back, which principa'ly conftitutes the {pe-
cific diftin@tion of this kind of wrafle, are of a rich blackith
purple. There are alfo four other fpots of a delicate rofe
colour, fituated contiguous to thefe, and which do not ap-
pear to have been mentioned by any writer. Two of thefe
{pots are difpofed in the {pace between the three darker ones
before mentioned, and the third and fourth are placed one
at each extremity of the outermolt ones, {fo as to form to-
gether a feries of feven fpots, which are alternately of a
pale rofe colour and a very deep purple. ‘This fpecies is
uncommonly rare. Our fpecimen was caught on the coatt
of Cornwall ia June 1801.”” Vide Brit. Fifhes. v. 11.

OLIVACEUS.

LABRUS.

Oxivacrus. Body olive-green; gill-covers blue at the
tip; tail with a black fpot. Brann.

Native of the Mediterranean; the length two inches;
’ body oblong, comprefled, beneath inclining to filvery.

Fuscus. Body brown, with blue. lines and fpots.
Brunn.

Length three inches, compreffed oblong, beneath whitifh.
The {pecies inhabits the Mediterranean,

Unimacutatus. Body lineated with olive; dorfal fin
behind with a black fpot. Brunn.

Inhabits the Mediterranean, and a fuppofed variety of it,
which is reticulated with dufky and greenith filvery, occurs
in the Adriatic. The body is three inches long, oval, com-
prefied, and marked with about ten pale blue longitudinal
lines.

Venosus. Green, with anaftomofing veins; gill-covers
and dorfal fin with a black fpot. Bloch.

Native of the Mediterranean ; body oval, and compreffed ;
fides of the head with a few longitudinal red lines ; filaments
and band on the dorfal fin red. Length three inches.

Gniseus. Body grey, with darker fpots; tail with a
black fpot at the bafe. Brunn.

Length three inches, oval; cheeks lineated with blue;
fins reddifh, with dufky yellow fpots. Found in the Medi-
terranean.

Gurratus. Body reddifh, variegated with black ; iail
with a {pot on the middle of the bafe. Brunn.

Native of the Mediterranean.

" Aprraticus. Body with four broad tranfverfe brown
bands ;_ dorfal fin on the anterior part ten-fpined ; on the
pofterior part marked with ocellated black fpots. Brunn.

Length three inches; body pale; head with oblique
tawny lines. y

Leoparpus. Two teeth in the front of each jaw larger ;
body fpeckled with brown ; from the eyes to the gill-covers
a dark line, and on the tail a black band. Le /abre leopard,
Lacepede. :

A fpecies found in the Indian feas, and called leopardus,
from the colours and markings on the body, tail, the dorfal
and anal fin, refembling thofe of the leopard. It was dif.
covered by Commerfon.

Bivirratus. Back red, fides yellow, with two longitu-
dinal brown rays, the upper one of which extends from the
eye, the lower from the petoral fin. Le Jabre a deux lignes,
&e. Bloch. Le /abre birayé, Lacepede.

The country unknown.

Macnoteripotus. Yellow; fcales large; nine {pines
in the dorfal fin; beneath the eyes two rows of pores. Lue
fabre a gandes ecailles, Sc. Bloch.

Suppofed to be an inhabitant of the Indian feas.

Avzo-rapiatus. Lips very thick; body yellowifh,
with two very Jong white rays, and a third above fhorter.
Mem. Acad. Petr.

Country unknown,

Marnoratus.. Marbled with brown and whitifh.
labre marbré, Lacepede.

A native of the Indian feas; difcovered by Commerfon.
‘The teeth are equal and diftin@.

Bereyira. Scales large ; the laft rays of the anal and
dorfal fin much larger than the others. Bloch, &c. Le
fabre bergylte, Lacepede. :

Found in deep feas in the north of Europe: feeds on
crabs and fhells, and grows.to the length of ten or twelve
inches.

Horruranus. Body and tail decuflated. with dark

&

Le

{tripes, and a fpot in each divifion.
cepede.

Native of the Indian feas.

Cators. Scales large; lateral line ftraight ; near the
pectoral fins a large brown {pot. Le labre calops, Lacepede.

Inhabits the feas of Europe, and is known at Dieppe
under the name of brune.’? The eyes are large and black ;
the back dufky.

Ascanxnt. Above red, varied with green {pots and
ftreaks, and the under parts yellowish, fpeckled with red.
Le rone afcanius.

Length feven inches; green ftripes on the dorfal and
anal fin about two or three in number; tail green, with the
tip red.

Cyaxoptrrus. Above varied with red, green, and yel-
low; beneath green and brown; fins blue. Cheilodiptere
cyanoptere, Lacepede.

A beautiful fpecies, found in the American feas.

Cineurum. Anterior parts livid, pofterior brown, with
an intermediate white girdle; dorfal fin edged with white.
Lacepede, &c.

Native of the Indian feas:

Diana. Four larger teeth in the upper jaw; in the lower
two; centre of each feale marked with a brown crefcent,
Le labre diane, Lacepede '

‘An Indian fpecies.

Macropon. Scales large; mouth furnifhed with four
larger curved teeth. Le labre macrodonte, Lacepede.

Neustria. Back varied with brown, orange, and green-
ifh, the fides marbled with brown, orange, and white. Le
labre Neuflrien, Lacepede.

Found in the Seine, where the fifhermen diftinguith it by
the title of “ grande vieille,’’ and bandouliere marbre.””

Cruexratus. Silvery, with large irregular {pots of
fanguineous. Le Jabre enfanglanté, Lacepede.

Obferved by Plumier in the American feas.

Karuta. Body blackifh, with a yellow longitudinal
ftripe each fide, and beneath yellowith with rufous fin. *Jobe-
nius karutta, Bloch. Le labre karut, Lacepede..

An Indian fpecies. '

Curreus. Somewhat filvery ;. head, back, and fins,
tinged with coppery. Johnius aneus, Bloch.

Shape lanceolate. This {pecies inhabits the Indian feasy.
and is called Anei kattalei by the natives of Malabar.

AxyyuLatus. Body encircled by nine regular ftraight
bands or rings. Le Jabre annelé, Lacepede.

One of the fpecies found by Commerfon in the Indian:
feas.

Brasiuiensis. Two teeth in. the upper jaw longer and‘
recurved ; dorfal and anal fin-with two or three longitudinal:
lines. Bloch, &c.

Found on the coafts.of Brazil, where. it istaken with the-
hook and line; the flefh is excellent.

TesseLLatus.. Back violet, .fides filvery, and divided
into compartments like a wainfeot... Labrus teffellatus, Bloch. -
Le labre boife, Buff.

This kind inhabits the North feas.
call it ‘ perroquet beife.”?

Cornugius. Body variegated with green ; near the tail
a large fufcous {pot ; anal fin yellow, obliquely banded with.
fufcous. Donoy. Brit, Fithes. Ladrus cornubius, Gmel.
Goldgnny, Ray.

This beautiful fpecies is about a palm’s length, the back.
brownifh, beneath which the green prevails, and below this
the fides and lower part are yellowith Gilvery ; anal fin golden
yellow, whence. its name.

La labre parterre, Vane

Some French authors-

ComBrERs-

LAB

Comsrr. Back, fins, and tail red; belly yellow. Z.
corpore miniato, cauda rotundata, Gmel. Comber, Ray, &c.

A {mall {pecies of an oblong form, recorded by Ray as an
inhabitant of thé fhores of Cornwall.

Coaquus. Purple and dull blue, beneath yellow. Gmeh

Tnhabits fame place as the former, according to Ray.

Mixtus. Variegated with yellow and blue; anterior
teeth larger. Arted.

Found on the fhores of Dalmatia.

Futvus. Body fulvous, Gmel.
Catefby.

A native of America.

Vanius. Varied with purple, green, blue, end black. Art.

Native of the Mediterranean.

Meruta. Blackifh blue.

An European fpecies.

Cynarpus. Pale yellow; back purple; dorfal fin
reaching from head to tail. Art. ’

Found in the Mediterranean.

LABURNUM, in Botany.
GYRIS.

Lasurnum, in Gardening, a common name applied to a
beautiful, flowering, ornamental tree, for pleafure and
other grounds. There are two forts of this tree in ufe ge-
nerally, which, while young, have much the fame appearance
in the wood and foliage, but are afterwards readily dittin-
-guifhed by the {mallnefs and finenefs of the flowers, and of
that of the branches. The fine flowered and more branchy
fort, is the moft proper for fituations where ornament is re-
‘quired, fuch as fhrubberies and pleafure grounds ; but the
more coarfe flrosg growing kind, fucceeds beit in poor, gra-
velly, and rocky fituations.

LABY, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Upland; 12 miles N. of Upfal.

LABYRINTH, AzCuenfcc, among the Ancients, was a
large and intricate edifice cut out into various ifles and mean-
ders, running into each other, fo as to render it difficult to
get out of it.

There is mention made of four celebrated labyrinths
among the ancients, ranked by Pliny in the number of the
swonders of the world ; viz. the Cretan, Egyptian, Lemnian,
and Italian.

That of Crete is the moft famed ; it was built, as Diodorus
Siculus conjectures, and Pliny pofitively afferts, by Deda-
lus, by command of king Minos, who kept the Minotaur
fhut up init, on the model of that of Egypt, but ona lefs
f{cale: but both affirm, that in their time it no longer exited,
having been either deftroyed by time, or purpofely demo-
lifhed. It was hence that Thefeus is faid to have made his
efcape by means of Ariadne’s clue.

Diodorus Siculus and Pliny reprefent this labyrinth as
having been a large edifice; while others have confidered it
as merely a cavern hollowed in the rock, and full of winding
paflages. Ifthe labyrinth of Crete, fays the Abbé Barthe-
lemi (Travels of Anacharfis, vol. iv, p. 441, &c.), had
been conftru@ed by Dedalus under the order of Minos,
whence is it that we find no mention of it, either by Homer,
who more than once {peaks of that prince, and of Crete, or
by Herodotus, who defcribes that of Egypt, after having
faid that the monuments of the Egyptians are much fuperior
to thofe of the Greeks ; or by the more ancient geographers ;
or by any of the writers of the ages in which Greece flou-
rifhed? This work was attributed to Dedalus, whofe name,
fays our author, is fufficient to difcredit a tradition.
mame, like that of Hercules, had become the refource of ig-
morance, whenever it turned itseyeson the-early ages, All

Turdus cauda convexa,

Art.

See Cyrisus and Awna-

His -

LAB

great labours, all works which required more ftrength than
ingenuity, were attributed to Hercules ; and all thofe which
had relation to the arts, and required a certain degree of in-
telligence in the execution, were afcribed to Daedalus. Ac-
cording to Diodorus and Pliny no traces ef the labyrinth of
Crete exifted in their time, and the date of its deftruétion had
been forgotten. Yet it is faid to have been vilited by the
difciples of Apollonius of Tyana, who was contemporary
with thofe two authors. (Philoftrat. Vit. Apoll. liv.
c. 34.) The Cretans, therefore, believed that they poffefled
the labyrinth. At Nauplia, near the ancient Argos, fays
Strabo (1. viii.), are itill to be feen vait caverns, in which
are conflructed labyrinths that are believed to be the work of
the Cyclopes; the meaning of which, as. Barthelemi under-
itands him, is, that the labours of men had opened in the
rock paflages which croffed and returned upon themfelves as
in quarries. Such, he fays, is the idea we ought to form
of the labyrinth of Crete. He then fuggefts an enquiry,
whether there were feveral labyrinths in that ifland? An-
cient authors {peak only of one, which molt of them place
at Cnoffus, and fome few at Gortyna. Belon and Tourne-
fort defcribe a cavern fituated at the foot of mount Ida, on
the fouth fide of the mountain, at a {mall diftance from Gor- -
tyna; which, according to the former, was a quarry, and
according to the latter, the ancient labyrinth. Befides this
another is f{uppofed to have been fituated at Cnoflus, and in
proof of the fa& it is alleged, that the coins of that city
reprefent the plan of it. The place where the labyrinth of
Crete was fituated, according to Tournefort, was, as Bar-
thelemi fuppofes, one league diftant from Gortyna; and,
according to Strabo, it was diftant from Cnoffus fix or feven
leagues ; with refpe& to which our author concludes, that
the territory of the latter city extended to the vicinity of the
former. In reply to the inquiry, what was the ufe of the
caverns, denominated fabyrinth, Barthelemi imagines, that
they were firft excavated in part by nature; that in fome
places ftones were extraGted from them for building cities,
and that, in more ancient times, they ferved for an habita-
tion or afylum to the inhabitants of a diftriG expofed to fre-
quent incurfions, According to Diodorus Siculus, the
molt ancient Cretans dwelt in the caves of mount Ida. The
people, when inquiries were made on the fpot, faid, that
their labyrinth was originally a prifon. It might indeed have
been applied to this ufe; but it is f{earcely credible that, for
preventing the efcape of a few unhappy wretches, fuch im-
menfe labours would have been undertaken. See CRETE.

The labyrinth of Egypt, according to Pliny, (N. H.
v. li. ]. 36.) was the oldeft of all; and was fubfifting in
his time, after having ftood, according to tradition, as he
fays, 4600 years. He fays it was built by king Pete-
fucus, or Tithoeés ; but Herodotus makes it the work
of feveral kings: it ftood on the fonthern bank of the
lake Meeris, near the town of Crocodiles, or Arfinoe, and
confifted of twelve large contiguous palaces, in which the
twelve kings of Egypt affembied to tranfa& affairs of fate
and religion, containing 3000 apartments, 1500 of which
were under ground.

This ftructure feems to have been deficned as a pantheon,
or univerfal temple of all the Egyptian deities, which were
feparately worfhipped in the provinces. It was alfo the
place of the general afflembly of the magiftracy of the whole
nation ; for thofe of all the provinces or nomes met here to
fealt and facrifice, and to judge caufes of great confequence.
For this reafon, every nome had a hall or palace appropriated
toit; the whole edifice containing, according to Herodotus,
twelve; Egypt being then divided into fo many kingdoms.

2 Pimy

LAB

Pliny makes the number of thefe palaces 16, and Strabo
makes them 27. All the halls were vaulted, and had an
equal number of doors oppofite to one another, fix opening
to the north, and fix to the fouth, all encompaffed by the
{ame wall. The exits, by various paffages and innumerable
returns, afforded to Herodotus a thoufand occafions of won-
der. ‘The roofs and walls within were incrufted with mar-
ble, and adorned with fculptured figures The halls were
furrounded with pillars of white ftone finely polifhed ; and
at the angle, where the labyrinth ended, {tood the pyramid,
which Strabo afferts to be the fepulchre of the prince who
built the labyrinth. According to the defcription of Pliny
and Strabo, this edifice ftood in the midit of an immenfe
{quare, furrounded with buildings at a great dilance. The
porch was of Parian marble, and all the other pillars of mar-
ble of Syene ; within were the temples of their feveral
deities, and galleries, to which was an afcent of go fteps,
adorned with many columns of porphyry, images of their
gods, and _ftatues of their kings, of a coloffal fize: the
whole edifice was con{tru€ted of ftone, the floors being laid
with vatt flags, and the roof appearing like a canopy of itone :
the paflages met, and crofled each other with fuch intri-
cacy, that it was impoffible for a ftranger to find his way,
either in or out, without a guide; and feveral of the apart-
ments were fo contrived, that on opening of the doors, there
was heard within a terrible noife of thunder. Although the
Arabs, fince the days of Pliny, helped to ruin this {tru¢ture,
yet a confiderable part of it is ftill ftanding. The people of
the country call it the palace of Charon. See a plan and
defcription of this labyrinth, in the prefent ttate of 1:, in Po-
cocke’s Hit. of the Ealft, vol. i. p. 61, &c. See alfo
Perry’s View of the Levant, p. 381, &c.

Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny, and Mela {peak of this
monument with the fame admiration as Herodotus ; but not
one of them fays that it was conitructed to bewilder thofe
who attempted to pafs through it ; though it is manifelt,
that, without a guide, they would have been in danger of
lofing their way. The Abbé Barthelemi (ubi fupra) fug-
geits, that this danger introduced anew term into the Greek
language. The word labyrinth, taken in the literal fenfe,
fignifies a circumfcribed f{pace, interfected by a number of
paflages, fome of which crofs each other in every direction,
like thofe in quarries and mines, and others make larger or
{maller circuits round the place from which they depart, like
the fpiral lines that.are vilible on certain fhells. Hence it
has been applied, in a figurative fenfe, to ob{cure and cap-
tious queltions, to indirect and ambiguous ar{wers, and to
thofe difcuffions, which, after long digreffions, bring us back
to the point from which we fetout.

Tht labyrinth of Lemnos was fupported by columns of
wonderful beauty ; there were {ome remains of it at the time
when Pliny wrote. -That of Italy was built by Porfenna,
king of Etruria, for his tomb. :

Lapyrintu, in Gardening, a fort of maze or wildernefs
plantation, abounding with hedges and walks, diitributed
into many windings and intricate turnings, leading to one
common centre, extremely difficult to be found out, defigned
by way of amufement. This is commonly formed with
hedges, in double rows, leading in various twiltings and
turnings, or backward and forward, with intervening planta-
tions and gravel-walks alternately between hedge and hedge.
The great object is to have the walk contrived in fo many
tte windings, as to caufe much Jabour and diffi-
culty to find out the centre, or out again in the way a perfon
came in. But they are now rarely introduced into modern
garden defigns ; and {carcely to be feen, except in fome old
gardens, .

Vou. XX.

LAC

The hedges for this ufe are ufually of hornbeam, but may
be of beech, elm, or any other fort of tree or fhrub that
can be kept in neat order by clipping. The walks fhould
be five feet wide at leaft, laid with gravel, and neatly rolled ;
and the trees and fhrubs to form the thicket of wood between
the hedges of any of the hardy kinds of the deciduous
tribe interfperfed with fome evergreens. In the middle, a
{pace fhould be left open as the centre. The labyrinth whic!
is, we believe, ftill in exiltence at Hampton Court, is almo
wholly formed of the common elm tree, cut in fo as to keep
it down to the proper height.

But fmall labyrinths are occafionally formed with box
edgings, and borders for plants, and alleys for walking in,
in imitation of the large ones, and which have good effect 1
{mall garden-grounds.

Lasynrintu, in Geography, a clufter of {mall iflands
in the Pacific ocean, difcovered in 1722, by captain Rogge-
wein, 75 miles W. from the YPernicious iflands.— Alfo, a
chain of fhoals, rocks, and {mall iflands on the E. coaft of
New Holland, extending from Cape Tribulation to Cape
York.

LABYRINTHUS, in Anatomy, a name given, cn ac-
count of its apparently complicated ftruéture, to the inter-
nal organ of hearing ; to the part, indeed, which, from its
receiving the auditory nerve, is the trve feat of the fenfe.
See Ear.

LAC, or Lacca, Gum, as it is commonly, though not
very properly, denominated, becaufe it is neither a gum nor
a refin, is a kind of compound fubitance, prepared by the
female of a minute infect, called by fome Coccus Lacca, and
by others Cuenmes Lacca, which is found in feveral {pecies
of trees in the Eaft Indies, and particularly on the banyan-
tree (Ficus indica and religiofa of Linnzus), feveral {pe-
cies of Mimofa, and the Biher on Rhamnus jujuba. Theie
infe&ts are nourifhed by the trees on which they are pro-
duced, and fix themfelves upon the fucculent extremities of
the young branches; and around their edges they are envi-
roned with a fpiffid fub-pellucid liquid, which feems to glue
them tothe branch. It is the gradual accumulation of this
liquid, which forms a complete cell for each infe&, and is
what is called Gum Lacca. When the cells are completely
formed, the infe&t is in appearance: an oval, {mooth, red
bag, without life, about the fize of a {mall cechineal infe&,
emarginated at the obtufe end, full of a beautiful red liquid.
When the eggs are hatched, the young infects, or grubs, firft
feed upon the red liquid above-mentioned, and when this is
expended, they pierce a hole through the coat that inveits
them, and move off one by one, leaving their exuviz be-
hind, which are the white membranous fubftance found in
the empty cells of the Stick lac. The accumulation of lac
appears in the economy of this infect to be the fubflance
that anfwers the double purpofe of a nidus and covering
to the egg or infeét in the firit ftage of its exiftence, and of
food for the maggot in its more advanced ftate. The lac is
formed into complete cells, finifhed with as much regularity
and art as the honey-comb, but differently arranged. The
flies are invited to depofit their eggs on the branches of the
trees by bef{mearing them with fome of the frefh lac fteeped
in water, which attraéts the fly, and gives a better and
larger crop. For a particular defcription of thefe infects,
and their ceils, we refer to the papers of Mr. James Kerr,
of Patna; Mr. Robert Saunders, {urgeon, at Boglepoor,
in Bengal; and Dr. Roxburgh, of Samulcotta, in the Philo-
fophical Tranfactions, vols. Ixxi. xxix. and Ixxxi. _ Lac is
a ftaple article of commerce in Affam, acouatry bordering or,
and much conneGed with, Thibet, which furnifhes the greatelt
quantity of that in ule ; and it is alfo found upon the uncul-

U tivated

ti A Cy

tivated mountains on both fides of the Ganges. The only
trouble in procuring it is that of breaking down the
branches, and carrying them to market. The price ‘in
Dacca, in 1781, fays Mr. Kerr, was about 12s. the hundred
pounds weight, although it was brought from the diftant
country of Affam. ‘lhe beitlac is of a deep red colour. If
it is pale, and pierced at top, it is depretiated in value, be-
caufe the infects have left their cells, and confequently they
can be of no ule as a dye or colour; though they may be
probably better for varnifhers. Of lac there are four kinds
knownin commerce: wit. 1. Stick lac, which is the lac in
its natural ftate, from which all the others are formed. This
is obtained in pretty confiderable lumps, with much of the
woody parts of the branches on which it is formed adhering
to it. 2. Seed lac, which is the former broken into fmall
pieces, garbled, and appearing in a granulated form,
3. Lump lac, which is /eed lac liquefied by fire, and-formed
intocakes. 4. Shell lac is the purified lac, or the cells li-
quelied, ftrained, and formed into their tranfparent lamin.
Lac is brought into this ftate, or purified, by the following
procefs. Itis broken into {mall pieces, and picked from the
branches and {ticks, and then put into a fort of canvas bag
of about four feet long, and about fix inches in circum-
ference. ‘Two of thefe bags are in conitant ufe, and each
of them held by two men. The bag is placed over a fire,
and frequently turned till the lac is liquid enough to pafs
througa its pores, when it is taken off the fire, and {queezed
by two men in different directions, dragging it along the
convex part of a plantain tree (Mufa paradifaica of Lin-
neus), prepired for the purpofe: while this is doing, the
other bag 1s heating, to be treated in the fame manner. The
mucilaginous and {mooth furface of the plantain-tree feems pe-
culiarly well adapted for preventing the adhefion of the heated
lac, and giving it the form, which enhances its value fo much.
‘The degree of preflureon the plantain-tree regulates the thick-
nefs of the fhell, and the quality of the bag determines its fine-
nefs and tranfparency, upon which its value depends,

The lac is apphed to various purpofes by the natives in
india. A great quantity of the /bell lac is confumed in
making ornamental rings, painted and gilded im a variety of
taftes, to decorate the arms of the ladies; and it is formed
into beads, fpiral and linked chains for necklaces, and other
female ornaments. It is allo ufed for fealing-wax. For
this purpofe, take a ftick, and heat one end of it upon a
charcoal fire; put upon it a few leaves of the fhell lac
foftened above the fire ; keep alternately heating and adding
more fhell lac, until you obtain a mafs of three or four
pounds of liquefied fhell lac upon the end of your ftick.
Kuead this upon a wetted board, with three ounces of levi-
gated cinnabar, and form it into cylindrical pieces ; and co
sive them a polifh, rnb them while hot with a cotton cloth.

For japanning, take a lump of fhell jac, prepared in the
manner of fealing-wax, with whacever colour you pleafe,
fix it upon the end of a ftick, heat the polifhed wood
over a charcoal fire, and rub it over with the half-melted
lac, and polith by rubbing it even with a piece of folded
plantain leaf held in the hand; heating the lacquer, and
adding more lac as occafion requires. ‘Their figures are
formed by lac, charged with various colours in the fame
manner. In ornameniing their images and religious houfes,
&c. they make ufe of very thin beaten lead, which they
cover with various varnifhes, made of lac charged with co-
jours. ‘lhe preparation of them is kept a fecret. The
leaf of lead is laid upon a fmooth iron heated by fire
below, while they fpread the varnifh upon it.

For grindftones, take of river fand three parts, of feed
lac wathed one part, mix them over the fire ina pot, and

form the mafs into the fhape of a grindftone, having a fquare

hole in the centre, fix it on an axis with liquefied lac, heat

the ftone moderately, and by turning the axis it taay be eafily

formed into an exact orbicular fhape. Polifhing grindftones

are madeonly of fuch fand as will pafseafily through fine muflin,

in the proportion of two parts of fand to one of lac. The

fand is compofed of {mall angular cry/ftalline particles, tinged

red with iron, two parts to one of black magnetic fand,

The ftone-cutters, inftead of fand, ufe the powder of a-
very hard granate, called Corunde, Thefe grinditones cut
very faft: when they want to increafe their power, they
throw fand upon them, or let them occafionally touch the
edge of a vitrified brick. The fame compofition is formed
upon flicks ; for cutting ftones, hells, &c. by the hand.

For painting, take one gallon of the red liquid from the
firft working for fhell lac, {train it through a cloth, and let it
boil for a fhort time, then add half an ounce of foffil alkali ;
boil an hour more, and add three ounces of powdered load
(bark of a tree), boil a fhort time, let it itand all night,
and {train next day. Evaporate three quarts of milk,
without cream, to two quarts, upon a flow fire, curdle it
with fome milk, and let it {tand for a day or two, then mix
it with thie red liquid above-mentioned ; flrain them through
a cloth, add to the mixture 140z. of alum, and the juice of
eight or ten lemons; mix the whole, and throw it into a
cloth-bag ftrainer. The blood of the infe& forms a coagu-
lum with the cafeous part of the milk, and remains in the
bag, while a limpid acid. water drains from it. The coa-
gulum is dried in the fhade, and is ufed as a red colour in
painting and colouring.

For dyeing, take one gallon of the red liquid prepared
as before without milk, to which add three ounces of
alum. Boil three or four ounces of tamarinds in a gallou
of water, and ftrain the liquor. Mix equal parts of the
red liquid and tamarind water over a brifk fire. In this
mixture dip and wring the filk alternately, until it has
received a proper quantity of the dye. To tereafe the
colour, increafe the proportion of the red liquid, and let
the filk boil a few minutes in the mixture. ‘To make the
filk hold the colour, they boil a handful of the bark called
load in water; ftrain the decoétion, and add cold water to
it; dip the dried filk into this liquor feveral times, and then
dry it. Cotton cloths are dyed in this manner ; but the
dye is not fo latting as in filk. The lac cclour is preferved
by the natives upon flakes ef cotton dipped repeatedly into
a {trong folution of the lac infect in water, and then dried.
The Hindoos, as Mr. Charles Wilkins niformed Mr.
Hatchett, diffolve fhell lac in water, by the mere addition
of a little borax ; and the folution, being then mixed with
ivory-black, or lamp-black, is employed by them as an ink,
which, when dry, is not eafily ated upon by damp or water.
Mr. Hatchett found this fact to be exatly as it was ftated
by Mr. Wilkins. ‘

Befides the lac above-mentioned, there is another fort
which is white or yellowifh, brought from Madagafcar, very
much refembling the pe-la of the Chinefe, which has been
lately examined by Dr. Pearfon. See Laccie Acid.

Mr. Hatchett (Phil. T'ranf. for 1804, part ii.), has detailed
a number of experiments for the analyfis of the three com-
mon fpecies of lac, with a view of afcertaining its contti-
tuent parts and difcriminating properties.

Lac, though long known in Europe, has not much at-
traGted the attention of chemifts. The firft perfon who
fubjeted it to a regular examination was the younger
Geoffroy, the refult of which is publifhed in the Mem. de
Acad. de Paris for 1714. He concluded that this fub-
{tance is not, as fome have fuppofed, a gum or refin, which

5 has

—

Ne a a a er

I). A. C.

hhas exuded from vegetables fimply pun@tured by infeds.
Geoffroy and Lemery obtained from lac, by diltillation,
fome acid liquor, and a butyraceous fub{tance ; and Geof-
froy obferves, that when ftick-lac was thus treated, fome
ammonia was alfo obtained, but not when feed-lac was
eniployed. Geoffroy confidered lac as a kind of wax, very
diitinét from the nature of gum or refin. Since his time it
has been little examined, and therefore chemilts have enter-
tained various opinions concerning it. Chaptal, adopting
Geoffroy’s opinion, calls it a kind of wax; but Gren and
Fourcroy regard it as a true refin. .

Mr. Hatcliett found that when water is poured on flick
Tac, reduced to powder, it immediately began to be tinged
with red, and by heat, a deep-coloured crimfon folution
was formed. Repeated operations of this kind reduce
flick-lac to a yellowifh-brown fub{tance, and the water no
longer receives any colour. The portion feparated from the
fac has, on an average, amounted to 10 per cent. ; but as it
eannot be completely feparated, confiderable variations mutt
be expected in different famples.

Fine feed-lac does not afford more than 23 or 3 fer cent.
of the colouring fubftance; aud fhell-lac, when treated in
the fame manner, i. e. merely with water, did not yield more
than 4 per cent. Alcohol diffolves a confiderable portion of
each of the different kinds of lac ; and when heat is not
emp'oyed, the diffolved part is refin, combined with fome
of the colouring matter; but if the lac is digefted with
heated alcohol, the folution is more or lefs turbid, and it is
difficult to obtain it in a ftate of purity and tranfparency,
either by repofe or filtration. The folution obtained by
digefting ftick-ac in alcohol, without heat, is of a dark
brownifh-red colour ; and the infoluble part fubfides, retain-
ing the greater part of the colouring matter, mott eafily
foluble in water. The proportion of refin thus diffolved,
‘when ftick-lac is treated with alcohol, amounted to Gy or 68
per cent. The feed-lac ufed by Mr. Hatchett was very
pure, and yielded to alcohol about 88 per cent. of relin, con-
taining little of the colourmgy matter. Shell-lac, in {mall
fragments, by fimple digeflion with alcohol, afforded in the
firft inftance nearly 81 per cent. ; but part of the refin re-
quired fubfequent operations to feparate it, fo that the total
quantity of refin might be eftimated at gt per cent. Sul-
phuric ether does net feem to a& fo powerfully upon the
varieties of lac as alcohol; and, therefore, ether is not the
beft menftruum for lac. Concentric fulphuric acid aéts firft
on the colouring matter of lac; and after a fhort digeltion ina
fand-bath, the whole is converted into a reddifh-brown thick
liquer, which foon becomes black ; and the chief part . of
the lac is feparated in an infoluble ftate, refembling coal.
During the folution of lac in fulphuric acid, a confiderable
quantity of fulphureous acid gas is evolved. When lac is
digefted with nitric acid, nitrous gas is at firft produced ;
the lac fwells much, and is converted into a deep yellow
‘opaque brittle fubitance, which, by a fuficiercy of nitric
acid, and a continuance of the digeflion for about 48 hours,
is diffolved.

This yellow nitric folution is converted by evaporation
into a deep yellow fubftance, which’ burns like refin, but
is foluble in boiling water. Mauriatic acid diffolves the
colouring matter and gluten of lac with a feeble aétion, un-
lefs the refin has been previoufly feparated. Acetous acid
much refembles the rouriatic in its effets. Stick-lac,
Yeed-lac, and fhell-lac are partially diffolved by acetic acid ;
and the diffolved part confifts of the colouring extraG of
relin, and of gluten; the wax being the only ingredient
which is infoluble in this menftruum. A faturated jolution
of boracic acid in water diffolves the colouring extra&t: but

the lac is little, if at all, a&ted upon by this acid. Sub-
borate of foda or borax has a powerful effeét on lac, fo as
to render it foluble in water ; amd it is concluded from thefe
facts, that the excefs of foda in borax is the aétive fub{tance,
which conclufion is corroborated by experiments made with
the alkalis. In order to render lac, efpecially hell-lac,
foluble in avater, about one-fifth of borax is neceflary. The
beft proportion of water to that of lac is 18 or 20 to 1 ;
fo that 20 grains of borax, acd 402. of water, are, upon
an average, requifite to diffolve 1co grains of fhell-lac.
The general properties of the folution thew, that it is a
faponaceous compound, which, being ufed as a varnith, or
vehicle for coluurs, becomes (when dry) difficul:ly foluble
in water. The lixivia of pure foda, and of carbonat of
foda, completely diffelve the feveral kinds of lac; and the
folutions refemble thofe formed by means of borax, except-
ing that they are deeper coloured. Lixivium of pure or
cauftic potafh fpeedily diffolves the varieties of lac, and
forms faponaceous folutions, fimilar to that with borax, ex-
clufive of the colour, which more approaches to purple
Lixivium of carburate of potafh extraéts a great part of the
colouring matter, but lefs completely diflolves the entire
fubftance of lac than pure potafh. Pure ammonia, and car-
bonate of ammonia, readily a& upon the colouring matter
of lac, but do not completely diffolve the entire fubitance.

From a variety of other experiments, as well as thofe, the
refults of which we have given, but which we cannot recite,
it appears that the different kinds of lac confitt of four fub-
itances, namely, extra¢t, refin, gluten, and wax. ‘The ex-
traé&t, when dry, is of a deep red colour, approaching to
porplifh-crimfon ; emitting fmoke when laid on a red-hot
iron, with a {mell hke that of burned animal matter, and
Jeaving a bulky porous coal; partially foluble in water, hot
or cold; more flowly in aleohol, and with a lefs beautiful
colour ; infoluble in fulphuric ether ; foluble in fulphuric,
nitric, and acetic acid ; partially in muriatic acid ; not very
readily in acetous acid ; almoit perfectly foluble in the lixi-
via of potafh, foda, and ammonia, with a beautiful deep pur-
ple colour. ‘When pure alumine is put inte the aqueous
folution, it does not immediately produce any effeét, but
with the addition of afew drops of muriatic acid, the colour~
ing matter {peedily combines with the alumine, and a beau-
tiful lake is formed. © A fine crimfon precipitate is alfo pro-
duced by muriate of tin, when added to the aqueous folu-
tion: a fimilar coloured precipitate is alfo formed by the
addition of folution of ifinglafs. Thefe properties of the
colouring fubftance of lac, efpecially its partial folubility in
water and in alcohol, and its infolubility in ether; together
with the precipitate formed by alumine and muriate of tin,
indicate that this fubftance is vegetable extraét, perhaps
flightly animalized by the coccus,

The refin of lac is of a brownifh-yellow colour, emitting
on a red-hot iron much fmoke, with a peculiar fweet odour,
and leaving a fpongy coal; completely foluble in alcohol,
ether, acetic acid, nitric acid, and the lixivia of potafh and
foda ; precipitated by water from alcohol, ether, acetic acid,
and partially from mitric acid; and poffefling the other ge-
neral characters of a true refin,

The gluten is obtainable in two ways; if the pieces of
lac, after digeftion in alcohol, be digefted with dilute acetic,
or muriatic acid, moft of the gluten is diffolved, and may be
precipitated by alkalies, added in due-proportion ; but is re-
diffolved by an excefs of them, and then is feparable by acids.
It much refembles the gluten of wheat.

The wax of lac is found floating like oil on the furface
of a folution of lac, after long and repeated digeltion in boil-
ing nitric acid, and may be c, when cold; or it rk y

2 €

LAC

be more eafily obtained in a pure ftate, by digefling the re-
fidue left by alcohol in boiling nitric acid. ‘he wax, thus
obtained, when pure, is pale yellowith-white, and (unlixe
bees’ wax) is devoid of tenacity, and extremely brittle: ic
melts at a much lower temperature than that of boiling
water, and burns witha bright flame, and an odour refembling
that of fpermaceti. It is infoluble in water and cols aicohol
but the latter, when boiled, partially diffolves it, and upon
cooling, depofits the greater part; foluble in heated ful-
phuric ether, bet upon cooling, nearly the whole is depo-
fited. Lixivium of potafh, boiled with the wax, forms a
milky folution; bat moit of the wax floats on the furface
in the flate of white flocculi, and appears to be converted
jato a kind of feap of difficult. folubility ; it is no longer
inflammable; and, with water, forms a turbid folution,
from which, as well as from the folution in potafh, the wax
may be precipitated by acids. Ammonia, when -heated,
diffolves a fmall portion of the wax, and forms a folution
fimilar to the former ; nitric and muriatic acids do not act
upon the wax. When the properties of this fubftance are
compared with thofe of bees’-wax, a difference will be per-
ceived; and on the contrary, the moft itriking analogy is
evident between the wax of lac and the myrtle wax which
is obtained from the Myrica cerifera. The properties of
myrtle wax, defcribed by Dr. Boitock in Nicholfon's Journal
for March, 1803, coincide fo perfectly with thofe.of the
wax of lac, that Mr. Hatchett is led to confider them as
almoft, if not altogether, the fame fubftance.

Our-author, from his analyfis of the three different fpecies
of lac infers, that the fubftances that compofe them bear the
following proportions: 100 parts of ftick-lac gave 68 of
refin, 10 of colouring extract, 6 of-wax, 5.5 of gluten, and
6.5 of extraneous fubitances: 100 parts of feed-lac gave
88.5 of refin, 2.5 of colouring extract, 4.5 of wax, and 2
of gluten: 100 parts of fhell-lac gave go.9 of refin, 0.5 of
colouring extraét, four of wax, and 2.8 of gluten.

We have already fpecified feveral ufes to which lac is
applied in India, and it is no lefs important, in a variety of
refpeéts in Europe. A folution of lac in water may be
advantageoufly employed as a fort of varnifh, which is equal
in durability, and other qualities, to thofe prepared with
alcohol ; and, of courfe, much_cheaper. It will be found,
likewife, of great ufe as a vehicle for colours; for, when
dry, it is not eafily affected by damp, or even by water.
Mr. Hatchett fays, that with a folution of this kind he has
mixed various colours, fuch as vermilion, fine lake, indigo,
Pruffian blue, fap-green, and gamboge ; and it is remarkable,
that although the two lait are of a gummy nature, and the
others had been previoufly mixed with gum (being cakes
of the patent water-colour), yet, when dried upon paper,
they could not be removed with a moiftened fponge, until
the furface of the paper itfelf was rubbed off. In many
arts and manufactures, therefore, the folutions of lac may be
found of great utility ; for, like mucilage, they may be
diluted with water, and yet, when dry, are little, if at all,
affeGed by it.

The colour given by lac is lefs beautiful, but more dura-
ble than that given by cochineal. To render the colouring
matter of the lae diffufible in water, fo as to be — to
the ituffs to be dyed, Mr. Hellot directs the following
procefs :—Let fome powdered gum-lac be digefted for two
hours in a decoétion of comfrey-root, by which a fine
erimfon colour is given to the water, and the gum is
rendered pale or ftraw-coloured. To this tinéture, poured
off clear, let.a folution of alum be added; and when the
colouring matter has fubfided, let it be feparated from
the clear liquor, and dried. It will weigh about one-fifth

-readily communicates itfelf to boiling water.

LAC

of the quantity of lacemployed. This dried fecula is to’
be diffolved or diffufed in warm water, and fome folution
of tin is to be added to it, by which it acquires a vivid fearlet
colour. This liquor is to be added to a folution of tartar
in boiling water ; and thus the dye is prepared.

The method of obtaining the fine red lac ufed by painters
from this fub{tance, is by the following fimple procefs :—
Boil the itick-lac in water, filtre the decoGion, and evapo-
rate the clear liquor to a drynefs over a gentle fire. The
occafion of this eafy fepzration is, that the beautifulred co-
lour, here feparated, adheres only flightly to the outfides of
the flicks, broken off the trees along with the gum-lac, and
Some of
this fticking matter alfo adhering to the gumitifelf, it is por-
per to boil'the whole together; for the gum does not at all
prejudice the colour, nor diffolve in boiling water: fo that
after this operation the gum is as fit for making fealing-wax
as before, and for all other ules which do not require its
colour. See Lake.

A tinG@iure of gum-lac may thus be prepared :--Take two
ounces of gum-lac, reduce it to a fine powder, and make
it into a, itiff pafle with oil of tartar per deliquium ; fet
this in an open glafs to dry by a gentle heat, then remove
it to the open air, that it may relent and grow foft; then dry:
it again, and repeat this two or three times, at the end of
which the hard body of this refin will be found refolved into
a purple colour. This may yet again be dried, and when
dried muft be reduced to powder, which powder will afford
a fine {trong tinCture to fpirit of wine, being boiled in it in.
a tall glafs in afand-heat for two or three hours. And by
this procefs ftrong tinétures may be made from myrrh,
amber, gum, juniper, &c. which will yield no tin&ture of
ftrength to fpirit of wine alone, if treated in the ufual
way.

A 4pirituous tinGture of ftick-lac was formerly fome-.
times given asa mild reftringent and corrvborant in female
weakneffes, and in rheumatic and feorbutic diforders. But
the principal medicinal ufe of this concrete wasas a topical
corroborant and antifeptic, in laxities and fcorbutic bleed-
ings, and exulcerations of the gums. Some employed for this

.purpofe a tinGure of the lac in alum water ; others a tinc-

ture made in vinous fpirits, impregnated with the pungent
antifcorbutics. The college of Edinburgh directed an ounce
of the powdered lac, with half an ounce of powdered
myrrh, to be digefted in a fand-heat, for fix days, in a pint
and a half of fpirit of feurvy grafs.

The gum-lac has been lately ufed as an electric, inftead of.
glafs, for electrical machines. See Lacquer, Lake, and
VARNISH.

Lac, or Lacca, Ammoniaci, in the Materia Medica.
See Gum AMMONIAC. :

Lac, or Lacca, Artificial, or Laque, is alfo a name given:
to a coloured fubftance, drawn from feveral flowers ; as the
yellow from the flower of the juniper, the red from the poppy,
and the blue from the iris or violet.

The tinctures of thefe flowers are extracted by digefting-
them feveral times in agua vite, or by boiling them over a.
ftove fire in alixiviuia of pot-afhes and alum. ;

An artificial lacca is allo made of Brazil wood, boiled in
a lixivium of the branches of the vine, adding a little cochi-.
neal, turmeric, calcined alum, and arfenic, incorporated
with the bones of the cuttle-fifh. pulverized, and made up-
into little cakes, and dried.

If it be to be very red,, they add the juice of lemon to.
it; to make it brown, they add oil of tartar. ;

Dove-coloured, or columbine lacca, is made with Brazil.
of Fernambuc, {teeped in diftilled vinegar for the {pace of a

month,

LAC

month, and mixed with alum incorporated in cuttle-fifh
bone. For other proceffes, fee Lake and Mapper.

Lac, Acid of. See Laccie Acid.

Lac, or Gum Lac. See Croron.

Lac Lune. Dr. Plott gives this foffil as a mark of

od lime-ftone ; but it has been obferyed, that two quarries
in Ireland, where lac lune was found, were of building
ftone, but would not burn into lime. Phil. Tranf. N° 477.

There are many varieties of this mineral, differing in their
texture and colour. Itis found in many parts of Europe,
and alfo in Afia and America. Many of the Englifh quar-
ries in Oxfordthire, Gloncelterfhire, Northamptonfhire, and
Derbythire, afford confiderable quantities of it. It adheres
to the toofs and walls of grottos and caverns, and is lodged
in the fiffures of ftrata of {tone, fometimes in form of a fari-
naceous powder, and fometimes concreted into mafles. Its
furface is rough and duflky ; it colours the hands, adheres
to the tongue, melts readily inthe mouth, without grittinefs,
yields an infipid talte, and raifes an ebullition in water, which
foon diffolves it into a fine white powder. See Mineral
Acaric.

Lac Sulphuris, in Chemiffry, and the Materia Medica, de-
notes fulphur feparated by acids from its alkaline folution,
which in the procefs changes its lemon-yellow colour for a

ey or yellowifh-white like cream. As a medicine it is
thought to be fomewhat milder. See SutpHur.

Lac Virginale. See Virgin’s Mix.

Lac Virginis’ See Virnein's Milk» and Benzory.

LACA, in Geograph;, atown of Africa, in the country
of the Foulis; 10 miles N.W. of Goumel.

LACABEN, a town of Afiatic Turkey, in the pro-
vince of Aladulia; 30 miles S.S.W. of Malatra.

LACANITIS, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia,
in Cilicia, according to Ptolemy, who places in it one city,
viz. Irenopolis.

LACARACOONDA, in Geography, a town of Ben-
gal; 10 miles S. of Nagore. N. lat 23° 48'. E, long
By? 277!.

LACARIA, a {mall town of Italy, in the eaftern part
of Lucania, S. of Heraclea, and near the gulf of Taren-
tum ; founded by acolony of Phoczans, and celebrated for
its good wine.

LACAS, Las, a town of the ifland of. Cuba; 15 miles
W. of Villa del Principe.

ACCA.) (See Lacs 5

LACCADIVE Istanns, in Geography, a group of {mall
iflands in the Indian fea; the neareft being about 15.miles
from the coalt of Malabar.. They are fuppofed to be the
iflands called by Ptolemy ‘ Infule numero 19,” though in
reality they are 32. All of them are fmall, rocky on their
fides, covered with trees, and feparated by deep channels.
They are vifited by Englith thips in their paflage from India
to the Perfian gulf,or Red fea... Their principal traffic con-
filts of the produce of the cocoa palm, fuch.as the oil, cables,
and cordage, and.alfo of fifh, which, being dried, is fent to
the continent of India, whence rice is obtained in return.
They alfo trade to Mafcat, in large boats, and for their
commodities they bring back dates and coffee. Ambergris
is often found floating near thefe iflands.. N. lat..10° to 12°
40'. E. long. 71° 15’ to 73° 30%: .

LACCIA, in Ichthyology, a name given by Paulus Jovius
to the fhad, or, as we fometimes call it,. the mother of the
pilchards. See CLurea Alfa.

LACCIC Actin, in Chemistry, isa fubftance that was firft
introduced to the notice of chemilts by Dr. Pearfon. It is ob-
tained from a peculiar. compound called cuhite Jac, which Dr.

4;

LAC

Anderfon of Madras difcovered to be the produét of fome
infects of the coccus tribe. Small quantities of it were fent
to Europe about the year 1789; and, at the requeft of fir
Jofeph Banks, an examination of it was undertaken by
Dr. Pearfon, and the refult of his inquiries appeared: in the
Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1794. The lac, in its natural
{late, is of a grey colour; and occurs in pieces of from

three to fifteen grains in weight. Many of its properties

prefent confiderable refemblance to thofe of bees’ wax ; and

Dr. Pearfon is of opinion, that thefe fubltances are very

nearly allied to each other, differing only in the proportion

of their conftituents. A curious circumftance, connected

with this point, is, that the infeét which fecretes the lac

alfo produces honey ; but the phenomena attending the ap-

pearance of the latter produ& have not been examined with.
the attention which they merit. To procure the laccic acid,

it is merely neceflary to @xpofe the lac, as afforded by the

coccus, to aheat juit fufficient to liquefy it. A reddifh watery

fluid will feparate, having the {mell of newly baked hot

bread; and it is this fubitance which conflitutes the acid

under inquiry. The following are fome of its proper-

ties. At the temperature of 60%, it has a {pecilic gravity:

of 1,025. Paper ftained with litmus and turnfol is reddened

by it. It poffeffes a faline tafte, and is fomewhat bitter ;

but is not in the {malleft degree four.. By expofure to the

air it becomes muddy, and depolits a {mall quantity of fedi-

ment. Dr. Pearfon diftilled 250 grains of it, and atterwards

evaporated the produét until it grew turbid. On ftanding

fome hours, acicular cryftals were produced, having a bit-

terifh tafte, which.amounted to about ,4,dth of the weight

of the fluid employed.. The acid diffolves carbonat of foda

with effervefcence ;; and by evaporation yields cryftals

which are. deliquefcent. It produces a purplifh tint on be-

ing mixed with lime-water, but no fediment appears. Tinc-

ture of galls caufes: a green precipitate ; and with acetat

of lead a reddish powder is depofited.. This forms nearly the

whole of the information that has been conveyed to us with

refpeét to it; and as yet, therefore, nothing either very

ftrikimg, or very important, has been communicated by

the difcovery. It isto be lamented that Dr. Pearfon had

fo {mall a quantity of matter to operate upon in his ex--
periments, as it becomes difficult, from the want of a more

complete examination, to afcertain whether. the fubftance

is entirely new to us; _or whether it is only the modified

appearance of fome compound. with which we had been

before acquainted. .

LACCOS, <Azxxo:,. among the Greeks, a ditch or
trench ufed inftead of an altar, when facrifices were to be
offered to the fubterranean or infernal gods. - See ALTAR.

LACE, in the Manufadures, is formed of thread, cotton,
or filk, woven into a net, the mefhes of which are varied in
their figure, according to.the defign of the pattern, as oc-
tagons, hexagons, &c. &c.. The lace is alfo ornamented
by a thread, much thicker than the thread forming the net,
which is woven in among the mefhes, in the figure of flowers,
and other fantaftic curves; upon the beauty. and elegance of
which, the value of the lace depends. This thick thread is
called the gimp,

Lace is made upon a pillow. or-cufhion, upon which a
piece of {tiff parchment. is ftretched, having a number of
holes pricked through it, to form a pattern of the intended
lace. Through thefe holes, pins are.ftuck into the pillow ;
andthe threads, wound upon fmall bobbins, are woven
around the pins, and twifted round each other in. various
ways, to form the required pattern. This procefs is exe
tremely tedious, particularly for the wide laces, with com-
plicated patterns ; and though it is extremely expentfive to

LAC

€he confumer, the people (chiefly in Bedford and Bucking-
‘hamfhire) who manufacture it can only obtain fufficient to
fupport a wretched exiltence, by the moft inceflant exertion.
Of late years, the manufacturers of Nottingham have di+
rected their ingenuity to imitate this fpecies of lace by ma-
chinery, in which they have fucceeded molt perfeétly : but
{till it is only an imitation, the knot or loop of the mefhes
being eflentially different. In the pillow lace, the net or
mefhes may be deferibed, by fuppoling a number of ropes,
each formed of two or more threads twilled round each
other: thefe are extended parallel; but at every two or
three {piral turns of thefe ropes, the f{trands or threads com-
poling one rope are twilted around with thofe of its neigh-
bour, and then return.to be twifted with its own: and this
reciprocally of the whole number forms a netting ; the figure
of the mefhes depending upon the number of turns which
are made, before the twilt is changed from one rope to the
mext. To form a lace of this defeription, it is effential that
the ends of each thread be detached, and capable of being
twilted over the adjacent threads. This is eafily done by
the hand upon the pillow, by twifting the bobbins round
each other ; but has many difficulties which prevent its per-
formance by machinery.

The Nottingham lace,is only a modification of the ftitch
or loop of which ftockings are made ; all the meshes being
formed by a continuance of one thread, which is,” by the
machine, formed into loops a whole courfe (that is, length
of the intended piece of lace) at once, by preffing it down
alternately over and under between a number of parallel
needles ; a fecond courfe is then made of fimilar loops on
the fame needles, and the loops of the firft are drawn through
thofe of the fecond, in fuch a manner as to form mefhes by
retaining the firft loops; the fecond are then retained by a
third courfe, and this by a fourth, and fo on. The ma-
chine is very nearly like a common ftocking-frame, but pro-
vided with an additional apparatus, which ‘can be readily
applied. It confifts of a frame, containing a number of
needles, which we will call points: thefe are introduced be-
tween the fixed needles of the {tocking-frame, and a c@rtain
number (one half, for inftance) of the loops in the thread
are taken off the fixed needles upon thefe points, which are
moved endways, the {pace of two, three, or more fixed
needles, and put down upon them again. Another fet of
loops is now taken aipon the points, and moved in the op-
pofite direction ; by this means, croffing the loops over each
other, and forming mefhes, the figure of which wiil depend
upon the number of needles it is thus carried over. But as
this admits of no great variety of patterns, another machine
has been invented, which is much more extended in its ap-
plications. Like the former, it has the parts of the ftock-
ing-frame, but differently made. The thread is, in this,
yolled upon a cylinder, in the fame manner as a weaver's
beam ; as many threads being wound round it as there are
needles in the frame. Thefe threads pafs through eyes in
the ends of {mall points, called guides, which are oppofite
the needles; and thefe guides are fixed on two bars, cach of
which has half the guides fattened in it, that is, one guide is
faft in one bar, and the next in the other, and fo on alter-
nately of the whole. Each of the guides prefents a thread
to its needle, and are all at once moved by the hand to twilt
the threads two or three times round the needles which are
oppofite them: the loop is now made in a manner fimilar to
the other frame. The next time, the alternate guides are
fhifted endways, fo as te apply themfelves to other needles
than thofe they were oppofite before. This croffes the
thread, fo as to make a net: but the quantity, which ‘is
ihifted endways is altered every time, by means of the ma-

LA:

chinery, fo as to move a certain number of needles ; which
number is altered every time, to produce the pattern. All
the parts of this machine, except the guides, are moved by
means of treadles, initead of ufing the hands, as in the com-
mon ftocking-frame. The net produced by thefe frames is
woven in bands of the width of the intended lace, leaving a
wider mefh than the others, through which the divifion is to
be made to feparate the lace into narrow ftrips. Before
cutting up in this manner, the lace is fpread in a frame, and
a common needle with a thick thread is worked in the
mefhes, to imitate the gimp, according to the ‘pattern for
which the lace is intended.

The lace trade of Nottingham has been carried to a very
great extent, but is at prefent in a fate of flagnation, being
chiefly dependent on foreign trade, as it has never been in
fuch great repute with the Britifh ladies.

Lace is alo made of gold and /ilver thread (which fee),
much in the fame manner as the bone or blond lace above
deferibed. The importation of gold and filver lace is pro»
hibited. Great quantities of the fineft blond laces have
been imported from Flanders. By 3 Geo. IIL. c. 21. and
5 Geo. III. c. 48. if any perfon fhall import any ribbands,
laces, or girdles, not made in Great Britain, whether the
fame fhall be wrought of filk alone, or mixed with other
materials, the fame fhall be forfeited, and may be feized by
any officer of the cultoms, in whatever importers’, venders’,
or retailers’ hands they may be found; and the importer,
and every perfon affifting therein, and the venders and re-
tailers in whofe cuftody they fhall be found, or who fhall fell
or expofe the fame to fale, or conceal with intent to prevent
the forfeiture, fhall forfeit refpectively 200/ with cols
half to the king, and half to the officer who fhall inform and
profecute.

Lace is alfo ufed for a kind of chord made of filk or cot-
ton, chiefly ufed in lacing women’s ftays.

Lace Bark. See Darune.

LACEDAEMON, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated |
town of Greece, in the Peloponnefus, in a country: which
was originally called Laconia, and afterwards changed inte
Lacedemon, or Sparta. See Sparra. See alfo La-
CONIA. ;

LACEDMONIANS, the inhabitants of Laconia,
are {aid to have derived their name from Lacedemon, heir
and fucceffor of Eurotas, whofe daughter he married.
Their ancient name was Jckocrates, which has been found in
fome ancient infcriptions. ‘The commencement of their hif-
tory is little known. But their firt king, according to the
chronology molt generally received, was Lelex, furnamed
Autochtos, becaufe he was fuppofed to have been one of the
Aborigines; and from him his fubjects bore the ancient
name of Leleges. He began his reign in the year 1516
B.C., was fucceeded by his eldeft fon Myles, and Myles
was fucceeded by his fon Eurotas, who, having no male
iffue, appointed for his fucceflor Lacedemon, the fuppofed
fon of Jupiter by Taygeta, to whom he gave his daughter
Sparta in marriage. LLacedemon was the firft king of the
Lacedemonian line, which confifted of twelve fovereigns,
the laft of whom was Tifamenes, who terminated this line in
1104 B.C., upon the return of the Heraclidz into the Pe-
loponnefus. In 1102 B.C., upon the divifion of the Pelo-
ponnefus by the Heraclide, the kingdom of Lacedemon or
Sparta commences under Procles and Euryfthenes, the two
fons of Ariftodemus, the chief of the Heraclide. Euryf-
thenes was fucceeded by his fon Agis, from whom the de-
fcendants of that line had the appellation of Agidx, or
Atgiade ; and the firit princes of the former line were de-
nominated Proslide, till Eurytion, or Eurypon, the third

of

,
-

— = +; =!

a

LACEDEMONIANS.

of this Tine, exchanged it for Eurytionide, or Eurypontide.
In the line of Agis fucceeded Echeftratus 1058 B.C., La-
botas 1023 B.C., Doryflus 956 B.C., Agefilaus 957 B.C.,
and Archelaus 913 B.C. The fucceflors of Procles were
Ivas ro60 B.C., Eurypon 1028 B.C., Prytanis 1021 B.C.,
Eunomus 86 B.C., and Polydectes go7 B.C. Lycurgus,

- the fon of Eunomus, fucceeded Polydeétes, but he only re-

tained the kingdom till his fitter was delivered of a fon, to
whom he immediately refigned it ; but his fituation being
rendered uneafy, he fet out for Crete about eight months
after the birth of his nephew. During this voluntary exile
of ten years, he meditated that new form of a common-
wealth into which he afterwards modelled the government ;
and for this purpofe he returned to Lacedemon in the year
$54. B.C.

' The government cf Lacedemon was, as we have feen,
originally monarchical ; and though the kings had fome fub-
ordinate magiltrates, chofen by themfelves, of whofe coun-
fel they occafionally availed themfelves, yet the will of the
fovereign was the fupreme law. Thus the fovereign power
palled through a fucceffion of twelve princes, from Lace-
dzmon, the fon-in-law of Eurotas, and founder of this mo-
marchy. Under Euryflhenes and “Procles the government
took a new form, and inftead of having one fovereign, it be-
came fubje&t to two. Thefe two brothers governed jointly,
and with equal power and authority, each bearing the title
of king of Lacedemon, and being acknowledged and obeyed
fasfuch. In this bipartite condition the government centi-
nued under a fueceflion of thirty princes of the line of Eu-
rylihenes, and twenty-feven of that of Procles, and it termi-
nated in both about the fame time. Difcords, however,
were unavoidable, and foon commenced. ‘Two parties were
formed, and they became turbulent and unmanageable. By
the divifions that were thus occafioned, the regal dignity
funk into fuch contempt, that the government was upon the
brink of falling into anarchy and confufion, when Lycur-
gus, as we have faid, undertook the management of it, dur-
ing fome part of his nephew Charilaus’s minority. During
the period of his voluntary abfence, when he had travelled
through Crete, Atha, and Egypt, the government had
become fo corrupt, that not only his friends, but even thofe
who had been his moft zealous enemies, were glad to repeat
their embaffies, entreating him to return and fave.his country
from ruin. Thefe were the inevitable confequences of that
fatal divifion of the regal authority between two com-
petitors, which Lycurgus took a quite different method
ef remedying than by confining it again to either of the
ines, The plan he adopted was that of reducing their au-
thority, by conitituting a fenate, endowed with the fupreme
power in all civil matters, and leaving to the kings, befides
the title and honour, only the management of military and
religious affairs. In order to quality him for the important
undertaking in which he now engaged, he had paid particu-
lar attention to the laws of Minos at Crete, and in Afia he
had obferved the effects which are produced by different go-
‘vernments and manners, and he had alfo availed himfelf of

_ the opportunities which Egypt had afforded him of gaining

wifdom. With a view of giving greater effe&t and ftabi-
lity to his new conttitution, he had, like other legiflators,
taken care to fecure the approbation of heaven. With this
view, he confulted the oracle at Delphi, and had received
for anfwer: ‘‘the gods accept thy worfhip, and under their
-aufpices, thou fhalt frame the molt excellent of political con-
ftitutions.” Nor did Lycurgus ever afterwards negle& to
maintain a correfponderce with the Pythia, who fucceffive-
ly impreffed on his laws the feal of divine authority. He
alfo, before he commenced his operations, fubmitted his plan

to the examination of his friends and the moft dillinguifhed’
citizens; and from thefe he feleéted thirty, who were to
attend him completely armed in the general affembly, and to
defend him from thofe perfonal affaults which he had reafon
to apprehend in the promulgation of his laws. At length
the new conttitution was approved by all orders of the flate.
Yet, notwithttanding its excellence, it was not aflured of dura-
tion. Lycurgus, therefore, when the people were aflembled,
thus addrefled them: « ft fill remains for me to lay before
you the mof important article of my legiflation; buf I with
firft to confult the oracle of Delphi. Promife me that, un-
tilmy return, you will make no alteration in the laws already
eltablifhed.””, They promifed him. “ Swear it,’’ faid he,
The kings, fenators, and citizens, called the gods to be wit-
nefles to their words. This folemn engagement could not
but be irrevocable, for it was his refolution never more to
return to his country. Accordingly he immediately repaired
to Delphi, and enquired whether the new laws were fufficient
to enfure the happinefs of the Spartans. The Pythia, having.
anfwered, that Sparta would be the moft flourifhing of cities
fo long-as fhe fhould continue to obferve them, Lycurgus:
fent that oracle to Lacedemon, and condemned himfelf to
voluntary banifhment. He died far from the country of
whofe happinefs he had been the caufe. See Lycun-
Gus.

In fettling the government of Lacedemon, Lycurgus was
too wife to abandon the adminiitration of public affairs to the
caprices of the multitude, or to leave it entirely to the will
of the two princes on the throne. He fought, as we have
already faid, a mean, by which he might reftrain end temper
power by wifdom ; and he thought that he had found it in.
Crete, where a fapreme council moderated the authority of
the fovereign. Such an eftablifhment he introduced at Spar-
ta, under the appellation of a fenate. Twenty-eight aged
men, of confummate experience, were appointed to fhare
with the two kings the plenitude of power. In this auguift
fenate the great interefts of the ftate were to be difcufled ;.
here the two kings prefided, and every queftion was to be
decided by the plurality of voices ; and the determinations
of this council were afterwards laid before the general affem—
bly of the ftate, which had the power of approving or re-
jecting, but not of altering them. For about 130 years the
fenate maintained a juft equilibrium between the kings and
the people ; but the places of the fenators,as well as the au-
thority of the kings being held for life, it was to be feared
that,-in time, thefe might too elofely unite, and no longer
find any oppolition to their will. It was therefore deemet
advifable, with the fanétion of the Delphian oracle, to
transfer a part of their funétions to five magiitrates, called.
Ephori, or infpe¢tors appointed to defend the people in cafe
of oppreffion. This new intermediate body was inftituted,.
with the confent of the ftate, by the king Theopompus; or,
if it had been originally eftablifhed by Lycurgus himfelf, it
was revived, with {ome additional powers and prerogatives, by-
Theopompus. (See Epnori.) The conititution of Ly-
curgus contained a happy mixture of monarchy, ariftocracy,
and democracy. ‘Theopompus added to thefe an oligarchy
which afterwards became tyrannical. Although Lycurgus
limited the authority of the kings, he left them honours and.
prerogatives which they enjoyed as the heads of religion, the
adminiltration, and the army. Befides certain prieithoods,.
which were exercifed by themfelves, they regulated the pub-
lic worfhip, and appeared at the head of the religious cere-
monies. One of their prerogatives invefted them with the
right of maintaining a fecret correfpondence with the prieits
oe Delphi, the authors of thofe oracles which often decided

the fate of anempire ; and this may be confidered as one “*8
the

LACEDZMONIANS.

the moft important ~privileges in the poffeffion of royalty.
As head of the ftate, the king, upon afcending the throne,
might annul the debts which a citizen had contraéted either
with his predeceffor, or with the republic ; and he poffeffed
certain portions of inheritances, affigned him by the people,
which he might diftribute during life in favour of his rela-
tions. The two kings prefided in the fenate, and propofed
the fubje&ts for deliberation. Each gave his fuffrage in per-
‘fon or by proxy ; and this fingle fuffrage was equivalent to
two. When the two kings agreed in propofing any project
of manifelt utility to the public, no perfon was permitted to
oppofe it. All caufes relative to the maintenance of the
highways, the formalities of adoption, or the choice of the
-kinfman who fhould be obliged to marry an orphan heirefs,
were fubmitted to the -decifion of the kings. The kings
were not allowed to be abfent during peace, nor both at once
4n time of war, unlefs there were two armies in the field.
They had by right the command of the army, with {uch
appendages of {plendour and authority that might enfure
them refpeét and obedience. The itate provided for the
maintenance of the general and ‘his houfehold, with the ne-
ceflary attendants. Accordingly, he had full leifure to di-
ret the operations of the campaign, to fign truces with the
enemy, and to give audience and anfwers to the embafladors
of foreign powers. In time of peace the kings were con-
fidered merely as the firit citizens of a free city ; appearing
in public without a retinue, and without oftentation. As
afirtt citizens they occupied the firft place, and every perfon
rofe in their prefence: and in all repatts, public and pri-
vate, they were allowed a double portion, which they fhared
with their friends. , When the kings died, they were honour-
ed with various tokens of refpect.

The fenate, confiiling of the two kings, .and twenty-eight
aged perfons, were the f{upreme council, in which were dif-
cuffed, in the firlt inftance, all queftions relative to declaring
war, concluding peace, entering into alliances, and other
-high and important affairs of ftate. The dignity of a mem-
ber of this council was never granted but to the citizen who,
ifrem his earlieit youth, had been diftinguifhed for confum-
mate prudence and eminent virtues ; nor could he arrive at it
before the age of fixty years, and he retained it till his death.
The election took place in the forum, where the people were
affembled with the kings, fenators, and the different claffes of
magiftrates; and it was attended with various folemnities and
acclamations. “When it was decided, it was honoured with
a kind of triumphal proceffion, and with ceremonies performed
in the temples. Of -the functions pertaining to the fenator,
fome refpected the ftate, and others related to particular
cafes, which were referred to the judgment of the members.
-On this tribunal depended not only the lives, but the honours
of the citizens. When a king was accufed of having vio-
Jated the laws, or betrayed the interefts of the ftate, the tri-
bunal which acquitted or condemned him was compofed of
‘the twenty-eight fenators, the five ephori, andthe king of
.the other family. However, he might appeal from them to
the general aflembly of the people.

The ephori were elected by the people from among the
citizens of every rank; they, were five in number, and
changed every year, to prevent their abufing their authority.
‘(See Ernori.) We fhall here add, that the kings in their
own name, and the ephori in the name of the people, en-
gaged, by a folemn oath; the former to govern according
to the laws, and the latter to defend the royal authority fo
Jong as it fhall not violate the laws.

A\s the Spartans had interefts peculiar to themfelves, they
thad alfo others in common to them with the deputies of the

different cities of Laconia, Hence there were two kinds of

affemblies, at which were always prefent the kings, the
fenate, and the different clailes of the magiftrates. When the
fucceffion to the throne was to be regulated, when magittrates
were to be chofen or depofed, when fentence was to be pro-
nounced on public crimes, or the great objeéts of religion or
legiflature were to be decided upon, the aflembly was onl
compofed of Spartans, and was called the “ leffer affembly.’?
The ordinary aflembly of this kind was held every month ;
the extraordinary whenever circumftances required. Every
one had a right to give his opinion, provided that he had
paffed his goth year, for before that age he was not al-
lowed to {peak in public; and it was required alfo that his
manners fhould be irreproachable. The general affembly
was convoked whenever the queftion related to making war
or peace, or contracting alliances. The deputies of the
cities of Laconia were then admitted into it, as were alfo
frequently thofe of the allied ftates, and of the nations who
came to implore the fuccour of Lacedemon. On occafions
of this kind, the kings and fenators frequently {poke, and
their authority had great weight ; but that of the ephori
was greater. When the queition had been fufficiently de-
bated, one of the ephori afked the opinion of the aflembly ;
upon which a multitude of voices exclaimed for the affirma-
tive or negative. In order to determine the majority, the
fame magiltrate afcertained it by numbering the two parties,
which he caufed to feparate.

As a general preliminary to the laws of Lycurgus, we
fhall here obferve, that this legiflater ordained, that the ma-
gittrates fhould not be appointed by lot, but ele€ted by fuf-
frages. He deprived riches of the influence and refpeét an-
nexed to them, and divelted even love of jealoufy. And
though he granted fome diltinctions, the government, having
imbibed his {pirit, never prodigally lavithed them, and virtuous
men dared not folicit them. Honour was the moft valuable
reward, and reproach the moft cruel punifhment. “Death
was fometimés inflicted, but a fentence of this kind followed
a very careful and rigorous examination, for nothing was
regarded fo precious as the life of acitizen. Execution was
performed in the prifon, and during the night, that the
firmnefs of the criminal might not move the commiferation
of the people, and his life was taken away by the cord, that
the fuflerings of the guilty might not be multiplied.

Of all the inftitutions of Lycurgus, the divilion of lands
was that which required, on his part, the greateft degree of
firmnefs and refolution, becaufe it was likely to be much
oppofed, and to occafion various and violent contefts. He
thought it, however, neceflary for ellablifhing peace and
good order in the commonwealth. With a view of banifhing
from the community infolence, envy, fraud, luxury, and at
the fame time, extreme poverty and exceflive wealth, he per-
fuaded the citizens to furrender all their lands to the ftate,
and to allow a new-divifion of them, that they might live
together in a perfe&t equality, and that virtue and merit
fhould eftablifh the only claim to pre-eminence and honours.
This f{cheme was no fooner propofed than executed. The
diftriG of Sparta was divided into g oo portions of land,
and the reft of Laconia into 30,000. Each portion affigned
to a head of a family mutt have produced, befides a certain
quantity of wine and oil, 70 meafures of barley for himfelf, -
and 12 for his wife. Thisis Plutarch’s account. Others fay,
that he only beftowed on the Spartans 6000 portions, to

-which king Polydorus is faid afterwards to have added 3000.

And others again fay, that the Spartans received one half
of thefe gcoo portiyns from Lycurgus, and the other half
from Polydorus. Afier Lycurgus had made this diftribu-
tion, he thought it advifeable to abfent himfelf, that the
pailions of the people might have leifure to fublide and cool.

Wied ° 1

it, made it the fubje€&t of their banter and ridicule.

eldeft fon fucceeded by right to the crown.

free from all impofitions.

LACED AMONIANS.

On his return, he found the fields of Laconia covered with
clufters of fheaves, all of the fame fize, and placed at
diftances nearly equal. Accordingly he feemed to behold a
large domain, the produétions of which had been divided
among brethren; while the Lacedemonians believed they
faw in him a father, who had manifefted no more fondnefs
for one than for the reft of his children. After having di-
vided their immoveables, he undertook likewife to make the
fame equal divifion of all their moveable goods and chattels,
that he might utterly banifh from among them every kind of
inequality. But apprehending invincible oppofition to this
meafure, he endeavoured to accomplifh his object by fappin
the foundations of avarice. With this view he cried down all
gold and filver money, and ordained that no other fhould be
current befides that of iron; which he made fo heavy, and
fixed at fo low a rate, that a cart and two oxen were necef-
fary to carry home a fum of ro minas (equal to about 20/.
fterling), and a whole chamber to keep it in. He next
banifhed all ufelefs and fuperfluous arts from Sparta. But
without doing this, moft of them muft have funk of them-
felves, and difappeared with the gold and filver money ; be-
caufe the tradefmen and artificers would have found no vent
for their commodities ; and this iron money had no currency
among the other Grecian ftates, which fo far from efteeming
The
importation of all foreign money was prohibited, that cor-
ruption might not enter under the name of commerce. Bar-
ter or exchange of one commodity for another, was pre-
ferved by law in Sparta, long after it had been difcontinued
in every other ftate. . Intereft was alfo forbidden in the
Spartan commonwealth. According to the laws of Lycur-
gus, the head of a family could neither buy nor fell a portion
of land; he could neither give it during his life, nor bequeath
it by will to whom he pleafed. He was not even permitted
to divide it. The eldeft of his children was entitled to the
inheritance, in the fame manner as in the royal family, the
In order to
provide for the other children, he eftablifhed other regula-
tions. The land, as well as the perfons of the Spartans, were
The ftate had no treafure. On
certain occafions the citizens contributed according to their
abilities, and on others they had recourfe to means which
evince their exceflive poverty. The deputies of Samos once
came to Lacedemon to folicit the loan of a fum of money.
The affembly of the people, having no other refource,
ordered a general faft to be obferved by the free citizens,
flaves, and domeftic animals, and gave the fum thus faved to
the Samians, :

Another regulation of Lycurgus, was that of public
meals. That he might entirely fupprefs the magnificence and
extravagance of public tables, he ordained that ail the citi-
zens fhould eat together of the fame common vidtuals, which
the law prefcribed, and exprefsly forbade all private eating
at their own houfes. By this fettlement of public and com-
mon meals, and by this frugality and fimplicity in eating,
he depreciated the value of riches, and made them of no ufe
as means of procuring the luxuries of life. This regulation,
however, was very offenfive to the opulent. At thefe meals,
each table accommodated about 15 perfons; and every perfon
furnifhed every month a bufhel of flour, eight meafures of
wine, five pounds of cheefe, 23 pounds of figs, and a {mall
fum of money for preparing and cooking the vi¢tuals.
Every perfon, without difcrimination, was obliged to attend
at the common meal. At thefe public tables the children
obtained inftru€tion and improvement; they were likewife
trained and accuftemed to great fecrecy ; for as foon asa
young man came into the room, the eldeft perfon of the
company ufed to fay to him, pointing to the door, «¢ Nothing

Vor. XX.

fpoken here, muft ever go out there.” The moft exquifite
of all their eatables was that which they called their « black
broth;’’ and the old men preferred it to every thing elfe
upon the table. Dionyfius the tyrant, however, thought
otherwife, and complained of it as infipid ; upon which he
was told that the feafoning was wanting, When the tyrant
enquired, what feafoning ? he was told, running, {weating,
fatigue, hunger, and thirft. Thefe, he was told, are the in-
gredients with which we feafon all our food. As they were
moderate in their eating, they were no Jefs abftemious in
their drinking ; the Lacedemonians only drank to quench
thirft ; drunkennefs was reckoned infamous among them,
and feverely punifhed ; and that young men might -conceive
the greater abhorrence of this fpecies of debauchery, the
flaves were compelled to drink to excefs, that the beaftlinefs
of the vice might appear. When they retired from the
public meal, they were not allowed any torches or lights,
becaufe it was expeéted, that men who were perfeétly fober,
fhould be able to find their way in the dark; befides, this
practice gave them a facility of marching without light, a
quality very ufeful to them in time of war.

As to drefs, there was no diftinG@tion between the rich and
poor. Their garments were made for ufe and not for fhow ;
and they were taught betimes to diftinguifh themfelves by
their virtue, rather than by their robes. Boys were always
ufed to go without fhoes, nor were they permitted to cut
or trim their hair. Baths and anointing were not much in
ufe among the Lacedzmonians ; the river Eurotas fupplied
the former, and exercife the latter. Young women wore
their vefts, or jerkins, only to their knees, or, as fome fay,
not fo low; acuftom which has been cenfured both by
Greeks and Romans as indecent. Gold, precious ftones,
and coftly ornaments were permitted only to common
women ; which permiffion was the ftrongeft prohibition to
women of virtue, or fuch as valued their reputation. Vir-
gins went abroad, without veils, with which, on the conr-
trary, married women were always covered. In certain
public exercifes, to which girls were admitted, they, as well
as the young men, were obliged to perform naked.

Lycurgus had very few written laws, becaufe he did not
with to fet bounds to virtues, and left the people, imagining
they had done all which their duty required, fhould defift
and not do all which they are able to perform. But he did
not conceal them; they were tranfmitted from mouth to
mouth, cited on all occafions, and known to all the citizens,
the witneffes and judges of each individual. They were
taught and enforced by pra¢tice and example. Young per-
fons were not allowed to cenfure them, nor co fubmit them
to examination, fince they had been received as the com-
mands of heaven, and fince the authority of the laws was
founded only on the profound veneration they infpired. Nor
was it allowed to praife the laws and ufages of other
nations; becaufe, unlefs the people were perfuaded that
they lived under the beft legiflation, they would foon be led
to defire a new one. Indeed, obedience was, among the
Spartans, the firft of virtues.

Lycurgus confidered the education of youth, in every
{tage of it, from the earlieft infancy to maturity, as the
moft important obje¢t of a legiflator’s care. His grand
principle was, that children belonged more to the ftate than
to their parents; and therefore he ordered the {tate to be en-
trufted with the general care of their education, that they
might be formed on conftant and uniform principles, by
which they might be infpired with the love of their coun-
try, and of virtue. As foon as a boy was born, the elders
of each tribe vifited him; and if they found him well made,
ftrong and vigorous, they ordered him to be brought up at
the public charge; but if, on the contrary, they nee

x im

LACED AMONIANS.

him deformed, tender, and weakly, he was caft into a gulf
near mount ‘laygetus. . This law, it has been faid, feems
to have been calculated, in one refpeét, to render women
very careful, when they were pregnant, of eating, drink-
ing, or uling exercife to excefs; and it alfo feemed to make
them excellent nurfes, for which employment they were
celebrated throughout Greece. At his earlieft age the
child was accuftomed to the moft hardy treatment in his
food, drefs, reft and general mode of life. He was to
be uled to folitude and darknefs, and to be brought up a
{tranger to impreffions of terror, ulelefs reftraints, and unjuft
reproaches. At the age of feven years his education ac-
cording to the laws commenced, and he was trained up
under the difcipline appointed by the flate. IEducation, in-
deed, in the whole courfe of it, was, properly fpeaking, an
apprenticefhip of obedience. While they were at table, the
matter inftructed the boys by afking them queftions, to
which they were to give a quick and concife, or laconic an-
{wer. Lycurgus, it is faid, was for having the money
bulky and heavy, and of little value, but their language
very pithy and fhort, comprifing much fenfe in few words.
To literature they paid little attention ; for all the {ciences
were banifhed from the country. The principal objects of
their ftudy were obedience, the patient enduring of hardfhip
and fatigue, and victory in battle. ‘The fuperintendant of
their education, was one of the moft honourable men of the
city, and of the firft rank and erudition, or one of the
ephori, who appointed over every clafs of boys, into which
they were initiated, mafters of the moft approved wifdom
and probity. Stri€&t obedience, and great refpect to their
elders and {uperiors, were matters feduloufly inculcated in
the Spartan fyftem of education. To the old men the
youth rofe up, whenever they came into any public place;
when they met them in ihe ftreets they gave way ; and the
were filent, whenever their elders fpoke. All the old men
were deemed to have the authority of parents and warranted
in the exercife of it; and thus Lycurgus provided, that as
youth are every where too apt to offend, they might be no
where without a monitor. The laws went fill farther; for
if an old man was prefent when any youth committed a fault,
and did not reprove him, he was punifhed equally with the
delinquent. Amongft the youths there was one of their
own body, or, at molt, two years older than the reft, who
was denominated ‘iren ;”? he had authority to queftion all
their actions, to watch their behaviour, and to punifh them
if they did amifs; and their punifhments were not flight,
but fevere. Silence was highly commended at Sparta, where
modefty, not only in words and aétions, but in looks and
geftures, was held to be a moft becoming virtue in young
people. An inconfiderate perfon, who would not liften to
inftruétion, and who feemed to difregard what the world
might think or fay of him, was treated by the Lacedemoni-
ans as a difprace to human nature.

Occupations among the Spartans that were neceflary for
the benefit of the community, fuch as agriculture and the
like, were left to their flaves, the Helotes; but arts, fub-
fervient to luxury, were wholly interdi@ted. Thus orators
or rhetoricians, augurs, bankers, and dealers in money were
excluded. The Spartans admitted no theatrical diverfions
among them ; but other kinds of poetry were allowed, pro-
vided the magiftrates had the perufal of pieces, before they
were introduced to the public. Mufic was much encou-
raged, provided that it was fuch as had been in favour with
their anceftors ; and they would not permit their flaves to
learn either the air or the words of their moft admired pieces.

Among the effets of ancient mufic, in foftening the
manners, promoting civilization, and humanizing men, na-
turally favage and barbarous, the moft fingular and ftriking

10

is related by Polybius, the hittorian, a grave, exaét, and
re{peétable writer, who, in {peaking of feveral aéts of cru-
elty and injuftice exercifed by the AXtolians, againft their
neighbours the Cynetheans, has the following remarkable
paflage, which we fhall give at full length, from Mr.
Hampton’s excellent tranflation.

« With regard to the inhabitants of Cynztha, whofe
misfortunes we have juft now mentioned, it is certain, that
no people ever were elteemed fo juftly to deferve that cruel
treatment to which they were expofed. And fince the Arca-
dians, in general, have been always celebrated for their vir-
tue throughout all Greece ; and have obtained the higheft
fame, as well by their humane and hofpitable difpofition, as
from their piety alfo towards the gods, and their veneration
of all things facred ; it may perhaps be ufeful to enquire
from whence it could arife, that the people of this fingle
city, though confeffed te be Arcadians, fhould, on the
contrary, be noted for the favage roughnefs of their lives
and manners, and diftinguifhed by their wickednefs and
cruelty above all the Greeks. In my judgment then, this
difference has happened from no other caufe, than that the
Cyneetheans were the firft and only people among the Arca-
dians, who threw away that inftitution, which their ancef-
tors had eftablifhed with the greateft wifdom, and with a
nice regard to the natural genius, and peculiar difpofition of
the people of the country; I mean, the difcipline and exer-
cife of mufic: of that genuine and perfeét mufic, which is
ufeful indeed in every ftate, but abfolutely neceflary to the
people of Arcadia. For we ought by no means to adopt
the fentiment that is thrown out by Ephorus in the preface
to his hiftory,-and which indeed is very unworthy of that
writer, that mufic was invented to deceive and delude
mankind. Nor can it be fuppofed, that the Lacedemoni-
ans, and the ancient Cretans, were not influenced by fome
good reafon, when, in the place of trumpets, they intro-
duced the found of flutes, and harmony of verfe, to animate
their foldiers in the time of battle: or that the firft Arca,
dians a&ted without ftrong neceflity, who, though their lives
and manners, in all other points, were rigid and aultere, in-
coporated this art into the very eflence of their government ;
and obliged not their children only, but the young men
likewife, till they had gained the age of thirty years, to
perfift in the conftant ftudy and pra€tice of it. For all men
know, that Arcadia is almoft the only country, in which
the children, even from their moft tender age, are taught to
fing in meafure their fongs and hymns, that are compofed
in honour of their gods and heroes: and that afterwards,
when they have learned the mufic of Timotheus and Philox-
enus, they affemble once in every year in the public thea-
tres, at the feaft of Bacchus; and there dance, with emula-
tion, to the found of flutes, and celebrate, according to
their proper age, the children thofe that are called the pue-
rile, and the young men, the manly games. And even in
their private feafts and meetings, they are never known to
employ any hired bands of mufic for their entertainment ;
but each man is obliged himfelf to fing in turn. For
though they may, without fhame or cenfure, difown all
knowledge of every other fcience, they dare not on the one
hand diflemble or deny, that they are {killed in mufic, fince
the laws require, that every one fhould be inftruted in it ;
nor can they, on the other hand, refufe to give fome proofs
of their fkill when afked, becaufe fuch refufal would be
efteemed difhonourable. They are alfo taught to perform
in order all the military fteps and motions, to the found of
inftraments: and this is’ likewife pra@tifed every year in the
theatres, at the public charge, and in fight of all the citizens.

«« Now to me it is clearly evident, that the ancients by no
means introduced thefe cuftoms, to be the inftruments of

luxury

LACED AMONIANS.

luxury and idle pleafure: but becaufe they had confidered
with attention, both the painful and laborious courfe of life,
to which the Arcadians were accuftomed ; and the natural
aufterity alfo of their manners, derived to them from that
cold and heavy air, which covered the greateft part of all
their province. For men will be always found to be in fome
degree affimilated to the climate in which they live : nor can
it be afcribed to any other caufe, that in the feveral nations
of the world, diftinét and feparated from each other, we
behold fo wide a difference, in complexion, features, man-
ners, cuftoms. The Arcadians, therefore, in order to
fmooth and foften that difpofition, which was by nature fo
rough and ftubborn, befides the cuftoms above defcribed,
appointed frequent feftivals and facrifices, which both fexes
were required to celebrate together; the men with women,
and the boys with virgins ; and, in general, eftablifhed every
inftitution, that could ferve to render their rugged minds
more gentle and compliant, and tame the fiercenefs of their
manners. But the people of Cynztha, having flighted all
thefe arts, though both their air and fituation, the moft in-
clement and unfavourable of any in Arcadia, made fome
fuch remedy more requifite to them than to the reft, were
afterwards engaged continually in inteftine tumults and
contentions; till they became at laft fo fierce and favage,
that, among all the cities of Greece, there was none in
which fo many and fo great enormities were ever known to
be committed. To how deplorable a ftate this condué& had
at laft reduced them, and how much their manners were de-
tefted bythe Arcadians, may be fully underftood from that
which happened to them, when they fent an embaffy to La-
cedemon, after the time of a dreadful flaughter which had
been made among them. For in every city of Arcadia,
through which their deputies were obliged to pafs, they
were commanded by the public crier inftantly to be gone.
The Mantineans alfo expreffed even ftill more ftrongly their
abhorrence of them: for as foon as they were departed,
they made a folemn purification of the place ; and carried
their victims in proceffion round the city, and through all
their territory.

«This then may be fufficient to exempt the general
euftoms of Arcadia from all cenfure ; and at the fame time
to remind the people of that province, that mufic was at
firft eftablifhed in their government, not for the fake of vain
pleafure and amufement, but for fuch folid purpofes, as
fhould engage them never to defert the practice of it. The
Cynztheans alfo may perhaps draw fome advantage from
thefe reflections; and, if the deity fhould hereafter blefs
them with better fentiments, may turn their minds to-
wards fuch difcipline, as may foften and improve their man-
ners, and efpecially to mufic; by which means alone, they
can ever hope to be divefted of that brutal fiercenefs, for
which they have been fo long diftinguifhed.’’

Though Polybius in this paflage feems to attribute the
happy change that was brought about in the manners of the
Arcadians toemufic alone, it does not appear to merit all
the honour, as a confiderable part was doubtlefs due to the
poetry that accompanied it; which being grave, majettic,
and full of piety and refpeGt for the gods and heroes, whofe
glorious aétions and benefits were celebrated in it, muft
have had great influence upon the minds of young perfons,
in whofe education thofe two arts had fo confiderable a fhare.

Thucydides, as quoted by Aulus Gellius (lib. i. cap. 11.)
fiys, when the Lacedemonians went to battle, a Tibicen
played foft and foothing mulic to temper their courage, left
by an ardent temerity they fhould have rufhed on with too
great impetuofity ; for, in general, they had more need of
having their courage reprefled than excited.

However, in an engagement with the Meffenians, they

\

were very near being difcomfited, when the celebrated ‘l'yr-
teus, who performed the part of a Tibicen that day, finding
the troops give way, immediately quitted the Lydian mode,
and played in the Phrygian, which fo reanimated their cou-
rage, reprefled by the preceding mode, that they obtained
a complete victory.

The Lacedemonians, though a military people, of auftere
manners, appear at all times, notwith{tanding their inhofpit-
able law againft the admiffion of ftrangers, to have invited
eminent muficians into their country, and to have encou-
raged mufic; not only in order to regulate the fteps, and
animate the courage of their troops, but to grace their
feftivals, and fill their hours of leifure in private iife

Athenzus tells us (lib. xiv.), that they had a flute painted
on their enfigns and ftandards.

There was one kind of theft to which the boys were ac
cuftomed, and which was even authorifed by the law, an
by the confent of the citizens; and this was their ftealing
herbs or roots from the gardens and public baths ; but if
they were caught in the faét, they were punifhed for want
of dexterity. ‘The defign of the Spartan legiflator in allow-
ing this practice, was to infpire the Spartan youth, who
were all defigned for war, with a view to felf-defence, and
not to extent of dominion, with boldnefs, fubtlety, and ad-
drefs; to enure them betimes to the life of a foldier, to
teach them to live upon a little, and to be able to fhift for
themfelves. The patience and conftancy of the Spartan youth
were fignally exemplified in Diana’s feitival, called “« Orthia,”’
which fee. The moft ufual occupation of the Lacedemo-
nians was hunting, and other bodily exercifes, to which they
devoted in private and public much of their time and attention.

Hunting was made a part of the education of the Lace-
demonians, becaufe it had a tendency to prevent corpulence,
which incurred public contempt, if not banifhment, and to
ftrengthen their limbs, and to render thofe who practifed it
fupple and fleet. They had a kind of public dances, in which
they much delighted, common alike to virgins and young men.
Indeed, in all their fports, girls were allowed to divert them-
felves with the other youths; infomuch that, at darting, throw-
ing the quoit, pitching the bar, and the like robuft diverfions,
the women were as dextrousas the men. For the manifeft pe-
culiarity of this cuftom, Lycurgus affigned no other reafon,
than that he fought to render women, as well as men, ftrong
and healthy, that their children might refemble them. The
laborious life ceafed with the age of 30: and they then em-
ployed themfelves wholly either in affairs of ftate, or of war.

As to the laws relating to religion, they prefcribed that
the ftatues of all the gods and goddeffes worfhipped by
the Spartans, fhould be reprefented armed, even Venus her-
felf ; that the people might regard a military life the moft
noble and honourable, and not attribute, as other nations
did, floth and luxury to the gods. Their facrifices con-
fifted of things of {mall value; that indigence might never
hinder them from worfhipping the gods. They were for-
bidden to make long or rafh prayers to the heavenly powers,
and were enjoined to afk no more, than that they might live
honeftly, and difcharge their duty. Graves were allowed in
their city, and they buried clofe to the temples, that all
people might be familiar with death, and not conceive of it
as athing dreadful in itfelf, or that dead bodies defiled the
living. Magnificent fepulchres were forbidden, nor was the
plaineft or moft modeft infcription permitted, except for
fuch as were flain in the wars, or for women who had de-
voted themfelves to a religious life. Tears, fighs, and out-
cries were not permitted in public, becaufe they difhonoured
Spartans, who ought to bear all things with equanimity.
Mournings were reftriéted to feven days.

Celibacy in men was regarded as infamous, and punifhed

X 2 by

LACED AMONIANS.

by various tokens of contempt. If a man did not -marry
when at full age, he was liable to an ation; as thofe alfo
were who married above or below themfelves. Such as
had three children had certain immunities, and thofe who
had four were free from all taxes. Virgins were married with-
out portions; hufbands were allowed to beat their wives ; and
there were fome other laws which we fhall not here recite.
The men of Sparta are generally faid to havebeen diftinguifhed
for their virtue; but the Spartan women have been as gene-
rally decried for their boldnefs, and contempt of decency.

No Spartan was admitted to any concern in their judicial
proceedings under 30 years of age; and it was held in-
decent, and in ill repute, for a man to bufy himfelf at the
tribunals, when he had no affairs there of his own. By
thefe regulations, Lycurgus thought to prevent litigioufnefs,
and that multiplicity of fuits which are always fatal in a {tate.
Perfons of abandoned charaéterloft all right of voting or {peak-
ing publicly on public affairs ; for it was a perfuafion among
the Spartans, that a man of avbafe character in private life
could not ferve his country from motives of true patriotifm.

At Sparta, it has been faid, every thing tended to infpire
the love of virtue, and the hatred of vice; the adtions of
the citizens, their converfations and mutual intercourfe
which frequently occurred, thier public monuments, and
their infcriptions. Accordingly Lycurgus would not allow
all forts of perfons to travel, left they fhould bring home
foreign manners, and return infeGted with the licentious
cuftoms of other countries, and thus become averfe from
the life and maxims of Lacedemon. On the other hand,
he would fuffer no ftranger to remain in the city, who did
not come thither to fome ufeful or profitable end, or out of
mere curiofity, left they fhould diffeminate the vices of
their own countries. A foldier was the only reputable pro-
feflion in Sparta; a mechanic or hufbandman was looked
upon with contempt. War, indeed, was the trade and bufi-
nefs of the Lacedzmonians, and the firft law of war with
them was never to fly, or turn their backs upon their ene-
mies, however fuperior in number ; never to quit their poit ;
never to deliver up thei arms ; in a word, either to conquer,
or to die upon the fpot. Hence it is, that a mother re-
commended to her fon, who was going to make a campaign,
that he fhould return either with or upon his fhield; and
that another, hearing that her fon was killed in fighting for
his country, anfwered very coldly, ** I brought him into
the world for no other end.”? A Spartan lady, having
heard that her fon had fled from a battle, wrote him this
fhort letter, ‘* Fame fpeaks ill of you; efface it, or be no
more.’? In all expeditions, they were careful in the per-
formance of religious rites; and after their evening meal,
the foldiers fang together hymns to their gods. When they
were about to engage, the king facrificed to the Mufes,
that, by their affiftance, they might be enabled to-perform
deeds worthy of being recorded to lateft times. Then the
army advanced in order to the found of flutes, which played
the hymn of Caftor. The king himfelf fung the Paan, which
was the fignal to charge. When their enemies began to fly
they purfued no longer than till victory was afcertained ;
becaufe they would feem to fight rather for the honour of
conquering than of putting their enemies to death. After
40 years’ fervice, a man was, by law, no longer required to
go into the field, and confequently if the military age was
30, the Spartans were not held invalids ti'l they were 7o.
It was one of the wifeft maxims in the political fyftem of
Lycurgus, that he forbade the Spartans to fight often againft
the fame enemy. They were forbidden to meddle with ma-
ritime affairs, though in procefs of time they were forbidden
to tranfgrefs this in{titution.

It has been faid that Lycurgus was the author of that

political expedient for leffening the number of flaves, or
Helotes, in Sparta, called «* Cryptia,”’ i. e. the ambufcade,
when the flaves were thought too numerous. Such as had
the care of educating the Spartan youth, felected the
ftoutelt of them, and having armed them with daggers,
fent them out to deftroy their unhappy flaves, either by fur-
prifing them in the night, or falling upon them in the day,
when they were at their work and defencelefs. Plato con-
demns this law; and Plutarch denies that it was made by
Lycurgus, whereas Ariftotle exprefsly lays it to his charge;
but when or however it was made, it was undoubtedly a
cruel unneceflary expedient, in all refpects unworthy of a
virtuous people. The abbé Barthelemi (Trav. Anach.
vol. iv. p. 481.) has, in our opinion, fatisfactorily vindicated
Lycurgus from the charge of having inttituted fuch a prac-
tice. Plato himfelf recommends, that in a well governed
ftate, the youth, as foon as they are of fufficient age,
fhould, during two years, range the country with arms in their
hands, braving the rigours of fummer and winter, leading
a hardy life, and fubjefted to a ftri& difcipline. As the
Cryptia was only practifed among the Spartans, Plato has
here defcribed the nature of it. In this and another fimilar
paflage the objeét of the Cryptia is defcribed, but not a
word is faid of the chace of the Helots; of which no
mention occurs in any of the now remaining works of Arif-
totle, nor in thofe of Thucydides, Xenophon, Ifocrates,
and other writers of the fame age, though they often {fj

of the revolts and defertions of the Helots, and occafionally
cenfure the laws of Lycurgus, and the cuftoms of the
Lacedemonians. The Abbé concludes, that till about the
time when Plato wrote his treatife on laws, the Cryptia was
not employed to fhed the blood of the Helots. After-
wards, i.e. a fhort time after the death of Plato, the laws
loft their force, and the Spartan youth killed thofe Helots
who made too much refiltance, and perhaps gave occafion ~
to the decree of the ephori, which imported that the Helots
might be murdered with impunity. The abufe increafing
from day to day, the Cryptia was at length confounded
with the chace of the Helots. According to Ariftotle the
Cryptia was inftituted by Lycurgus. Plato explains its ob-
jet and- believes it to be extremely ufeful. When the
manners of Sparta became corrupted, the youth of Lace-
demon, we are told, abufed this exercife to perpetrate
horrid cruelties, which cannot be juttitied, but which have
been tranfmitted to us with exaggeration, and unjuilly -
charged upon the inftitution of Lycurgus.

The inftitutions of Lycurgus have been much extolled
both by-ancients and moderns, but they are unqueftionably
liable to many objeGtions. The legiflator himfelf, when he
framed them, muft have been in a great degree devoid of
that comprehenfion aud fenfibility of mind, which takes an
enlarged view of the frame ard condition of men, and
which duly attends to the feelings of human nature; par-
ticularly thofe of parents and children. The underitanding
was left ina great degree uncultivated ; decency was pro-
{cribed, barbarity rendered familiar ; and all thofe tender
fenfations that humanize fociety were fmothered, as it were,
in the birth. The conftitution wasa moft unnatural effe&
of {peculation, founded upon the mifery of the individuals
that compofed the community: for if the Spartans were
free with refpe&t to other nations, they were flaves to their
own legiflature. In a word, fay the authors of the Uni-
verfal Hiftory, it was a difcipline calculated, not for a free
people who hada right to cultivate the powers of reafon,
and tafte the nobleft enjoyments of life, but for the defpe-
rate militia of a defpotic tyrant, who wants to extinguith
every fentiment of humanity, and produce a contempt of
life by {tripping it of all its comforts.

9 Such

LACEDAZMONIANS.

Such an inftitution as that of Lycurgus, with all its de-
fe&s and failings, is a juft objet of admiration: but it
would have been lefs wonderful, if it had fubfifted only
during the life of the legiflator; however, we know that
it fubfifted many ages after his deceafe in a greater or
lefs degree of vigour and influence. Xenophon, in the
encomium he has left us of Agefilaus, and Cicero, in one of
his orations (Pro Flacc.,) obferves, Lacedemon was the only
city in the world that preferved her difcipline and laws for

- fo confiderable a term of years unaltered and inviolate.

© Soli,’’ (fays Cicero, fpeaking of the Lacedemonians ),
*¢ toto orbe terrarum feptingentos jam annos amplius unis
moribus ad nunquam mutatis legibus vivunt.'’ In Cicero’s
time, however, the difcipline of Sparta, as well as her power,
was very much relaxed and diminifhed. But all hiftorians
agree that it was maintained in a very confiderable degree
of vigour till the reign of Agis, under whom Lyfander,
though himfelf incapable of being blinded or corrupted with
gold, filled his country with luxury and the love of riches,
by bringing into it immenfe fums of gold and filver, which
were the fruits of his victories, and thereby fubvertizg the
laws of Lycurgus. But the introdution of gold and filver,
fays Rollin, was not the firlt wound given by the Lace-
dzmonians to the inftitution of the legiflator, It was the

* confequence of a violation of another law full more funda-

mental: ambition was the vice that preceded and made way
for avarice. The defire of conquefts drew on that of riches,
without which they could not have propofed to extend their
dominions. The main defign of Lycurgus, in the eftablifh-
ment of his laws, and efpecially of that which prohibited

the ufe of gold and filver, was, as Polybius and Plutarch
have judicioufly obferved, to curb and reftrain the ambition
of his citizens, to difable them from making conquefts, and
in a manner to force them to confine themfelves within the
narrow bounds of their own country, without carrying their
views and pretenfions any farther. Indeed the government
which he eftablifhed was fufficient to defend the frontiers of

‘Sparta, but was not calculated for raifing her to a domi-

nion over other cities. That it was not his defign to make
the Spartans conquerors is evident from his having exprefsly
forbidden them, though they lived in a country furrounded
with the fea, to meddle in maritime affairs ; to have any
fleets, or even to fight upon the fea. Although he made
them a nation of foldiers and warriors, it was only that,
under the fhadow of their arms, they might live in liberty,
moderation, juftice, union, and peace, by being content with
their own territories, without ufurping thofe of others, and
by being perfuaded, that no city or ftate, any more than a fin-
gle perfon, can ever hope for folid and lafting happinefs, but
from virtue only. On this fubject, fee Anc. Un. Hitt. vol. v.
Rollin’s Anc. Hift. vol. ii. Travels of Anacharfis, vol. iv.

The ftability, as well as the glory, of the Lacedemonian
government, was derived from the wife inftitutions of that
celebrated lawgiver, of whofe government we have given an
account. After the death of Lycurgus, the Lacedemonian
hiftory becomes perplexed, being fupplied from feanty and
fcattered materials.

The following table fhews the fucceffion of their kings,
in both lines, with the duration of their reigns, from Lycur-
gus until the Achzan league.

Taste of the Lacedzmonian Kings.

Agide, or Family of Agis.

Reigns,

Beg. Duration,
Archelaus - Sota 8|i22 fall ol G'S - 60
Teleclus - Spetiinedit T - mle AG
Alcamenes - - 813 - - 37
Polydorus - - 770 - Sib br:
Eurycrates - - 724 - - 37
Anaxander - - 687 - - 43
Eurycrates II. - - 644 - - 37
Leon - £ 607 = = 44
Anaxandrides —- - 563 - - 33
Cleomenes - me AE ZO - pedlige 28)
Leonidas - - 49 - - 12
Plittarchus = =n a9 = - 14
Pliftoanax - - 465 - Chee oie
Paufanias - : 407 - - 14
Agefipolis = SoBe wale: - 14
Cleombrotus - =i baile iy 0) - - 9
Agefipolis II. = - - 370 ~ - I
Cleomenes II. - - 369 - SOT
Aretus, or Areus . 308 - - 44
Aerotatus - - 264 - - i
Areus II. - - 263 . - 7
Leonidas IT. - - 256 - - 14
Cleombrotus - - 242 = - 2
Leonidas, reftored - 240 - - 6
Cleomenes - - 234 - - 16
Agefipolis - - 228 - -

Machanidas the Tyrant.

Nabis

Proclide, or Family of Procles; called alfo Eurypontide.

Reigns,
Beg. Duration.

Charilaus - - S72 bie. - 64

Nicander - - 809 ~ - 39

Theopompus - - 770 - - 47

Zeuxidamus - - 723 - . 33

Anaxidamus - - 690 - - 39

Archidamus - - 651 - . 46

A gaficles - - 605 - - 41

Arifton - - 564 - - 38

Demaratus - - 526 - - 35

Leotychides - - 491 - - 22
. Archidamus IT. - - 469 - - 42

Agis II. - - 427 - - 30

Agefilaus II. - . 397 - - 36

Archidamus ITT. - 361 - - 23

Agis ITI. - - 338 - - 9

Eudamidas I. - - 329 > - 33

Archidamus.

Eudamidas IJ.

Agis IV.

Archidamus.

Euclidas.

Lycurgus.

/

ditto 14

Alexamenus the /Etolian.

Lacedemon becomes a part of the Achezan league, 191 B. C.

LACEDAMONIANS.

It would far exceed our limits to detail minutely the hif-
tory of the Lacedemonians during the feries of reigns which
we have above enumerated. We mutt content ourfelves
with marking fome of its principal events, and particularly
thofe in which their ambition led them to violate the confti-
tution eftablifhed by Lycurgus. We fhall find that inftead
of employing their arms and exercifing their valour for main-
taining their own independence, they were a€tuated by an
ambition for making conquefts and extending their terri-
tories, by methods directly contrary to the rules of conduc
which Lycurgus had prefcribed. _Charilaus, his nephew
and pupil, began with an unfuccefsful war with the Argives,
and with the Tageate, a people of Arcadia ; and he then
turned his arms againft the Achzans, who had taken from
the Lacedemonians feveral frontier towns, which he and his
colleague Teleclus recovered. Buta more important event
in the Lacedemonian hiftory was the Meffenian war, the
foundation of which was laid during the reign, or foon
after, the death of Teleclus ; but it was actually com-
menced by Alcamenes, king of Sparta, who madea fudden
irruption into the Meffenian territory. In the profecution
of this war, the Lacedemonians and their two kings took a
folemn oath not to return till they had thoroughly reduced
Meffenia, by which oath they entered into an obligation to
tranfgrefs two of the exprefs laws of Lycurgus ; one of
which forbade them to make conquefts, and the other which
prohibited them from prolonging their war againit the fame
people. Polydorus and Theopompus continued the war
which had been begun by Alcamenes and Nicander ; and
conftrained the Meffenians to fortify a city which was fitu-
ated on the top of the mountain Ithome, that they might
retire into it for fafety and felf-defence, when they were
driven from their other cities and villages, that were more
expofed. The Lacedemonians, regardlefs of that claufe in
the laws of Lycurgus, which cautioned them againft befieg-
ing fortified places, laid fiege to Ithome; and altogether
deftitute of experience in this branch of military taétics,
they were under a neceflity of continuing the fiege for four-
teen years before they reduced the place. It was during
this expedition that Theopompus is faid to have created the
ephori, thus altering the original conftitution of the Spartan
government. The attention of the Spartans was diverted
from the Meffenian war by a difpute with the Argives, con-
cerning the city of Thyrea, and its diftri, which, lying
onthe borders of Argolis and Laconia, occafioned great
contentions between thofe ftates. _

The Argives were defeated with great flaughter; but when
Polydorus was urged to purfue his victory, and to attack
Argos itfelf, he declined it with this noble declaration,
worthy of the inftitution of Lycurgus, ‘ that the Spartans
fent him to affert their rights, but not to rob others.”
The Spartans, after having provided for the adminiftration
of affairs at home, by the appointment of the ephori, re-
aewed the Meilenian war, and marched with a great army
towards Ithome, but they were defeated with great lofs, and
conttrained to betake themfelves to flight. Atlength, after
an obftinate refiftance on the part of the Meffenians, they
were obliged to furrender Ithome to the Spartans, and they
themfelves were treated with great rigour. The Spartans,
during the Meffenian war, having been ten years abfent from
the city, on account of their oath, which obliged them not
to return till they had entirely fubdued that country, were
reminded by a mefiage from the women, that, whilil they
were fo careful to fubdue their enemies, they neglected the
city. In confequence of this meflage, they decreed that the
young men among them who came out of Sparta under age.
and on this account were not obliged by the oath, fhould

return, and affociating themfelves promifcuoufly with the
unmarried women, preferve the city from falling into decay.
This projeét being executed, thofe who were bora of fuch
young women were called ‘* Parthenie,” that is, fons of
virgins. When the Lacedemonians returned, after having
reduced Meflenia, they neglefted thefe young men, who,
finding themfelves involved in difficulties, for want of parents
and an inheritance, intrigued with the Helotes, and formed
a plot againit the ftate. The plot, however, was difcovered,
and they were fent off to Italy, where they fettled near
Tarentum, In the reign of Anaxander and Anaxidamus,
685 years B. C., the fecond Meffenian war begun, and con-
tinued 14-years. It terminated with the capture of Ira or
Era, after a fiege of 11 years, and by the conqueit of Mef-
fenia, the inhabitants were made flaves, and the whole
country was divided by the Spartans among their own citi-
zens, the diftrict of Methone excepted, which they gave to
the Argives. Nothing of any great importance occurred in
the hiftory of the Lacedemonians until the Perfian war.
When Miltiades, the Athenian, fought the famous battle of
Marathon, and defeated the Perfians, in the ggoth year
B.C., the Spartans had promifed an army, but fent none;
fome time after the battle their troops arrived, contemplated
the {pot where it had been fought, and after having highly
commended the Athenians, returned home again to Sparta.
When this battle at Marathon excited the Perfians to at-
tempt again the conqueft of Greece, the Spartans, witha
refolution worthy of the difciples of Lycurgus, determined
to oppofe them. The ftates of Greece, apprized of the
hoftile intentions of Xerxes, unanimoufly joined in a gene-
ral afflembly to defend its liberty againft the Perfians ; but in
the event, of all the confederates, the Spartans and Athe-
nians were the only ftates that feemed prepared to execute
their purpofe. A refolution was formed to defend the itraits
of Thermopyle ; and when 6000 foot were appointed for
that fervice, the command of them was given to Leonidas,
who had fucceeded Cleomenes in the kingdom of Lacedz-
mon. Of the 6000 foot, 300 only were Spartans. Leo-
nidas himfelf confidered it as a defperate undertaking, but
was determined either to fucceed, or to die in the attempt.
The iffue of this confli& was the death of Leonidas with all
his Spartans; but the victory on the part of the Perfians
coft them 20,000 men. The Grecian fleet, which lay at
Artemifium, was entrufted to the command of Eurybrides, —
a Spartan, poflefled of great perfonal courage, but timorous
as a commander, and unexperienced in maritime affairs,
When Mardonius attempted the conqueft of Greece, Paufa-
nias, the fon of Cleombrotus, who aflumed the chara&er
of tutor or proteétor to Pliftarchus, the fon of Leonidas,
had the command in chief of the whole Grecian army, which
amounted to 100,000 men. The Perfians were undoubtedly
double this number. But both armies were afterwards
greatly diminifhed by defertion. At length the Lacedemo-
mians and Tegetzans were forced to engage Mardonius’s
army without affiftance. The Perfians, it is acknowledged,
behaved well on this occafion; but being neither fo well
armed, nor fo well difciplined as the Greeks, their valour
was of no ufe but to expofe them to flaughter. The Per-
fians were defeated and Mardonius killed. The Perfian
camp was forced; the Lacedemonians opened a paflage ;
and then a mercilefs flaughter enfued. Of 300,000 men,
whom Mardonius brought into the field, fearcely 3000
efcaped. The number of Greeks that fell is uncertain;
Plutarch reckons them at 1360, but Diodorus Siculus
affirms pofitively, that they were very few lefs than 10,000.
On the fame day in which the battle of Platea was fought,
(479 B.C.) Leotychides, king of Sparta, with Xanthip-

pus,

LACEDAMONIANS.

pus, the Athenian, gained a glorious viétory at Mycale,
where the laft remains of the Perfian fleet, and of the Per-
fian armies, which had been drawn together for the deftruc-
tion of Greece, were utterly defeated, and Paufanias was
afterwards fent to take the command of the fleet, with ftriét
orders to free the Grecian cities from the Perfian garrifons.
But he foon after intrigued with Artabazus, and engaged
in a fcandalous treaty with the Perfians ; affecting, by the
affiftance of the great king, to make himfelf fovereign of
Greece. The allies took umbrage at his conduét, and pri-
vately fent to accufe him at Sparta. He was induced, how-
ever, by delufion to return to Sparta ; where he was feized
by the ephori, but for want of fufficient evidence, or dread-
ing his influence, they releafed him. He neverthelefs pur-
fued his negotiations with Artabazus, till his intrigues were
difeovered. Upon his retiring to the temple of Minerva
Chalcidica, in order to take fan@uary there, the Spartans
blocked up the gate, and thus preventing his efcape, reduced
him to the nevetiity of ftarving in the temple. At the end
of the 77th olympiad (465 B.C.) a molt dreadful earth-
quake happened at Sparta. Diodorus fays, that 20,000
perfons loft their lives, and Plutarch affirms, that only five
houfes in the city efcaped ruin. In this year, 465 B.C.,
the third Meflenian war commenced, by the inftigation of
the Iielotes, and lafted ten years. ‘The next war which the
Lacedemonians undertook, was that ftyled the « Sacred,”’
by fome the ‘ Phocian’’ war; begun in the 448th year
B.C. The defign of it was to put the temple of Delphi
into the hands of the inhabitants of the country, whereas it
had before belonged to the Phocians ; this defign the Spar-
tans effeéted ; and they were recompenfed by a decree on the
part of the Delphians, that they fhould have a right of
firft confulting the oracle; which decree was engraved on
the forehead of a brazen wolf, confecrated in the temple.
The Athenians foon after, having reftored the temple to the
_ Phocians, obtained the fame privilege, and the decree which
granted it was engraven on the right fide of the -wolf. The
Lacedzmonians having induced the Beeotians to revolt from
the Athenians, and Eubcea at the fame time fhaking off the
yoke, availed themfelves of this opportunity for giving a
mortal blow to Athens; for which purpofe Pliftoanax was
ordered to invade their territories, at the head of a great
army. He was perfuaded, however, by his guardian Cleon-
drides, who accepted a bribe from Pericles, to return home,
without effe€ting any thing, for which corruption the Spar-
tans punifhed Cleondrides with death, and fentenced their
king to exile. Soon after a peace was made between the
Spartans and Athenians. This peace was of no long dura-
tion; for in the year 431 B.C. the Peloponnefian war began.
Archidamus, the king of Lacedzemon, wifhed to avoid this
war, and fent a meflenger to Athens, with a commiffion to
this purpofe ; but he was fent back unheard. After feveral
incurfions into Attica, Archidamus died. He is faid to have
been one of the beft kings that ever reigned in Sparta.
Being afked, ‘‘ who were governors of Sparta ?”” he replied,
‘the laws, and the magiftrates according to thefe laws.”
During the reign of his fon and fucceflor Agis, who invaded
Attica, the Athenians took feveral towns; but at length
they were routed with great flaughter by the Spartans under
the command of Brafidas, one of the moft celebrated men
of Sparta. In the year 421 B.C. a peace was concluded,
after the war had raged for ten years. But in order to pre-
vent too intimate an union between Sparta and Athens,
feveral of the Peloponnefian ftates leagued themfelves with
Argos, which was a very powerful republic, and hoftile at
this time to the Lacedemonians. After fome flights and
affronts, the Spartans, much irritated, refolved on a war

againft them and their allies; and entered the territory
of Argos with a large army. The Argives, being ill pre-
pared for a confli&, declined it, and obtained from Agis a
truce of four months ; which gave great offence to his allies,
and for which he was feverely muléted and opprobrioufly
treated on his return to Sparta. ‘The Athenians, having
obtained a fupply of troops, renounced the treaty made with
Agis, and the two armies engaged at Mantinea. The Spar-
tans under Agis, though inferior in number to the Argives
and their allies, and very obttinately refifted, gained a com-
plete vi€tory. This happened in the year 418 B.C. In the
year 414 B.C. Agis entered the territories of Elis, in order
to revenge the difhonour that had been done fome years
before to the republic, by forbidding them to be prefent at
the Olympic games. After repeated irruptions into the
country, the Eleans treated with the Spartans, and a peace
enfued. At this time the Peloponnefian war was renewed.
The Athenians having fent a great army into Sicily, the
Lacedemonians fent Gylippus to affift the Syracufans;
among whom he gained great reputation at firlt, though it
was afterwards ruined by his avarice. About this time Alci-
biades repaired to Sparta, having been expelled his country
by a prevailing faction. By adopting the Spartan mode of
living, he became a great favourite, and was treated with
particular refpeét by Agis, who received him into his houfe;
but in return for the hofpitality he experienced, he bafely
debauched the wife of Agis, and was obliged to quit Laco-
nia, and to feek among the barbarians a place of fafety.
Whiltt king Agis managed the war in Attica, the condué&
of maritime affairs was committed to Lyfander, who proved
the great hero of Sparta, and brought to a termination the
Peloponnefian war. Lyfander was fuppofed to be of the
royal family, and of the Herculean race; he pafled his
younger years under all the reftri€tions of the inititutes of
Lycurgus, and was thus rendered bold, hardy, patient, and
refolute ; his genius was extenfive, and in his difpofition and
manners, he was affable, modett, vigilant, and indefatigable ;
but with thefe great qualities he cherifhed the moft danger- .
ous ambition, in order to gratify which he ftooped to every
{pecies of flattery and diffimulation; fo that to accomplifh
his ends, he made no feruple to violate the moft folemn oaths.
When he entered on his command, he found the Athenians
greatly fuperior at fea; but in a few years he deprived them
of all power; but, above all things, he fought to advance
his own credit and authority. Lyfander foon perceived,
that without the Barbarian gold, Sparta could not carry on
the war; and he therefore infinuated himfelf mto the favour
of Cyrus, who was then at Sardis, and obtained from him
10,000 pieces of filver, which he applied to the purpofe of
fupporting his foldiers, and refitting his fleet. Whilft he
lay at Ephefus, repairing his fhips and keeping his foldiers
and mariners to their exercife, he proje€ted a feheme for
making himfelf, ina manner, fovereign of Greece. After
feveral previous manceuvres and changes of pofition, he at-
tacked the Athenians, whofe fleet was under the command
of Conon, both by fea and by land, and completely defeated
and routed them; fo that, ina fingle hour, he put an end
to the Peloponnefian war, and to the maritime power of
Athens. After this vitory (405 B.C.), and the power
acquired by it, Lyfander acted rather as an univerfal mo-
narch than a general from Sparta. He immediately vifited
all the neighbouring cities, and changed their government,
placing in each of them a Spartan magiltrate, and with him
ten of his friends from Ephefus, where he ereéted a kind of
political univerfity. Thefe men conducted themfelves with
haughtinefs and feverity, and the Lacedemonian government

was thus rendered ungrateful; fo that the people were uni-
; verfally

LACEDZAMONIANS.

verfally difpofed to fhake it off as foon as they could. Ly- perpetrated by Xerxes, when he invaded Greece ; but being
fander colleéted the wealth which his vigtories had put into — recalled, he returned without hefitation ; preferring his duty

his power, and deftined it to be fent to Sparta, whither he
had before fent a meflenger with the news of his victory over
the Athenians, together with an affurance that he would
foon be before Athens with a fleet of 200 fail; upon which,
Agis and Paufanias, the two kings of Sparta, were fent,
with a very large land army, into Attica. Lyfander entered
Athens in triumph, on the anniverfary of the great victory
at Salamis, April 24, in the year go4 B.C., which com-
pletely finifhed the Peloponnefian war. (See ATHENS.)
Lyfander, having accomplithed this objeé, fent the immenfe
treafures which he had colleéted to Sparta, under the care of
Gylippus, whofe avarice and fraudulent difpofition led him
to open the bags which contained them, and to take out
what he thought proper. Upon his arrival at Lacedemon,
their contents were examined, and compared with a ticket
which Lyfander had put into each fealed bag. ~The de-
ficiency was foon difcovered ; Gylippus was impeached by
his fervant, and his crime being proved, he was exiled under
the {candalous imputation ef being a deteéted cheat. This
influx of wealth occafioned great difputes at Sparta: thofe
who were beft acquainted with the nature of their conttitu-
tion regarded the receipt of it as an open violation of the laws
of Lycurgus, and they expreffed their apprehenfion, that in
procefs of time they,would have reafon to repent this accel-
fion of opulence. It was at laft determined, as a compromife
of the fubfifting difputes, that the ftate might make ufe of
the gold and filver, but that private perfons fhould poffefs
neither, on pain of capital punifhments. Lyfander, while he
remained in Greece, amply evinced his imperious difpofi-
tion; fetting up his own flatue, and thofe of his com-
manders, who were his favourites, and dedicating two ftars
in honour of the deities Caftor and Pollux, two ftars which
his fycophants pretended had been feen in the rigging of his
fhip, at the battle of AXgos. The range of his ambition in
Afia was {till lefs reftrained. At length the ephori and
fenate of Sparta difpatched a /eyala (which fee) to recall
him. After fome tokens of difpleafure, the Spartans be-
came reconciled to him, and in procefs of time extolled him
for a man of integrity and true public fpirit, to the mortifi-
cation of their king Paufanias, who had endeavoured to
humble his pride and reftrain his influence. Before Agefilaus
was well fettled on the throne (397 B.C.), the king of
Perfia declared war again{t the Spartans: the king was, not
without reafon, jealous of the power of Lyfander; anda
mifunderftanding between them taking place, Lyfander re-
folved to overturn the government of his country. But
new difturbances occurring in Greece, he perfuaded the
ephori and fenate once more to entruft him with an army.
An army was foon raifed, to the command of which he was
appointed ; and another army was put under the command
of king Paufanias. Lyfander, haftening by quick marches
to Haliartus, and unfupported by Paufanias, who was more
dilatory in his progrefs, was attacked by the Thebans and
Haliartans, and killed on the {pot, and the Spartans were de-
feated. A treaty was concluded with Paufanias, on condition
of his retiring out of Beeotia. But on his return to Sparta,
fuch a fpirit of refentment appeared againft him, that he was
afraid to undergo his trial, and therefore retired to Tega,
where he led a private life. Ihe memory of Lyfander was
held in great veneration, not only for the fervices which he
had rendered his country, but on account of his dying poor,
notwith{tanding the opportunities he had of enriching him-
felf.

Agefilaus, having fubjeGted the greateft part of the coatt,
determined to march into Perfia, and revenge the cruelties

townrds the conftitution of his country to the profpedt of
fubduing the whole Perfian empire. During the reign and
military exploits of Agefilaus (B.C. 393), Conon, the
Athenian, threatened the Spartans with the lofs of their
fovereignty by fea; upon which it was refolved at Sparta
to fend Antalcidas into Perfia, to appeafe the great king,
and to detach him from the interefts of their rivals. The
negociations of Antalcidas prevailed, fo that a peace was
concluded (387 B.C.), called the peace of Antalcidas, by
which the fovereignty of Greece was, in a manner, gua-
ranteed to Sparta, but upon very difhonourable terms, the
Greek cities in Afia being entirely abandoned to the Per-
fians, notwith{tanding all the promifes which had been made
to them, and although Agefilaus himfelf had fought in their
quarrel. The Lacedemonians became haughty and infolent,
and refolyed to punifh all who had injured them, They be-
gan with the Mantineans, who had been their confederates,
and had done them great fervices. They next extended
their arbitrary power to the Phliafians, and then to the
Olynthians, who were reduced to fuch diftrefs, that they
made a treaty with the Spartans, by which they engaged to
have the fame friends and enemies with them, and to tollow
them as aflociates in their wars, whitherfoever they fhould
lead them. Sparta exercifed a government that was arbi-
trary and cruel over all whom fhe had brought moft unjuftly
under her dominion; for, by the peace of Antalcidas, fhe
had engaged that all the cities fhould be left free. The
Perfian king perfifted in his defign to bring about a fettled
tranquillity, which, in the beginning of the 102d olympiad, .
(372 B.C.) feemed to be nearly effected; the Athenians
heartily concurring with the Lacedemonians, and giving no
countenance to the Thebans, who refufed to hear of peace,
becaufe the Spartans infifted they fhould fet the cities of
Beeotia at liberty. In this oppofition they were encouraged
by Epaminondas, who demanded that, before the Lacedz-
monians.gave laws to others, they fhould fhew a proper re-
gard to thofe maxims of equity themfelves, by giving up.
Meffenia to its ancient proprietors, and fetting Laconia free.
This obftinacy violently incenfed Sparta, and offended
Athens. Cleombrotus, with an army of 12,000 men, pene-
trated into Boeotia, and advanced towards Leuétra. A
truce, however, was concluded by the mediation of Jafon,
a powerful prince of Theflaly. But as Cleombrotus was
retiring, he met Archidamus, the fon of Agefilaus, with a
reinforcement from Sparta; and thefe princes, notwith-
ftanding the truce, marched back to Leuétra, wh order to
fall on the Baeotians, where they found Epaminondas ready
to receive them. The Spartans, in the battle of Leuétra,
(fought July 8th, 371 B.C.) were defeated with great
flaughter ; and thus they loft the empire of Greece, which
they had held near 500 years. Epaminondas afterwards en-
tered Laconia, and appeared before Sparta; but Agefilaus
compelled him to retire, though not without defolating the
country in his retreat. Epaminondas, when he quitted the
territories of Sparta, rebuilt the city of Meffene, and recalled
the ancient inhabitants of Meffenia from the feveral countries
where they had taken refuge, and reftored them to the pof-
feffion of their ancient patrimony, after they had loft it 300
years. Having accomplifhed this obje&, he offered the
Lacedemonians peace, on condition that they furren-
dered all pretenfions to Meffenia, and left Laconia free ;
terms which they rejeéted with difdain. At length the
Perfian king difpofed almoft all Greece to think of
peace ; and this was effected, after the Laconian or Beotic
war had lafted about five years. In the fecond year
co)

LACEDEMONIANS.

of the roth olympiad (363 B. C.) new commotions arofe
in Peloponnefus. Epaminondas made an unfuccefsful at-

' tempt to furprife Sparta, and afterwards Mantinea; morti-

fied by thefe difappointments, he determined to attack Agefi-
Jaus, who was at the head of the Lacedemonians and Arca-
dians, with the reft of their allies ; but in his charge againit
the Lacedemonians, he expofed his perfon too much, and
fell under a cloud of darts, and was at length killed by a
Spartan javelin. Pyerhus of Macedon, interfering in a
difpute about the fucveflion to the throne of Sparta, made
feveral attempts againit the city, but was.as often repulfed ;
and before he quitted Greece he was kilied in a battle with
Areus the Spartan king. Cleonidas II., who, fucceeded
Areus II. in the year 257 B.C had long lived in the court
of Seleucus, and acquired a tattle for pomp and grandeur.
At Sparta he had an opportunity of indulzing this tafe,
for the maxims of Lycurgus had {funk not only into difufe,
but into contempt, One of the ephori, who had gained
influence, and who had conceived a prejudice againit his own
fon, procured a law, by which all men were left at liberty to
difpofe of their lands by gift or fale, or by teftament at the
time of their deceafe. In confequcnce of this law, which
fubverted the original conititution, moit of the lands were,
by degrees, transferred from the ancient Spartan families ;
and thus the credit and glory of the Spartan ftate declined.
Agis, the colleague of Leonidas, and a perfeét counterpart
to him in difpofizion and charaéter, attempted to counteract
his conduét, and to reftore the conftitution of Sparta.
Cleombrotus, who fucceeded Iseonidas, after he had been
fet afide, concurred with Agis in all his defigns; but when
Agis was obliged to go with a body of Spartan troops
to the affiftance of the Achzans, his colleague abufed his
power to fuch a degree, that Leonidas was reftored; upon
which Agis, when he returned, fled to the temple of Minerva,
and could not be drawn out of his fanctuary by any methods
which Leonidas could praétife. He was at length treache-
roufly feized, tried, and condemned by the ephori, and at
laft put to death. On the death of Leonidas, Ciesmenes
afcended the Spartan throne ; and refolved to fupprefs the
ephori, and to reltore the ancient conftitution of Sparta.
In the courfe of his reign he invaded Achza, and took fe-
veral cities. Being informed that Aretus and the Achzans
were preparing to give him difturbance, he marched a body -
of troops into their territories, and gained many advantages
over them. At length the Achzans, difheartened by their
ill fuccefs, offered to fubmit to any terms which Cleomenes
propofed. He acted like a generous victor, declaring that
he merely fought to be acknowledged general of the Greeks,
and that he was ready to deliver up the prifoners without
ranfom, and to reitore the cities he had taken. But being
pt with a diforder, which induced for a time a difability

or fervice, Arctus fuffered jealoufy, envy, and felf-conceit
to triuinph over his virtue and love for his country ; and he,
who in his youth bad expelled the Macedonians out of Pelo-
ponfefus, merely from the love of freedom, now privately
recalled them, fearing that Cleomenes, the moft worthy of
the Spartan kings, fhould be raifed to that dignity which
he fo highly merited. When Cleomenes recovered from his
diforder, he advanced towards Argos, where the Achwans
held theiz affembly ; but when he drew near, Aretus fent
to inform him, that he mult either enter the city alone, or
be cyntent to treat without the place. Cleomenes, in con-
fequence of this treatment, invaded Achza, and took feveral
cities. He foon after furprifed Argos, and advanced him-
felf to greater power than any of his predeceffors-had pof-
feffled; and his city to greater pre-eminence than fhe had
ever held in Greece. Ata fubfequent period, w=, in the
~ Vou. RX. ©

-

‘nidas was killed.

year 222 B.C. he gave battle to Antigonus at Sallafia,
where, from the {uperiority of the Macedonian troops, aud
the treachery of Damoteles, the Lacedemonians were de-
feated with a great flaughter of their mercenary troops, and
an almolt total deftruétion of their own. After this difaftrous
defeat, Cleomenes fled to Egypt, where he put an end to his
life. With him terminated the Herculean race of Spartan
kings, if we except the fhort reign of Agefipolis. After the
fatal battle of Sallafia, Sparta fell into the hands of king
Antigonus, who treated the inhabitants with great kindnefs,
and they for a time behaved very quietly. Lycurgus, the
Spartan king, invaded Meffenia, and defeated the Meffenians.
After he had obliged Philip of Macedon to retire from La-
conia, the ephori, pretending to have received information
that he wanted to make himfelf abfolute, attempted to fur-
prie and murder him; but he withdrew into /E*olia, and
when the iniquity of the ephori was difcovered by the peo-
ple, he was recalled. Machanidas, the fucceffor of Lycurgus,
ejected the ephori, averfe from having any either equal to, or
greater than, himfelf in Sparta. Abroad, he made all Pe'o-
ponnefus tremble, and would probably have fubducd it, if
Philopeemen, the chief of the Achzans, had not oppofed his
defigns. This leader engaged all the cities in that league to
furnifh troops for reducing the power of Machanidas ; an en-
gagement tcok place between the contending parties at
Mantinza, in which the Spartans were defeated, and Macha-
Nabis, a cruel tyrant, fucceeded Macha-
nidas ; and upon his death, by the hand of violence, the
chief of the A&tolians broke into his palace at Sparta, and
rifled all his treafures. The foldiers followed his example,
fo that the Lacedemonians, who had fuffered fo much from
the wanton and favaze tyranny of Nabis, looked upon his
murder as their misfortune ; anda multitude of them affem-
bled, and pnt many of the Etolians to death without mercy.
In the midft of their confufion, Philopcemen arrived, and hav-
ing convinced the Lacedsemonians of the madnefs of their a&t,
engaged them, fince they had fo happily recovered their
freedom, to unite themfelves to the Achzans, B.C. 197.
(See Acuzans.) Inthe year 188 B. C. upon a quarrel
between the Lacedemonians and Achzans, Philopemen
deftroyed the wal’s of Lacedemon, abrogated the laws of
Lycurgus, and compelled the Spartans to adopt thofe of the
Achzans. Upon their preferring a complaint to the fenate
of Rome, Callicrates ordered the walls of their city to be
re-built ; and according to the opinion of Meurfius, which
is the moft probable, the liws of Lycurgus were not reftored
till after the Romans had vanquifhed Perfeus, and Achaia
was joined to their empire. Lacedzmon was placed under
the protetion of the Romans. During the civil wars of the
Roman empire, the Lacedemonians attached themfelves to
the party of Cxfar and Auguttus, to whom they confecrated
temples. Nero, in his expedition into Greece, durit not
enter Sparta, by reafon of the feverity of its laws. Pliny the
elder fpeaks of Lacedemon as a free city under Vefpafian.
Apoltionus Tyaneus, if we may credit Philoftratus, found the
laws of Lycurgus in full vigour in the time of Domitian ;
but it is probable, that this emperor diminifhed the liberty
of the Lacedzmonians, for Pliny the younger, writing under
the reign of Trajan, fays, that there only remained the
fhadow of liberty. From that time no veltige remains of
the inttitutions of Lycurgus; at leaft Meurfius could not
difcoverany. When Chriitiahity became the religion of the
empire, the refidue, if any, of thefe inftitutions mutt have
been abolifhed. Meurtius cites a paffage from Theedoret,
which proves that they were entirely abolifhed by the Ro-
mans before his time, that is, before the 5th century. »
Although, in the preceding articlg, we have ufed the aps
t ¥ ; pellations

LAC

pellations Lacedemonians and Spartans as fynonymous ;
yet when they are dillinguifhed, the Spartans denote the
citizens of Sparta, and the Lacedemonians are the inhabitants
of the province. The number of the former anciently
amounted to 10,000. Inthe time of Xerxes their number
was Scoo ; but by their continued wars they were fo much
reduced, that very few ancient families were found at Sparta.
The new families were defcended from the Helots, or flaves,
who, being firlt rewarded with their liberty, afterwards ac-
quired the title of citizens. Thefe were not cailed Spartans,
but were differently denominated according to the various
privileces they had obtained, and their feveral names
bore fome reference to their former condition. The Lace-
dzmonians, properly fo called, formed a confederation, the
obje& of which was to unite their forces in war, and to main-
tain their rights in time of peace. When the interefts of the
whole {tate were to be difcufled, they fent their deputies to
the general affembly, which was always held at Sparta.
There were fettled the contributions which each city fhould
py, and the number of troops it fhould furnifh, The inha-
bitants of the cities of Laconia did not receive the fame
education with thofe of the capital. Their manners were
more rude, and their courage lefs brilliant ; and hence Sparta
obtained an afcendancy over the other cities. Anc. Univ.
Hitt. vol. v. Rollin’s Anc. Hift. vol. ii. Trav. of Ana-
chartis, vol. iv.

LACEDZMONIUM Marwnor, inthe Natural Hiflory
of the Ancients, the name of a {pecies of marble very hard, and
of a beautiful green colour ; it is a very clofe, even, and
compact marble ; of a fine ftrong and bright green, and
when polifhed, is the brighteft of ail the green marbles, and
is remarkable for this, that the colour is not regularly and
equally diffufed through the whole mafs, but leay_s in it
many {pots and lines very bright and pale, and fome much
deeper than the general colour, though there is no colour but
green in the whole, only in different fhades and degrees, fome
parts approaching to black, and others to whiteuefs.

It was originally found only in Egypt, and there not in
* entire ftrata, but in large pieces wafhed off from the ilrata,
and fometimes left on the furface, fometimes buried in the
earth, and was greatly valued. It has been fince found in
Italy and Germany, and in England. About five miles
from the Hot-Wells at Briltol-there isa {tratum of it,
whence it might be had in confiderable quantities. Its beauty
would foon recommend it, if it were once known; and
though hard to cut, it would make amends for that by the
high polith it would take. :

LACERATED Wovunyps. Sce Wovunns.

LACERNA, a thick coarfe fort of military garment
worn by the ancients.

The lacerna was a kind of cloak of woollen, only ufed by
the men; who wore it over the toga, and, when that was not
on, over the tunica, It was at firit very fhort, but growing
popular in the Roman army, it was foon lengthened.

The lacerna was fcarcely known in Rome till the time of
the civil wars, and the triumvirate ; then indeed it came into
fafhion ; for the foldiers being then frequently in the city,
or at the city gates, the fight became familiar to the citizens,
and they fell into the ufe of it ; infomuch that it became the
common drefs of the knights and fenators, till the time of
Valentinian and Theodofius, when the fenators were prohi-
bited the wearing of it in the city.

The lacerna appears to have been much the fame with the
chlamys and birrus.

Martial mentions lacernz of ten thoufand fefterces price.

LACERTA, LizAnrp, in Afronomy, a conttellation of
the northern hemiphere, including, according to Hevelius,

LAC

ten ftars, and m the Britifh Catalogue fixteen. See Con.
STELLATION.

Lacerta, in Zoology. See Lizanp.

LACERTI, a divifion of the reptiles, comprehended
under the genus of Laceria.

LACERTUS, and Lacerrunus, in Anatomy, names
fometimes applied to the bundles of fibres, of which the
mufcular organs are compofed.

Lacrrrus, in Zoology. See Manis.

Lacerrus, in /chthyography, the lizard-f/b, a name given
by fome writers te a fifh of the cuculus kind, much refem-
bling the common mackarel in fhape and in tafte, and more
ufually called trachurus.

Lacerrus is alfo ufed-for a fifh of the gar-fifh kind, or
acus Oppiani, but larger than the common fpecies, and called
by the Italian fifhermen aguglia imperiale, or the imperial gar-
fifh, and by the fifhermen of England, particularly in Corn-
wall, the girrock, in diltinétion from the cor «aon kind which
they call /kipper. It is thicker in preportion to its length
than the common gar-lifh, and has a fhorter and fharper fnout,
and inftead of teeth, has only its jaws ferrated ikea file. It
is a fearce fifh, but is more firm 1 its flefh than the common
gar-fifh.- See Esox.

LACERUM, in Anatomy, an epithet applied, from
their irregular figures, to two foramina of the fkull; one
in the orbit, the other in the bafis cranii. See Cranium.

Lacenum Polium, among Botaniffs. See Lear.

LACHAS, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the audience of Quito ; 60 miles N. of Quito.

LACHELA, a town of Sweden, in Eait Bothnia; 13
miles $.S.E. of Wafa.

LACHELLO, a town of France, in the department
of the Sefia; nine miles W.S.W. of Vercelli.

LACHEN, a town of Switzerland, in the éanton of
Schweitz, on the S. fide of the lake of Zurich. Near it
are fome mineral fprings, and alfo cryitals and petrifactions ;
eight miles W. of Utznach.

LACHENALIA, in Botany, fo named by profeffor
Jacquin, jun. in honour of Werner de Lachenal, profeffor
of botany and anatomy at Bafil, a diltinguifhed pupil of
Haller and friend of Linneus, eminent for his knowledge of
European plants, and ftill more eltimable for his candour
and liberality. Several of his diflertations occur in the
Ada Helvetica, which throw great light upon the botany of
Switzerland, and were intended as preparatory to a Fora of
that country, difpofed according to the Linnzan fyttem ;
but this work has never yet appeared. Whether its author
be fill living, we have not lately heard. He was born in
1736.—Jacq. fil. in A&. Nov. Helvet. v. 1. 38. t. 2. f. 3.
Marr. in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 314. Schreb. 799. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2.171. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kewe
ed. 2. v. 2. 284. Lamarck. Di&. v. 3. 372. Mlultr. fir.
t. 237. (Phormium ; Julf. 52.)

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. of fix oblong unequal petals,
approximated into the form of atube, united at their bafe ;
the three outer ones fhortelt, and often callous at the tip.
Stam. Filaments fix, eret, awl-fhaped, attached to the bale
of the petals, various in length; anthers ereét, oblong.
Pit. Germen fuperior, nearly ovate; ityle awl-thaped, as
long as the itamens; ftigma fimple, obtufe. Peric. Cap-
fule nearly ovate, with three wings, and three cells. Seeds
feveral, globofe, attached to the central column.

Eff. Ch. Corolla inferior, regular, of fix petals; the
three inner ones longeft. Stamenserect. Capfule fomewhat
ovate, with three wings. Seeds globofe.

Obs. Juffiea and Lamarck, following the younger’ Lin-
neus in his Supplementum, confound this genus with the

5 : Pherininm

LACHENALIA.

Phormium of YForller, or New Zealand flax, the former re-
taining this name, while the latter adopts that given by
Jacquin as above; but thefe genera are no lefs diltinct in
habit than in their effential characters, See Pitorsium.

The fpecies of Lachenalia ave beautiful bulbous plants,
with the habit of a Hyacinth, having all radical oblong
leaves, a limple racemofe flower-{talk, and varioufly-coloured,
more or lefs fpreading or drooping flowers. Willdenow has
24 fpecies ; the 2d edition of F/ort. Ketv. enumerates 7 as
cultivated in that noble colleétion ; but we would prefume
to remove two fpecies from both thefe lifts. L. /rrotina, which
is Hyacinthus ferotinus of Linneus, a native of Spain, figured
in Curt. Mag. t. 859 and t. 1185, is referred by Mr. Ker,
in the lalt-mentioned work, to Sei//a, a meafure to which
we cannot but readily accede ; and 1. viridis may as well, in
our opinion, continue, in Ayacinthus, where Linnzus_ has
placed it ; at lealt it cannot well be made to agree with La-
chenalia ; fee Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 60. The remaining f{pecies
are all natives of the Cape of Good Hope, and, as far as
we know, of no other part of the world. Such as we have in
gardens are cultivated in the green-houfe, being treated like
other Cape bulbs, and flowering chiefly in the early {pring,
afew of them in autumn. Good examples of this genus
are,

L. orchioides. Orchis-like Lachemalia. Jacq. [c. Rar.
t. 390. Curt. Mag. t. 854. 1269.—Flowers beli-fhaped,
feflile. Inner petals obtufe, expanding. Style the length
of the ftamens. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, with a crenate
cartilaginous edge.—This is the o’deit inhabitant ot the
Englifh gardens among the whole genus, having been culti-
vated by Miller in #752. It appears to be a very variable
f{pecies, at leall if more than one be not confounded under
this name. The raves are more or lefs fpeckled, Lke the
flalk. Flowers numerous, varying with pale yellow or pur-
ple mingling into fhades of brown.

L. contaminata. Mixed-coloured Lachenalia. Curt. Mag.
t. rg01. (L. hyacinthoides ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 352. Willd.
n. 4. L. orchioides ; Jacq. Hort. Vind. v. 2. 83. t. 178.) —
Flowers bell-thaped, fomewhat cylindrical, on fhort ttalks,
erect. Inner petals lanceolate, obtufe, erect. Leaves
linear-awl-fhaped, channelled, lax, longer than the {talk.—
This has long been at Kew, having been fent from the Cape,
by Mr. Maffon, in 1774. he long taper-pointed aves,
deeply-fpotted fall, and fpeckled floceers, in which white,
brownifh purple, and tints of green, contend for the fupe-
tiority, but the two former genera'ly prevail, characterife this
{pecies. — Neariy akin to it is L. anguflifolia, Jacq. Ie. Rar.
t. 381. Curt. Mag. t.735. Redout. Liliac. t. 102; chiefly
dittinguithed, according to Mr. Ker, by the broader propor-
tion and fpreading polture of the ner petals. The kaves
alfo are narrower, but the whole habit and colours of the
plant are very fimilar.

L.. orthopetala. Straight-petalled Lachenalia. Jacq. Coll.
vy. 3. 240. le. Rar. t. 384. — Flowers cylindrical, flightly fun-
nel-{haped, on thort {talks, erect. Petals all lanceolate, tlraight.
Bracteas cup-fhaped. Leaves linear-awl-thaped, channelled,
Jax, longer than the ftalk.—Of this we have feen no {peci-
men, but Jacquin’s figure proves it abundantly diftinct from
the contaminata, with which, as Mr. Ker obferves, it has
been confounded by Willdenow and in the Hortus Keawen/is.
The petals are white, with a green fpot at the back, near
the point of each. The above charaéter exprefles their form
and potition.

L. puftulata. Biikered Lachenalia. Jacq. Coil. v. 3. 244.
v. 4. 220. t. 2. f. 5+ Ic. Rar. t. 386. Curt. Mag. t. 817.—
Flowers bell-(haped, fomewhat cylindrical, on very fhort
flalks. Inner petals dilated and obtufe. Stalk triangular,

reclining. Leaves two, lanceolate, bliftered.—_<The Jeaves
are remarkable for their bhitered upper furface. ‘Whe
flowers are pallid and unornamenta! ; their inner petals, at
firlt cream-coloured and {preading, become twilted together
and yellowifh in decay.

L. purpuro-cerulea. Purple-blue Lachenalia.x—Jacq. Ic.
Rar. t. 358. Curt. Mag. t. 745. Andr. Repof. t. 251.—
Flowers beil-Maped, (lalked. Inner petals obtufe, revolute.
Stamens prominent. Stalk angular above. Leaves two,
lanceolate, bliftered.—Ore of the more handfome kinds,
confpicuous for its copious flowers, which are variegated
with blue and purple, and fnmell like hawthorn. Their co-
lours and expanded form give them a refemblance to fome
{pecies of Scilla. The leaves are fhort and broadifh, occa-
fionally deititute of bliiters.

L. danceefolia. Spotted copperas-leaved Lechenalia.—
Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 402. Curt. Mag. t. 643. Redout. Liliac.
t. §9.—Flowers fomewhat bell-fhaped, {preading, on {talks
thrice their own length. Petals linear, blunt, nearly
equal. Leaves numerous, ovate, pointed.—Chiefly re-
markable for its numerous, broad, taper-pginted leaves,
{preadine in the form of a ftar, of a glaucous hue, more
or lefs {peckled witha darker green. ‘ihe flowers are
numerous, pendulous, variegated with dull purple and
green.

i,. tricclor. Broad-leaved three-coloured (Lachenalia.—
Murray in Linn. Syit. Ved. ed. ra. 314. Redout. Liliac.
t. 2. Curt. Mag.t. 82. (L.luteola; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 395-
Phormium aloides; Linn. Suppl. 205.)

@. luteola; Curt. Mag.t.tozo. (L. flava; Andr. Re-
pof.t. 456.)

y- qaadricolor ; (1, quadrico’or ; Curt. Mag. t. 568 and
1097. «Jacq, Te. Rar. t. 390. Andr. Repef. t.. 148

i. tricolor; Jacq. Ic, Rar. t.61. L. pendulag; Willd.
Sp. Pl. v 2. 181.)

Flowers cylindtical, pendulous, flalked. Inner petals
twice the length of the outer, dilated, flightly {pteading,
fomewhat emarginate. BraCteas taper-pointed. Leaves two,
lanceolate.—This is ore of the moft common and generally
cultivated {pecies. We are fo well fatisfied of the truth of
Mr. Ker’s remark, that the guadricolor of the above authors,
referred by fome to the pendula, is mott akin to tricolor, that
we cannot conlider it otherwife than as a variety, certainly
not more {pecitically diftinct than the Jufeola. We conceive
therefore that either thet three plants mult conftitute one {pe-
cies, or they ought all to be conlidered as alike ditliné&.
Cultivation by feed muit in time decide this queftion. The
leaves in all of them are in pairs, and recurved ; thofe of the
firtt are broad and {potted ; the others longer and narrower,
generally without fpots. Spike in all fomewhat comofe,
many of the uppermoft flowers being abortive, and their
pointed bracteas crowded into a tuft. The outer pefals of
all are tipped with green; thofe of the firitand third varie-
ties more or lefs tinged with red, thofe of the fecond plain
yellow. The inner petals of the firft are variegated with
green and pale yellow; thofe of the fecond are of a plain
full yellow, being moreover rather broader and more ex-
panded ; thofe of the third are lemon-coloured,- elegantly
tipped with deep crimfon or purple.

L. rubida. Wotted-flowered Lachenalia.
Rar. t. 398. Curt. Mag. t. gos. .

f. tigrina ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 399.

y: punétata ; ibid. t. 397.

Flowers cylindrical, drooping, on fhort flalks. Inner
petals one-fourth longer than the outer, {patulate, fomewhat
unequal, obtufe. Bratteas fearcely pointed. Leaves two,
ellipzic-oblong. —This is faid to be rather rare-in our collec:

x2 tiens,

Jacq. Ic.

LAC

tions. The /eaves and falé are fpeckled with purple, and the
flowers dotted with red, in all the three varieties, which have
no pretentions to be reckoned fpecies. They differ only in
luxuriance, ¢igrina being the ftrongeft plant, pundata the
weakeft and molt flender.

L. pendula. Four-coloured Pendulous Lachenalia.—
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 1. 461. Jacq. Coll. v. 3. 239.
Iz. Rar. t. goo. Curt. Mag. t. 590. Andr. Repol.t. 41.
Redout. Liliac. t. 52.

Flowers cylindrical, pendulous, on very fhort ftalks.
Inner petals nearly one-fourth lenger than the outer, wedge-
thaped, ebtufe. Bracteas fearcely pointed. Leaves two,
ova’o-lanceolate.-—One of the moft commonly cultivated and
mo't beautiful {pecies, flowering in the green-houfe or frame
in February. The leaves are broad. J’ owers numerous,
drooping and fomewhat curved, of a fine red at their bafe,
their fegments tipped with various degrees of purple and
green, the middle part yellsw. The main /fa/t 1s Rout and
ftraight, {peckled ; the partial ones very fhort.-—Willdenow
makes the guadricolor a variety of his, in which lie is inad-
vertently copied by the editors of the fecond edition of Hort.
Kew. ; an error cerrected by Mr. Ker in Curt, Mag.
v. 26. p. 1020. See alfo v. 16. p. 588, of the fame
work.

Lacnenatia, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the bul-
bous-rooted kinds, of which the fpecies moitly cu tivated
are the {potted-leaved lachenalia, L. orchioides, the pale-flow-
ered lachenalia, L. pallida, the three-coloured lachenalia,
L. tricolor.

The third fort varies with yellow, faffron-coloured, blood-
red purple at the tip, and greenifh-yellow corollas ; alfo in
the proportion between the inner and outer petals ; and in
the breadth of the leaves.

Method of Culture.—A\\ thefe plants may be increafed by
offsets from the bulbs, and by feeds, when they are produced
in perfe€tion.

- The offsets fhould be planted out in pots of light freth
earth, when the bulbsare in a ftate of inactivity of growth,
placing them in a warm border to be covered with hand-
glaffes, or, what is better, in a dry ftove or green-houfe.

‘Thefe plants bear forcing tolerably, and their flowering
js much promoted by being preferyed in the warmth of the
flove.

They all afford variety among colle&tions of potted bul-
bous-rooted flowering plants.

LACHES, from the French /a/cher, i. e. laxare, or lafthe,
ignavus, in our Laws, fignifies flacknels or negligence ; as
it appears in Littleton, where laches of entry 1s a neglect in
the heir to enter, and probably it may be ar old Engiith
word; for when we fay there is laches of entry, it is the
fame as if it were faid, there is lack of entry ; and in this figni-
fication it is ufed. (Litt. 136.) No laches fhail be adjudged
in the heir within the age ; and regularly laches fhall not bar
either infants or femes covert for not entry or claim to avcid
defcents ; but laches fhall be accounted in them, for non per-
formance of a condition amexed to the ftate of the land.
(Co. Litt. 146.) The law alfo determines, that in the king
there can be no negligence, or laches; and therefore no de-
lay will bar his right. Co. Litt. go,

LACHESIS, in Zoology. See Coruper.

LACHEZE, in Geography. See La Cialse.

LACHISH, in Scripture Geography, a town of Paleftine,
in tle trine of Dan, S.W. of that of Judah, on the fron-
tiers of this tribe, to which Senacherib laid fiege, when he
fent his haughty mefluge to Hezekiah. [tt wasa {mall town,

oA Cc
or village, about 7 miles S. from Eleutheropolis, in the tine
of Lufebius and Jerom. Joth. x. 23. xv. 39. 2 Kings,
Xviii. 17. xix. 8. 2 Chron. xxxii. 9.

LACHN JA, in Botany, from Axx, foft hair or down,
alluding to the fine hairy clothing of the corolla. The name
feems to have been given by the e’'der Van Royen.—Linn.
Gen. 194. Schreb. 261. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 434.
Mart. Mill. Dié&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 41g.
Jul. 77. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 292. Clafs and order,
Ofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Veprecule, Linn. Thyme-
lee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Periarth inferior, of one leaf, coloured,
permanent ; tube long and flender ; limb in four deep unequal
feyments, the uppermoft®f which is much the fmalleft and
erc&t, the other three reflexed, the middle one largeft. Cor.
none. S/am. Filaments eight, briltl:-fhaped, ercét, inferted
into the upper part of the tube, and nearly as long as the
limb; alittle unequal; anthers fimple, roundifh. Pi/?. Ger-
men fuperior, ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the
tube, attached laterally to the germen; ftigma capitate,
hifpid. Peric. none, except the permanent bafe of the
calyx. Seed fohtary, coated, ovate, with an oblique point.

Eff. Ch. Calyx tubular, coloured. with a four-cleft un-
equal limb. Stamens inferted into the mouth of the tube,
prominent. Seed one, coated.

Obf. This genus differs from Paflrina in having an irre-
gular flower only. We follow Linnzus ta his Gen. P/. as to
the denomination of the parts of the flower, though in his
Syft. Veg. he fubfequently termed corolla what he had before
called calyx; but the analogy of Daphne compared with
Gnidia, ({ee thofe articles), confirms his original phrafeo-
logy.

1. L. eriocephala. Woolly-headed Lachneas Linn.
Sp. Pl. 514. Andr, Repof. t. 104. Curt. Mag. t. 1295.
(Pafferina eriocephala and cephalophora ; Thunb. Prod. 75.)
— Leaves oppolite, imbricated in four rows, pointlefs,
keeled underneath. Flowers woolly ; fegments acute.—
Native cf the Cape of Good Hepe, like all the other fpe-
cies. This isfaid in the Hortus Keaenfis to have been in-
troduced into England ia 1793, by Meflrs. Lee and Ken-

nedy. It is a green-houfe {hrub, flowering al fummer
long. The fhort flender fmooth /eaves, ftanding in four
rows, refemble thofe of fome kinds of heath. The flocurs

are large and white, in terminal folitary heads, fubtended by
braéteas broader than the leaves, of an elliptical figure, and
tinged with red. The italk and bafe of each flower, as
well as the outfide of its limb, are all very woolly. Nothing
is recorded refpeGting the fcent of thefe flowers, nor have
we had an opportunity of examining them fufficiently to.
afcertain this point ; but we fhould expect them, from ana-
logy, to be fragrant at fome time of the day ornight. An
authentic fpecimen fhews this to be Paffrina cephalophora
of Thunberg, and we prefume it mult be his eriocephala.

2. L. purpurea. Purple-flowered Lachneza. Andr. Re~
pof. t. 293. - Leaves oppolite, imbricated, in four rows, ob-
tufe, keeled underneath. Segments of the calyx {mooth,.
This elegant fpecies, dillinguithed by its larger fize, and
rofe-coloured or light purple fowers, whofe outhide is {mooth,
and naked, except a {hort pubefcence on the tube, was ga-
thered at the Cape by Mr. Jaines Niven, an indefatigable col-
lector fent out by Geo. Hibbert, efq. M. P. It flowers.
in June and July, and is sheltered in the green-houfe ia,
winter, where it is liable to pevifh frcm damps. ‘The tube
of each flower is white, with a woolly tuft at its bafe, like
the former. The dradeas are broad and almoll round.

3: L. glauca. Glaucous-leaved Lachnaa. Salifb. Parad,

; Leaves

ee

LAC

t. tog. (L. buxifolia; Lamarck. Di&. v. 3. 373. Andr.
Repof. t. 524. Gnidia filamentofa; Linn. Suppl. 224.)
Leaves {cattered, elliptical, glaucous. Segments of the
calyx downy on both fides. — This beautiful {pecies was com-
municated to Linnxus by his friend Beck. Mr Niven fent
it to Mr. Hihbert about the year 1800. Its broad ellipti-
cal glaucous faves at once diitinguith it. he flowers are
white, fragrant, exceflively copious in each round terminal
head, their fezments downy on both fidés, pointed, and not
very unequal. Minute glands alternate with the ftamens,
are found in the orilice of the tube, as in Gnidia, but

fmaller.

Some excellent remarks are given by Mr. Salifbury, in his
Paradifus, in favour of the latter pinion of Linnzus con-

cerning the calyx of this genus, which he therefore terms

corolla, but the point feenis to us {till doubtful, at leaft, and
we therefore adhere to what we have always maintained.

“4. LL. conglamerata. Crowded Lachnea, Linn. Sp.
Pl. 514. (Pailerina glomerata; Thunb. Prodr. 75.)—
Leaves oppolite, imbricated in four rows, abrupt. Fiowers-
oppolite, crowded about the ends of the branches. Brac-
teas elliptical, three rbbed. —Gathered by Sparmann and
Thunberg at the Cape, but as yet unknown to our culti-
vators. It is.a {mall branching /brud, very clofely refembling
Pafferina filiformis, but the leaves are fhorter, and much more
remarkably abrupt or retufe, nor are they at all incurved.
The upper ones infenfibly become dra@eas, being dilated, el-
liptical, concave, with three, fometimes five, itrong project-
ing ribs; their inner fide js clothed with denfe prominent
wool. Thefe bra€teas continue, in three or four oppofite
pairs, to the end of each little branch, every one of them
beiig accompanied by an axillary, folitary, {mall flower,
whofe tube, longer than the braétea, is woolly, its limb
nearly or quite {mooth and naked. The colour of the
flowers is apparently purplith ; their fegmencs are fufficiently
unequal to make the plant a Lachnea, though they and every
other part are fo very like Paffrina filiforinis, in whole feg-
ments likewife we think we perceive an inequality, that we
are certain thefe two plants oaght to be piaced in one genus.
They differ, however, fpecifically in their braéeas, which in
P. fliformis are ovate, pointed, ttrongly keeled, with nu-
merous f{imaller lateral ribs. We recommend this lat to the
notice of bstanifts who publifh figures of plants. Of
L. conglomerate we can find no reprefentation in books. The

“fynonyms quoted by Linnzus and copied by Wilidenow,

belong to a very diffimilar fh-ub, from which neverthelefs
the fpecific character feems to be taken, and which appears
to be the following.

_ 5. L. phyliccides. Phylica-leaved Lachnea. Lamarck.
Dict. v. 3. 374. (Sanamunde tertiz Clutii affinis, foliis poli,
capitis bone foci; Breyn. Cent. 18. t. 7?2)—* Leaves
linear-awifhaped, fmooth, loofely imbricated. Heads {mall,
cluftered, white and downy.”? Lamarck deferibes this. as
& very, clofely refembling a Phylica, in which genus he had
placed it, till an examination of the flowers let him right.
Theie he found guadrifid and o€tandrous, with fo flight an
inequality in the limb, that he doubts whether that cha-
racter be fufficient to keeo the plant diftin@ from Paferina.
Trisa branching-/hrub, the branches itraight, flender, leafy,
{mooth, except the youngelt fhoots. Leaves. numerous.
feffile, linear-awlfhaped, nearly triangular, quite {mooth,:
ftraight, loofely imbricated, fomewhat refembling Dio/ina
rubra. The flowers are collected, from five to.eiyht toge-
ther, into cottony white heads, the ze of a pea, terminating
the numerous, very fhort, crowded little branches, which
form a fort of corymb at the end of the principal ones,

LA te

The calyx is white, downy ; its tube a line and half long,
its limb in four oval, concave, unequal fegments, nearly as
long as the tube.” The author received it dried from M.
Thouin, as anative of the Cape. He objects to the fy-
nonym of Breynius, which we have, with great doubts,
transferred hither from the preceding f{pecies. To this
plate, in his own copy, Linneus has written the name of
Phylica imberbis, a plant adopted in his Aantiffa, p. 209.
from Bergius, without having feen a fpecimen himfelf; and
he there copies this very fynonym of Breynius, without
recollecting that he had cited it already as Lachnea conglo-
merata. Lamarck thinks it belongs to Phylica flipularis.
The plant of Bergius is certainly, by his defcription, a
Phylica, and if that of Breynius be the fame, it mult be
erafed from Lachnea. We have one more error to correét
concerning L. conglomerata, which is, that Thunberg thinks
it the fame with Paferina ericoides, though nothing can be
more diftiné than the latter in the Linneun herbarium, with
the ovate tube and {mall regular limb of its flower, fo ex-
actly refembling fome fpecies of Erica. This Paffrina is,
therefore, it feems, erroneoufly omitted in Thunberg’s Pro-
dromus. —The author lait named, regardlefs of the irregu-
larity of the flower, unites Lachnea altogether with Paffe-
rina, a meafure we are very unwilling to adopt. It is an
opinion of the ingenious Correa de Serra, that, in every na-
tural order, there are Gne or more genera, differing from the
reit in the regularity or irregularity of the fiower. Lachnea
then is the only genus of the Thymeleez, or Mezereon tribe,
with an unequal or irregular flower. S.

LACHNIS, in Natural Hiffory, the name which fome
have given to a genus of foffils, attributed to the clafs of the

Jbraria ; the charaéters of which are, that they are fibrofe

bodies, not elaitic, and compo‘ed of fhort and abrupt fibres,
or filaments. s

The word is derived from the Greek az »r, a hair or fhort
capillament or fibre.

The bodies of this genus have been divided into thofe
which are compofed of larger and broader, and thofe which
are compofed of fmaller and narrower filaments. Hill's.
Fofils. See Finrarre.

LACHNOSPERMOUM, in Botany; a genus fo called by
profeflur Willdenow, from axxo, qwool, and sxzeux, feed 3:
indeed that author diitinguifhes this plant from Stachelinay.
on account of the woollinefs which invelts-its feed —Willd.
Sp. Pi. v. 3. 1787. (Staehelina-fpecies ; Thunb, Prod. 143.).
Clafs and order, Syngenefia. Polygamia-/Equalis.. Nat. Ord.
Compofile Difcoidee, Liun. Cinarocephale, Juff.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle hairy. Seeds invetted’ with hairs..
Calyx cylindrical, imbricated.

1. L. ericifolium, Willd. (Stachelina fafciculata ;, Thunb. .
Prod. 143.)—A native of: the Cape of Good Hope.—The
branches of this /brud are divaricated; rigid, and downy.
Leaves. very {mall, about haif.a line in length, fafciculated,
round, obtufe, inveited with:down.. Flowers folitary, at the
tops of the little branches, on ‘hort footitalks, fometimes in
pairs, the fize of Stuehelina fruticofa.. Galyx. cylindrical, ,
downy ; fcales ovate, acute, witlta naked, elongated, fpread--
ing point. Séeds. without a proper crown,. cnfolded with
hairs. Receptacle hairy, the hairs as long as the florets.

LACHOW, in Geography, » town. of Poland, in Vol-
hyma ; 28 miles N.W. of Conttantinow.

“LACHOWICZE, a town of Lithuania, inthe palati-.
nate cf Brzefc ;. 28 miles S.W. of. Pinfk.

LACHRYMA Jort, in Botany See Corx,

LACHRYM£ Batavicm. See Ruprr1’s Drops.-

LACHRYMAL. See Lacrymatis..

% LacuryMau-

LAC

LacuryMAL Dués, Punda, and Sac, Difeafe of. See
Errenona, and Fistuca Lachrymalis.

Lacurymarn Fifvla. See Fisruua Lachrymalis.

Lacunymat Gland, Difcafe of. The lachrymal gland,
lodged in the foffula of the anterior and external part of the
root of the orbit, and enveloped in the fat which furrounds
the globe of the eye, is not frequently met with in a {late
of difeafe. Doubtlefs, it is often involved in the general
inflammation, which.affe&s all the contents of the orbit in
cafes of ophthalmy ; but inftances of this individual gland
fuffering inflammation by itfelf, muft be regarded as ex-
tremely uncommon.

The lachrymal gland, however, is fubject to feirrhous
induration, which is more frequently noticed in diffections,
than practice. We allude to cafes, in which the gland is
the only part thus difeafed ; for it is well known by all
experienced furgeons, that when the eye-ball is affeéted with
carcinoma, the lachrymal gland is very liable to participate
in the dillemper, and for the fake of fecurity, ought gene-
rally to be extirpated together with the eye.

A remarkable cafe is related by M. Gueérin, where he
extirpated a fcirrhous lachrymal gland, which was fo much
enlarged, that it covered the whole of the eye-ball. The
latter part, indeed, was entirely concealed, and might have
been fuppofed to be confounded with the fwelling, had not
circumitances exilted, which tended to fhew, that the organ
in queltion was found and fituated under the tumour. M.
Guerin fuccefsfully detached the {welling from the eye and
eye-lids without injuring the rectus externus mufcle.

If this can be received as really and unqueftionably an
example of a fcirrhous lachrymal gland being found difeafed
quite alone, and extirpated by itfelf, it is a cafe which,
perhaps, has not its fellow in the records of furgery. Pof-
tibly, the {welling might be nothing more than an encytted
tumour.

LACHRYMATORIES, in Antiquity, {mall glafs or
earthen phials, with a long neck, found in the fepulchres of
the ancients. Many antiquaries have fuppofed that thefe
veifels ferved to colleét the tears of the weeping friends that
furvived, or of perfons hired for that purpofe. This belief
was grounded on the appearance of the opening of thofe
phials, which is generally furnifhed with a round concave
part well adapted for embracing the convexity of the eye-
ball, On fome lachrymatories are even found impreffions
ot an eye, and fometimes of a pair of eyes. But here, as
in many other cafes, the eye appears to be merely emble-
matical. It may alfo be faid that the opinion of tears being
preferved in thofe veffels is unfupported by any ancient cuf-
tom we are acquainted with, or by any well interpreted
paflage in ancient authors. This opinion was firft broached
by Chiflet ; it foon {pread over Europe, and was, in fpite of
its improbability, adopted and fupported by Kirchmann,
Kipping, and many other antiquaries. At lait it was com-
bated by Schoepflin and Pactaudi; fo that at prefent it
appears to be agreed on all fides that the lachrymatories did
never contain any thing but balms deitined to moiften the
funeral pile or the afhes of the dead, or elfe the blood of mar-
tyrs- ‘There is in the Capitol a bas relief which is much in
favour of this idea: on this marble, which reprefents the
funeral rites at the death of Meleager, a woman approaches
the pile, holding in one hand a large bellied veflel, and in
the other a long flender phial with elongated neck and bot-
tom, and in every refpect fimilar to feveral earthen lachry-
matories preferved in collections. This woman is in the act
of pouring out of the large into the {mall veffel what may
be fuppoted to be balms or odoriferous oil for the purpote
of perfuming the funeral pile of Meleager. If we may

LAC

believe Dumolinet, there have {mall fpoons been found in
lachrynratories, which may have ferved for diftributing into
feveral {mall phiais the contents of a veflel of greater di-
menfions. Mullin Dict.

LACHSA, denominated alfo Hadsjar, and fometimes
Bahhrein, in Geography, a province in Arabia, bounded to-
wards the E. by the Perfian gulf, towards the S. by Oman,
towards the W. by the province of Nedsjed, and towards
the N. by the territories of the wandering Arabs in the
vicinity of Baflora. ‘Uhis province affords no great variety
of productions. Its afles and camels are elteemed to be of
an excellent breed; and of the latter fome thoufands are
annually fold into Syria. In the interior parts the inhu-
bitants fubfift very much upon dates. Upon the coaits
pearl-fifhing is purfued with advantage ; and there is a con-
fiderable trade in foreign commodities. The inhabitants of
Lachfa are very much divided with regard to religion.
Thofe who live in the towns are Shiites ; but the peafants
are, like the Bedouins, Sunnites. Here are alfo fome Jews,
and many Sabzans, or Chriftians of St. John.

Lachfa was once a province of the empire ; but the
Arabs have kong fince fhaken off the Ottoman yoke. Many
Turks, defcended from the ancient Pachas, {till remain in
the province, and poflefs conliderable eftates, but have no
fhare in the government. Att prefent the fovereignty of this
province belongs to the fchiech of the Arabian tribe of
Beni Khaled, which is one of the mott powerful tribes in
Arabia. The greater part of Lachfa is inhabited by Be-
douins, and other petty tribes; but they all acknowledge
the dominion of the fchiech of Geni Khaled. The cities in
the interior parts of this province are little known. Niebuhr.
—Alfo, a town of Arabia, capital of this province, where
the {chiech refides, fitwated on the river Aftan, near the
Perfian gulf. N. lat. 26 56'. E. long. 48 34’.

LACHWA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Brzefe ; 50 miles E. of Pinfk.

LACING, in Ship Building, the name of one of the
pieces compofing the knee of the head, which is continued
up to the top of the hair-bracket, and to which the figure
and the ends of the head-rails are fecured.

LACINIATED Lear, in Botany. See Lear.

LACINIUM Promonrorium, 1 Ancient Gzography,
Capo delle Colone, a promontory of Italy, at the ealtern
part of Brutium, and bounding on the fouth the gulf of
Tarentum. This cape was much celebrated on account of
atemple of the Lucinian Juno, which was an object of great
veneration, and which received many rich offerings from
various parts. Authors report that here miglit be feen a
large column of maflive gold. The Romans report, that
Hannibal, when he was forced to quit Italy by an order
of the fenate of Carthage, aflembled in this place all his
Italian allies, and maflacred all who would not accompany
him into Africa.

LACIPPO, or Lacirrvs, a town of Spain, in Beetica.

LACIS, in Botany, fo named by Schreber, and derived
from AxuZey to tear, or lacerate, becaufe the herbage of this
genus exhibits a fingularly jagged or lacerated appearance.
Schreb. 366. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1225. Mart.’ Mill.
Did. v. 3. (Mourera; Aubl. Guian. v. 1.582. Juff. gar,
Lamarck Illuttr. t..480.)—Clafs and order, Polyandria Di-
gynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain. :

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth none. Cor. none. Stam. Fila-
ments numerous, about 40, capillary, winged on each tide
at the lower part, inferted into the receptacle which 1s fur-
rounded by 12 {pines ; anthers oblong, cloven at the bafe,
acute, incumbent. Pi/?, Germen fuperior, oblong, angularly
ftriated ; ftyles two, incurved ; itigmas obtufe. Peric. +.
ule

LAC

fule ovate, with eight furrows, of one cell and two valves.
Seeds numerous, very fmall, affixed to an ovate, unconnected
receptacle.

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla none.
cell, two valves and many feeds.

r. L. fluviatilis. Willd. (Mourera fluviatilis; Aub.
Guian. t. 233.) A native of rivers in Guiana, flowering
and bearing fruitin November, Its Caribean name is MWou-
rerou.—Root creeping. Stems herbaceous, fimple, rough.
Leaves-alternate, divided into numerous, repeatedly jagged,
lobes, dark green, curled and veined at the margin, rough,
with minute points. F/owers in {pikes, terminal, each one,
before expantion, inve‘ted with three fmall deciduous leaves.
Filaments violet-coloured ; anthers yellow.

We know not how Willdenow came to defcribe the leaves
as fmooth, for in Aublet’s own fpecimens we find them ex-
tremely rough with minute points.

LACISTEMA, fo denominated by Dr. Swartz, from
“heomaz, a cleft, or fiffure, and cruz, a flamen, alluding to the
divifion in the filament. Swartz. Prodr. 1. FJ. Ind. Occ.
v. 2.1091. Schreb. 783. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.27. Mart.
Mill. Diét. v. 3.—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Diandria.
Nat. Ord. Amintacee, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. acommon Catkin, cylindrical, imbricated
on all fides; feales fingle-flowered, ovate; concave, with two
fmaller, linear, lateral, internal fcales under the corolla.
Cor. of one petal, in four deep, nearly equal, lanceolate,
acute, afcending fegments, fhorter than the internal {cales,
without any tube. Nectary of one orbicular, concave, en-
tire, central leaf, Jefs than the petal. Stam. Filament foli-
tary, from the centre of the nectary near the germen, erect,
cloven in the upper part and incurved over the piftil ; anthers
folitary on each branch of the filament, minute, roundifh.
Pi. Germen fuperior, globofe ; ityles two, very fhort, re-
curved; ftigmas fimple. Peris. Berry ftalked, obovate, of

Capfule of one

one cell. Seed folitary, oblong.
1. L. myricoides. Swartz. Prodr. 12. Fl. Ind. Occ.
v. 2. 1093. Ic. Plant. 5. t. 1. (Piper aggregatum;

Berg. in Act. Helvet. v. 7. 131. t. 10.)—Received by Ber-
gius from Surinam. Swartz found it in bufhy parts of
mountains, on the weilern fide of Jamaica, but fparingly,
flowering in fpring, and ripening fruit in fummer. This is
a fhrub, or {mall tree, with a fmooth bark. The principal
branches are round, lax, and fmooth, with a few alternate
' zig-zag fubdivifions. Leaves alternate, ftalked, two or three
inches long, clliptical, pointed, entire, very {mooth, brownith-
green, with one rib and feveral tran{verfe veins. Svipulas
none. Catkins axillary, feveral together, feflile, loofely
{preading, a little curved, about half an inch long, whitifh,
many-flowered, hairy at the bafe. The flowers are ex-
tremely minute; the cors/la white. Berry black and foft,
the fize of a red currant, with a f{weetifh infipid tafle.
There is fome difficulty in defcribing the parts of the flower,
efpeciaily the inner feales, which Swartz incautioufly named
braceas, though fituated within each proper feale of the cat-
kin. Nemato/permum of Richard in the Ades de la Societé
d’ Hilt. Nat. de Paris, v. 1. 10g, is juitly indicated as nearly
allied in defcription to this plant, except that it is faid to
have three ftigmas (or rather ftyles), and a capfule with
three feeds, fufpended from its valves by threads. We pre-
fume therefore they cannot be the fame genus. See Nema-
TOSPERMDM.

LACK, in Geography, atownfhip of America, in Mifflin
county, Pennfylvania, containing 1071 inhabitants.

Lack he 4 See Ruper. Y

LACKAH, in Geography, a {mall river of Ireland, in the
county of Donegal, which flows into Sheephaven.

LAC

LACKANWADDY, a town of Hindooflan, in the
cirear of Aurungabad; 45 miles E. of Jaffierabad.

LACKAR, an ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, about 20
miles long and fix broad. S. lat. 8° 184 EE. long. 128%
14’. :

LACKARAGO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of
Kaffon. %

LACKARYI, a town of Perfia, in the provineo of Irak 5
129 miles W.N.W. of If{pahan. ‘

LACKER. See Lacquer.

LACKERGAUT, in Geography, a town of Thibet ;
45 miles S. of Deuprag.

LACKI, a town of Hindooltan, in Bengal; 56 miles
N of Dacca.

4\CKIPOLE, a town of Bengal; 16 miles N.E. of
Calcutta.

LACKRICOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in the cir-
car of Cicacole; 24 miles S.W. of Vizianagram.—Alfo, a
town of Hindooitan, in Coimbetore; 13 miles S.W. of
Coimbetore.

LACKRITAPILLA, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Cuddapa; 20 miles S.W. of Cuddapa.

-LACMUS. See Litmus.

LACOBENA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
fituated between the mountains N. of Comagene, ona {mall
river, which ran into the Euphrates, S.E. of this town.

LACOBRIGA, a town of Spain, upon the Piforaca,
S. of Juliobriga and N.E, of Pallantia, belonging to the
Vaccei.

LACOCK’s Bay, in Geography, a bay on the N.E.
coatt of Barbadoes ; one mile N.W. of Cuckold’s Point.

LACONCAVAN, a town of Upper Siam,. on the Me-
con; So miles S. of Porcelon.

LACONDY Istks, two {mall iflands among the Lacca-
dives, about three miles apart. N. lat. 10’ 33’. E. long.

E® 40!,

LACONIA, in Ancient Geography, a country afterwards
ealled Sparta and Lacedemon, was fituated on the S.E.
point of Peloponnefus, and bounded en the N. by A rgos
and Arcadia, on the W. by Meffenia, onthe E. by the bay
of Argos, and by the Mediterranean on the S. On the
W. were the mountains named Taygetus, from fome of the
fummits of which, which are faid to have rifen above the
clouds, the eye might furvey the whole of Peloponnefus.
The fides of thefe mountains were every where covered with
woods, which were the afylum of a great number of goats,
bears, wild boars, and ftags. The extent of Laconia from
E. to W. where it reached fartheft was r° 45’, but it became
narrower towards the north, and its extent from N. to S.
was about 50 miles. As the fouth part of this kingdom
was encompaffed by the fea, and the eaft and north-ealt part
by the Argolic bay, it hada great number of promontories,,
the chief of which were thofe of Melea and Tanara, now
capo Malio and capo Matapan. Thefe two being fituated
on the Mediterranean form the large Laconian gulf, which
lies between them, and is now called the Golto di Colochina,
into which the famed river Eurotas, better known by the
name of Batilipotamo, or Royal river, difcharged its waters
with an eafy and gentle courle. The fea-coaits of Laconia
were furnifhed with a confiderable number of fea-ports, towns,,
and commodious harbours, of which the largeft and moft
convenient were thofe of Trinaffus and Acria, fituated one
on each fide the mouth of the Eurotas, and Gythium, at a
{mall diftance from Trinaffus ; which laft is faid to have been:
built by Apollo and Hercules; but the moft noted was
Epidaurus, now Malvefia, feated on the gulf of Argos, now
Golfo di Napoli, a well-built town, famous for its excellent

wine

LAC

wine ealled Malvefy, or Malmefy, which was produced
from grapes that grew round it.” There were about 12 more
fea-port towns along the Laconian coalls; and they were
rendered particularly famous on account of a fhell fith
caught in the neighbourhood, which yielded a purple dye,
inferior to none but that which was brought from the Red
fea. Inland towns likewife abounded in this kingdom, the
molt configerable of which was the nfetropolis Sparta, which
fee.,, Other cities of note were Amycle, Helve, Thulana,
and Leuctrum. The mountains of Laconia were numerous.
Its mo{t confiderable rivers, befides the Eurotas, were the
Smenus, the Thiafus, and the Scyras. The foil was very
rich, efpecially in the low and flat grounds, and being well
watered, it was excellent for palture ; but the number of its
mountains and hills prevented its being fo well tilled, as it
might otherwife have been. It was much berter fituated for
trade and navigation, by having the fea round above half
the kingdom, and fo many good havens about it. How
well the inhabitants improved thefe advantages, how power-
ful they became, what fleets they maintained, and braye ex-
perienced admirals they bred, may be feen in their hiltory.
We fhall here only obferve, that the Lacedemonians were a
courageous people, hardy, and inured to war both by fea
and land, averfe from {loth and luxury, jealous of their ho-
nour and liberty, as well as the power of their neighbours ;
nor were they wanting in any military difcipline, in order to
fecure the one, and curb the other. By thefe means they
became fo powerful, and made fo confiderable a figure in
Greece, that the kings of Egypt and Pheenicia did not dif-
dain to pay a kind ef homage to them, and own their fupe-
riority by folemnembaffies. . See LAcep#MONIANS.

Laconia, in Geography, atraét of land, extending from
the river Merrimack to Sagadahock, and from the ocean to
the lakes and rivers of Canada, fo called in the grant of lands,
in 1622, from the council of Plymouth to Capt. Mafon,
and fir Ferdinand Gorges. See Iroquois.

LACONIC Srvyce. See Sryve.

LACONICA Scytranta. See ScyTara,

LACONISM, Azxouzyo:, a fhort, pithy, fententious
fpeech, in the manner of the Lacedemonians, who were re-
markable for the clofenefs and concifenefs of their way of de-
livering themfelves.

LACOVIA, in Geography, atown of Jamaica; 55 miles
W. of Kingtton.

LACQUER, or Lacken, isa varnifh applied upon tin,
brafs, and other metals, to preferve them from tarnifhing,
and to improve their colour. The bafis of lacquers is a
folution of the refinous fubiftance called feed-lac, or rather
fhell-lac, in f{pirit of wine. This fpirit ought to be very
much dephlegmated in order to diflolve much of the lac.
For this purpofe, fome authors direct dry pot-afh to be
thrown into the fpirit. This alkali attraéts the water, with
which it forms a liquid that fubfides ditinétly from the fpirit
at the bottom of the yeflel. From this liquid the fpirit may
be feparated by decantation, By this method the fpirit 1s
much dephlegmated: but at the fame time it becomes im-
pregnated with part of the alkali, which depraves its colour,
and communicates a property to the lacquer of imbibing
moifture from the air. “Phele inconveniences may be pre-
vented by diltilling the fpirit; or, if the artift has not an op-
portunity of performing that procefs, he may cleanfe the
{pirit in a great meafure from the alkali, by adding to it
fome calcined alum, the acid of which uniting with the alkali
remaining in the fpirit, forms with it a vitriolated tartar,
which, not being foluble in {pirit of wine, falls to the bottom
together with the earth of the decompofedalum, To a pint
of the dephlegmated and purified {pirit, about three ounces

LAG

of powdered fhell-lac are to be added ; and the mixture to be
digefted during fome days witha moderate heat. The liquor
ought then to be poured off, ftrained, and cleared by fettling,
This clear liquor is now fit to receive the required colour,
from certain refinous colouring fubftances, the principal of
which are gamboge and anotto; the former of which gives
a yellow, and the latteran orange colour. In order to give
a golden co.our, two parts of gamboge are added to one of
anotto; but thefe colouring fubitarces may be feparately
diffo'ved in the tin&ture of Jac, aed the colour required may
be adjufted by mixing the two {clutions in different propor-
tions. When filver-leaf, or tin, are to be lacquered, a
larger quantity cf the colouring materials is requifite than
when the lacquer is intended to be laid on brafs.

There are fundry other materials, from a due mixture of
which a like colour. may be produced, as turmeric, faffron,
dragon’s blood, &c. See Gold Coloured VARnisui, and
Japanner’s GILDING.

Inftead of fhell-lac, ufed in the compofition of varnifhes
for lacquerirg, refin or turpertine is fub{tituted for the
coarfer ufes. The following compolition for brafs-work, de-
figned to refemble gilding, has been much recommended :
take of turmeric ground, as it may be had at the dry-falters,
one ounce, and of faffron and Spanifh anotto each two drams:
put them into a bottle with a pint of highly reGtified {pirit
of wine, and place the bottle in a moderate heat, occa-
fionally fhaking it, for feveral days; then {train off the
yellow tinGure thus obtained, through a coarfe linen cloth,
and putting it back into the bottle, add three ounces of
good feed-lac grofsly powdered ; place the bottle again in a
moderate heat and fhake it, till the feed-lac be diffolved.
The-lacquer ftrained as before will be fit for ufe, and mutt
be kept in a bottle carefully ftopped. By increafing or
diminifhing the proportion of anotto, the lacquer will be
rendered warmer and redder, or cooler and nearer a true
yellow. A cheaper compofition little inferior to the former.
may be formed of one ounce of turmeric root ground, half
a dram of the belt dragon’s blood, and a pint of fpirit of
wine, managed as the former. :

The varnith for tin may be made of one ounce of turmeric-
root, two drams of dragon's blood, and one pint of fpirit
of wine, prepared in the fame manner with the other. The
dragon’s blood may be increafed or diminifhed, as the red
or yellow is to be the mott prevalent ; and for a coarfer
lacquer the quantity of fhell-lac may be leffened, and the
deficiency fupplied by the fame proportion of rein. The
lacquer for locks, nat!s, &c. where little or no colour is
defired, may be either fhell-luc varnifh alone, or with a
little dragon’s bleod ; or a compound varnifh of equal parts
of fhell-lac and refin} with or without the dragon’s blood.
The manner of laying on the lacquer is as follows: the
pieces to be lacquered mult firft be made thoroughly clean 5
and if they be new founded, aquafortis muft be ufed for
this purpofe. When they are afterwards heated by a {mall
charcoal fire, the lacquer is lad cn with a proper brufh,
like other yarnifhes, and the pieces reftored to the heat.
After the lacquer is thoroughly dry and firm, the fame,
operation mutt be renewed for four or five times, or till.
the work appears of the required colour and briehtnefs. ~

The lacquering of leather, improperly called gilding, is.
performed by means of leaf-filver, coloured by a yellow.
varnith, (See Japanner’s GitpinG.) “For this purpofe.
calf or goat-fkins are procured in a dry ftate, after the
common drefling and tanning. ‘They are foftened by being
immerfed and itirred about for fome hours in a tub of
water; and afterwards beaten againft a flat itone and
{moothed, by fpreading them on the ftone and rubbing

, them

LAC

them over with an iron inftrument: the ficins, thus pre-
pared, are joined together in pieces of the dimentions re-
quired; and then fized on the grain of the leather with a
kind of foft glue, or itiff fize, that anfwers to the gold-
fize ufed in other kinds of gilding or filvering, prepared
from parchment or glover’s cutting's. ‘The workman next
proceeds to cover the whole furface.of the fized fkin,
before it be quite dry, with leaf filver, and with a fox’s
tail, made into the form of a ball at the end, fettles
the leaves, by prefling and ftriking them; and clofes this
operation with gently rubbing the whole furface with the
tail. When the fkins are filvered, they are hung to dry
firft on cords, and the drying is completed by putting them
over a board joined together, with the filvered fide next the
boards, where they muft be kept ftretched out by means
of fome nails. They are then burnifhed with a flint bur-
nifher, which operation is performed by f{preading the {kin
even on a {mooth ftone, and fliding the burnifher backwards
and forwards over every part of the fin, with a confider-
able degree of preffure. In fome manufaétures the burnifh-
ing is performed, by pafling the filvered fins betwixt two
Gicdrcs rollers of {teel, with polifhed faces. The fkins
are now prepared for receiving the yellow lacquer or varnifh,
which gives the appearance of gilding. Different artifts
have different recipes for compounding this lacquer. The
following is faid to be equal to any hitherto ufed: take of
fine white refin, 4} pounds; the fame quantity of common
refin; of gum fandarac, 2} pounds; and of aloes, two
pounds: bruife and mix them; and put them into an
earthen pot over a good fire of charcoal, or over any other
fire which has no flame: when all the ingredients are per-
fe&tly melted and mixed, add gradually to them feven pints
of linfeed oil, and ftir the whole well together with a
fpatula: let the whole boil, ftirring all the time, to pre-
vent a kind of fediment, that will form, from fticking to
the bottom of the veffel. When the varnith is almoft fuf-
ficiently boiled, which will generally require feven or eight
hours, add gradually half an ounce of litharge, or half an
ounce of red lead; and when this is diffolved, pafs the var-
nifh through a linen cloth, or flannel bag. A pint of oil,
and a correfponding proportion of fine refin and aloes, have
produced a very good varnifh in an hour anda half. This
Jacquer or varnifh is laid on the filvered leather in the open
air; and is beit done in fummer, when it is hot and dry.
For this purpofe, the fkins are ftretched and fattened with
nails to the boards, on which the drying was finifhed, with
the filvered fide outwards. And when thefe boards are
properly difpofed on treffels, the workman generally fpreads
fome white of eggs over each fkin; and when this is dry,
the varnifh, which is nearly of the confiftence of a thick
fyrup, is repeatedly {pread with the four fingers of one
hand, moved fo that each finger paints a kind of S with
the yarnifh, from one end of the fkin to the other: and it
is then diffufed evenly over every part with the flat of the
hand ; after this it isto be immediately beaten by itrokes of
the palms of the hands, and principally where the varnifh
is obferved to lie thickeft. When this coat of varnith is
fufficiently dry, which may be known by the fingers mak-
ing no impreffion upon it, another coat is laid on in the
fame manner. When: this coat is dry, the varnithing for
producing’ the appearance of .gilding is completed; and if
it has been well performed, the leather will have a very fine
gold colour, with a confiderable degree of polifh or bright-
nefs. When there is an intention to have one part df the
leather filver, and the other gold, a pattern is formed on
the furface, by printing, calking or itamping, a defign on
Vou. XX.

LAC

the furface after the filvering. The fkin is then to be
varnifhed, as if the whole were intended to be gold; but
after the laft coat, inflead of drying the varnith, it is to be
immediately taken off that part, which is intended to be
filver, according to the defign printed or calked upon it,
by a-knife; with which the workman ferapes off all that
he can without injuring the filver, and afterwards by a linen
cloth, with which all that remains is to be wiped or rubbed
off. The fkins thus filvered and varnifhed, are made the
ground of various defigns for emboffed work and painting.
‘The embofled work or yelief is raifed by means of printing
with a rolling prefs, fuch as is ufed for copper-plates; but
the defign is here to be engraved on wood. The painting
may be of any kind; but oil is principally ufed, as being
durable and more eafily performed. Doffie’s Handmaid to
the Arts, vol. i. p. 454, &e.

LACRIMOSO, Jta/l. a mufical term, feldom ufed
now, which implies a plaintive movement, in a ftyle as if
weeping.

ACRYMA Cervina, in Natural Hiflory, a little
round and hard bone, faid to grow in the great corner of a
ftag’s eye after a certain age. Some alfo preferve under
this name a thickened excretion from the inner angle of
that creature’s eye, in colour and confiltence refembling
myrrh, or ear-wax, long hardened in the ear. This is of
a ftrong and very difagreeable {mell, like the fweat of
the fame animal, and is affirmed to be fudorifie and alexi-

harmic. ;

LACRYME& Cunistt1, the name of a fort of wine pro-
duced by grapes on the lower part of Mount Vefuvius; fo
called from the drops of juice oozing from the grapes, when
fully ripe.

LACRYMAL. See Lacurymat.

LACRYMALIS, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to
feveral parts about the eye. The lacrymal gland is the
organ fecreting the fluid which compofes the tears: the
punta lacrymalia are the orifices of two {mall duéts, by
which this fluid is abforbed from the furface of the eye ;
and the lacrymal fac or bag is the cavity in which the tears
fo abforbed are received. See Evx.

The os lacrymale is a name applied to the bore in which ~
the lacrymal bag is lodged ; it is called alfo os unguis. See
CRANIUM.

The lacrymal nerve i$ a branch of the ophthalmic or firft
branch of the fifth pair. See Nerve.

LACSUR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Korafan ; 50 miles N.E. of Herat.

LACTANTIUS, generally called Lucius Caxius, or
Czcitius Firmianus, in Biography, the moft eloquent of
the Latin fathers, flourifhed towards the clofe of the third
and the beginning of the fourth century. Some have con-
jeCtured that he was born at Firmum, now Fermo, in Italy,
and hence cailed Firmianus; but as he was a difciple of Ar-
nobius, who taught rhetoric at Sicca in Africa, this was
probably the country of his nativity. This latter opinion, is
confirmed by his itinerary from Africa to Nicomedia, which
contained, as we may reafonably imagine, an account of his
own journey, when he was fent for by Dioclefian, Whiltt
he was young, he wrote his «« Sympofium,’” or Banquet,
and thus acquired a degree of reputation, which occafioned
his being fent for to teach rhetoric at Nicomedia, when
Diocletian propofed to render this city a rival to Rome.
Some have fuppofed that La¢tantius was in his youth a hea-
then, and converted to the Chritlim faith ; but it is molt
probable, from the arguments alleged by Dr. Lardner, that
he was educated in Chriftian principles, and that he was a

Z Chrittian

LACTANTIUS.

Chriftian when he taught rhetoric at Nicomedia, at the com-
mencement of Dioclefian’s perfecution, though it does not
appear how he efcaped the danger to which his Chriltian
profeflion muft have expofed him, at a time when the church
of the Chriftians in that city was deftroyed. Nicomedia
was at this time chiefly inhabited by Greeks, who had no
great tafte for Roman eloquence; and the religious pro-
feflion of Latantius, notwithftanding his learning and ta-
lents, rendered him unpopular, fo that the number of his
{cholars was fmall, and he was under the neceflity of writ-
ing, in order to procure a fcanty fubfiftence. As he was
much addicted to reading, and books in MS. were coftly,
his library muft have exhaufted his pecuniary fupplies.
Thefe circumftances will account for the poverty of his con-
dition ; without fuppofing with Dupin and Tillemont that
it was voluntary. His fituation, however, was improved,
when he was invited by the emperor Conftantine into Gaul,
and appointed preceptor to his fon Crifpus; but when Crif-
pus was put to death by his father, he loft the benefit of
this office ; nor does it appear that Conftantine made any
permanent provifion for him, which might reafonably have
been expected. It is generally allowed, that, during the
greateft part of his life, La€tantius was in indigent and
even deftitute circumftances, often wanting neceflaries. Of
other particulars of La¢tantius’s life, which was prolonged
to a very advanced period, no records remain ; nor has the
time of his death been afcertained. It does not appear that
he ever pleaded as an advocate at the bar. From his works,
which are allowed to be authentic, we may colleé& his fenti-
ments with regard to fome of the diftinguifhing tenets of
theology. Laétantius often fpeaks of the nature and de-
fign of the Chriitian revelation, as fuited to promote the
general good of all, of every age, fex, and condition; fo
that all may attain to juft fentiments of God, and be di-
rected and affifted in the way of holinefs, and obtain ever-
lafting happinefs. And he afferts it to be in the power of the
meanett and pooreft of men to attain to righteoufnefs. He
fometimes glories in the great and happy effe€ts of the
Chriftian doGtrine upon the minds and lives of men; and he
recommends this divine religion, as the medicine of the
foul, effeGtual for healing all its difeafes. He afferts the
freedom of man’s will, or his power to do goed or evil.
He openly afferts the innocence of Chriftian people, all
whofe religion, he fays, confifts in good works, or a care to
live unblameably and inoffenfively. And the criminals,
who fell under the fentence of the magiftrate for robbery
and other offences, he obferves, were not Chriftians, but of
the fame religion with their enemies. He expreffes himfelf
as if in his time Chriftians performed miracles in difpoffefling
demons. Laétantius was of opinion, that another life, or a fu-
ture {tate of happinefs for good men, may be proved by reafon.
He did not deny the eternity of hell torments. With re-
gard to repentance he often afferts its great value, and main-
tains, that whenever finners repent, they are pardoned. He
alfo thinks, that the divine difpleafure againft men ceafes
immediately upon their repentance and amendment. True
virtue alone, as he alleges, recommends man to the divine
acceptance; and God defires nothing of man but fincere
virtue, or true holinefs. As to the ends and views of Chrift’s
coming, and particularly of his death, he afferts, that Chrift
came to be a teacher and a pattern of virtue; and that he
died and rofe again, to affift men in overcoming death, and
give them alfo hopes of rifing again, and obtaining the re-
ward of immortality. ‘Chrift, he fays, lived in a mean con-
dition, and underwent the ignominious death of the crofs,
that he might be a complete example of virtue, and of pa-

tience under fufferings; and that he might more efpecially
lead and encourage {uch as are poor and mean in this world.
In a word, he fays, Chrift came, and was made like unto
man, lived, and died, and rofe again, that he might clearly
teach the precepts of virtue, and afford the beft motives to
the practice of it, and effeétually help frail man to conquer
the defires of the flefh, and the fears of prefent evil, and
to overcome all the temptations of this life, and thus obtain
a happy immortality.

Lactantius has itrenuoufly afferted the right of private
judgment for every man in things of religion, and he exhorts
all men to the refolute and diligent exercife of it. He alfo
argues excellently againft perfecution; elteeming it the
greateft abfurdity that can be conceived, for any to impofe
on others a worfhip contrary to their confcience, or to deny
men the liberty to choofe their own religion ; and exprefsly
affirming, that it is not zeal for religion, but a love of
power. For religion, he fays, is the freeft thing in the
world; nor can it be promoted by force and violence. Com-
pulfion may make men hypocrites, but it cannot make thenr
religious. He alfo maintains, that it is no juft reafon why
men fhould be perfecuted, becaufe they defert or oppofe an-
cient and eftablifhed religions. For there can be no pro-
feription againft truth; and every man has an unalienable
right to fearch after truth, and to profefs it, when he has
acquired the knowledge of it ;—with much more, admira-
bly expreffed, to the fame purpofe. Of the numerous errors,
real or imaginary, charged upon La@tantius, we shall enu-
merate the following: the firft and principal is that of Ma-
nicheifm, from which he is vindicated by Lardner. It is
well known, that he denied the exiftence of Antipodes.
He adopted the common notion of the age in which he lived
concerning the fall of many of the angels; and he expected
a terreftrial reign of Chriit for tooo years before the
general judgment, and he thought it to be very near, within
a period of 200 years. (See Mitruenxrum.) Lactantius
denied the perfonality of the holy ghoft; nor did he con-
fider Chrift’s death as a propitiatory facrifice for fin, or a
fatisfaction made to divine juitice for the fins of the human
race. Thefe opinions, in which he differs from many
others, and fome of which are undoubtedly erroneous, have
occafioned feveral refleGions upon his judgment and cha-
raéter. Dr. Heumann, in particular, acknowledges that
he was pious, learned, and eloquent; though chargeable
with feveral faults and defe&s ; he was no critic, nor philo-
fopher, and but a poor divine. Bull fays, that he had very
little knowledge of the Chriltian do@rine ; and Warburton.
afferts, that he knew but little of Chriftianity.

As a writer, LaGantius has been highly commended.
Dupin fays, that he is juitly efteemed the Chriflian Cicero
for his ftyle, whilft he greatly furpaffed him in his thoughts.
Some authors have not only founda ftriking refemblance be-
tween the ftyle of Cicero and that of Lactantius, but have
even preferred the latter to the former. Dr. Lardner fays
of him, ‘* that the time in which he lived feeures him a kind
of veneration. He faw the quiet and peaceful fate of the
church before Dioclefian’s perficution; he was alfo witnefs
of that dreadful fcene, and afterwards faw the flourifhing
condition of Chriftians under Conftantine. His eminent
abilities recommended him to the efleem of two great em-
perors, of different religions. His uncommon hone(ty and
fimplicity, and earneft zeal for the Chrittian religion, and
all truth m general, appear in his works, where alfo his
learning is very confpicuous.”? He had, as it feems, a
certain vehemence and impetuofity of natural temper not
uncommon in Africans, which on fome occafions hindered

7 his

LAC

his confidering and weighing what might be faid on both
fides of a queltion. At the fame time, poffibly we are in-
debted to that fire, which fupported him in the fatigues of
acquiring knowledge, and then communicating it to others,
Upon the whole, he was “an honour and ornament to the
Chriftian profeffion in his day ;”? for ‘* he employed his fine
parts and extenfive learning in the fervice of religion, with-
out worldly views of any kind."’ “ A part,’’ it will be al-
lowed, ‘of this writer’s reputation is owing to the charms
and beauties of his ftyle ; but the matter of his works is alfo
a juft recommendation.”

The principal work of Laéantius is intitled ‘“ Inftitu-
tionum, libri vii.’” which was occafioned by the writings of
two heathens of note, who publifhed their pieces againit the
Chriftians at the beginning of the perfecution under Diocle-
fian, and was alfo intended as a general anfwer and full con-
futation of all others, who already had oppofed, or hereafter
might oppofe, the Chriftian doétrine. The learned are not
agreed about the time when this noble work was written.
Dr. Lardner, after having examined different opinions on
this fubje&, concludes, that Laétantius formed the defign
of this work in the year 303, that he compofed the greatett
part of it under the perfecution of Dioclefian, and that,
probably, it was not publifhed till that perfecution terminat-
ed. We have alfo an “ Epitome’’ of the Inftitutions, in-
feribed by Laétantius to his brother Pentadius, which is
fuppofed to have been written not later than the year 311,
312, or 313. This work was imperfect, until a copy of it was
tound in the library of the king of Sardinia at Turin, by
Dr. Chriftopher Matthew Pfaff, and publifhed by him intire,
or nearly fo, at Paris in 1712, to the great joy of the
learned world. This abridgment is an ufeful book, and
contains fome things not to be found in the Inftitutions them-
felves. His book «De Ira Dei,’’ i. e. of the wrath or anger
of God, which is ftill extant, is particularly commended by
Jerom, as a learned and elegant performance, and a complete
treatife on the fubject. In this work he endeavours to prove
that God is capable of anger, as wellas of mercy and com-
paflion. In his treatife « De opificio Dei,’’ i. e of the
workmanfhip of God, he eftablifhes the dotrine of God’s
providence, by demonitrating the excellence of man, his
principal work, giving an elegant defcription of the parts
of the human body, and the properties and faculties of the
foul. Of the genuinenels of another work, ufually afcribed
to LaGantius, and intitled “‘« De Mortibus Perfecutorum,”’
i.e. of the deaths of perfecutors, different opinions have
been entertained. Dr. Lardner has referred to the writers
who have efpoufed both fides of the queftion; and as for
himfelf, he feems to incline to the opinion of thofe who do
not allow it to have been written by LaCtantius. He al-
lows, however, that it is a very valuable work, containing
a fhort account of the fufferings of Chriftians under feveral
of the Roman emperors, from the death and refurreGtion of
Chrift to Dioclefian ; and then a particular hiftory of the perfe-
eution excited by that emperor, with the caufes and fprings
of it; as well as the miferable deaths of its chief inftru-
ments. In this work occur alfo feveral remarkable facts,
that are recorded no where elfe. This is a work which none
of the ancients, after the time of Jerom, have noticed; it
was firft publifhed by Stephen Baluze in the fecond volume
of his Mifcellanea, in the year 1679... It is needlefs to fay
any thing of the poems de Pheenice, de Pafche, de Paffione
Domini, which fome have aferibed to LaGantius, and which
are joined to his works in moft editions. They are not men-
tioned by Jerom, and are now generally fuppofed not to

belong to this author. The “ Itinerary”? and * Grammati-

-tines.

LA.C

cus,”? mentioned by Jerom, are irrecoverably lof. A work,
nuder the title of the «* Sympofium,” or Banquet, long fup-
pofed to have been loft, was not long ago publifhed by Dr.
Heumann, who aflerts its genuinenefs. It is a collection of
100 triftich epigrams, with a prologue. All our author’s
books of Epittles are entirely lott. The editions of Lactan-
tius are very numerous. Fabricius has given a full and
copious catalogue of them. The firft edition was publifhed
at Rome, in 1468, fol. by Conrad Lewenheim; and the
laft, which is the moft corre&t, was edited at Paris in 1748,
in two vols. 4to, by the Abbé Lenglet.

LaGiantius has, in his various works, references to the
gofpels, the Aéts of the Apoftles, and fome of the épiftles,
and to the book of the Revelation, which he exprefsly
quotes as facred {cripture, and written by John. It appears
alfo, that he had a colle&tion of f{criptures, confifting of the
Old and New Teftament ; which he efteemed facred and di-
vine, and of the higheft authority. His quotations of Si-
bylline books, and other writings, afcribed to heathen vates
or diviners, fuch as Hydafpes, and Hermes Trifmegiltus,
were intended to ferve the caufe of Chriftianity ; but he did
not reckon them a part of thofe books which were of au-
thority with Chriftians. Nor does it appear, that he placed
the preaching of Peter and Paul in the rank of facred ferip-
ture, though he has once quoted it. Fabr. Bibl. Eccl. fub
Hieron. cap. Ixxx. Cave’s H. L. vol. fub fc. Arian.
Dupin. Lardner’s Works. vol. iv.

LACTARY, in Rural Economy, a term frequently ap-
plied to a milk-houfe, or place where milk is kept.

Lacrary Column. See Cotumy.

LACTATION, the a& of giving fuck.

The word is alfo applied to the time during which the
mother doth that office to her young. y

LACTEA Vasa, or Laéteals, in Anatomy, are thofe
abforbing veflels which take up the chyle, or the nutritive
matter furnifhed by the food, from the furface of the intef-
As this fluid is of a white colour, the veffels, when
filled with it, appear quite white, and hence their name.
They may be feen in vaft abundance in an animal killed a
few hours after a meal. See ApsorBENTS.

Lacrera Via, the miiky way. See Gataxy.

Lacreat Fevers, aterm ufed by Medical Writers, to ex-
prefs what the women call milk fevers, that is, fuch fevers
as attend the difficult ingrefs of milk to the breaft of lying-
inwomen. See Lazour.

Lacreats of Birds. See Anatomy of Brrps. _

LACTEUS Lapis, in Natural Hiffory, a name given by
fome authors to the galadtites. a

LACTIFERI Ductus, in Anatomy, the tubes of
the mammary gland, in which the milk is fecreted. Sce
Breast.

LACTIFEROUS, an epithet applied to fuch plants as
abound with a milk-like juice, fuch as the tithymal, fow-
thiftle, and many others.

LACTOMETER, in Rural Economy, the name of an
inftrument for the purpofe of afcertaining the different qua-
lities of milk. It was invented by Mr. Dicas, mathematical
inftrument maker, in Liverpool; and the following defcrip-
tion of it is given inthe Survey of the County of Lancatter.
This lactometer is contrived fo as to afcertain the richnefs of
milk from its fpecific gravity, compared with water, by its
degree ef warmth taken by a {tandard thermometer, on
comparing its fpecific quality with its warmth, on a feale
conttruéted for this particular purpofe, and by which, if the
prineiple be right, may be difcovered not only the qualities

Za ot

LAC

of the milk of different cows, paftures, food, as turnips,
potatoes, grains, &c. but alfo probably, which may be the
belt milk or belt paftures for butter, and which for cheefe.
This infrument, however, is but in its infancy. At his
own houfe, the writer has mace a number of varied exveri-
ments upon different milks from different farms.

It is ftated to be conltre&ed with ten divifions upon the
ftem, fimilar to the patent brewing hydrometer, and with
eight weights, which are to be applied only one at a time
upon the top, to obtain the weight of milk; an ivory fliding-
rule accompanies the inftrument, upon the middle or fliding
part ef which is laid down the laétometer weight of the
milk, going from o to 80; and oppofite thereto are placed
the various {trengths of the mijk, from water to 1603 100
having previoufly been fixed upon, from a number of experi-
ments, as the ftandard of good new-milk, and each of the
-other numbers bearing a proportionate reference thereto.
At one end of the fliding-rule the degrees of heat, from 40 to
roo, are placed with a {tar oppofite, as an index to fix the
flide to the temperature of the milk ; the whole being gra-
duated to fhew the exa@ ftrength of the milk, as it would
appear in the temperature of 55 degrees of heat, although
tried in any inferior or fuperior temperature between 40°
and 100°: thus the great inconvenience which would attend
bringing the milk at all times to one temperature is avoided,
and a fimple mechanical method of allowing for the con-
traction and expanfion fubitituted. And as fkimmed milk,
being divelted of the particles of butter which exilted before
{kimming, appears to have a lefs degree of affinity with that
than the new miik has, one fide of the ivory fliding-rule is
adapted to fkimmed, and the other to new. This fimple
contrivance is reprefented in the annexed plate.

General Rule.—Firlt, find the temperature of the milk
with the thermometer, and fix the fliding-rule fo that the
ftar fhall be facing the degree of heat the mercury rifes or
falls to; then put in the la&tometer, and try which of the
weights, applied to the top, will fink it to fome one divi-
fion upon the ftem ; add the number of the weight upon the
top and that of the divifion together, and oppolite the fame,
formed upon the fide, will be fhewn the ftrength of the
milk.

Examples of New milk.—If in the temperature of 72°, the
Jactometer with the weight 40 finks to 9 upon the ftem, fix
the flide fo that the ftar fhall be facing 72°; then oppofite 49
will be found 100, the ftrength of the milk. Again, af in
60°, the latometer with 50 on the top finks to 6:upon the
ftem, the flide being fixed for new-milk, fo that the ftar
fhall be at 60° of heat, then facing 56 will be found rro, the
ftrength of this milk in proportion towards the other, pro-
vided it is equally replete with cream. To difcover which,
it becomes requifite thefe two famples fhould ftand a certain
time, that the cream may rife, which being taken off, they
are to be tried with the lattometer again; and as the cream
is evidently the lighter part, the milk will appear by the
laG@tometer denfer or better in quality than before. Suppofe
the milk in the firft example to be 57 by the la&tometer in
60 degrees of heat, then the ftrength by the fkimmed-milk
fide of the rule willbe 112. And admit the fecond example
of new-milk to be 58 in 64° when fkimmed, the ftrength
would be 116.

As a comparifon fay,

No. 1. New-milk = 100
Ditto fkimmed - 112
Difference 12

LAC

No. 2. New-milk .
When fkimmed ou

Difference 6

From which it appears, that No. 1. has produced a larger
quantity of cream than No.2, and confequently may be
deemed’ the better milk. Some inftances have occurred
where the ftrength of new-milk has only been about 80, and
when fkimmed near roo. Thus it may, without the leaft
imprapriety, be called a milk much better adapted for mak-
ing butter than cheefe ; the ferum or whey in general being
near the fame denfity.

The inflances in which the la&tometer may be ufeful, are,
according to the fame writer, in difcovering what breeds of
cattle are moit advantageous; what food in the, winter
feafon, whether carrots, turnips, potatoes, &c. are beft;
what the effeéts of different paftures may be; how far par-
ticular farms are belt adapted to making butter and cheefe ;
how far the inconvenience of large cheefes in fome dairies
being too rich to ftand may be prevented, by difcovering
when this redundancy of richnefs exifts in the milk; and in
fixing a ftandard for the fale of this ufeful article of life.

A ftandard for fkimmed milk may readily be fixed, by
faying what itrength the common faleable fkimmed milk
fhall be by the laétometer, or what its {pecific gravity fhll
be in relation to that of water in the temperate degree of
heat, and that an eafy comparifon may be made between
the fpecific gravity of any milk, and its la&tometer ftrength;
this inftrument is fo conitruéted, that one of {pecific gravity
fhall exaGily correfpord with three of ftrength; that is, the
ftrength of go by the laGtometer is a milk whofe fpecific
gravity is 1030, to common pump water 1000. From a
number of experiments and obfervations, it is obferved, that
the common faleable {kimmed milk in Liverpool is from 52
to 64 of ftrength, and that of new-milk from 70 to 80; but
it would be difficult to fix any #andard for the latter, unlefs
fome mode could be devifed to difcover whether it was mixed
with old milk or not. The only method would be, after
fixing the ftrength ofit, to try, by letting it fland, to difeover
if it produced that quantity of cream, which as new-milk
it might reafonably be expected to do. i

This ingenious contrivance is made ufe of in the Liverpool
workhoufe, with great fuccefs in afcertaining the goodnefs
of the milk which is there employed.

LACTUCA, in Botany, fo called by the Latins, from
lac, milk, becaufe of its milky jmce ; the Lettuce.—Linn.
Gen. 400. Schreb. 528. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1523. Mart:
Mill. Did. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 117. Sm. FI. Brit.
819. Juffl. 169. Tourn. t. 267. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 649.
Gartn. t. 158.—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-equa-
9 Nat. Ord. Compoftte Semiflofculofje, Linn. Cichoracea,

ull. .

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx imbricated, nearly cylindrical,
of numerous pointed fcales, with membranous edges. Cor.
compound, imbricated, uniform ; the florets hermaphrodite,
numerous, equal, each of one petal, ligulate, abrupt, with
four or five teeth. Sam. Filaments five, capillary, very
fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. bea Germen
nearly ovate ; ftyle thread-fhaped, as long as the ftamens;
ftigmas two, reflexed. eric. none, except the permanent
clofed calyx, become rather ovate at the bafe. Seeds foli-
tary, obovate, pointed, itriated, comprefled; down capil-
a An fr by along flalk tapering at its bafe. Recept.
naked.

EM. Ch, Receptacle naked. Calyx imbricated, cylindri-

cal,

LACTUCA.

¢al, with pointed, membranous-bordered feales. Seeds com-
preffed, ftriated. Down fimple, ftalked.

This genus is moft naturally allied to Sonchus, the Sow-
thiftle, in habit and qualities, as well as fruétification, the
ttalked feed-down, and much more flender and cylindrical
calyx, con(tituting its chief marks of diltinétion. The r4th
edition of Sy/?. Veg. enumerates ten fpecies ; Willdenow has
21. Three of them are natives of Britam, occurring chiefly
in warm dry fpots, where the foil is calcareous. Thefe are
L.. virofa, Engl. Bot. t. 1957. Woodv. Med. Bot. Suppl.
t. 250, celebrated for its opium-like fcent and foporiferous
‘quality: L. Scariola, Engl. Bot. t. 268, a more flender and
lefs active plant, diltinguifhed by the vertical pofture of its
leaves, of rauch more rare occurrence, being {earcely found
wild except i the ifle of Ely: and L. /eligna, Engl. Bot.
t. 707. Jacq. Auttr. t. 250, the moft flender of all, which
ever fince the time of Ray has been ftationary about Pancras,
and near the Small-pox Hofpital. Thefe are ail biennial
plants, three or four feet high, more or lefs glaucous, with
{mall fulphur-coloured flowers, which expand orly in bright
funny mornings. The Rev. Mr. R. B. Francis found the
laft-mentioned at South-end, Effex, but it is among the moft
uncoramon of Englifh plants.

Of the foreign fpecies, Z. fativa, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1118.
Ger. em. 306, is well known as the Garden Lettuce, ren-
dered luxuriant, mild, and wholefome by culture; for though
we know it not in an adtually wild ftate, fome idea of its
nature may be difcovered by allowing it to fow itfelf fpon-
taneoufly for two or three generations, the produce of which
will be found much more bitter and acrid, as well as far lefs
luxuriant, than the cultivated plants. Of this fpecies the
L. crifpa, Willd. n. 2. Ger. em. 306. Dod. Pempt. 644,
appears to be a variety, as it has always been thought, till
Roth diftinguifhed it. Such is the cafe with L. palmata of
Willdenow, who quotes for this the L. cri/pa non capitata,
Lob. Ic. 242, which is the very identical wooden cut he
had juit before cited from Dodonzus for the preceding.

L. quercina, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1118, has always been a very
obfcure plant, fearcely known but in the Linnzan herba-
rium. The fynonym of Ray is, at beft, doubtful, and the
figure given hy fir John Hill, in his cumbrous Vepetable
Syitem, is altogether a deception, drawn from defcription
or imagination. What the German writers intend under
this name, we have no infermation. The following is a
tranflation of Linneus’s account of the ZL. guercina, from
his Swedifh Travels to Oeland and Gothland.—“ La@uca
with leaves finuated in a pinnate form, finely toothed, acute,
without prickles at the back, and a fmooth ftem. Fl. Suec.
ed. x. n.646. Found on the fouth fide of the leffer ifle of
Carlfoen, towards the eaft. I never had an opportunity
of feeing this plant before; and Ray is the only author
whofe defcription is fufficiently clear to prove, beyond a
doubt, that the LaGuca foliis quernis, of his Hift. Plant. v. 1.
219, isa fimilar plant. The root of our's is flefhy and ob-
tufe. Stem a cubit high, ere&, round, fmooth, fimple.
Clufter of flowers terminal, clofe, narrow and long. Leaves
like Sonchus oleraceus, but having fharper teeth, as if bitten
or jagged. Calyx nearly cylindrical, {caly, fmooth, with
feattered rufty fpots; the feales ereét, furnifhed at the back
with an additional fpreading feale.”’ :

LL. canadenfis; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1119, is rightly removed to
Scnchus by Wi'ldenow, under the name of pallidus. The
fame author, on the contrary, removes the Linnean Sonchus
tuberofus to La@uca, calling it fonchifolia, and he appears to
be right in this inltance alfo, the feed-down being fupported
by a confiderable ftalk.

L. perennis, Linn. Sp. Pl. 1120. (Chondrilla cruleas
Ger. em. 286.), is one of the more handfome fpecies of this
genus, on account of its elegantly pinnatifid /eaves, and large
blue flowers. It grows in the warmer parts of Germany,
Switzerland, and France, and is perennial.

~A typographical error in our account of Hieracium, co-
lumn 3, line 6 from the bottom, demands correction. The
comma after remarks, and the word ¢he/e, both require to be
expunged.

Lacruca, in Gardening, comprehends a plant of the
herbaceous annual kind, of which the {pecies ufually culti-
vated in the garden, is the common garden lettuce, L. fativa,
which has feveral varieties: the principal of which are ;—
of the cabbage-lettuce kind, the hardy green, white honey,
great admirable white, brown Dutch, {mall carly, white
ball, green ball ;—and of the cofs-Iettuce kind, the green
cofs, white-cois, Egyptian cofs, fpotted cofs, black cofs,
brown Cilicia, green Cilicia, red Capuchin, green Capuchin,
large imperial, the Roman, the prince ; but the three or four
firlt of the different forts are the moft valuable, and it is of
much confequence to have the beit kinds employed in cul-
tivation.

Method of Culture.—This fpecies, and all the varieties, are
raifed by fowing the feed annually, at different times, as in
February and the three following months, for the fummer
fupply of plants; and in Auguit and the following month,
for the autumn, winter, and very early {pring fupplies.
And all thefe different fowings fhould be performed upon
beds of fine light dry earth, in an open fituation, and ex-
pofed to the fun. Some of the late fowings may be made
under hand-glafles, or in frames or boxes, in order to have
the young plants proteéted from the frofts. Each of the
varieties or forts fhould be fown feparately, and diftin&t from
the others, and be flightly raked into the foil.

It is fometimes the praétice to fow them among other low
growing crops, fuch as radifhes, fpinach, onions, &e. to fave
ground ; but this fhould always be avoided as much as poffi-
ble, as a very fmall portion of land is fuflicient for raifing
large fupplies of plants.

For the very early {pring ufe, as open lettuces, the early
white cabbage forts are the moft proper; but for the main
crops, to remain for full growth, the principal forts of the
cofs and cabbage kind mult be employed.

When the plants appear, they muft be kept perfetly free
from weeds, and properly. thinned out. As they attain a
proper growth, as three or four inches in height, fome of
the different forts muft be planted out into beds in the open
ground, drawing them up carefully, and planting them im-
mediately. This work fhould be performed by a line and
{mall dibble, in rows, a foot or more diftant, with the fame
fpace from plant to plant. ‘The quincunx mode is moftly
adopted, which affords the moft room, and at the fame time
has the neateft appearance. As foon as the planting is
finifhed, the whole fhould be well watered ; and when the
weather is dry, repeated once or twice,

By thus planting out the feveral forts at different times,
at the diftance of three weeks or a month, from the early
{pring till the latter end of the autumn, due fucceffions of
good lettuces may be provided. In the fummer plantings
out, when the weather proves very dry, it is fometimes the
practice to plant them in {mall drills, in order to preferve the
moifture more effectually.

After the beds of the different principal fowings have been
confiderably thinned by the feveral tran{plantations that have
been made from them, the plants that remain may be fet out

8 i)

LACTUCA.

,to proper diftances by the hoe, and left to take their full
growth.

As foon as the plants of the main {pring and fummer
crops have attained a pretty full growth, efpecially thofe of
the cofs kinds, it is neceflary to tie the leaves of them up
with bafs pretty clofe, when the plants are quite dry, in order
to blanch the inner parts, and render them perfetly crifp,
{weet, and tender. =

Mode of Culture in the Winter and very early Spring Crops.
—For this purpofe, fome feed of the hardy green and white
cabbage forts, and the brown Dutch, and white and green
cofs kinds fhould be fown about the middle of Auguft, and
beginning of September, ia open fituations, when the plants
will come up ina week or ten days, and about the end of
September ; and in Oétober, a parcel of the beft plants of
each fowing fhould be planted out in a warm dry fituation,
five or fix inches afunder ; and at the latter period fome in
fhallow frames, to be covered with glaffes on cold nights,
and in bad weather ; or under hand-glaifes, or in a bed arched
over with hoops or rods, to be covered with mats in winter
frofts. Under either of the above fhelters the plants fhould
have the free air in the day time in mild dry weather, covering
them in cold nights with proper covers, efpecially after this
month ; alfo, in all very cold, and in very wet weather, day
or night, particularly thofe in the frames and under glaffes ;
and thofe in hand-glaffes may have the glaffes almoft con-
ftantly over them in winter, tilting up one fide in mild wea-
ther, only fetting them entirely off in fine mild or dry days ;
but in fharp frofty weather keeping thofe under every kind
of fhelter quite clofe ; allowing alfo additional covering of
mats or litter, when the froft is very intenfe. Thofe in the
borders may be defended by fome light litter; but the co-
vering fhould never be fuffered to remain longer on any of
the crops than the bad weather continues, the free air being
admitted every mild day.

In this method lettuces may be had the greateft part of
the winter and early in the fpring, particularly the cabbage
forts: thofe planted out firft will be fit for ufe in November
and December, and» the fecond plantings come in towards
Chriftmas, and being fheltered by the glaffes, continue coming
in for ufe till fueceeded by the other A iden autumn fowings ;
being careful that, as any are gathered out of the frames or
glafles, others be reraoved from the borders to fill up the
vacancies, whereby the glafles may be conftantly fupplied
during the winter feafon.

It is fometimes the practice where lettuces are intended to
be planted in frames late in autumn, for winter ufe, to have
a moderate hot-bed made for their reception, in order that
they may be well forwarded in the beginning of winter 5
and if the heat is continued moderately by aid of linings,
allowing plenty of air in mild weather, the plants may be
very fine by Chriitmas, or a little after.

Mode of Culture in the Winter ftanding Spring Crops.—In
order to have good lettuces for {pring ufe, fome feed fhould
be fown toward the middle and latter end of Auguift, for
the plants to ftand the winter, fome where fown, others
tranfplanted into warm borders, to ftand without any other
fhelter than that of the walls er other fences; and another
fowing fhould be performed about the middle of September,
to provide plants for pricking out under frames, to have the
fhelter of the glaffes all winter, as a referve in cafe thofe in
the borders are deftroyed; where both itand, one may fuc-
ceed the other as crops, Jn the firft cafe a quantity of the
beit, plants, when two or three inches high, fhould be planted
out towards the latter end of O@ober, into a fouth border,
unde a wall, &c, and in fome other warm dry fituation,

in rows fix inches afunder, and four inches in the rows;
or fome clofe under a fouth wall, or other fence, in a foot
wide {pace all the way along, pricking them therein four or
fix inches diftant ; as they will have a better chance of ftand-
ing the winter than thofe fituated more diftant from the
fhelter of the wall. In each method the plants are to re-
main to take their chance all winter; out of the whole
many of them will probably efcape the froft; but in very
fevere weather they may be proteéted by a light covering of
dry long litter, which fhould be removed again in due time
when the froft breaks. In March or April, it they remain too
thick, fome fhould be thinned out and planted in another
place, in rows twelve or fifteen inches afunder ; the crops
thus wintered in the open ground, come in for ufe in April
and May, to fucceed thofe fown in autumn, and fheltered
occalionally all winter, and will remain good till the {pring-
fown plants are ready for ufe.

But in the latter cafe, or thofe fown in September, to be
wintered in frames, they fhould be planted about the latter
end of October, or the beginning of the following month,
in rows, from the back to the front of the frame, three
inches diilant, clofing the earth well about each plant, finifh-
ing with a moderate watering all over the plants, and putting _
on the glafles to promote their more {peedy rooting afrefh,
pufhing the lights, however, two or three inches down, te
give vent to the moilt vapour arifing from the mould. But
when the plants have taken frefh root, and are fet to grow-
ing, the full air fhould be admitted every mild dry day, by
taking the glafles entirely off, which muft be continued
throughout the winter feafon, in all dry mild weather, but
putting them on every night in cold or very wet weather ;
alfo in the day-time when great rains prevail; and in frofty
we-ther keeping the glafles always on, except in-the middle
of funny days, and when the froft is but flight; ufing alfo
other coyerings of mats or long litrer over the glafles, and
around the fides of the frame, when the frofts are very fe-
vere ; during the winter keeping all decayed leaves clean
picked off; and as the {pring and warm weather advance,
letting them have the benelit of warm fhowers, In this way
they may be effectually preferved, if thofe in the open
ground fhould be deitroyed by the frolt or excefiive moil-
ture. About March fome of them fhould be tranfplanted
into a warm fituation in the open ground, in rows, a foot
afunder, watering them moderately till frefh rooted ; leav-
ing a crop remaining in the frames or winter-bed, a foot
apart, to fland to cabbage ; which will arrive to perfection
a confiderable time before the tranfplanted ones, and thote
that have been fully expofed all winter, are ready. Where
frames cannot be fpared, a quantity of the plants may be
pricked out under hand or bell-glafles in autumn, to iland
the winter, either by themfelves for a full crop, or fome
under the hand or bell-glaffes that are placed over early
cauliflowers, as practifed by the London gardeners, plant-
ing them round jutt within the glafles, and managing them
as dire€ted for thofe in the frames; or foy want either
of afufficiency of frames or hand-glafles, a quantity may
be planted out in Odtober, in four-feet wide beds, in a warm
fituation, arched over with hoops or rods, to. cover with mats ~
and litter in bad weather, In this way they have a better
chance of furviving the winter than thofe fully expofed;
and in {pring tran{planting a quantity, by way of thinning,
into other beds, as directed already. Sant

Manner of faving Seed. — With this intention fomeof the
belt. cabbayed early plants of all the forts fhould be chofen,
as thofe of the latter crops rarely run foon enough to ripen
feeds perfeétly before they are attacked by the autumnal

rains

LAC

rains and cold, which greatly retard the ripening of the feed.
And it is of much importance to have the different va-
rieties intended for feed at fome diftance from each other,
_as, when too near together, the farina of the different forts
may mix and fecundate one another, and thereby degenerate
lants be produced, inftead of fuch as are perfect in their
ature.
The feed ufually ripens in Auguft and September, but
that of different plants rarely equally together ; fo that, as it
arrives to perfection, the ref{pective ftems, &c. of ripe feed

_ fhould be pulled up or cut off in dry days, and {pread upon

a cloth, or tied in {mall bunches acrofs lines in a dry airy
place for a week or two, for the feeds to harden and become
dry ; then beaten or rubbed out, and cleaned from the down
and other rubbifh, and expofed upon cloths a few days to
dry for keeping ; being afterwards put up in bags for ufe,
ail hung in a dry room or other place.

__ In general thefe plants may be confidered as annuals and
biennials ; as thofe fown in {pring and fummer attain per-
fe€tion, run up to’feed, and perifh the fame year; while the
autumn fowings fland all winter until the {pring following,
when they attain perfection, fhoot up to feed, and perifh
root and branch. All the forts are fufficiently hardy to
grow in any good dry common foil, in a free fituation open
to the fun and air.

In regard to the ufe of thefe plants it is principally in fal-
lads, when arrived at full growth and cabbaged, that the
inner leaves become blanched, crifp, and {weet ; and fome-
times, alfo, the young open plants of the cabbage-lettuce
forts are ufed in winter and fpring, till the other general
crops arrive at perfection. Young open lettuces are alfo
often ufed as {mall fallad herbs, fowing them thick in rows,
like creffes, &c. and gathering them in the fame manner ;
but this mode is more particularly pra¢tifed in winter and
early {pring. They, however, in general, do not eat any
way fo crifp, f{weet, and palatable, as when fully cabbaged.
The fully cabbaged-lettuces are alfo excellent for itewing
and for foups, as well as many other culinary ufes.

~Lacruoa Marina, fea-lettuce, in Botany, a name ufed by
fome authors for the /ichen marinus, commonly called oiffer-
green.

‘Lactuca Virofa, in the Materia Medica, a f{pecies of
laé&tuca, which grows about ditches, banks, borders of fields,
and old walls, flowering in July and Augult. The plant
has a ilrong ungrateful f{me!l, refembling that of opium,
and a bitterifh acrid tafte. It abounds with a milk juice, ia

which its fenfible qualizies feem to refide, and which feenis to”

have been noticed by Diofcorides, who reprefents its odour
and tafte as agreeing with that of the white poppy: and
Haller fays, that its effeéts are powerfully narcotic. Dr.
Collin, at Vienna, firft brought this plant into medical re-
pute, and it has been lately inferted by the College of
Phyficians at Edinburgh in the catalogue of the Materia Me-
dica. Dr. Collin mentions more than twenty-four cafes of
dropfy that have been treated with fuccefs by employing an
extract prepared from the expreffed juice of this: plant,
which is ftated to be, not oniy powerfully diuretic, but to
promote all the fecretions, and to remove vifceral obitruc-
tions. Inthe more fimple cafes, proceeding from debility,
dofes of the extract, from eighteen to thirty grains a day,
proved fufficent to accomplifh a cure; lut as the difeafe
was inveterate, and accomparied with vifceral obftruétions,
the quantity of extraé was increafed to three drams; nor
did larger dofes produce any bad effe& befides exciting a
naufea. The patients, it is faid, continued fo {trong under
. the ule of this remedy, that it was feldom neceflary to ems

LAC

ploy any tonic medicines. In Germany, few phyficians have,
fince the year 1771, when Dr. Collin made his experiments
with the laétuca, adopted the ufe of this plant: and hence
Dr. Woodville (Med. Bat.) takes occafion to obferve, that
the recommendation of Dr. Collin will be fcarcely thought
fufficient to eftablith its ufe in England.

LACTUMEN, from Jac, milk, in Surgery, aname fome-
times given to tinea capitis, or the fcald head, on account of
the white fcabs which are formed in this difeafe.

LACTUMINA, from Jac, milk, little ulcers, or crufly
{cabs in the fkin, chiefly occurring in children at the breaft.

LACUNA, Anprew, in Baggraphy, aneminent Spanifh
phyfician} was born at Segovia, in Old Caftile, in the year
1499. He ttudied philofophy at Salamanca, and after-
wards went to Paris, partly for the purpofe of improving
his knowledge of the Greek language, and partly for the
itudy of medicine. He took a degree in that capital, but
probably only that of matter of arts. In 1536, he returned:
to Spain, and followed the courfes eftablifhed in the col-
leges of Alcala, Henarez, and Toledo, in the latter of
which he received the honours of the doftorate. After this he
immediately repaired to the Low Countries, ir confequence
of acommand from the emperor Charles V. and he pafled
the greater part of his life at the court of that monarch.
In 1540, he went to the imperial city of Metz, and refided
there five or fix years, rendering great fervices to the citi+-
zens during the prevalence of an epidemic peftilence : and’
by his influence, thus acquired, he contributed to ftrengthen -
their adherence to the church of Rome and tothe emperor.
He vifited Italy, Germany, and France again, where he re-
ceived many honours from the learned corporations, and at
Rome was created count palatine, and knight of the order
of St. Peter. He died in his native country in the beginning
of the year 1560.

He proved himfelf a learned critic by the corrections and
commentaries on the works of Diofcorides, and on many
parts of thofe of Hippocrates, Ariftotle, Galen, &c. His
own works are numerous, confifting of a treatife on anato-
my ; anaccount of the epidemic at Metz ; a life of Galen,
an epitome of his works, and notes on the labours of his
tranflators, &c. He likewife publifhed a treatife on gout, -
on exerefcences in the neck of the bladder, and on diet,
and anepiitle to Cornaro; and he tranflated the works of
Diofcorides into Spanifh. Eloy. Dict. Hift. de Med.

LACUN, in Anatomy, {mall cavities in fome of the
mucous membranes, in which a fecretion of mucus is carried
on: as in the urethra of the male and female. See a de-
{cription of them in thofe organs under GENERATION.

LACUNARS, in Archite@ure, are the pannels or coffers
formed on the ceilings of apartments, and fometimes on the
foffits of the corona of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compofite :
orders.

In the temple of Minerva at Athens, the lacunars are -
placed immediately above the frieze within the portico, and
formed with a fingle recefs, having an ovolo at the top,
which moulding terminates the vertical plane «fides, and the
horizontal heads of the lacunars. The lacunars’ are not
f{quare, but longer in the longitudinal than in the tran{verfe
direétion of the building.

In the temple of Thefeus at Athens, the lacunars are
formed above the frieze, in two rows, between large beams
which reach from the rear to the front of the pronaos: their
figures are of a fquare horizontal feétion, and have only a
fingle recefs upwards, with an ovolo above the recefs. The
fide of the {quare of each coffer is about one-fifth part of the
diameter of the column,‘and their revefs upwards half the re

9° :

L) A, &.

of their {quare. The diftance between the beams is equal to
the breadth of the antz at the bottom, or nearly equal to the
diameter of the columns. The beams are not regulated by
the columns, but placed at equidiftant intervals, to receive the
two rows of lacunars or coffers. Within the temple or
cella, the beams reach tranfverfely from fide to fide; but
without, and under the foffit of the pronaos, they extend
longitudinally from the front to the rear of the pronaos, and
the lacunars in the fame direétion.

Temple of Minerva at Athens, Plates IV. V1I.—The la-
eunarsare placed above a frieze highly decorated with hiftori-
cal figures.

In this they are formed in one recefs, with a moulding

ovolo at the top of the recefs, or the fayheit extremity of
the fides. The lacunars are not fquare, but longer from
front to rear of the portico, than in the tran{verfe direCtion
of the building. Chap. ii. Plate XVIIT.
. In the foffit of the temple of Pandrofus at Athens, the la-
cunars are formed immediately above the architrave, each
into three recefies, with an ovolo at the bottom of each,
nearly as broad as the perpendicular furface. The whole
depth of the recefs is nearly half the fide of the fquare of the
lower part of the faid recefs. Each part diminifhes grsdually
in breadth in a floping ftraight line, till the fide of the fquare
of the upper part is fo contraéted as to be only half that of
the lower. Each fucceeding third part diminifhes regularly
in altitude, fo that accounting the bottom the firft, the alti-
tude of the fecond, or the one next above, is fomething lefs,
and the third about the fame quantity lefs than the fecond.
Each ovolo is fomething lefs in height than the vertical furface
below it, and has the fame ratio to its refpeCtive furface.

The cella of the temple of Velta at Rome is furrounded
with a circular colonnade. The ceiling of the portico has a
double row of lacunars, being two in the breadth of the por-
tico. The lacunars approach as nearly to a fquare as is con-
fiftent with their diminution, formed by radiations towards
the centre of the building, and are conitruéted in two re-
ceffes. The greate{t breadth of the outfide lacunar is about
nine thirteenths of the diameter of the columns. The whole
depth of the recefs upwards is about one-feventh of a dia-
meter. Theradiating fides of the lacunars or coffers are
in vertical planes, and the other two fides of each are vertical
cylindric concentric furfaces. The greateft breadth of the
upper recefs is about two-thirds of the lower. The hollow
of this recefs is occupied by a rofe of acircular form. The
recefs or cradle vaults of the temple of Peace at Rome are
arched and enriched with otagoual lacunars, each formed
in three recefles, which diminifh in their margins as they
recede upwards Between the o¢tagonal lacunars are others
of a fquare form ina diagonal pofition. The ceiling of the
middle of the chapel of the faid temple is comparted with
hexagonal and rhombeidal lacunars.

The Jacunars of the arcl+ of Titus at Rome are each fquare,
the fide of which being about three quarters of the diameter
of the column.

The entablatures of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Compofite
orders, are generally enriched with lacunars between the mo-
dillions

LACYDES, in Biography, a Greek philofopher, and na-
tive of Cyrene, was a difciple of Arcefilaus, whom he fuc-
ceeded in the academic chair. He was brought up in very
humble circumi{tances, but acquired great reputation by
intenfe application to his ttudies, and a graceful elocution.
He was highly efteemed by king Atitalus, who gave him a
garden where he might devote himfelf to ftudy, and to the
snitruétion of others: this was afterwards known by the

LAD

name of the Lacydean garden. Attalus wifhed Lacydes to
come and refide at his court, to which he refpeétfully replied,
that the portraits of kings fhould be viewed at a diftance.
He taught his difciples never to be hafty in their judgments,
and never to {peak politive'y, Having taught philofophy
twenty-fix years, he religned the employment to his {cholars
Telecles and Evander, in the fecond year of the r41f
Olympiad. In old age he difgraced himfelf by giving a
favourite goofe a moft magnificent funeral, and he fell a vic-
tim to exceffive drinking. Bayle. Enfield.

LAD, in Geography, a town of Moldavia, onthe Reut ¢
36 miles E.N.E. of Stephanowze.

LADA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors to the
plant which produces the common black-pepper.

LADAK, or Laura, in Geography, a province of
Thibet, bounding on Cafhmire towards the welt, towards -
the eaft on Nyari, and towards the north on the Ufbeks.
See Tuner.

LADANUM, in Botany. See Cistus.

Lapanum, or Labdanum, in Pharmacy, a gummous or
a refinous matter, oozing out of the leaves of a fhrub
called ciffus creticus, or ladanifera, which is very common in
the hot countries of the Levant, particularly in Candia, and
of which there are various kinds. The fhrub is alfo
plentiful in Spain, though no Jadanum is brought from
thence.

Diofcorides fays, they gather the ladanum by means of
goats, which, broufing on the leaves of this fhrub, return
to the ftable with their beards loaded witha fat fubfance,
which the peafants rake off witha kind of combs made for
that purpofe. ‘This matter they thus collect into lumps,
and, as it is mixed with the goats’ hair, and other impurities,
ca!lit ladanum in the beard, or natural ladanum. Others are
faid to draw cords over the leaves, and other parts of the
fhrub ; and, fcraping off what had ftuck tothe cords, they
make up the ladanum into little balls,

Tournefort affures us, that the common way of gathering
the ladanum at this time is, by brufhing it off the leaves
with a fort of whip, compofed of many lafhes, or flraps:
after it is {craped off the ttraps, they make it into cakes of
different fizes.

Pietro delle Valle tells us, he was informed by the Indians, —
that ladanum is formed like dew, and falls from heaven like
manna ; that it is gathered on the leaves of a plant a palm and
ahalf high; that, after gathering, they boil it, by which
means it becomes foft, like wax.

Bellonius fays that this juice is colle&ted by lightly bruth-
ing the fhrub, in the fummer heats, with a kind of rake,
called in Candia ‘“* Erga-tiri,’’ having feveral {traps or thongs
of leather fixed to it inftead of teeth; the unétuous juice
adheres to the thongs, and is afterwards {fcraped off with
knives, and formed into regular mafles for exportation.

There are two forts of ladanum in the fhops: the beft,
which is very rare, is in dark-coloured mafles, of the confilt-
ence of a foft plafter, which becomes ftill fofter on being
handled. The other is in long rolls, coiled up and much
harder than the preceding, and not fo dark. ‘he firlt has
commonly a fmall, and the laft a very large admixture of
fine fand, blown upon the juice from the fandy foil where
it is found. ‘

Ladanum has been fometimes exhibited as a peGoral and
aftringent in catarrhal affections, dyfentcries, and feveral
other difeafes, but it is at prefent wholly employed in exter-
nal applications and perfurnes. ‘The foft kind, which has
an agreeable fimell, anda lightly pungent bitterifh taite, makes
an ufeful ingredient in the cephalic and flomachic plafters ef

the

LAD
the fheps. Reétified fpirit of wine diffolves nearly the whole

of the pure ladanum into a gold-coldured liquor. Water
aequires by infufion much of its fmell and tafte: and, by
diftiliation in water an effential oil arifes, leaving a brittle
__ almoit infipid refin and a pale-coloured liquor, which, infpif-
ated, yields a weakly bitterifh extraét. Heat foon dettroys
‘the fpecific flavour of this juice. Lewis.
_ Lavanunm, Liquid, more properly called clear or purified
a Yadanhum, is a preparation of the natural ladanum, by melting
_ and purifying it from the hairs, &c.
_- ‘This hardened is fometimes fold for a fort of black am-
rgris.
PER to Heaven, in Botany. See Lity of the
‘alley.

, ols DERS, Scaling, in the Military Art, ave uled in
_ efealade. ‘They are of various forts; fome are of ropes
and fome of wood; fome are made of feveral joints, fo

as to be capable of being put together, and to form ladders
of different length, according to the fervice required. There
_ isafort ufed in England, much of the fame make as the
_ «ommon ladders, except that the fteps turn about wooden
s«~pezs, fo that the poles may be brought near each other, or
_ to thut likea parallel ruler. Thefe are very convenient for
carriage. .

Lanppers, ina Skis, derive their names from the feveral
hatchways or other parts where they are fituated. Befides
thefe, there are fome of a particular conftruétion, as the
accommodation-ladder, and the quarter-ladder. The ac-
_ commodation-ladder is a fortof light ftaircafe, occafionally
fixed on the gang-way of the admiral, or commaider in
| chief of a fleet. It is furnifhed with rails and entering
ropes, covered with red baize, and the lower end of it is kept
| ata proper diltance from the fhip’s fide by iron-bars or braces,
: to render the paflage more convenient to thofe who enter or
eave the fhip. Quarter-ladders, are two ladders of rope,
7 depending from the right and left fide of the fhip’s ftern,
awhereby to defcend into the boats which are moored aftern,
¢ order to bring them up along-fide of the fhip, or to ufe
them for any other occafion.

; Lanper /Vays, the openings in the decks where the lad-
ders are placed. ;
_ _ LADEINOEPOLY, in Geography, atown of Ruffia;
' an the government of Olonetz; 56 miles S. of Petrozavodik.
" N. Tat. 61° 56’. E. long. 33° 50!
_ LADEN, in Sea Language, denotes the ftate of a thip
when fhe is charged with a weight or quantity of any fort of
_ merchandize or other materials, equal to her tonnage or bur-
then. If the cargo with which fhe is laden be extremely
Teavy, her burthen then is denominated by the weight of the
Goods ; if it be light the carries as much as fhe can ftow, fo
a5 to be fit for the purpofes of navigation. A ton in mea-
fure is generally eltimated at 200olb. in weight, and therefore
avefiel of 200 tons ought to carry a weight of 400,000lb,
when the matter of which the cargo is compofed is {pecifi-
y heavier than the water in which fhe floats.
Laney, in Bult, denotes the ftate of being freighted
witha cargo, which is not in cafks, boxes, bales, or cafes:
but lies loofe in the hold, being defended from the moilture
or wet of the hold, by a number of mats anda quantity of
_ dunnage. Such are ufually the cargoes of corn,, falt, or
duch materials.
_ LADENBURG, in Geography, a town of Welftphalia,
jn the bifhopric of Ofnabruck; nine miles S.S.E. of
Ofnabruck.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Baden; fix
miles E. of Manheim. N. lat. 49° 27’. E. long. 8° 401.
_, _LADETSCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
}

— zaflan ; 12 miles S.S.W. of Czaflau.
Vou. XX.

LYA D
LADJA, in Hindoo Mytholozy, a being prodiwced by

Brahma, fimilarly with Labha: a being which Brahma, or
the creative power of the deity, produced from his lips
when peopling the world. Labha is a perfonification of ap-
petite or paffion, and the word in Sanferit has, asin many other
languages, a labial meaning, indicating the fource of the
being thus produced. On that occafion Kama, a perfonifica-
tion of love or defire (fee Kama), {prung trom his heart in
the form of a beauteous female, and Brahma, looking on her
with amorous emotions, was informed by the Munis, (fee
Meni, ) that fhe was his own daughter: he fhrunk back, and
Ladja, a perfonification of fhame, a blufhing virgin, was
produced. Brahma, deeming his body defiled by its emotions
toward Kama, purihed it by partially metamorphofing it into
ten females, who were refpettively efpoufed by the Munis.

LADIKIEH, in Geography, atown of Afatic Turkey,
in Caramania, anciently Laodicea ; 20 miles W. cf Cozni. .

Lapixc. See Birr of Lading.

LADISLAUS 1, in Biography, king of Hungary, fon
of Bela I. born in 1041, was a martial prince, and joined
his brother Geyfa in a war again!t Solomon, whom he ws
the chief caufe of defeating, at the bloody battle which de-
prived him of his crown, and placed it upon the head of
Geyfa. Upon the death of the latter in 1078, Ladiflaus
was chofen to fucceed him. He immediately attacked and
defeated the rebellious Wallachians, and annexed to his do-
minions Dalmatia and Croatia, through the gift of his fifter,
who was widow of the lat king of Dalmatia. He reduced
the Bohemians who had revolted, expelled the Huns, and
conquered part of Bulgaria and Ruflia. He defeated alfo
the ‘Tartars, and having made his dominions fecure on all fides,
he ftudied to render them flourifhing and happy by the arts
of peace: he encouraged commerce, and fublifhed an im-
proved code of laws. He built feveral new churches, and
made confiderable preparations for joining in the firft cru-
fade, when in an expedition into Bohemia he was attacked
with a difeafe, which put an end to his life in the year 1095,
after a glorious reign of feventeen years. He was diltin-
guifhed for piety as well as valour, and was canonized in
1198 by pope Celettine III. Univer. Hitt.

Lanistaus IIL., king of Hungary. The fecond prince
of this name reigned but a few months, and did nothing
worthy of record. The third Ladiflaus, the fubje& of this
article, furnamed Chun, came to the throne in 1272, after
the death of his father, Stephen TV. He obtained the name
of Chun from the barbarity of his difpofition, Soon after
his acceffion to the throne, he, in conjunétion with the em-
peror Rodolph, defeated the Bohemian king Othogar, who
was fl«in in battle. After this fuccefs, he gave himfelf up
to all manner of voluptuoufneis ; divorcing his own wife, that ”
he might indulge his paffion with women of the Tartar na-
tien of Cumans. His general conduét was fo bafe, aud his
oppreffion of the Chriitians fo enormous, that the pope, at
the defire of the principal people ot Hungary, excommuni-
cated him ; upon which he feigned a fincere repentance, and
built an hofpital for ftrangers. His total negle& of the go-
vernment, and the difaffection of his fubjects, invited the in-
curlions of the Tartars, by whom Hungary was fo dread-
fully defolated, that, for want of beaits, men, and even
thofe of the higher ranks, were obliged to draw the plough.
Hence the Hungarian proverb, *¢ The ploughs of Ladiflaus.’’
After a fecond invation, which Ladiflaus took no meafures
to repel, he was ftabbed, while fleeping in his tent, by fome
of the Cumanian women in whom he confided, but whom be
had offended. Univer. Hitt. ;

Lanistaus IV., king of Hungary, alfo king of Poland,
under the title of Uladiflaus V., was fon of Jagello, or ~

Aa Uladiflaus

LAD

Uladiflaus IV., whom he fuceeeded on the Polith throne in
1.435, being then only in the ninth year of his age. He was
eleéted king of Hungary in 1440. As the famous crown of
St. Stephen was in poflfeffion of the late queen, he was
crowned with a diadem taken from the cheft containing the
relics of that fainted monarch. He declared war againit the
Turks, and employed as his general John Huniades, who
was very fuccefsful in the caufe. Ladiflaus made peace,
which gave much’ diflatisfation to the pope, and other
Chriftian princes ; fo that he was induced to break it, A
battle foon after enfued, in which he loft his life at Varna,
in the year 1444. His death occafioned the complete ruin
of his army. Univer. Hift.

Lapistaus V., king of Hungary, was born in 1440, and
{ucceeded to the crown in 1444, when he was only in the
fifth year of his age. He was, at this time, at the court of
the emperor Frederic III. ; and it was not till 1452 that he
was reitored to his country. It was agreed that,: during his
minority, Hungary fhould be governed by John Corvin, fon
of Huniades; Bohemia by George Podiebrad; and Auftria
by Ulric count of Ciley, the king’s uncle, who was ap-
pointed guardian of his perfon, The count endeavoured to
fupplant John Cervin, but in vain; and he obtained great
honour by the defeat of the Turks before Belgrade, At
the death of John, the government was transferred to his fon
‘Ladiflaus, to the great mortification of the count of Ciley,
who endeavoured to -procure his affaffination; but he was
himfelf killed at Belgrade by the friends ot that family.
In 14579 Ladiflaus went to Prague, in order to cele-
brate his nuptials with Magdalen of France, daughter to
Charles VII.; but in the midft of the feltivities, he was
taken fuddenly ill, and died, not without fufpicion of poifon.
Mod. Univer. Hitt.

Lanistaus VI., king of Hungary, fon of Cafimir IV.
of Poland, was chofen king of Bohemia in 1470, and was
foon involved in a war with Matthias king of Hungary,
which was terminated by a peace in 1475. Atthe death of
Matthias in 1490;. Ladiflaus was clected to fucceed him.
He had, however, to make his way to the throne againit
the hottile oppofitien of his competitors, one of whom was
his own brother. At length he was quietly feated; but
being of an indolent and pacific difpofition, he wes ill fitted
to contend with the diforders which haraffed his kmgdom:
and from his great bulk and ina€tivity, he acquired from his
fubje&s the appellation of an ov, ‘The Turks having
threatened Hungary, he was, during his whole reign, con-
ftantly at war with the Turks, and other neighbouring
powers. Ladiflaus, though not warlike, was attentive to
the duties of his high ftation, and employed much time in
colleGting all the Hungarian laws, and the decrees of the
monarchs, into one body, which has ever fince formed the
bafe of the conftitution and jurifprudence of the country.
He died in 1516. Univer. Hitt.

Lapistaus, kings of Poland. See UnanisLaus.

LapisLaus, or LAnceLot, king of Naples, called the
hberal and viGorious, fucceeded his father, Charles Duras,
in 1386. He was before count of Provence and king of
Hungary. He obtained the latter crown in 1403, during
‘the imprifonment of Sigifmund, who compelled him to re-
turn to Italy. On the death of his father, he was oppofed
by Lewis IJ. duke of Anjou, which occafioned fome bloody
wars. The pope at firft efpoufed the caufe of Lewis, but
afterwards took the part of Ladiflaus, who, however,
marched againft Rome, and having taken it, turned his
arms on the Florentines, whom he compelled to fue for
peace in 1413. He died in 1414, aged 38, being poifoned,
agit was reported, by his miftrefs, who had been bribed to

5 -

LAD

perpetrate the bloody deed by the Florentines. Univer.
Hitt. T'ablettes Chronologiques, par Du Frefnoy, — *

LADIZIN, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
latinate of Braclaw ; 14 miles S. of Braclaw.

LADLE of a Gun, the inftrument wherewith the powder
is put into the piece.

It is made of a plate of copper bowed in form of a half-
cylinder, rounded at one end, the ether being fixed upon a
long itaff: this filled with powder, the gunner carries, with
his Sef hand under the end of it, to keep the powder from
falling out, till he enters it in the muzzle of the piece;
when he has carried the powder home to the charged cy-
linder, he turns the ladle, that the powder may fall out, and
withdraws it.

Ladles are fitted to the bore of each gun, and hold pow-
der {ufficient for the charge.

Smali ladles, with fhort handles of wood, are alfo ufed in

filling the fuzes of fhells, or any other compofition for filling
the cafes of rockets, &€c.

Laptis-Boards, thofe boards difpofed on the circum-
ference of the water-wheels of over-fhot mills; forming hol+
lows, or receptacles, not unlike ladles, to receive the water
that falls upon the wheel. See Water-Wurev. ‘

LADOCO, Los Codcs ce, in Geography, mountains,
which commence in Portugal, and are continued into Spain,
fepaiating Galicia from the Afturias.

LADODA, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Agimere; 20 miles S.E. of Roopnagur.

LADOGA, Nov, a town of Ruffia, on the fouth coaft
of the lake Ladoga; 56 miles E. of Peterfburg N. lat.
60° 2'. E. long. 21° 44". ;

Lapoea, or Ladoz/koi, Lake, lies in the government of
Vyborg, between the gulf of Finland and the lake of Onega ;
its fouth-weft extremity lying about jo miles ea{t from Pe-
terfburg. In ancient times it is faid to have been called
Nebo. Being in length 175, and im breadth 105 verfts, it
is reckoned one of the largeit Jakes in Europe. It pro-
duces a great number of feals. On account of the perilous
florms to which it is liable, and the feveral fand-banks that
are ever fhifting their pofition, Peter the Great, in 1718,
caufed the famous Ladoga canal to be dug along its fhore,
from the Volkhof into the Neva. It was begun by order
of Peter, and finifhed under the reign of the emprefs Anne.
This canal is 104 verits long, ro fajenes broad, 14 fajene
deep, and has 25 fluices. By the Neva the Ladoga is con-
neéted with the Baltic; by the Svir, with the Onega; and
by the Volkhof, with the Ilmen. Into the canal flow the
rivers Lipke, Nafia, Sheldika, Lava, and Kabona; into
the lake the rivers Pafha, Sias, Oiat, &c.; whereas the
Neva alone runs out of it. Both fhores of the lake belong
to Ruffia, which have every where a flat coaft and a fandy
beach. On this fhore it has alfo a few low fifhery iflands,
and a fandy bottom, That part of the northern fide which
lies in the government of Olonetz has marble on its ccait,
whence fome of thefe beautiful kinds of Finnifh marble are
brought to St. Peterfburg. As the bed of this lake, for a
great extent, isin the lowelt part of the country, it receives,
befides the above-mentioned rivers, the waters that come
from the Alum hills; all of which have no other outlet than
the Neva. Tooke’s Ruff, Emp. vol. 1.

LADONIS, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a
name given by fome to the jaurus or bay-tree. We find
the werd in a compofition preferibed in Galen, from the
works of fome of the empirics of his time; but it never was
uled by the more regular authors.

LADOS, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian.
fea. N. lat. 6° 11. E. long. 99° 40'.

LADRE,

4

=

_ degree of addrefs in the execution of their defigns.

— ) 4

-—

ae ae

by palm-leaves,

Philip.

LAD

NADRE, in the Manege, denotes dull. See Horsz.
LADRONES, Maartran, or Mary-dane, Zflands, in
Geography, a group of iflands in the North Pacific ocean,
forming a chain of 200 leagues, and occupying a {pace of
about 450 miles in extent. Magellan, who difcovered this
archipelago in 1521, impofed on them the name of Ladrones,
Thieves or Robbers,) becaufe the natives, like thofe of many
other iflands, who had no idea of the exclufive right of pro-
perty, manifefted a difpofition to pilfer, and a confiderable
Thefe
lands were alfo called ‘ Iflas de las Velas,’’ from the great
number of failing craft which came from thefe iflands to meet

fhips, when they prefenved themfelves there for the purpofe

of anchoring. Towards the middle of the 17th century, in
the reign of Philip IV. of Spain, thefe iflands’ were called
the “* Marians,” in honour of Mary-Anne, the queen of
In 1564 or 1565, Andreas Miguel Lopes Legafpi
took poffeffion of them in the name of the crown of Spain;
but he negle¢ted them as unworthy of his attention, and
purfued his voyage to the Philippines. ‘The iflands of La-

drones were forgotten till the zeal of a celebrated Jefuit,

Santevores, interefted the devotion of queen Mary-Anne of
Auttria, regent during the minority of her fon Charles II.,
and excited her to caufe the gof{pel to be carried into thefe
iflands, which Magellan had found means to annex to the
poffefions of Spain, by difcovering a new route, that
eluded the ridiculous line of demarcation eftablified by the
fee of Rome, in the plenitude of its power. In 1688, the
Spaniards prefented themfelves at the Mary-Anne iflands,
with the crofs in one hand and the {word in the other; and
with thefe two weapons, which lent one another mutual aid,
their pretended right to the pofleffion of thefe iflands could
not fail to be acknowledged. They had no difficulty in
making themfelves matters of Guahan or Guaham (now
called Guam), the principal of thefe iflands, and the matt
fouthern of the Archipelago; and by degrees they fubdued
all the others. Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan, de-
{cribes the people of thefe iflands as naked, their hair and
beards long, tall, and well-proportioned, with an olive com-
— They coloured their teeth black, like the inha-

jitants of the Pelew iflands; and in their manners and cuf-
toms they refembled one another. Till the arrival of the
Spaniards, the inhabitants of thefe iflands confidered them-
felves as the only men in the world, being affured that the
firft man was made of a piece of rock taken from Funa, a
little ifland near Guam; but, according to others, he was
made of earth in the latter ifland. When they were vifited

_by the Spaniards and Dutch, they inferred that thefe itran-

gers were brethren, who had loit the primitive Guamefe
language. In colour, fpeech, manners, and government,
they much refemble the Tagals, or people of the Philip-
pines, before the Spanifh conqueft. They were then very
populous; Guam, which is 40 leagueage circuit, having
30,000 inhabitants.. The women employed themfelves in
dyeing their teeth black, and their hair white. The nobles
Were treated with great refpeét, and thought it criminal to
eonneét themfelves in marriage with a common girl; never-
thelefs, the people were not enflaved, or even fubjects,
though they treated their nobles with great reverence,
Their houfes were divided into four apartments, feparated
In their abfolute independence each man
avenged his own quarrel ; but though wars were frequent,
they were not fanguinary ; the lofs of a man or two deciding
the battle. Their magicians invoke the anitis, or the dead,
whofe fkulls were preferved in the houfe ; and they manifeit
an anxiety leit the anitis, or ghoft, fhould dilturb their fith-
ing, or noéturnal repofe, Although Guam is the largett of

LAD

thefe iflands, Tinian has attra&ed the greateft degree of at-
tention in confequence of the romantic defcription given of
it in Anfon’s voyage. (See Guam and Tintan.) The
number of thefe iflands has been differently flated from 9
to 16; but it does not appear that above three or four are
inhabited. Their failing veffels, called proas, evince con-
fiderable {kill in naval architeture. For an account of
them, fee the article Boar. La Peroufe leads us to con-
clude that thefe iflands are volcanic; but their natural hif-
tory is little known. They cultivate various feeds and
fruit, and particularly the bread-fruit. For their produc-
tions of this kind, fee Tintan. In fir George Staunton's
account of the embafly to China, we have fome information
of a recent and authentic kind with refpeét to thefe
iflands. The grand Ladrone he reprefents as a high-peaked
ifland ; and he mentions another near it, whofe fummit is
fomewhat lower and more level. he latitude of the grand
Ladrone appeared to be 21° 52’ N., and the longitude 1 ee
36’ E. of Greenwich. The latitude of another ifland, called
Chooktchoo was 21° 55'N., and its longitude 113° 44! E.
The obfervations from which thefe latitudes and longitudes
are deduced were carefully made, and therefore they may
be deemed correét ; though they differ from thofe {tated by
other geographers. ‘The margins, or rocks, of the Ladrone
iflands next the fea are of a black, or dark brown colour,
owing to the action of the falt-water; and the {pray and
dafhing of the waves have corroded their furface, fo as to
give them a honey-comb appearance. Some {prings are
found on thefe iflands; and the water is neither brackifh
nor chalybeate, nor in any re{peét mineral in its tafte. The
foil upon the furface appears to be of the fame nature with
the component parts of the rocks below, and, indeed, is
merely the upper layer of the rock, decompofed and pulve-
rized by the joint aétion of the furrand rain in a fucceffion
of ages. The rock confifts of a mixture of clay, calx of
iron in a {mall proportion, and a great deal of filiceous earth
and mica. The fea all round is of a dirty-yellowith muddy
Sopa and of no great depth. The bottom is mud and
clay.

The Ladrones, and clufters of iflands between them and
the fouthern extremity of China, are fo near to each other,
and to the main land, and are alfo fo broken, as well as fo
irregular in their form and polition, as to appear like frag-
ments, disjointed from the continent, and from each other,
at remote periods, by the fucceffive violence of mighty tor-
rents, or in fome fudden convulfions of ‘nature. ~ Thefe
fragments have now a very barren and unpromifing afpeét.
In particular fpots, however, there are fome {cattered patches
of pleafing verdure ; but, in general, little better than naked
rocks appear ; and fcareely ever a tree or fhrub is vifible
among them. Thefe iflands ferve chiefly as retreats for
pirates, and for the temporary abode of fifhermen. Too the
north of the Ladrones are many {mall iflands, extending to
Todos los Santos, N. lat. 30°; thofe further to the N.
belonging to Japan. This group may either be arranged,
fays Pinkerton, among the Ladrones, or might, perhaps,
admit of a diftiné&t appellation, For a more ample account
of the Ladrones, we refer to the Supplement of De Brofles,
vol, il. p. 492, and to the article Tinran.

Laprones, three fmall iflands in the Pacific ocean, on
the coait of Veragua ; 8 miles §.E. of Cape Boruca. N.
lat. 8° zo’. W.long. 83° 16/.

LADROON, a river of Africa, which runs into the In-
dian fea, S, lat. 22° 36!. :

LADVOCAT, Jonn Baptist, in Biography, a man of
letters in France, was born in 1709. He was, at the ufual,
age, admitted a member of the fociety of Jefuits, and for

Aaa fome

LAE

fome time occupied the cure of Domremi, the bitth-place of
the celebrated Joan of Arc; but in 1740 he was appointed
royal profeffor at the Sorbonne, and in two years after he
was elected librarian, The good duke of Orleans having
founded a Hebrew profefforfhip in the Sorbonne, Ladvocat
was appointed, in 1751, to fill that office, which he kept
vill his death, in the year 1765. His works are «* A Geo-
graphical Digtionary ;” ** An Hiftorical Dictionary 5”
* A Hebrew Grammar,’? and feveral theological tracts.
He is reprefented as remarkably mild, humane, and undif-
guifed in his manners.

Lapvocar, Lewis Francis, a philofophical writer, and
dean of the chamber of accounts at Paris, where he died in
1735, in the ninety-firft year of his age. As an author, his
principal work is entitled ‘ Entretiens fur un nouveau Syf-
teme de Morale et de Phyfique,’’ which abounds in folid re-
flections, and well digelted reafonings. Some objections being
made to the principles contained in thefe converfations,
Ladvocat, in 1728, replied by publifhing «« A new Syftem
of Philofophy founded on the indifputable Nature of Things,
compared with the Opinions of the ancient Philofophers
relating to the firft Principles of Nature, &c.:" to which
is added a treatif2 on the nature of the foul, and the -exift-
ence of God. Ladvozat was an able magiftrate, and a good
man. Moreri.

LADY, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the govern-
ment of Smolen{ko, and before the late difmemberment of
Poland, a Ruffian frontier town.

Lapy’s J/land, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of §. Carolina, in America, between Port Royal ifland and
St. Helena. N. lat. 42° 30! W. long. 80° 32’.

Lapy’s Bed-Straw, or Cheefe-Rennet, in Botany and the
Materia Medica. See GALIUM.

Lapy’s Bower. See CLemMAriIs.

Lapy-Bird, in Zoology. See Hymisprmrra, and Sca-
rnapmus, Cocee vile tunclale. 7.

Lanpy-€hapel, a nanie invented by modern architeéts and
virtuofi to fignify the chapel which is generally found in our
aucient cathedrals behind the fkreen of the high altar. It
is fo denominated from its being generally dedicated to the
blefied Virgin Mary, called Our Lady.

Lapy’s Comb, in Botany. See SuzpHern’s Needle.

Lapy’s'Cufbion. See SAXIFRAGE. :

Lapy-Day, in Law, the 25th of March, being the
Annunciation of the Holy Virgin.

Lavy's Finger, in Botany. See ANTHYLLIs.

Lapy’s Mantle. See ALCHEMILLA.

Lapy’s Seal. See Tamus.

Lapy’s Slipper. See Cyprirrprum.

Lapy’s Smock, the common name of a perennial weed
often met with in pafture grounds. The ftalk is upright,
found, and {mooth, the leaves are winged, with the lobes
of the lower ones roundifh, and thofe on the ftalk oblong.

The flowers are large, handfome, and white, or purplifh, °

confifting of four obtufe veined petals. The feeds are con-
tained in ere&t comprefled pods, about an inch in length,
divided into two cells, whieh, when ripe, burft with a touch,
and throw out their feed to a confiderable diftance. It has

fometimes the vulgar names of cuckow-flower, Canterbury-
bells, &c. ;

Lanpy’s Graces. See TwypianeE.

Lapy of the Thifle. See Tuisrie.

Lapv, Prefentation of our. See PRESENTATION.

LADYKIRK, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Ronaldfha. N. lat. 58° 38’. W. long. 2° 49!.

LASLIUS, Caius, in Biography,.a noble Roman, the
particular friend of the firfl Scipio Africanus, accompanied

,

LAE

that commander to Spain, and was inflrumental in the caps
ture of New Carthage. When Spain was reduced under
the Roman power, Leelius was fent by Scipio to treat with
Syphax, and after this he was employed to ravage the coatk
of Africa. In conjunétion with Maflinifla, he defeated
Syphax, and brought him prifoner to Rome. He com-
manded the Italian horfe at the battle of Zama, and had a
contiderable fhare in the fuecefs of the day. THe was made
conful in the year 190 B.C.

Lanius, Carus, furnamed Sapiens, fuppofed to have beer
the fon of the preceding, was equally dillinguithed with the
former by his friend{hip with the fecond Scipio A fricanus, fo
that Cicero reprefents him in his treatife « De Amicitia,” as.
explaining the real nature of friendfhip with its attendant plea-
fures. Inthis work, which is known to every well educated
youth, Lelius appears as the chief fpeaker. He was ar
eminent orator, anda fuecefsful cultivator of polite literature.
He was fignalized by his prowefs in the war with Spain,
but is chiefly celebrated by the civil honours to which he
attained. is oratory is deferibed as of the mild and ele-
gant kind. He was a member of the college of augurs,
and pronounced one of the moft famous orations im that
capacity. He was conful in the year B. C. 140, When.
his friend Scipio quitted all concern in public affairs, Liclius
accompanied him to his couutry retreat, preferring the
pleafures of retirement and friend{hip to the honours of the
world. Hé is fuppofed to have had a thare in the compofition,
or, at leait, in the correction, of Terence’s comedies. His
modefty, humanity, and the manner in which he patronized
literature and learned men, are as illuftrious as the greatnefs
of his mind, and the integrity which he difplayed as a ffatef-
man. Univer. Hit,

LENA, among the Ancients, a thick, fhaggy, upper
garment. See CuHrmna. .

LAER, Prrer Vay, in Biography, a landfcape, cattle,
and converfation painter, known in Italy by the name of
Bamboccio, from the nature of the fubjects he frequently
painted during a long refidence at Rome, fuch as vintage-
revels, drolleries, quarrels, mummeries, &c. which are
termed by the Italians Bambocciate. He was a native of
Laeren, near Narden, was born in 1613, and being endowed
with excellent faculties of perception and imitation, he
praétifed the art he adopted with very great fuccefs. His
hand and his imagination were equally rapid; and fo readily
would the former execute the dictates of the latter, that he
rarely found it neceflary to make previous ftudies- for his
pictures ; but fetching flightly the fubject on his canvas,
he finifhed the work without more delay. He had the great ,
advantage of pofleffing an excellent memory, and if he con-
fidered any obje& with an intention to infert it in a picture,
it became fo imprinted in his mind, that he cou'd reprefent
it with great truth without its being placed again before his
eyes. 3 s
His pictures are of a {mall fize, but very pleafingly exe-
cuted, with an excellent tone of colour. i

In the latter part of his life he was feverely tormented
with an afthma, of which (not being endued with patience
enough to bear its miferies tranquilly), he contrived to rid
himfelf by drowning, in the Goth year of his age.

LAERTA, in Natural Hiffory, aname given by authors
toa {pecies of vefpa or wafp, whofe fting is faid to be fatal =
but this is an erroneous opinion. This wafp is larger and
longer ‘bodied than the common kind, but {maller than’
the hornet. It feenis cf a very irritable difpofition, attack~
ing animais of any kind that come in its way.

LAET, Joun pr, in Bioyraphy, director of the Haft
India company, was. born at Antwerp, where he died im

149»

|

* = ena Monogynia.

baat. 168.

* flalks, not half fo long

LAE

1649. -He was a great proficient in the languages, and
compofed or edited feveral works relating to geography and
civil hiftory, as “Novus Orbis ;’’ “ Hilloria Naturalis
Brafilie;"' “De regis Hifpanie Regnis et Opibus ;”’
« Refpublica Belgarum ;?? “ Gallia ;"" ‘¢ Turcici imperii

* Status. ;?? “ Perlie imperii Status.” Thefe works are {till
in confiderable repute, as well on account of the hiitorical
d geographical information which they contain, as on
Recount of the great beauty of the E'zevir types. They
are known generally under the name of the Reipublice.
Laet gave a new edition of the works of Vitruvius, enriched
with notes of various critics. Laet’s account of America,
which is found in his «* Novus Orbis,’’ involved the author
in a controverfy with Grotius refpecting the origin of the
inhabitants. It has been much ufed by more modern geo-

_»graphers,

LAETIA, in Botany, named by Loefling, in memory of
John de Lact of Antwerp, whe publifhed a Latin hiftory of
America in folio, in 1633, dedicated to king Charles I. of
England. Haller fpeaks with refpe of his botanical re-
marks, as throwing light upon the plants of Marcgrave, and
tending to reconcile bis de!criptions with thofe cf Clufius
and the Spanifh botaniits.—Lina. Gen. 267. Schreb. 355.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1163. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3.
Jufl. 293. _(Guidonia; Browne Jam. 249. Linn. in Loeil.
It. 190. Thamnia; Browne Jam. 245.)—Clafs and order,

1g Nat. Ord. Zilacea, Juff.
em Ch. Cai. Perianth inferior, of five oblong, concave,
reflexed, coloured, withering leaves. Cor. either wanting,
or of five petals. Stam. Filaments numerous, capillary,
rather fhorter than the calyx ; anthers roundifh. Pi/?. Ger-
men fuperior, oblong; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than the
ftamens ; fligma capitate, deprefied. Peric. Capiule roundifh
with three or four angles and as many furrows, flethy, of
one celland three or four valves finally recurved. Seeds nu-
merous, angular, each clothed with a pulpy tunic.
_ Eff. Ch. Corolla of five petals, or wanting. Calyx in-
’ ferior, of five leaves. Capfule flethy, of one cell, and three
or four valves. Seeds numerous, with a pulpy tunic.

Obf. We have endeavoured to profit by the obfervations
of Swartz, compared with thofe of Browne and Loefling, in
‘order to give a jult idea of the fruit, of which we regret

_ having never examined any fpecimen. Neither is any {uffi-
‘cient reprefentation of it extant.
1. L. apetala. Linn. Sp. Pl. 733. Jacq. Amer. 167.
Swartz. Obf. 219. Loefi. It. 190. n. 65.— Petals
none. Stalks axillary, three-flowered. Leaves elliptic-ob-
long, obtufe, minutely ferrated, fmooth and fhining.—
_ Gathered by Jacquin in woods at Carthagena, South Ame-
rica, flowering in April and May, bearing fruit in Auguit.
A free 20 feet high, throwing out {preading branches from
the very bottom of itstrunk. Leaves about the ends of the
fhort alternate tapering lateral fhoots, ftalked, above an inch
in length, ellipt:c-oblong, or obovate, obtufe, fmooth and
_ thining, very minutely ferrated. F/owers white, compared
‘by Jacquin to thofe of Hawthorn, both in appearance and
Acent, itauding moftly three together, on folitary axillary
as the leaves. _ Fruit, according to
Jacquin, ovate with three blunt angles, the fize of an olive,
nerally found more or lefs eaten by birds or infeéts, but he
eems to {peak of it as fmooth ; Loefling defcribes it as yel-
low and downy, nearly globofe, with four obfcure angles and
as many furrows. We are unable to determine whether
thefe writers both fpeak of the fame fpecies, though fuch is
the general opinion. lLoefling found his near Comana.—

Lamarck fufpects the L. apetala to belong to the Ludia of

¢ ‘Commerfon. See Lupra.

LAF

2» L.: Guidonia. Swartz. Prodr. 83. (Guidonia;
Browne Jam. 249. t- 29. f. 4?)—“ Petals none. Stalks
terminal, fingle-flowered. Leaves oblong, pointed, ferrated
and downy.’’—Native of Jamaica. Swartz. Browne calls
his plant Rod-wood, and fays it ‘* grows to a conliderable
fize, being efteemed a fine timber, and much ufed in all
forts of buildings. ‘The lines between the valves of the fruit
are of a beautiful red, as well as the placentze.”” We know
not why Swartz quotes him with a mark of doubt, nor have
we ever feen any {pecimen of this {pecies from either of thefe
botanitts.

3. L. Thamnia. Swartz. Prodr. 83. FI. Ind. Occ.
v. 2.950. (Thamnia; Browne Jam. 245.)—Petals none.
Stalks axillary, forked, many-flowered. Leaves elliptic-ob-
long, fomewhat crenate, fmooth and fhining —Native of
Jamaica. -Browne gathered it on the red hills above the
Angels, but fays it is not common. His own fpecimen is
before us. This is a /brub, fix feet high, with roundith,
{fmooth, flightly zigzag Lranches, whofe young ends are com-
preffed and coloured. Leaves alternate, on round {mootli
flalks half an inch long, elliptic-oblong, with a blunt point,
{mooth and fhining, {lightly crenate, two or three inches in
length, marked with pellucid dots readily feea when the
leaf is held againft the light. Flower-flalls from the young
fhoots, axillary, much fhorter than the leaves, forked and
as it were jointed, minutely downy, as are the calyx-leaves.
The flowers are not numerous, larger than the common
Myrtle, the two outer leaves of the calyx purplifh, inner
white, all reflexed. Stamens downy. Anthers yellow-
Fruit with four, rarely fivey angles, and as many valves,
which are revolute when ripe. Seeds numerous, with a pur-
plifh tunic. Swartz found this plant on the fouth coait of
Jamaica, in bufhy chalky fpots, flowering in the fpring.
We have borrowed moft of his defcription, comparing it
with Browne’s {pecimen.

4- L. completa. Lion. Sp. Pl. 733. Jacq, Amer. 167-
t. 183. f. 60. Lamarck. Did. v. 3. 374.—Petals five-
Stalks many-flowered, axillary. Leaves ovate-oblong, finely
ferrated, rugofe, fmooth.—This was gathered in woads at
Carthagena by Jacquin, from whofe book alone we have any
knowledge of it. The flem is fhrubby, branched, nine feet
high. Leaves about three inches long, of a broad ovate
fomewhat oblique figure, rugofe, veiny, finely but fharply
ferrated, {mooth, ftalked. Common flower-/laits downy.
Fruit yellowifh red, often flightly triangular, ripening in
Auguit and September. The flowering feafon is June.
The petals are as long as the calyx, but nothing is {aid of their
colour, Jacquin having feen them in a faded {tate only.

Not one of this genus is known in.the gardens of Europe,
nor have any dried {pecimens, except the above-mentioned,
falien in our way.

LAEUANGER, in Geography, a town of Norway, in
the diocefe of Drontheim; 46 miles E.N.E. of Drontheim.

LEVIUS, in Biography, a Latin. poet, who probably
flourifhed about the time of Cicero. He wrote a poemsen-
titled «‘ Erotopagnia,” or ‘ Love games,’’ which is quoted
by Aulus Gellius, and Apuleius... He compofed alfo a poem
entitled «*« The Centaurs,”? which is quoted by Feftus under
the title cf Petrarum.

LA FERE, in Geography. See La ¥rre.

LAFITAU, Josepn Francis, in Biography, born at
Bourdeaux;, entered the fociety of Jefuits, and became a
miffionary amorg the uncultivated. nations of North Ame-
rica. On his return home he wrote a work entitled ‘* Les
Meeurs des Sauvages Americains compares aux Mozurs des
premiers tems,’’ in two volumes 4to.: “ A Hiftory of the

* difcoveries. of the Portugnefe in the New World,” in two

- Yolse

LAG

vols. 4to. which maintains a high reputation. He died about
the year 1740.

Laritau, Peter Francis, brother of the above, was a
native of Bourdeaux, and became diftinguifhed as a preacher
among the Jefuits. Being fent to Rome on various negocia-
tions he became a great favourite with pope Clement IX.
who promoted him to the bifhopric of Sitteron in Provence.
He died in the year 1764, at the age of feventy-nine. He
was author of the * Hiltory of the Conttitution Unigenitus,"
two vols, r2mo.; ‘ Hillory of Clement IX.,’’ in two vo-
lumes, and “ Sermons,’’ in four volumes, betides feveral de-
votional and practical treatifes.

LA FORCE, in Geography. See La Force.

LAFORDSWICK, (Saxon, Alaford, 1. ¢. dominus, and
frwic, proditio, infidelitas erga dominum,) the betraying of a lord
or matter. This word is found in king Canute’s laws.
é. 61. and in the laws of king Henry I. ‘

LA FRESNAYE, in Geography. See La Fresnave.

LAFVENSARL, a fmall ifland inthe gulf of Finlaod.
Nulati sg? 57. Halong. 45° 32".

LAGA, in Antiquity, denotes kx or law: whence are
deduced Saxon-lage, Dane-lage, &c.

LaGa, in Geography, ariver of Sweden, which runs into
the North fea; four miles W. of Laho!m.

LAGAMAN, a town of Candahar; 60 miles N.E. of
Cabul. :

LAGAN, or Lacoy, in our Ancient Seca Laws, fhip-
wrecked goods, left by the fea, lying on the fand, either
afhore, or out at fea. eC

The word feems formed from the Saxon /egan, or /ugan,
jacere, to lie. "Though others deduce it from the Latin digare,
ta bind ; and fuppofeit to denote goods tied together with a
buoy, or the like, to hinder their finking to the bottom,
that they may be found ayain.

Lagan is ufually joined with jet/on and flot/on ; which fee.

LaGan, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which rifes
in the Sliebh-droob mountains, in the centre of the county
of Down, and making a {weep to the welt by Dromore, be-
comes the boundary between the counties of Down and An-
trim, from the neighbourhood of Moira until it flows a little
below Belfaft into that large eftuary called Belfaft Lough.
There are many villages, befides the confiderable towns of
Lifburne and Belfaft, on this river, and its banks are adorned
avith numerous bleach greens. Great exertions have. been
ufed to improve the navigation of this river, and a canal
joins it to Lough Neagh. ’

LAGANUM, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a genus
of the echini marini, of the general clafs of the placente. The
charaGters of the lagana are, that they have their mouth in
the centre of the bafe, and their aperture for the anus in its
third region ; that their fuperficies is whole, and their edges
waved. Of this genus there are five known f{pecies.

LAGARES, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Beira; 14 miles $.S.W. of Vifeu.

LAGAU, atown of Brandenburg, in the New Mark;
25 miles S.E. of Cuftrin. E. lat. 52° 28’ . E. long. 15°
26'.

LAGEMAN, (Lagammannus) homo habens legem, or
homo legalis feu legitimus : fuch as we call now good men of
the jury. The word is frequently ufed in Domefday, and
the laws of Edward the Confeffor, cap. 35.

LAGEN, Lacena,in ancient time, was a meafure of wine,
containing fix fextarii: whence probably is derived our fla-
gon. The lieutenant of the Tower has the privilege to take
unam Jagenam vini ante malum et retro, of all wine fhips that

‘come up the Thames; and fir Peter Leicefter, in his Anti-_

guities of Chethire, interprets /agena vini, a bottle of wine.

LAG

Lacew Bay, in Geography, a bay on the W. coaft of the
ifland of Ila, S. of Lagen point. ;

LAGENS, a town of the ifland of Flores, one of the
Azores, containing near 1400 inhabitants. ’

LAGENULA, in Porany, from Jagena, a bottle, becaufe
the form of the fruit is like that of a little bottle or flagon.
Loureir. Cochinch. 83.-——Clafs and order, Tetrandria ono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Cucurbitacee, Linn. Jufl.?

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of four ovate-oblong, re=
flexed, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals none. Neétary flefhy,
with four erect, fomewhat approximated, lobes. Stam. Fila-
tnents four, awl fhaped, equal to the calyx ; anthers ovate, in-
cumbent. if. Germen concealed by the nettary; ftyle
thick, fhorter than the ftamens ; {tigma fimple. Perics
Berry {mail, bottle-fhaped, with a narrow neck, of two
cells, and containing two feeds. Seeds folitary, convex on
one fide, angular on the other.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of four leaves, inferior.
Neétary four-lobed. Berry of two cells. Seeds folitary.

1. L. pedata. Called by tlie Cochinchinefe Cay rat nhs

la. A moderate-fized /brub, found on the hills of Cochin-

china. The /fem climbs by means of tendrils, and is branched, -

deftitute of prickles. Leaves pedate, of five ovate, crenate,
downy leaflets. J /owers whitith green, in terminal, fpread=
ing, fubdivided clufters., mee
Such is Loureiro’s defcription, which in moft refpe&sin-
dicates a plant of the Gourd or Bryony tribe, except the
germen being fuperior. It fhould feem therefore to range
with a few more genera, mentioned by Juffieu, at the end
of his Cucurbitacee, which differ from the charaéter of that
order in the fituation of their germen, '
LAGERSTRCEMIA, fo called by Linneus, in com-
memoration of his friend Magnus Lagerttrem, a direGtor of
the Swedifh Eait India Company, member of the Royal
Societies of Upfal and Stockholm, who communicated
to him many natural productions, and fome other cu-
riolities, defcribed in the fourth volume of the Amenitates
Academice, under the title of Chinenfia Lagerffremiana.
Amongtt thefe was an exquifitely carved horn of a Rhinoce-
ros, now in the hands of the writer of this article, which
reprefents a leaf of the Cyamus Nelumbo, accompanied by the
flower and fruit in a fmaller fize, with other memorable
plants, and feveral half-formed lizards, crawling as it were
out of their native mud, and feizing on the grape, the
Litchi, the Mango, and the Mangoitan, celebrated oriental
fruits. This feems to exprefs the fuppofed beginning of
animal life, with its dependance on the vegetable kingdom,
and throws light on the mythological-hiftory of the Cyamus,
to which article, written by our lamented friend the late
Rev. Mr. Wood, in our roth volume, we refer the reader,
—Linn. Gen. 269. Schreb. 361. 833. Willd. Sp, Pl.
vy. 2. 1178. Mart. Mill, Diét. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew,
v. 2.230. Juff. 331. Lamarck Dict. v. 3. 375. Tiluftr.
t. 473. (Munchautia; Linn. Mant. 153. Schreb. 515. 833.
Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Juff. 331. Murr. Gott. Pref. t. 1.
Adambea; Lamarck Di&. v. 1. 39.)—Clafs and order,
Icofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calycanthema, Linn. Sa-
icarie, Jufl. ;
Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell.
fhaped, angular, permanent, with fix deep, fharpifh, trian-
gular teeth. Cor. Petals fix, roundifh or obovate, wavy 3
their claws thread-fhaped, inferted into the calyx. Stam.
Filaments numerous, thread-fhaped, unequal, inferted into
the calyx, and exceeding it in length ; ‘anthers roundifh, in-
cumbent. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle threads
fhaped, declining, longer than the ftamens; ftigma obtufe,
Perie

Petals none, .

4

i A G

eric. Capfule ovate, pointed, of fix cells and fix valves,
rarely but four. Seeds numerous, angular, compreiled, at-
tached to the central hexagonal column.

Ef. Ch. Petals fix, their claws inferted betwixt the
teeth of the bell-fhaped fix-cleft calyx. Stamens unequal.
Capfule of four or fix cells, with many angular feeds.
~ Obf. L. parviflora has but four, or occalfionally only
é , cells and valves to the capfule.

3 1. L. indica. Linn. Sp. Pl. 734. Curt. Mag. t. 405.
J. Miller Ic.—(Tsjinkin ; Rumph. Amb. v. 7. 61. t. 28.)
Six ftamens much longer than
Leaves roundifh-oval, {mooth.
Kempfer

—Petals pointed, crifped.
the reft. Panicle terminal.
—Native of China, Cochinchina, and Japan.
fays it is very rare.
been introduced into this country by the late duke of Nor-
thumberland, in 1759. Nothing could be a more defirable
acquifition to the green-houfe or ftove. In the latter it
blooms moft freely, and is increafed readily by cuttings.
The frub is about the fize of'a Pomgranate-tree, rather
- ftraggling, fmooth, with angular twigs. eaves oppofite
or alternate, nearly fefile, an inch or two in length, of a
broadifh rounded elliptical form, flightly pointed, entire,
finely dotted, fmooth, except fome fhort pubefcence at the
rib and veins on both fides. Stipulas none. Buds axillary,
ovate, comprefied. Flowers in a large, terminal, fomewhat
_ racemofe panicle, of a fine rofe-colour, not unlike a double
. ftock at firft fight, but far more delicate and without {cent.
The petals are heart-fhaped, pointed, exceffively crumpled
and curled, with long flender claws. anthers yellow.
} 2. L. Regine. Roxb. Ceromand. v. 1. 46. t. 65.
_ Flos Regine ; Retz. Obf. faic. 5.25. Adambea glabra ;
| Lamarck Dict. v. 1. 39. Adamboe; Rheed. Hort. Mal.

(L.

Vv. 4. 45. t- 20, 21.)—Petals bluntifh, wavy. Stamens all

nearly equal. Panicle terminal, much branched. Leaves

oblong, pointed, {mooth—Native of woody mountains in
Malabar and Java, flowering during the hot feafon, and
j ripening feed in Auguft. A moderate-fized tree, with
Spreading Sranches, angular and winged when young. Leaves
from three to five inches in length, elliptic-oblong, entire,
fmooth, generally oppolite, on very fhort, ftalks. Panicle
compound, fpreading. Flowers two inches broad, with
_ rofe-coloured, round, bluntifh, fhort-clawed petals, and
very numerous, purplif, almoft equal flamens, with yellow
anthers. Capfules the fize of a large oblong acorn, pointed,
woody, fmooth, accompanied by the reflexed calyx at their
bale, which is dowry while in flower.
- +3. L. hirfuta. Willd. n. 3. (Adambea hirfuta; La-
_marck Ditt.'v. 1. 39. *Katou-Adamboe; Rheede Hort.
Mal. v. 4. 47. t. 22.)—Petals pointed. Six ftarnens much
- longer than the ret. Panicle terminal, muclr branched.
Leaves oblong, pointed, hairy.—Native of the provinces
_ of Mala and Poiga in Malabar, according to Rheede, from
_ whofe work alone we have any knowledge of this {pecies,
and who repreifents it as the wild ftate of the preceding, dif-
fering in being taller, with downy or hairy faves and
branches. The fruit alfo is roughifh with fine hairs. In his
_ plate moreover the petals are lefs wavy and much more
pointed, and he mentions that five {tamens (we have ventured
_ to prefame fix from analogy) are alone confpicuous in each
4 flower. The ftamens of L. indica enable us to underftand
_ this, and it is probable that the reft of the filaments are

fhorter than the calyx, fo as to have pafled unobferved.

Lamarck, after having firft, on Rheede’s authority, defined
and named this {pecies, fuggefts in his Dictionary, v. 3. 376,
.

that it may probably be ‘only a variety of the laft. We
mutt leave this point in doubt, after having colleéted all the
information in our power.

’ ‘

The Hortus Kewen/is records its having -

LAG

4: L. Munchaufia. Lamarck Di&. v. 3. 375. Willd.
n. 4. (Munchaufia fpeciofa; Linn. Mant. 243: urray
Gott. t. 1.)—Petals bluntith, wavy. Stamens all nearly
equal. Clutter terminal, many-flowered, nearly fimple.
Leaves ovate, pointed, almoft entire, f{mooth.—Native of
China, according to Linneus. His fpecimen is marked as
coming from India, Lamarck, in his Di. v. 3. 375, con-
founds this with Z. Regine, from which it is neverthelefs
very diftinét. , The aves are not half fo long, much thin-
ner, and are ovate, with much longer and flenderer foot-
ftalks. The only leaf we have feen agrees precifely with
that drawn by Murray, except in being ftill lefs entire, the
upper part being bluntly ferrated. The /loqers are copious,
racemofe rather than panicled, but they appear to differ
very little in themfelves from thofe of L. Regine, the petals
in Murray’s plate being erroneoufly made flat, obovate and
obtufe. Willdenow probably took his fpecitic charaéter
from thence, the plant being very rare, even in dried col-
leétions.

. L. parviflora. Roxb. Coromand. v. 1. 47. t. 66.
Willd. n. 5.—Petals wavy, blunt. Six ftamens much longer
than the refl. Flower-{talks axillary and terminal, about
three-flowered. Leaves oblong, obtufe, downy beneath.—
Native of the Circar mountains of India, flowering during
the hot feafon, ripening feed in Auguft and September.
The inhabitants call it Chinamghie, and ufe the wood for
various economical purpofes. ‘This is a little tree, differing
from all the foregoing in the fmallnefs of its fowers, which
are lefs than the common Myrtle, white, chiefly axillary,
ufually three on each of the ftalks, which grow in pairs,
and are (like the aves) about two inches long. The
petals are fix, round, with an undulated edge. he capfule
has but three or four cells. Six of the ffamens are as lon
as the corolla. Profeflor Willdenow, from ibtelardaae
ing the Englifh defeription, deferibes the aves as {ca-
brous. They are fmooth and fhining above, downy at the
back. S.

LAcEnstrm@MtA, in Gardening, contains a plant of the
exotic tree kind, for the green-houfe, of which the fpecies
cultivated is L. indica.

Method of Culiure—This plant is capable of being: in-
creafed, either by layers or cuttiags of the young branches.
The layers fhould be made from the young fhoots of the
preceding fummer, and be laid down in the autumn. When
they are well rooted in the fucceeding autumn, they thould:
be taken off and planted out in feparate pots.

The flips or cuttings fhould be made from fhoots of the
fame year’s growth, and be planted out early in the fummer, in
pots of light earth, being plunged in a bark hot-bed, and
covered with {mall bell hand-glafles, due thade and water
being given. When well-rooted in the fpring following,,
they may be taken up and planted in feparate pots, filleds
with light.mould, being afterwards managed as other green-
houfe plants. °

Thefe plants afford variety in colleGions of potted. plants
of different kinds. : ¥

LAGETTA, in Botany, the Lagetto or Lace-bark of
Jamaica. Juff. 77, Lamarck. Dict. v. 3.376. Ilufir.
t. 289. (Daphne Lagetto; Swartz. Ind. Oce. v. 2. 680.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 419 Frutex foliis majoribns, cordatis,
nitidis, petiolis femipoilicaribus infidentibus; Browne Jam.
37%.t.31.f.5. Laurifolia arbor, folio latiore, longo, mu-
cronato, levi, {plendente ; cortice interiore in telas plurimas,
linearum zmulas, extenfili; Sloane Jam. v. 2. 22, t. 168.
f..1, 25 3, t. 169. f. 1.) -See Dapune.

This free is a native of the loftier mountains of Jamaica:
and Hifpaniola, Swartz fays it is thirty feet high, with °

trun

LAG

frunk as thick asa man’s thigh, the wood white and folid,
the outer back cracked and greyifh; branches round and
fmooth. eaves alternate, on fhort dtalks, ovate or fome-
what heart-{haped, more or lefs pointed, entire, from four
to fix inches long, evergreen, very fmooth and fhining, veiny,
flat except a flight undulation at the edges; the under fide
palett. Spikes or cluffers terminal, either fimple or panicled,
each {earcely a finger’s dength, of few flowers, which are
white, four lines leng, ovate, four-cleft, the mouth below
the ftamens clofed with wool. Stamens eight, very fhort.
Germen clothed with long upright hairs. Drupa invelted
with the permanent calyx, its pulp fweet and whitifh, its
coat rough with punzent briftles. Seed ovate, brittle.

We cannot find fufficient reafons to make this a diftin&
genus from Daphne, but having feen only a fingle leaf, with-
out any parts of frutification, we prefume not to decide
with pofitivenefs. ‘The inner bark of this tree is very beau-
tiful and remarkable, confiiting of many lavers, which are
ealily pulled out laterally, into a fine white filky reticulated
web, like lace or gauze, three or four feet wide, which has
been ufed in ladies’ drefs on many occafions; and Charles IT.
is faid to have hada cravat made of it, prefented to him by
fir Thomas Lynch, then governor of Jamaica. Swartz
aflerts that articles of dreis made of this web, may be
wathed in foap and water without injury.

LAGGA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in,the pro-
vince of Upland; g miles S.E. of Upfal.

LAGHI, a town of Arabia, in the province of Madra-
maut, on the coaft of the Arabian fea; 12 miles N.E. of
A\den. s

LAGNASCO, a town of the Ligurian republic; 11
miles N.W. of Genoa.

LAGNIEDE, atown of France, inthe department of
the Ain, and chief place of a‘canton, in the diftriét of Belley ;
22 miles N.E. of Lyons. The place contains 2551, and
the canton 10,266 inhabitants, on a territory of 2074 kilio-
metres, in 14 communes.

LAGNY, Yuomas Fanrzr pe, in Biography, an emi-
nent mathematician, was born at Lyons in the year 1660.
He was intended for the bar, and was fent to purfue his ftu-
dies for that purpofe, firft at the college of Lyons, and
next at the univerfity of Thouloufe ; but having accidentally
met with Fournier’s Juclid, and a treatife on algebra, his
genius for mathematics was developed, and ‘he refolved to
devote himfelf to the purfuit of his favourite feience. He
came to Paris in the year 1686, and was foon after appcint-
ed tutor to the duke de Noai/les.-. He became a member of
the Academy of Sciences, and was appointed by Louis XIV.
royal hydrographer at, Rochefort, but fixteen years after-
wards he was recailed to Paris, and made librarian to the
king with aconfiderable penfion. He died in the year 1734,
and in his laft moments, when he no longer knew the perfons
who furrounded his bed, one of them, through a foolifh cu-
viofity, afked him ‘* What is the fquare of 12 ?”? to which he
replied, as it were mechanically, 144. His works are,
a. New Methods for the Extraétion and Approximation of
Roots: z. Elements of Arithmetic and Algebra: 3. On
the Cubature of the Sphere: 4. A general Analyfis, or
Method of refolving Problems : and 5. Several Papers in the
Memoirs cf the Academy. Lagny excelled in arithmetic,
algebra, and geometry, in which he made many important
difcoveries. He delivered the meafures of angles ia a new
{cience, called «¢ Goniometry ;"? in which he found the value
of angles to great accuracy by means of compafles, without
fcales or tables of any kind. He paid great attention to
* Cyclometry,”’ or the method of meafuring the circle, and
walculated by means of intinite feries che ratio of the cirezm-

/

LAG

ference of a circle to its diameter to 120 places of figares.
Moreri.

Lacny, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Seiné and Marne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftriGt of Meaux, feated on the Marne, and containing
three parifh churches ; 15 miles E.N.E. of Paris. N, lat.
48°53’. HE. long. 2° 46. The place contains 1836, and
the canton 12,257 inhabitants, on a territory of 1574 kilio-
metres, in 3f communes.

LAGO, a town of Italy, in the department of the.
Lower Po; 4 miles N. of Comacchio.

Laco Maggiore. See LANGENSEE.

Laco Nero, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata, at the foot
of the Apennines, neara lake from which it receives its name ;
12 miles N.E, of Policattro.

LAGOA, a town of the ifland of May, one of the
Cape Verde iflands.—Alfo, a town of Portugal, in Al-
garva; 5 miles N.E. of Silves.—<Alfo, a river of Africa,
which runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 6° 55'—Alfo, a
bay of the Indian fea, on the coatt of Africa. 8. lat. 33°
10'.

Lacoa. See Deracoa.

Lagoa d’ Albafeira, a lake-on the W. coaft of Portugal,’
near the fea; 12 miles S.S.W. of Lifbon.

Lagoa d'Obides, a lake on the W. coat of Portugal,
which difcharges itfelf into the fea, four miles N.E. from
Cape Carvaciro, in the province of “Eftramadura.

Lacoa de Patos, a bay on the coaft of Brazil.
29° 25'.

Lacoa de Pefcara,a bay on the coaft of Brazil. S. kit.
Zoos :

LAGOAS, As, a town of Africa, in the country of Ma-
tamba, on the Sierra Leone, N. lat. 8? 40’. W. long. 107

S. lat.

ion
° LAGOCHEILOS, (from Azywor, a hare, and x«iAo7, a
lip), denotes, in Surgery, the deformity more commonly
named a hare-lip. See Haru-iip.

LAGODA, in Gengraphy, a town of Brazil; 85 miles
W. of Fort Rio Negro. ,

LAGOECTA, in Botany, fo named by Linneus, from
Axywory a hare, and cixs:, a dwelling, or feat, the plant being,»
according to Bellonins, Obf. 32, (in Cluf. Exot.) called
in the ifle of Lemnos Lagochymeni, which means the form or
feat of the hare.—Linn. Gen. 112. Schreb. 156. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v.i1.a184. Mart.’ Mill, Di@.v. 2. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 53. Sm.) Prodr, FL Gree. you ees
Juff. 227. Lamarck Illuitr.t. 142. Gertn.t. 23. (Cumi-
noides; Tourn. t. 155-)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Uniellifera, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. General Involucrum of eight leaves, cut
like a feather, fringed, reflexed, containing a {mall umbel ;
partial one of four leaves, in feather-like capillary fegments,
furrounding a folitary flower-(taik, fhorter thanitfelf. Pe-
rianth fuperior, of five leaves, in many capillary fegments.
Cor, Petals five, two-horned, fhorter than the perianth. Stam.
Filaments five, capillary, the length of the corolla ; anthers
roundifh. i/, Germen roundifh, under the bafe of the pe-
rianth; ftyle as long as the flamens; ftigmas two, one of
them abrupt. Peric. none. Seed folitary, ovate-oblong,
crowned with the perianth.

Obf. Gertner remarks that there are the rudiments of
two feeds, though one only comes to perfeétion.

Eff. Ch. Involucrum both general and partial, pinnatifid.
Perianth of five leaves, in many capillary fegments. Petals
cloven. Seed folitary, inferior.

1. L. Cuminoides. Wild Cumin. Linn. Sp. Pl. 294. (Cie
minum fylveftre; Matth. Valgr. v. 2. 117. Camer, Epit. ;

519

*

ras

_—b se ee

xa 7 =

7"

7

LAG

$19. Kupsvor aypiov 3 Diofc. lib. 3. cap. 69.)—This is the

‘ only known fpecies of its fingular genus, found in fields and

vineyards, not uncommonly in Greece and the Levant. Its
mame in modern Greek 1s, according to Dr. Sibthorp,
Aypiopry2x!, or Wild Marjoram ; and Bellonius defcribes its
{cent and tafte as like that of Origanum heracleoticum. Diofco-
rides {peaks of the feed as a warm, rather acrid carminative,
more powerful than the Garden Cumin. The rosf is annual,
tapering. Stem ten or twelve inches high, branched, zigzag,
round, {triated, fmooth, leafy. Leaves pale green, fmooth,

- fimply pinnate, with about a dozen pair of fellile, roundith,

ved

' guifhed except cocoa-nuts and palm-nuts.

deeply cut, nearly oppofite leaflets, and an odd one; the
upper leaves become very much diminifhed, and brifle-
pointed. Unmbels terminal, globofe, denfe, half an inch
wide, befet with fhining, filvery, briftly points.—A figure
of this is deftined to appear in the Flora Greca, v. 3. t. 243.
—We know not how the idea of a hare’s form can bear any
analogy tothis plant, except it alludes to the feed, neftling
amonett the fine briftly coverings of the flowers like a hare
amongtt grafs.

Lacoecia, in Gardening, contains a plant of the herba-
ceous kind, of which the {pecies cultivated here is the wild
or baftard cumin, L. cuminoides. t

Method of Culture—Thefe plants may be increafed by
fowing the feeds in autumn, on a warm border, foon after

they are ripe, or where they are to remain; or when per-

mitted to fcatter, they come up and form good plants. They
afterwards require only to be kept clean from weeds, and in
the former cafes planted out when of fufficient growth where
they are to grow.

Plants of this kind afford ornament and variety in the bor-
ders and other parts of fhrubberies and pleafure grounds.

LAGOON Isianp, in Geography, an iland of the Pa-
cific ocean, difcovered in lieutenant Cook’s voyage in 1769.
It is of an oval form, with a lagoon in the middle, which
occupies much the larger part of it: the border cf land cir-
cumf{cribing the lagoon is in many places very low and nar-
row, particularly on the S. fide, where it chiefly confilts of
a beach or reef of rocks; it has alfo the fame appearance
in three places on the N. fide: fothat, the firm land being
disjoined, the whcle looks like many iflands covered with

wood. On the welt end of the ifland is aclump of trees,
appearing like a tower, and «boutthe middle are two cocoae

nut trees, which rife above all the reft, which in approaching
the ifland appear like a fl. g. The whole ifland is covered
with trees of different verdure ; but none could be diftin-
The natives ap-
peared to be tall, andto have remarkably large heads ; they
were of a copper colour, and had long black hair. Whilit
they walked on the beach they feemed to be naked; but
when they retired they covered themfelves with fomething of
a light colour. Their habitations were under fome clumps
cf palm-nut trees, which appeared to Cook and his compa-

_-nions, who had long feen nothing but fea and fky, except the

dreary hills of Terra del Fuego, to be a terreftrial paradife.
S.lat. 18° 47'. W. long. 139° 28’. Variation 2° 54! E.
Hawkefworth’s Voyages, vol. ii.

Lacoon, Middle, a gulf on the coaft of Yucatan, inthe
bay of Honduras. N. lat. 18° 7/. W. long. 88° 59’. North
Lagoon is a gulf in the fame bay. N. lat. 18° 40’. W.
long. 88° 58'. South Lagoon in the fame bay lies in N. lat.
17- 54'. W. long. 88? 59’. 1

LAGOPHTHALMIA, or Lacopntuatmvus, (de-
rived from Aaywor, a hare, and o¢$arpos, an eye,) denotes, in
Surgery, a particular cafe, where the patient experiences an
inability of clofing the eye-lids foas-to cover the eye. It is
the defeat to which the term oculus kporinus, or hare-eye, has

Vox. XX.

LAG

fometimes been applied. The etropium, or gaping of ‘the
eye-lids, if the affeétion is confined to the upper palpebra,
now and then receives one of the foregoing appellations,
Some writers, however, with much reafon, are dehrous of
reftricting the term /agophthalmia, or lagophthalmus, to cafes
of fimple retraétion of the eye-lid, unattended with any de-
gree of everfion.

Various and many are the inconveniences which may be
the confequence of this incapacity of properly covering the
eye with the eye-lids. The tears are inceflantly dropping
over the cheek, becaufe the alternate opening and clofure of
the eye-lids, fo effential to the propulfion of this fecretion
into the punéta lachrymalia, are impeded. Ina flrong light
the patient is quite blinded ;- for it is impoflible for him toa
leffen the quantity of rays which fall upon the eye, by
making the eye-lids approach each other. From this caufe
vifion gradually becomes very much weakened. . Nor can
the patient fleep well in any apartments which admit the
light. And, in addition to thefe unpleafant circumftances,
we muft mention the painful inflamed fate of the eye, fre-
quently induced by the.irritation which it fuffers from the
lodgment of duft, and other extraneous fubftances upon it.

A preternatural fwelling, or protrufion of the eye from
the orbit, is fometimes the caule of lagophthalmus, which
in this cireumftance is to be regarded only as a fymptom of
another difeafe, and generally gets well with the primary af-
fection. In the majority of cafes the defect is fituated in the
upper eye-lid.

Several {pecies of lagophthalmus are noticed by Richter.
In fome, though not many initances, the difeafe depends
upon a weaknefs, or paralyfis, of the orbicularis palpebra-
rum mufcle. Here the upper eye-lid may readily be brought
down over the eye with the fingers; but the patient is quite
incapable of doing this without externalaid. The cure can
in general only be accomplifhed with difficulty.. The treat-
ment moft likely to prove beneficial confitts in applying cor-
roborant and ftimulating applications. Rubbing the {kin of
the eye-lids once or twice a day, with a drop or two of fennel-
oil, eleGiricity, friGtions upon the eye-lids with the tin@ura
cantharidis, blifters near cr immediate'y upon the eye-lids,
the application of cold water to the eye by means of com-
preffes wet very often in the courfe of the day; &c. are
plans in repute. Letting the water of a fhower-bath fall
upon the hinder part of the head; cold applications aflifted
with the internal employment of bark, and camphorated
remedies, are all likely means to do good in cafes of the pa-
ralytic lagophthalmus.

A fiffure in the lower, and efpecially in the upper eye-lid,
whether an original malformation, or the confequence of a
neglected wound, may produce a ‘confiderable expofure of
the eye-ball, when the patient attempts to fhut his eye;
for at this period the margins of the flit will be drawn
furtheft afunder. This particular cafe requires a fimi'ar
operation te that forthe hare-lip. (See Hare-ip.) But
inftead of the twifted future, the furgeon is to employ the
interrupted. See SurTure.

The moft common kind of lagophthalmus is undoubtedly
that which originates from a contraction of the integuments
of the upper eye-lid, in confequence of wounds, ab{cefles,
burns, &c. Here the obfervations, elfewhere made con-
cerning the diagnofis and cure of an analogous cafe, are
{triatly applicable. See Ecrropivun.

Sometimes lagophthalmus appears to depend upon anindn-
rated thickening and contra¢tion of the levator palpebrz fupe-
rioris, and of the fkin of the eye-lid together. In this cafe
no furgical operation will avail in curing the difeafe, and
every chance of benefit = in a trial of other plans.

b

Ia

LAG

In order to preferve the fight, it is proper to guard the eye
with a green fhade from the effects of itrong light, until
the infirmity is completely removed.

LAGOPODES, in Ornithology, a name given to a di-
vifion of the genus 7vfrao, diftinguifhed by a naked fpot
above the eyes, and hairy legs. See Terrao.

LAGOPUS, in Botany, from dwyno;, 4 hare, and rs:,
a foot, aname which has been applied to feveral different
plants, whofe foft hairy heads of flowers have fuggelted the
idea of a hare’s foot. Among thefe are a fpecies of Plan-
éago ; one of Gnaphalium, called by Linneus digicum ; fome
graffes ; and feveral of the Diadelphia clafs. There are
grounds of fufpicion that the Lagoecia, ({ee that article, )
might primarily have been named with fome allufion to the
foot rather than the form of a hare, which its round hairy
tufts of flowers might very well juftify.

Lacopvs, in Ornithology. See Grous, Red, PTARMIGAN,
and TrErrao. -

Lacopus, in Zoology, is the name of a f{pecies of the
canis, with a ftraight tail throughout of the fame colour.
It is fometimes called the white fox, the ifatis, and the fy-
coloured fox. It is found in Lapland and Siberia. See
Fox.

LAGOR, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftri@ of Orthés; § miles S.E. of Orthés. The
place contains 1700, and the canton 10,588 inhabitants, on
a territory of 177% kiliometres, in 23 communes.

LAGOS, a fea-port of Portugal, in the province of
Algarve, fituated in a bay of the Atlantic, to which it

ives name, defended by feveral forts: the harbour is deep,
bat full of rocks. This place is the refidence of the viceroy
of Algarve, and contains two parifh churches, four con-
vents, and about 4600 inhabitants; 96 miles S. of Lifbon.

~ N. lat. 37°. W. long. 8° 39'—Allfo, a river of Africa,

which rifes in Benin, and runs into the Atlantic, N. lat. 5°
ro!. Its navigation is ob{truéted by a bar at its mouth.—
Alfo, a town of Mexico, in the province of Guadalajara ;
36 miles N.E. of Guadalajara.

LAGOSTOMA, (from Axywo:, a hare; and soua, the
mouth,) is a term in Surgery, fignifying the hare-lip.

LAGOUSA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the gulf of
Engia; 3 miles N. of Engia.

LAGOW, atown of Auftrian Poland; 16 miles N. of
Sandomirz.

LA GRAVE. See La Grave.

LAGRIMOSO. See Lacrimoso.

LAGUA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba ;
So miles W.N.W. of Villa del Principe.

LA GUAYRA. See Guayra.

LAGUEN, one of the fmall Philippine iflands, near the
north coaft of Samar. N. lat. 12°43’. E. long. 125° 9’.

LAGUERRE, Louis, in Biography, a painter of hif-
tories on ceilings, ftaircafes, halls, &c., and an affiftant and
imitator of Verrio ; with whofe name his own has been moft
eis ee | immortalized by Pope, in that charaéteriftic
verfe,

«¢ Where fprawl the faints of Verrio and Laguerre.”’

Laguerre, though the fon of a Catalan, was born in
France; and his father being mafter of the menagerie at
Werfailles, he had the honour of having Louis XIV. for his
god-father, and after him he was named. At firft he was
intended for the church, and was placed in the Jefuits’ col-
lege for education ; but having a hefitation in his {peech, and
therefore not fuited to {apport their ambitious projects, and

LAG

having exhibited fome tafte in drawing, the god-father re-
commended to his parents to bring him up to the profeffion
of painting.

He then ftudied in the fchool of Le Brun, and in the
Royal Academy of Paris; and made fo much progrefs, that,
in the year 1683, at the age of 20, he came to England,
and was immediately employed by Verrio upon the large
work at St. Bartholomew’s hofpital ; in which he fueceeded
fo well, that he foon obtained confiderable employment on
his own account, and executed a great number of ceilings,
halls, and ftaircafes, in the houfes of the principal nobility
of the country, particularly at lord Exeter’s at Burleigh,
at Devonfhire Houfe, Piccadilly, Petworth, and Blenheim.
King William gave him lodgings at Hampton Court, where
he painted the “ Labours of Hercules,” and repaired the
large pictures called «* The Triumphs of Cefar,’* by An- -
drea Mantegna.

His talents were not of afcaft to demand very high refpeé,
but they were fully equal to the mode in which they were
employed,—which requiring a certain portion of ingenuity,
is a certain waite of talents of a fuperior clafs. In a few
years, it is probable his name will repofe for perpetuity on
the records of hiftory, and the unlucky fatire of Pope above
mentioned,

His death happened in the year 1721, and in a place very
feldom difturbed by fuch an event, viz. in the theatre of
Drury-lane. He had gone there to fee the Ifland Princefs
aGied for the benefit of his fon, who was newly entered upon
the ftage as a finger; but before the play began, he was
feized by an apoplexy, and carried away fenfelefs.

LAGUNA, in Botany. See Lacuna.

Lacuna, in Geography, a town of South America, in
the province of Venezuela, on the weft fide of lake Mara-
caybo; 80 miles S. of Maracaybo. ;

Lacuna, or St. Chriffobal de la Laguna, a city of Tene-
riffe, fo called from an adjoining lake, which does not now
remain, about four miles from Santa Cruz. It ufed to be
reckoned the capital of the ifland, the gentry and lawyers
living there, and the courts of juftice being held in this
town; though the governor-general of the Canary iflands
refides at Santa Cruz, as being the centre of their trade
both with Europe and America. The place, though pretty
extenfive, fcarcely deferves to be dignified with the name of
acity. The difpofition of its ftreets is very irregular ; but
fome of them are of a tolerable breadth, and have fome good
houfes. In general, however, Laguna is inferior in appear-
ance to Santa Cruz, though the latter is fmall compared
with the former ; and it is faid to be in a declining ftate ;
vineyards being now planted where houfes formerly ftood:
whereas Santa Cruz is daily increafing. Laguna is fituated
on an eminence, in a fertile plain of confiderable extent.
Befide vines, it bears wheat, Indian corn, potatoes, and a
fpecies of bean not unlike a lupin. From grounds ftill
higher, water is conveyed to a variety of fountains in this
city, as at Santa Cruz, in an aqueduct compofed of wooden
troughs, and fupported by poles fixed into the earth.
To the plain now mentioned fucceeds a ridge of hills, of
gentle afcent, from the fummit of which may be eafily traced
the windings of a pleafant valley, ftretching to the weit-
ward, along the feet of a range of hills that feparate it

from the fea-coaft. The town of Ticoronta and numerous

little villages form a fcene agreeable and pifturefque. The
bofoms of the mountains are well cultivated, and their more
rugged fides are chiefly covered with the {pontaneous plants
of warm regions, fuch .as the Cacalia kleinia, the Agave
americana, the Cactus tuna, befides others of little orna-
ment or ufe, N, lat, 28° 28, W. long. 16° 20!.

5 Lactnra ’

» LAG

. Lacuna Efcura, a cape of Portugal, in the province of
Beira; 7 miles S.W. of Guarda.

LAGUNA, in Botany, named by Cavanilles in me-
mory of Andrew Laguna, a Spanifh botanift and phyfician
of the 16th century, who made a tranflation of Diofcorides,
with a commentary, into his own language, and wrote alfo
fome botanical as well as medical works.—Schreb. 463.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 733. Mart. Mill, Dict. v. 3. (La-
guna; Cavan. Diff. 173. Juff. 273. Lamarck Mluitr.
t.577. Solandra; Murr. in Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 623.
Jull. 273. Lamarck LIlluftr. t. 580. Cavan. Diff. 55.
Triguera; Cavan. Diff, 41. t. 11.)—Clafs and order, Mo-
» sadelphia Polyandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Mal-
vacea, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth fimple, inferior, of one leaf,
bell-fhaped, flightly angular, cut about half way down into
five fegments,, permanent. Cor. Petals five, ovate-oblong,
obtufe, fpreading, attached to the bafe of the tube of the
ftamens. Svam. Filaments numerous, 25 to 32, united be-
low into a tube, at the top of which, as well as at its fides,
they become feparate and diftin@ ; anthers roundifh. Peric.
Germen ovate-oblong, fuperior ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer
than the ftamens, either with five fpreading branches at the
top, or only five notches; {tigmas capitate. eric. Capfule
ovate-oblong, obfcurely five-lided, with five cells and five
valves ; the partitions contrary to the valves. Sveds feveral,
roundifh, with three angles.

Obf{. The Solandra of Murray has a deeply five-cleft
calyx, and five diitin&t ftigmas ; Laguna of Cavanilles has a
five-toothed calyx, burfting at one fide, and a ftigma with
five notches or teeth. Schreber has very judiciouily united
the two, from obferving fimilar differences among many
fpecies of the genus Aibifcus.

Eff. Ch. Calyx fimple, five-cleft. Stigmas five-cleft.
Capfule of five cells, with contrary partitions.

1. L. /obata. Lobed Laguna, Willd. n. 1. (Solan-
dra lobata; Murr. in Comm. Goett. for 1784. 21. t. 1.
Cavan. Diff. 279. t. 136. f. 1. Hibifcus Solandra;
L’Herit. Stirp. v. 1. 103. t. 49. Ait. Hort. Kew.-ed. 1.
v. 2. 455.) —Leaves heart-fhaped, three-lobed, unequally
ferrated.—Native of the Ifle of Bourbon. Root fibrous,
annual. Svem branched, two feet high, round, clothed, like
every other part of the herbage, with prominent hairs.
Leaves alternate, ‘on long ftalks, heart-fhaped, more or lefs
deeply three-lobed, acute, unequally cut or ferrated, two
or three inches long, and nearly as wide, of a light green.
Stipulas linear-oblong. Flowers on long ftalks, in long ter-
minal clutters, with bracteas like the ftipulas. Corolla
white, about half an inch or more in diameter. Itis a plant
of little beauty, compared at leaft with the generality of its
‘natural order.

z. L. ternata. Ternate Entire Lagunea. Willd. n. 2.
(Solandra ternata; Cavan. Diff. 279. t. 136. f. 2.)—
Leaves ternate and fimple, entire.—Native of Senegal,
whence Adanfon brought {pecimens, the only ones of which
we have any account. The root appears to be annual.
Stems feveral, about a foot high, flender, round, downy,
like the other parts. Leaves alternate, diftant, on long
flalks, moitly ternate, the upper ones fimple; leaflets ob-
long, narrow and entire, the fide ones fmalleft. Stipulas
fmall, acute. FYowers on longifh, fimple, folitary, axillary
or lateral ftalks, fhorter than the leaves. Of the corolla we
have no information.

3. L. aculeata. Prickly Lagunea. Cavan. Diff. 173.
t. 71. f. 1.—Leaves ternate, cut. Stem prickly.—Found
near Pondicherry. The /lem is a foot and half high, muri-

LAH

cated. Leaflets nearly equal, obtufe, cut. Flowers yellow.
Sometimes the leaflets are more than three.

L. Paterfonia, Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 769. (L. f{qua-
mea; Venten. Malmais. t. 42. Fiibifeus Paterfonius ;
Andr. Repof. t. 286.) found in Norfolk ifland by Col.
Paterfon, a very handfome fhrub with a large purple flower,
appears to us at beft but a doubtful Lagunea, nor is the ac~
count of the fruit given with fufficient accuracy in Andrews,
for us to judge relpeéting this matter.

LAGUNILLA, in Geography, a town of South Ame-
rica, in the vice-royalty of New Granada; 14 miles S.W.
of Merida.—Alfo, a town of South America, in the pro-
vince of Cordova; 30 miles E. of Cordova.

LAGUNILLAS, Las, a town of Peru, in the diocefe
of La Paz; 39 miles N. of Potofi.

LAGURUS, in Botany, from rAwywor, a hare, and ovex,
the tail, alluding to the appearance of the {pike or head of
flowers. Hare’s tail Grafs.—Linn. Gen. 37. Schreb. 52.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.453. Mart. Mill. Di@. v. 3. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 173. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Gree. v. 1.
68. Fl. Brit. 143. Juff. 30. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 41.
Gertn. t. 1. Clafs and order, Triandria Digynia. Wat.
Ord. Gramina, Linn. Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Glume fingle-flowered, of two long,
linear, very thin, fpreading, feathery valves. Cor. of two
firmer valves; the outermoft longeft, terminating in two
{mall ftraight awns, with a third awn from the middle of
the back, twilted and more or lefs bent backward; inner
valve {maller, narrower, pointed, beardlefs. Netary of
two lanceolate blunt f{cales, tumid at their bafe. Stam. Fi-
laments three, capillary ; anthers oblong, pendulous, cloven
at each end. Pit. Germen fuperior, oblong; ftyles two,
fhort; ftigmas long, cylindrical, feathery. Perc. none,
except the permanent corolla attached to the feed. Seed
folitary, obovate, clothed with the corolla and its awns.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of two valves, fingle-flowered, feathery.
Outer valve of the corolla with two terminal awns, and a
dorfal twifted one.

1. L. ovatus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 119. Sm. Engl. Bot.
t. 1334. Fl. Grec. Sibthy v. 1. 71. t. go. Schreb.
Gram. t. 19. f. 3.—Native of fandy open places in the
fouth of Europe and north of Africa, flowering early in
fummer. Being found in Guernfey, it is admitted into the
lift of Britith plants. The raof is annual, compofed of
downy fibres, like all grafles that grow in driving fand.
Stem folitary, various in height, downy and foft like the
leaves, whofe fheaths are long and rather tumid. Spike
ovate, at firft erect, but foon bent to one fide, or drooping,
from the power of the wind; it is not unaptly compared to
the tail of a hare, which it refembles in denfity, fhape,
lightnefs, and whitenefs, The name in modern Greek,
Aayevtex, expreffes the fame idea.

Lagurus cylindricus of Linneus being properly removed to
Saccharum, the above ftands a folitary {pecies of its genus.
We know not of its having any ufeful property, except
ferving to decorate flower-pots in winter, mixed with any
everlaiting flowers.

Lacurus, in Zoology. See Mus.

LAGUYO, in Geography, a town of Africa, on the
Gold Coait, in the country of Fantin.

LAHAAR, a town of Hindgoftan, in the circar of -
Gohud; 40 miles E.of Gwalior, N. lat. 26°9!. E. long.
79° 35'.

. LAHADSI, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Yemen; 16 miles N.W. of Aden.
Bbz. LAHALL,

LAH

LAHALL, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Welt Gothland ; 1o miles N. of Gothenburg.

LAHAWANNOCK Creek, a river of Pennfylvania,

which runs into the Sufquehanna, S. lat. 41° 20!. W. long.
7 58’.

LAHIGIAN, or LAnicren, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Ghilan, on the Ifperud, fituated on an emi-
nence ; eight miles E. of Refhd.

LAHISZIN, a- town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Brzefe ; 12 miles N.E. of Pinfk.

LAHMEDIE, a town of Egypt; 14 miles S.S.W, of
Damietta.

LARN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Jauer,
on the Bober. N. lat. 50’ 58’. E. long. 15 44.—Alfo, a
river of Germany, called Lohn, which mfes in the N.E. part
of the principality of Siegen, about 10 miles E.N.E. from
the town of Siegen, and runs into the Rhine near Lohn-
fein.

LAHNSTEIN, or Lounster, a town of Germany,
at the conflux of the Lohnand Rhine; four miles E. of
Coblentz. ,

LAHO, a town of Africa, on the Ivory Coaft, which
has been reprefented as a large and pepuious place, extending
a league along the coaft; the fhore being compofed of a
beautiful yellow fand, againft which the fea beats with great
violence. The natives, who are well fupplied with all kinds
of provifions, are of a mild, tractable, and gentle difpo-
fition ; but. ready to feize any opportunity for raifing the
Price of their ivory, according to the demand, and the
number of fhips they obferve on the coalt.. They are vifited
by interlopers of all nations, the free fhips of England,
Holland, Denmark, and formerly the Hanle towns, whence
the occafions of raifing their price frequently occur. Laho is
planted, like Axim, witha great number of cocoa-trees ;
and thus the neighbouring countries of both diftri€s very
much refemble one another. Cape Laho is fituated in N.
lat. 5° 10', equally diftant from Cape Palmas. and Cape Tres
Puntas, and the weftern frontier of that diftri€@, called the
country of the .* Good People.”? Beyond Cape Laho the
coat falls in dire@tly N.E., forming a fine bay, at the head
of which opens the mouth of the little river, called Jaque
Lahu, or Das Balbas, running directly N. and S. but not
navigable.» Farther eaftward is Korbi Laho, the little pool,
called the Bottomlefs pit,’’ fo called both by the Englith
and Dutch, becaufe feveral unfuccefsful attempts had been
made to found it ; but at laft it was found to be no more than
60 fathoms ; the difficulty of founding it refulting from a tide
at the bottom which carried away the lead faller than they
could furnifh line. Excepting this pool, there is no anchor-
age for feveral leagues along the coaft. ‘I'he produce of the
adjacent country confilts of cloths and ftufls of Quaquas,
ivory, and provilions. ‘The negroes of this part are fingu-
larly fkilful in {wimming* and diving ; for if any pieces
of coral, iron, glafs, &c..are thrown over board, the negroes
will dive after them with fuch rapidity as to catch them be-

- fore they reach the bottom.

LAHOLM, or Lacenoum, a fea-port town of Sweden,
in the province of Halland, at the mouth ot the Laga, near
the fea, with a good falmon fifhery, fortified by the Danes, and
ceded to Sweden by the peace of tromlebro; 12 miles
S.S.E. of Halmitad. N. lat. 56, 4o!. E. lons.12° 45’.

LAHOOR, a town of Thibet, on the Setlege ; 24 miles

N.W. of Gangotri. N. bat. 23° 10!. E. long. 76? 25'.
LAHORE, or Pangas, a fubah or province in the

N.W. part of Hindooftan, bounded onthe N. by Cathmere,

onthe E. by the mountains of Thibet, on the S.E. by

LAI

Delhi, on the S. by Moultan, and onthe W. by the Indus,
which feparates it from Cabul and Candahar ; about 300
miles in length from E. to W. and about 100 miles from N.
to S. This country; which is now occupied by the Seiks,
is extenfive, and very fertile; affording, in addition to all
the neceffaries of life, wine, fugar, and cotton-wool; the
laft of which fupplies the manufa¢tories of the province. It
is watered by the Indus onthe W., and the Setlege on the
E., and alfo by the Behut, Chunaub, Rauvee, &c. In the.
tra&t between the Indus and Jhylum (Behut) there are falt-
mines, which are wonderfully produdtive, and which afford
fragmen’s of rock falt, hard enough to be formed into veffels,
&c. Gold (according to the Ayin Acbaree) was found in the
channels of its rivers; and the fame is related of thofe of
Kemaoon, which proceed from the fame ridge of mountains.
See Pangan.

Lanore, acity of Hindooftan, and capital of the coun-
try above defcribed, fituated on the Rauvee. This city was
the refidence of the firlt Mahometan conquerors of Hindoo-
ftan, before they eftablifhed themfelves in the central parts of
the country. It owes its modern improvements, however, to
Humaioon, the father of Acbar, who made it his refidence
during a part of his troublefome reign. ‘Thevenot fays, that,
including the fuburbs, it was three leagues in length at that
period, and when he faw it, about the year 1665, the city itfelf
was above a league in extent. Schauguive, fon of Acbar,
allowed the Portuguefe to build a church there ; and fome
of its furniture remained at the time of Thevenot’s vifit.
It has 12 gates. It is now the capital of the Seiks; but
by the delertion of its inhabitants, it has loit not only a
contiderable part of its population, but much of its ancient
fplendour. Here are manufactures of carpets, cotton, &c.
Ice is brought from the northern mountains to Lahore,
and fold there all the year. The famous avenue of fhady
trees, fo much fpoken of by the early Indian travellers,
began at Lahore, and extended to Agra, near 500 Englifh
miles. N. lat. 31° 5o'. E. long. 73° 50’. See Seixs.

LAHOREY, a town of Hindooltan, in Baglana; 20
miles S. of Bahbelgong.

LAHORPORUM, a town of Hindooftan, in Oude ;

25 miles W.N.W. of Kairabad.

LAHR, atown of Germany, in the bifhopric of Mun-
fter; 12 miles N.W. of Muntfter.

Laur, or Lohr, aiown of the princ‘pality of Naffau
Saarbruck Ufingen, the capital of a lord(hip, on the river
Schutter; 18 miles $.S.E. of Strafburgh. N. lat. 48 214
E. long. 7° 57’. :

LAJA,* La, atown of Peru, in the diocefe of La Paz;
14 miles N.W. of La Paz,

LAJAPOUR, a town of Hindoollan, in Guzerat; 10
miles S. of Surat.

LAIBEEDY, a town of Africa, in the country of Tu-
nis; 18 miles S.E. of El Jemma.

LAICA, « town of Abyffinia ; 100 miles S. of Miné.

Laica vi removenda. See V1. ;

LAID-Up is applied to a fhip, when fhe is either moored
in a harbour during the winter feafon, or laid by for want of
employme:t ; or when fhe is become incapable of farther
fervice.

Lat under metal. See METAL. °

LAIDA, in Geography, atown of Bengal; 14 miles S.
of Curruckdeagh. D

LAIDALLA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda ;
10 miles N. of Warangole. :

LAIGLE, a town of France, in the department of the
Orne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of

; Mortagne.

LAI

Mortagne. The place-contains 5947, and the canton 14,385
inhabitants, on a territory of 207% kiliometres, in 19 com-
faunes.

' - LAIGNES, a town of France, in the department of the
Céte d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriG of
Chatillon { 19 miles W.S.W. of Chatillon-fur-Seine. The
place contains 1559, and the canton 11,103 inhabitants, ona
territory of 497% kiliometres, in 23 communes,

LAILAKARI, a {mall iflandon the E. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 14'. E. long. 25° 9’.

LAINEZ, James, in Biography, a Spanith Jefuit, and
the firft general of the order after the death of the founder,
(fee Loyora,) was born in the year 1512. He ftudied
theology at Paris, became the intimate friend of Loyola,
and was one of feven who bound themfelvss by a vow at
Mont-Martre to ere€t the new community: he is faid to
have had a great fhare in drawing up the conftitutions for
their government. Upon the death of the general, he fuc-
ceeded as fuperior of the fociety, but was not formally
eleGted till the year 1558. He affifted at the council of
Trent, where he {upported the papal authority toa very ex-
travagant degree. He obtained from pope Paul IV. the
perpetual generalfhip of the order, together with the
following extraordinary privileges, viz. the right of making
ail manner of contra€s, without the privity or confent of the
fociety : that of giviag authority and authenticity to all
comments and explanations of the conftitutions: the power
of making new, and altering the old ones, and alfo to ef-
tablifh prifons, for the confinement of refraétory and dif-
obedient members, independently of the fecular power. In
i561, he went to France inthe fuit of cardinal de Ferrara, the
legate of pope Pius IV., and attended the conference at
Poiff, where he difputed with Beza and Peter Martyr.
After his return to Rome, he refufed a cardinal’s hat, which
was offered him by the pope. He died in 1565, leaving
behind him fome theological and moral treatifes.. Moreri.

LAINO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Calabria
Citra; 19 miles W.N.W. of Caffano.

JOUN, a town of Pertia, in the province of Mazan-
deran, near the coait of the Cafpian fea; 12 miles E. of
Refhd. ;

LAIR, in Agriculture, a term applied to land ina ftate

of grafs or fward. See Layand Layer.
~Larr, Layr, or Layer, among Sport/men, denotes a
place where deer harbour by day.

Lasr, or Layr of a deer, is the impreffion which the
beaft has made on the grafs and ground where he has lain
down, or repofed.

Lair, among Hu/bandmen, alfo denotes a place where
cattle ufually refit, under fome fhelter ; the ground being en-
riched by their dung.

LAIRE, Francis Xavier, in Biography, who was born
at Vadans, in France, in 1739, and died at Sens in the year
1800, was celebrated for his knowledge of bibliography, and
publithed, 1. Memoirs towards the Hiftory of great Men of
the 15th and 16th Centuries, with a Supplement to Mat-
taire’s Annals of Typography. 2. Specimen Hiftoricum
Typographie Romane eum Indice Librorum. 3. Epiitola
ad Abbate Ugolini. 4. On the Origin and Progrefs of
Printing in Franche Compte, and cther pieces.

LAIRESSE, Gerarp, a painter of hiftory and portraits,
born at Liege in 1640. His father firft inftruéted him in
theart, and he is fuppofed alfo to have been a difciple of
Bertholet, whofe manner he very much followed in his prac-
tice, J

For a long time the art of painting was an unprofitable

purfuit to him ; but as he made his pictures gay and agree-

. buy repentance at fo high a price.”

LAT

able, he at laft, by the help of Vytenburgh, a picture mer-
chant at Amfterdam, acquired confiderable credit.

His ftyle of painting was a compound of thofe of Pouf-
fin and the old Trench fchool. While he aimed at imitating
the beft Italian mafters, he never avoided thofe falfe airs of
the head and limbs, which feem rather taken from the flage
than from nature ; fo that his works do not rife to the level
of true merit.

He was blind for fome years before his death : but having
reflected upon the principles of the art, and being a com-
municative man, he was conftantly attended by artills and
amateurs, who were gratified by his initruétions, Thofe
treatifes on defign which go under his name were not written
by him, but colle¢ted from his obfervations, and publifhed
after his death, by a fociety of artifts. He died in 1711, at
the age of 71.

LAIS, the famous courtezan, born at Hyccara, a {mall
city in Sicily ; and being carried into Greece by Nicias the
Athenian. general, began her conquets by mufic. We
mention it not among the encomiums of the art ; but almoft
all the celebrated courtezans of antiquity were originally
muficians. According to Atheneus, (lib. xiii.) mufic
was thought a neceflary female accomplifhment in the
time of Darius; for Parmenio wrote Alexander word,
that he hadtaken at Damafcus three hundred and twenty
nine of the Perfian monarch’s concubines prifoners,- who
were all well fkilled in mutie, and performed on the
flute, and other iaftruments. Lais was fuppofed to be the
daughter of the courtezan Timandra and Alcibiades. She be-
gan firft to exercife her powers of inchantment ‘at Coriuth,
in Greece. She is often called the Corinthian, from having
paffed great part of her life in that voluptuous city. She
fet fo high a price on her favours, that Demotthenes, of
whom fhe required for one night ten thoufand drachmas, re~
fufing to comply with her demands, faid, ** he would not
As a caprice, fhe was
more indulgent to the difgufting Cynic Diogenes. Ariftippus,
another philofopher, but much more amiable, almoift ruined
himfelf in facrifices to this terreftrial divinity, who loved him
lefs than Diogenes. “When he was rallied on her coldnefs,
he faid, «« I cannot flatter myfelf that either wine or fifh is
in love with me, yet I enjoy, and feed on them both with
great pleafure.’’? This female fometimes ridiculed the frailty
of the philofophers whom fhe had captivated. ‘* Ido not
underitand what is meant by the autterity of philofophers ;
but with this fine name, they are as much in my power, as
the reft of the Athenians.” After having corrupted all the
youth of Corinth and Athens, fhe went into Theffaly, to
fee a young man with whom fhe was in love, when, it is faid,
that fome women, jealous of her beauty, affaffinated her
in the temple of Venus, about 340 years B.C. Greece
ereCted ftatues to her memory.

LAISBY, in Geography, a town of Swedith Lapland,
in the lap-mark of Umea; 100 miles N.W. of Umea.

LAISCHEYV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Kazan, at the union of the’ Kama and Volga; 20 miles S,
of Kazan. N. lat. 55° 20. E.long. 49 14).

LAISSAC, a town of France, in the department of
Aveyron, and chief place of a canton, ia the diftri&t of Mithau.
The place contains 1083, and the canton 7453 inhabitants,
on a territory of 172% kiliometres, in 12 communes.

LAI-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Chantong, is built ona promontory, and
has a convenient harbour, a numerous garrifon, and feveral
armed veffels to defend the coaft. The jurifdi€tion extends
over feven cities, two being of the firft clafs. N. lat 37° 9'.

E. long. 119° 46',
~ ai LAITY

LAK

LAITY comprehends fuch of the people as are not in-
eluded under the denomination of clergy; and may be
divided into three diftin& flates, viz. the civil, the military,
and the maritime. For the origin of this diftinétion, fee
CuERGy. :

LAK, in Geography, atown of Hungary; 18 miles E.S.E.
of Canifcha.

LAKE, in Phyfical Geography, a body of water, moftly
of confiderable extent, fituate, unconnected with the ocean,
in an inland place, and commonly in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of lofty mountains. The form of thefe collec-
tions of waters is various; but thofe that receive and emit
rivers, are generally of an elongated fhape, and their longeft
diameter is in the dire€tion of the rivers that traverfe them.
Lakes are generally divided into four claffes: 1. Such as
neither receive nor emit rivers. 2. Such as emit rivers,
without vifibly receiving any. 3. Such as receive one or
more rivers, without emitting any. And, 4. Such as both
receive and fend forth rivers.

1. Lakes which neither receive nor emit rivers, are not fre-
quently feen of any confiderable extent ; but there are coun-
tries where they occur in great number, and as it were in
groups. This is the cafe in the deferts northward of the
Cafpian fea, and in the plains between the Ural moun-
tains and the Irtifch, and in the vaft defert of Baraba, be-
tween the Irtifch and the Obb. The foil of thefe countries
is deferibed by the accurate Mr. Patrin as being uniformly
composed of a marle, varying only in the proportion of the
admixed clay and fand. The numerous lakes found in that
traét of country are for the moft part only depreffions or
bafons filled by the rains and melted fnow: their greateit
extent is fcarcely ever above three leagues in circumference,
and generally they are much fmaller. Their depth, too, is
ufually very inconfiderable, for it feldom exceeds a fathom,
and is frequently not beyond a few feet. Moft of them
are only temporary; for towards the end of the fummer
they are generally found dry.

A remarkable .circumftance, as obferved by the fame
naturalift, is that in the fame plain, at the diftance of a few
hundred paces, fome of thefe lakes are frefh-water lakes,
while the water of others is abounding either with fea falt,
-or with fulphat of magnefia (Epfom falt).; or they are im-
pregnated with both thofe falts, either uniformly mixed, or
each of them in a feparate part of the lake; in fome cafes
the fea-falt and the Epfom falt are formed at the fame period ;
in others the latter of thefe falts manitetts itfelf only towards
the end of the fummer.

The caufe of the faltnefs obfervable in fome lakes has
been by molt authors on this fubje& afcribed to falt {prings
at their bottom; and probably they are in the right with
regard to moft of them; but in the above inftance, feveral
<ircumftances unfavourable to that hypothefis exift in the
nature of the foil, and the mode and determinate quantity in
which thofe -falts are depofited at the bottom; whence
Patrin conceives that the lakes in queftion, as well as molt
other falt lakes of the fame kind, owe their faltnefs to princi-
ples or particles, with which they are furnifhed immediately
from the atmofphere, in the fame manner as nitre is formed
in particular fituations in warm climates, cealing to be gene-
rated as foon as the foil has taken up the quantity of faline
matter fuitable to its nature. ‘The general rule laid down
by Buffon, that lakes which emit rivers are frefh-water lakes,
and that fuch as do not fend forth any are falt lakes, appears
to be inconfiftent with experience ; fince, on one hand, the
great lake Titicaca, in Peru, fuppofed to be eighty miles
in circumference, and giving out no river, is by Laet, Acofta,

Garcilaffo della Vega, and others, defcribed as a frefh-water

LAK
lake; while the largeft of all falt lakes, the Black fea, dif-

charges its redundant waters, with a rapid courfe, through
the Bofphorus into the Mediterranean.

Dr. Halley is of opinion, that all great perennial lakes are
faline, either in a greater or lefs degree ; and that this falt-
nefs increafes with time ; and on this foundation, he propotes
a method for determining the age of the world.

To the lakes of this firlt clafs likewife belong thofe
lodged in the craters of extinét volcanoes, or at leait in de-
preflions confidered by molt geologifts as the remains of yol-
canic energy. One of the moft remarkable, on account of
its elevation, is that which travellers relate to exift on the
fummit of the Adam’s peak in Ceylon. This mountain is
feen at a diftance of forty leagues; which appears to in-
dicate its height to be at leaft that of Mount /Etna.
Its cone, which is difficultly acceflible, has 200 paces in
diameter at its fummit, and in the middle of the platform is
fituated a lake of confiderable depth. -Ribeiro’s Hift. of
Ceylon.

Dolomieu, ina letter to Faujas Saint-Fond, inferted in
this naturalift’s work, “ Sur les Volcans éteints du Vivarais,’”
defcribes a lake filling up the crater of an extinét volcano
in the Serra de Eftrella ; a ridge of mountains in the north of
Portugal, denominated Mons Herminius by the ancients.

Alfo the lakes of Agnano and Averne, near Naples, are
fuppofed by many authors to have been craters of voicanoes.
The former of thefe lakes, we are told by Lalande (Voyage,
t. 6. p. 27-) appears fometimes to boil at its borders, efpe-
cially when its waters are high. This ebullition, like that
of the Acqua Zolfa near Rome, is occafioned by gafeous
fluids traverfing the water. ‘On the borders of this lake are
the vapour-baths of San-Germano.

2. Lakes which emit rivers without receiving any.—Thefe
are more numerous than the preceding. ‘The more copious
the fubterraneous waters by which they are fupplied, the
more contiderable are the rivers fent forth by them. The
Seliger lake, in the government of Twer, 60 leagues N.E.
from Mofcow, gives origin to the largeft river in Europe,
the Volga; although no river is vifibly received by that
lake. The fame may be faid of the lake called Koko-nory.
at the foot of the eaftern ridge of the Tibetan Alps, from.
which iffve two of the largeit rivers of Afia, the Hoanho,
or Yellow river, and Kiam, or Blue river, which, after
having traverfed part of the Chinefe empire, empty them-
felves into the Japanefe fea.

Of the fame kind are the two {mall lakes in New Cattile,
in Spain, called Jos ojos de la Guadiana, fituated near the
Alcarraz mountains, and confidered as the fources of the
Guadiana. ’

The lake of Mont-Cenis, though it does not emit a con-
fiderable river, is yet remarkable on account of its great
elevation, which is 6000 feet perpendicular above the level
of the fea. This lake (together with the Cenife, which
iffues from it) is fupplied by waters conveyed to it by fub-
terraneous channels, and which defcend from the neigh-
bouring mountains, which are as elevated above the lake as
this latter is above the plains of Piedmont. This lake is
three quarters of a league long, and from 1800 to 2400
feet broad. Sauflure is of opinion that it has formerly
been fituated at a greater elevation; fince, at a height of
more than thirty feet above its prefent level, traces of erofion
produced by the Cenife are {ll remaining, as well as cal-
careous layers, exatly like thofe itill depofited by the waters
of that river. ‘

There are in the Pyrenees lakes which appear to have
exa¢tly the fame origin as the lake of Mont Cenis, and
which equally emit rivers; and {everal of thefe lakes occur

even

Bh A KE.

reater elevation, (about 700 feet above the level
eae fee) fuch as the lakes of Liens, fas Cougous, and
Oncet, in the mountains above Barege. ‘They are frozen
over for the greateft part of the fummer, and are only par-
tially deprived of their icy covering 1n the interval between
the months of June and Auguit. The lake of Mont Cenis,
on the other hand, had, at the end of September, when
Sauffure obferved it, a very mild temperatpre. It is fo
well ftocked with fith, efpecially trouts, that, in the year
1780, it produced a yearly rent of 636 livres. ey:

. Lakes which receive one or more rivers, without emitting
any.—Mott of thefe formerly both received and fent forth a
river ; but the one emitted has become dry, on account of
the diminution of the influent river; or the cavity that con-
tains it may have enlarged to fuch a degree, that the river it
receives is barely {ufficient to repair, by new fupplies, the
lofs which the lake fultains by evaporation. To this élafs
belong, among others, the Ca/pian jea, as it 1s improperly
called, which receives the waters of the Volga, of the Ural,
and of fome other rivers. ‘This valt lake, which formerly
occupied a much more confiderable {pace than at the prefent
day, and not only included the lake of Aral, but probably
had even a communication with the Euxine fea, (fee Cas-
PIAN,) {till continues to decreafe, in proportion as the capa-
city of the rivers which-fupply it is found gradually to di-
minifh. Another lake of this kind is the Dead fea, or lake

Itites, in Paleftine. See ASPHALTITES. A
ach was the lake that formerly covered Ca/bmere, which
fee. Lakes of this kind will be naturally formed in every
eafe, where the waters of a river are inclofed, in any part of
their courfe, by elevated lands. The firit confequence of
this ftoppage is, of courfe, the converfion of the inclofed
lands into a lake ; and if this happens near the fountains of
the river, and the ground is folid, it is likely to remain a lake
for ever ; the river not having force enough in its infant
ftate to work itfelf a pafflage through the mountains. Hence
it is that more lakes are found near the fources of rivers than
in the lower parts of their courfe. If the river be inclofed
after it has gained a great acceffion of water, and, of courfe,
ftrength ; it will, indeed, at firft, form a lake, as before ;
but in time, the place at which it runs,over, will be gradually
fretted away, as in the cafe of the Behut. The Euphrates,
in like manner, opensitfelf a paflage through mount Taurus ;
and the Ganges through mount Imaus ; and even though
the bafe of the mountain be of the firmeft texture, it will give
way to the inceffant friction, through a courfe of ages; for

either of thefe paffages may have been an operation of many
thoufand years. In the cafe of the Ganges, which paffes
‘through mount Imaus, it may be fuppofed that the lower
flrata were fofter than the upper ; for the upper {till remain
to a great height. In that of the Behut, the latter appears
to have exilted long enough to depofit a vaft depth of foil,
before it difperfed. Rennell’s Memoir. __ ;

In the interior of Africa a vaft lake is faid to exilt, which
is fuppofed to receive the Niger. In America we have the
Jake Titicaca in Pern, into which runs a river, the fource of
which is near Cafco.. ' Soe

4. Lakes which both receive and fend forth rivers, ave the
mot numerous of all, They are generally found in vallies,
or in plains, in the proximity of great chains of mountains.
The moft remarkable among thofe of the Alps are—

The Jake of Geneva, traverfed by the Rhone. Its eleva-
tion above the level of the fea, according to De Luc, is
1126 feet, according to Shuckburgh 1152, and according
to the obfervations of profeffor Pictet 1134 feet. The Rhone
enters it in the neighbourhood of Villeneuve: at its leaving
it, near Geneva, it divides into two branches, which encom-

pafs an ifland, and foon again'unite, This lake formerly
extended as far as Bex ; and the village Port-Vallay, which

is at prefent at the diltance of more than an Englifh mile, was
fituate clofe to its banks. ‘he lake of Geneva is fubjeé& to
an annual fwelling, by which its waters are raifed from five

to fix feet above the ordinary water-mark, But befides this

periodical rifing of its waters, a fluctuation is fometimes ob-

ferved, not unlike that produced by the flux and reflux of
the fea. This motion, which generally continues for fome

hours, is in thofe parts called Seiches. It is moft ftriking

in the neighbourhood of Geneva. ‘The caufe of this pheno-

menon is not well underftood. Fatio attributed it to gnfts

of wind, by which the water of the fmaller lake is pro-

truded beyond the fand-bank that feparates it from the

larger; and on falling back produces a fluétuation. Jal-

labert, obferving that the Seiches take place without any

gufts of winds, looked for the caufe of this phenomenon in

the fudden diffolution of {now by which the river Arve,

becoming fuddenly turgid, retards the courfe of the Rhone

which iffues from the lake. Sauffure, on the other hand,

has witneffed the fudden {welling of the Arve, without any

accompanying Seiches in the lake. Bertrand is of opinion

that eleétrical clouds attract and raife the waters of the

lake, which, on falling back, produce that undulation ; and

Sauffure and Vaucher add, that fudden local variations in

the preffure of the atmof{phere, may contribute to the pro-

duétion of this phenomenon. Patrin is inclined to attribute

fuch fudden fluétuations of lakes to the developement of

fubterraneous gafes, which alfo, by mixing with the atmo-

{phere, produce that violent agitation, which, accerding to

him, cannot be the effect of a fimple difturbance of the equi-

librium, but muft be looked for in a chemical fermentation

taking place in the atmofphere. An ofcillation fimilar te

the Seiches of the lake of Geneva, though in a lefs degree,

has been obferved alfo in fome other lakes of Switzerland.

To the fame caufe Patrin afcribes the hollow found which
fome lakes are known to emit, and which is not unlike the
noife that precedes the eruption of volcanoes. Some writers
inform us that feverat lakes of Switzerland, and among them

the lake of Geneva, give out a grumbling noife of this kind.

Pallas has feen, in the Saian mountains, near the fource of
the Yenifei, a lake called Boulamy-Koul, which,.according

to the account given of it by the Tartars of its neighbour-
hood, emits, at the approach of winter, founds compared:
by them to howling. Alfo the inhabitants of the borders

of the lake Baikal have informed Patrin, that they have often-
heard a dreadful howling proceed from that lake.

The lake-of Lucern, in the Swifs canton-of that name,
(alfo called the Vierwalftadter fea,) is fituated 1320 feet above
the level of the fea, according to Pfyfer ; 1314, according
to De Luc; 1350, according.to Trembley ; and 1392 feet,
according to Wyfs. The river, Reufs enters it at Fluelin,
and is again emitted near Lucern. This moft romantic of
all lakes is furrounded by rocks confilting partly. of? lime--
ftone, partly of the calcareons breccia, called Nagelfluhe, .
and by fand-ftone mountains. The line of demarcation be--
tween thefe two formations of rocks runs in a direCtion from -
EE. toW. ; tothe S, of this line nothing is feen but lime-ftone,
and nothing but calcareous breccia and fand-ftone in a
northern direction. See more of this lake in Ebel “ iiber
die Schweitz, &c.’’ 1805.

The lakes of Brientz and of Thuny in the canton of Berne,
are both traverfed by the river Aar, which enters the former of)
thefe lakes at its N.E.extremity, and leaves it at its fouthern:
end; when, at the diftance of about two miles, its waters
unite with thofe of the lake of Thun. The rocks of both
fides of the lake of Brientz confilt of lime.and clay-flate.

Drs

LAKE.

Dr. Ebel tells us, that on the N. fide formerly large maffes
of the moft beautiful varieties of red and white fluor {par
were found, which, from the pure fluate of lime, pafled into
blackifh-grey granular carbonate of lime. The lake of
Thun is fituated about 1780 feet above the level of the fea,
and a few fathoms higher than the lake of Brientz. Its
northern banks are entirely mountainous ; halfof the fouthern
bank is flat and level, The rocks on the north fide confift
ehiefly of the remarkable breccia and fand-{tone formation,
of which Mount Rigi, in the canton of Schweitz, is com-
pofed. The breccia is made up of rolled pieces of all dimen-
fions, from 50 cubical feet, down to the fize of large grains
of fand ; the whole cemented by a coarfe grained calcareous
grit poffeiling great tenacity, {6 that on the application of
blows, the included ftones, inftead of becoming detached
from their cells, are generally feen cloven afunder. Thefe
rolled pieces confift of various kinds of granite, gneifs, por-
phyry, flint, and flint-fate, horn-ftone, granular and compaét
lime-ttone, and a variety of red, clayey, ferruginous boulders,
which, on farther decompofing and diffolving, ftain the
cement in which they are imbedded with ared colour. ‘The
mountains on the S. and E.. fides confift of lime-ftone.
Lhe temperature of the lake of Thun, in the beginning of
the month of July, at a depth of 350 feet, was found by
Sauffure to be 4° of Reaumur, while, at the furface, the
fame thermometer indicated 15°. The water of the lake
of Brientz, at the fame time of the year, at the depth of 500
feet, fhewed the temperature of 3,5.° while that of the fur-
face was 16°, and that of the amo{phere Ste

The Lake of Zurich.—The principal river which enters
this lake, is the Linth or Limmat, which, after having re«
ceived the Mag, fent forth by the lake of Wallenttadt,
falls into the lake of Zurich, near a mountain called the
Bufh-berg. ‘The elevation of this lake above the level of
the fea is 1279 feet. During the hot weather of the fum-
mer months its waters are feen to rife higher, and to overflow
its banks, owing to the influence of the heat on the vait
glaciers, and maffes of fnow of the Alpine chain of moun-
tains. Several geognottic fadts render it highly probable that
formerly the Rhine, in its courfe to Germany, traverfed both
the lake of Wallenttadt and that of Zurich.

The ake of Conflance, or the Boden See, is traverfed by
the Rhine, which enters it at the S.W. extremity, and is
again given out near Conltance. — Its elevation above the
level of the fea’ is 1089 feet. It is navizable for veflels of
3oco ewt. Within a period of eight centuries, it has only
twelve times been covered with ice. This beautiful expanfe
of water formerly extended as far as the Rheinthal, or the
valley of the Rhine: a chance effected by the flow but un-
interrupted depofition of alluvial land at the mouth of that
river.

The Langen-See, or Lago Maggiore of the Italians, the
Lacus Verbanus of the Romans, a lake on the borders
of Switzerland, Piedmont, and the Milanefe territory, re-
ceives and fends forth the river Teffin. Its length from Tenero
to Sefto, is 44 Italian miles ; its greateft breadth, between
Luvino and Ferriole, is above feven Italian miles ; its eleva-
tion above the level of the fea 762 feet, according to Pini,
but only 636 according to Sauflure ; its depth, at the chapel
of la Bardia, oppofite Locarno, is 335 feet. Many confi-
derable rivers empty themfelves into this lake, fuch as the
Teffin, the Verafca, the Maggia, the Tofcia, and the Trefa ;
in fhort it receives all the waters of the immenfe group of
mountains that encompals it.

* The natural chara&ter of the Lago Maggiore is a fublime

wildernefs, blended with the milder beauties of the Italian

foil; a.narrow compafs gradually widening into a valt ex-
8

panfe. Towards the north and weftward it is furrounded by
elevated granitic mountains ; while the eaft and north fides
exhibit a feries of fmaller hills, which gradually lofe them.
felves in the plain of Lombardy. From Magadino to Lu.
vina, on the N.E., the dark and rugged mountains of Gam-
borogno rife Gooo feet above the furface of the lake ; and
the wooded Pino, with the mountain of Canobbio, which
appear to clofe the lake, form a long bafin, abounding with
fith, and known by the name of Lago di Locarno.

On the Piedmontefe fide of the Lazo Maggiore, at Ba.
veno and its neighbourhood, are the quarries of granite,
which have furnifhed the magnificent columns that decorate
the churches and palaces of Milan. In thofe parts are like.
wife found the beautiful cryftals of feld{par, that were firit
difcovered by Pini. At the mouth of the river Toccia are
the quarries of red and white granite, and behind Mergozzo
thofe of the beautiful variety of marble, of which the
cathedral of Milan is conflruéted. At Grantola are feen
the veftiges of an extinguifhed volcano, which is, however,
not confidered as fuch by the learned Abbate Pini, who vi-
fited it in 1790. : ‘

The Lake of Como, about 24 miles from Milan, receives,
among other fmaller rivers, the Adda, which is again fent
forth at its eaftern extremity. The elevation of this ros
mantic lake, the favourite fpot of the younger Pliny, is,
according to Oriani, 654 feet above the fea.

The Garda, alake of Italy, between the Veronefe and

Breffan, is traverfed by the Mincio.

A remarkable lake belonging to this clafs, onthe French
fide of the Alps, is the Lac de Joux, in the Jura mountains,
It is traverfed by the river Orbe, which on iffuing from this
lake, is ingulfed in vait funnels, hollowed out by its own
waters in the calcareous ftrata, which at prefent are feen
in a vertical pofition, owing to the effects of the rupture
they experienced at the time when the revolution took
place, which produced the lake ; and this fame river, after a
hidden courfe of three quarters of a league, re-appears in a
valley, 680 feet below thé funnel-fhaped cavities that con-
veyed it to its fubterranean channel ; from whence it proceeds
towards and traverfes the lakes of Neufchatel and Bienne.

Sweden, and other mountainous parts of Europe, likewife
abound with lakes traverfed by rivers. Of this kind is the
lake of Bala, in North Wales. See Bata-pool.

Northern Afia has two very confiderable lakes of this des
{eription, viz. the Jake Norzaifan, in Chinefe Tartary, at
the fouthern bafe of the Altaic chain, where it is traverfed
by the Irtifch and the Baikal, in Eait Siberia. This latter
is traverfed by the river Angara. (See Baixar.) M. Pa-
trin, who has twice vifited this remarkable lake, has defcribed

the highly deftroying effeéts which its waters, in their gras .
dual forma:ion of the bafin, have produced iu the ftratified

mountains that bound its weftern fhotes. But it is not the
Baikal alone which has thus formed its own bed, for the fame
caufe has prevailed at the formation of thofe vaft Canadian
lakes, the lake Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, con-
nected together by the river St, Laurence, which takes its
courfe through their ftupendous batins.

We are indebted to Sauffure for fome very interefting ob-
fervations re{pecting the temperafu® of the waters of the prin-
cipal Alpine lakes. It appears from the experiments of this
celebrated naturalift, made with a thermometer of his own
invention, that even in the hotteft fummer months, the cold
which prevails at the bottom of thofe lakes far exceeds that
obfervable in the depth of the fea. The following are among
the refults he obtained, ;

In the Jake of Geneva, on the 6th of Augutt, at a depth ot
312 feet, the thermometer (having Reaunur’s feale ) aa

cate

LA

feated a temperature of 83°; that of the furface was 15°,
and that of the atmofphere 20°. On the 11th of February,
in a depth of gsofeet, (namely, near the rock of Meillerie,
being the deepeft part of the lake,) the temperature was
43,°; that of the furface 44°; that of the atmofphere 14°.
It is to be obferved that as the elevation of this lake (ac-
cording to Deluc) is 1126 feet above the level of the Me-
diterranean, the bottom of its bafin is fituated only 176 feet
above the fame level.
_. The waters of the dake of Annecy, fituated 210 feet above
the lake of Geneva, had, on the 14th of May, and ata depth
of 163 feet, the temperature of 43°, while that of the fur-
face was 114°, and that of the air 10°.

In the /ac du Bourget in Savoy, the thermometer, on the

6th O&., at the depth of 240 feet, indicated 44°; at the
furface 14/°; in the air 10,..°. Sauflure obferves, that the
cold of the water of this lake cannot be afcribed to any
foreign caufe, fince it receives no ftream from the Alps, and
its communication with the Rhone furnifhes it with water
only during the turgidity of that river in fummer.
_ In the Jake of Thun, in the canton of Berne, elevated about
630 feet above that of Geneva, the temperature, on the 7th
of July, at the depth of 350 feet, was obferved to be 4°; the
temperature of the furface was 15°, and that of the atmo-
{phere 16°. At the fame time the temperature of the lake
of Brientz, which is contiguous to the lake of Thun, was
338 ° at the depth of soo feet.

The waters of the /ake of Lucern, fituated 191 feet above
the lake of Geneva, had, on the 28th of July, and ina depth
of Goo feet, the temperature of 3,9,°; temperature of the
furface 16,,°; of the air 18,5,°.

Lake of Conftance.—The temperature on the 25th of July,
at the depth of 370 feet, was 3,4.°; on the furface of the
water 14°; inthe air 16°.

Lago Maggiore.—On the 19th of July, at the depth of
335 feet, the temperature was 5,°,°; at the furface 20° ; in
the air 18°. It is remarkable that though the temperature
at the bottom of this lake is fo low, yet olive and orange
trees are feen to thrive on its borders in the open air.

The comparative experiments which Sauflure made on the
temperature of the fea, gave the following refults. On the
8th of OGober, the fame thermometer, immerfed at Porto
Fino, on the coaft of Genoa, to the depth of 886 feet, indi-
cated 10,5.°, while the temperature at the furface was 1685°,
and that of the atmofphere 15,3... At Nice, on the 17th
of O&ober, and at the depth of 1800 feet, the temperature
proved to be 10.°.°, while that of the furface of the water
was 164°. From this difference between the temperature
jm the depth of the fea, and that of the-bottom of lakes, it has
been inferred that it is not the bulk of the mafs of water
which proves an obitacle to the free communication of the
external caloric, and that the low temperature obferved in
the lakes of the Alps is owing to a particular and local
caufe.

Befides the general caufe which produces a gradual dimi-
nution in the extent and depth of all lakes, there are others,
which, operating on particular lakes, effe€&t a more or lefs
fudden change in that refpeét, according to the circum-
flances under which they take place. All rivers emptying
themfelves into lakes, convey thither more or lefs of the fub-
ftance of the mountains from which they defcend, and of the
foil of the tracts of country which is traverfed by them.
The nearer, therefore, a lake is to thofe high mountains
from which ftreams, in their defcent, may carry away the
detritus of rocks, the more fpeedily its bafin will be filled
up; while, on the other hand, a lake fituated at a greater
diftance, in the middle of a plain, and receiving only fand

VoL. XX.

K E.

and mud, part of which is carried off again by its outlets
will experience a much lefs rapid diminution. Some natu-
ralifts have thought it poffible to determine the relative anti-
quity of lakes, by the extent of the alluvial land depofited
in their bafins by thofe rivers which enter them; but, ac-
cording to Patrin, it isa matter of great difficulty to obtain
fatisfactory data on this head, and no general rules can poflibly
be laid down without a previous and careful examination of
all the circumftances attending: the locality of each particular
lake. Thus, for inftance, (fays the fame author,) we fee
that the lake of Neufchatel, at the foot of the Jura moun-
tains, has already experienced a very confiderable diminution
through the mechanically forming effects of the waters of the
Orbe, while thofe preduced by the Rhone are fearcely per-
ceptible in the lake of Geneva, although this lake is probably
of greater antiquity than the other. The lake of Annecy,
which is wedged in between mountains, is already in a great
meafure choked up with their detritus. The valley of Cha-
mouni, according to Sauffure’s obfervations, was alfo for-
merly a lake; but fituated at the foot of the higheft moun-
tains of Europe its bafin has long fince been levelled by the
alluvial land carried into it from all fides by the Aveiron
and other ftreams. The lac du Bourget, on the other hand,
which occupies the middle of a vaft bafin, where it receives
its calm waters unfraught with foreign matter, is lefs then
many others fubjeé& to the influence of this particular caufe
of the diminution of lakes.

The large lakes, with which the northern regions abound,
ferve for very good purpofes, inafmuch as the warm vapours
arifing from them ferve for a defenfative againft the pinching
cold of thofe climates. To this it is owing, that Ireland,
Scotland, &c. are lefs affe€ted with frofts than much warmer
countries.

They alfo furnifh exhalations and vapours, which diftil
on the countries bordering upon them in refrefhing fhowers,
and prevent their being barren deferts.

The lake Nefs, in Scotland, has been commemorated by
many writers, but never with any degree of judgment, till
Mr. Frafer gave a perfeét account of it to the Royal
Society. It never freezes though the winters be eyer fo
fevere, and is full of {prings in almoit every part ; .and its
waters, in the time of the fevereft frofts run fluid, and
fmoaking for fix miles down the river into which they are
difcharged, while every thing is frozen about them. The
river runs very flowly notwithitanding, and from this fmoke
of the water there is raifed a fort of fog which overfpreads
the whole country for feveral miles. There is a mountain
near its fide, of two miles perpendicular height from the
furface of the lake; and on the fummit of this mountain
there is another lake, which has no {pring vifibly running
into it, nor any outlet, and yet always keeps of the fame
degree of fulnefs, f{ummer and winter. Due weit from the
river into which the lower Jake difcharges itfelf, there is an
opening of fea, or frith, of two miles long and fix miles
wide; the middle of this is fometimes dry, and it is ther
eafily feen that this was once dry land, and an inhabited
country. There are found there large bodies of trees felled,
and lying ftraight along: the wood of thefe is black, but it
is very found, and there are many tumult, or heaps ot itones,
to be feen under water in different parts of the frith, one of
which is acceffible at low water, and there have been found
in it urns, which prove that they have been all burying-places.
Phil, Tranf. N° 253. p- 231.

As the fea wafhes away the banks of this frith, there is
found in many places a large quantity of wrought timber ;
beams of fourteen, or more feet long, with the marks of
the axe, and ether inftruments upon them; and at the “ee

Cc °

LAKE.

of fixteen feet, in the fteep banks of the neighbouring river
Beuly, there are found oak-trees and pieces of burnt timber.
We find by this, that the face of the whole country about
this lake is very different from what it was fome ages ago ;
and there feems fome refemblance between the prefent face
of things here, and that in the bogs of many parts of England.
The trees found buried in thefe were felled by the conquer-
ing Romans, and perhaps thefe are of fome fuch origin.

We have many fingularities offering themfelves to our
view in-the lakes of our own country ; that of their freezinz
at peculiar feafons is not one of the leaft. Philofophical
‘Tranf. N° 114.

Laxt. Bituminous. The exiftence of an expanfe of mi-
neral pitch, fufficiently extenfive to merit the appellation
of a lake, is a circumftance fo very remarkable, that it will
not be deemed improper to fet apart an article for the de-
feription of the bituminous lake of the ifland of Trinidad.
A defeription of this celebrated pitch lake was firft given
by Mr. Anderfon, in the Philofophical Tranfactions for
1789, and fome notices relative to it were communicated
by Mr. Tobin, in the eighth volume of the Linnzan
"Yranfa&tions; but we now poffefs a more complete ac-
count of it by~Dr. Nugent, who vifited it in Otober,
1807, and whofe memoir is publifhed in the firft volume of
the ‘T'ranfaGtions of the Geological Society. f

The pitch lake of Trinidad, by the French called La
Braye, is fituated on the north fide of the gulf of Paria, on
the high point La Braye, a confiderable head-land, prin-
cipally compofed, at its fouthern fide, of a kind of porce-
lain jafper. It is not eafy to itate precifely the extent of
this collection of pitch; the lines between it and the neigh-
bouring foil not being always well defined; and indeed Dr.
Nugent fuppofes it to form the fubitratum of the furrounding
tract of lend. Tt may, however, be faid, that it is bounded
on the north and weit fides by the fea, on the fouth by the
juft mentioned rocky eminence of porcelain jafper, and on the
eait by the ufual argillaceous foil of the country; the main
body may, perhaps, be eflimated at three miles in cireum-
ference ; the depth cannot be afcertained, and no, fubjacent
reck or foil can be difeovered- That part cf this expanfe,
which may properly be called a /ake, is fituated higher than
the adjoining land, and you defcend by a gentle flope to the
fea, where the pitch is mueh contaminated by the fand of
the beach.

On approaching the lake a ftrong fulphureous and pitchy
fmell is perceived ; and on a nearer approach, the bitu-
minous plain itfelf opens to the view, appearing at firft
fight to be an expanfe of {till water, frequently interrupted by
clumps of dwarf trees, or iflets of rufhes and fhrubs. Dr.
Nugent (from whofe memoir this article is abftraéted) was
fo ftruck by the fingularity of the fcene, that it was fome
time before he could recover from his furprize fo as to in-
velligate it minutely. The furface of the lake is of the
colour of afhes; and at the feafon when this traveller vifited
the lake, not fufficiently fmooth to be flippery ; it was not
adhefive, though is received the impreffion of the foot, and
the confiftence was fuch as to bear the travellers without
any tremulous motion whatever; but in the dry feafon the
furface is probably in 2 ftate approaching fluidity, as is
fhewn by pieces of wood and other fubttances being enve-
loped in it: different bodies have been known flowly to fink
inte it. Tf a quantity be cut out, the cavity left will be
fhortly filled up. Numberlefs proofs are given of its being
at times in this foftened fate; the negro houfes of the vi-
cinage, for inftance, built by driving pofts in the earth;
frequently are twifted or funk on one fide. In many places
# eems to have actually overflown like lava, and prefents

©

the wrinkled’ appearance which a fluggith fubftance would
exhibit in motion.

This bituminous plain is interfeGted by numerous inter-
{tices or chafms, filled with water in the wet feafon ; they
are generally deep in proportion to their width, fome being
only a few inches in depth, others feveral feet, and many
almoft unfathomable. ‘The people of the reighbourhood
derive their fupply of water from this fource, and refrefh
themfelves by bathing in it; the water is perfeGly uncon
taminated by the pitch, and .fifh are caught in it. The
arrangement of the chafms is fingular ; the fides are inva-
riably fhelving from the furface, fo as nearly to meet at the
bottom ; but they bulge out towards each other with @
confiderable convexity. ‘Thefe crevices will now and then
clofe up entirely ; when marks or feams are left behind. '

The bituminous fubftance forming this lake prefents dif-
ferent appearances in different fpots: in fome parts it is
black, with a {plintery or a conchoidal fra€ture, of confi-
derable f{pecific gravity, and with little or no luftre, re=
fembling particular kinds of coal, and fo hard as to require
a fevere blow of the hammer to break it ; in other parts it
is fo much fofter as to be eafily cut with a knife or fpade,
when the interior appears veficular and oily. In one place
it bubbles up in a perfe@ly fluid flate, and in one of the
neighbouring plantations it is faid to occur of a-bright co-
lour, fhining, tranfparent, and brittle, like bottle glafs’ or
refin, The odour in all thefe inffances is ftrong, and like
that of a combination of pitch and fulphur, which latter
fubitance, however, is nowhere to be perceived. A bit of
the pitch held in the candle melts like fealing-wax, and burns
with a light flame, which is extinguifhed whenever it is re-
moved, and in cooling the bitumen hardens again. It may
be converted to many ufeful purpofes, and is, indeed, unt-
verfally ufed in the country wherever pitch is required.
The reports of naval officers who have tried it are favour-
able to its more general adoption; in which cafe this yalt
collection of bitumen would afford an inexhautuible fupply
of an effential article of naval {tores, and being fituated on the
margin of the fea, would be wrought and {hipped with little
inconvenience or expence. i

Immediately to the fouthward of this bituminous lake,
the face of the country, as feen from La Braye, is a good
deal broken and rugged, which Mr. Anderfon attributes te
fome convulfion of nature from fubterraneous fires, in which
idea he is confirmed by having found in the neighbouring
woods feveral hot fprinzs. He is of opinion, that this traét
has experienced the effects of the volcanie power, which,
as he fuppofes, elevated the great mountains on the main
and northern fide of the ifland. As the produétion of bi-
tuminoiis fubftances has been attributed to the attion of fire
on beds of coal, Dr. Nugent was particular in his in-
quiries with regard to the exiltence of fuch beds, but could
not learn that there was any certain trace of coal im the
ifland. ;

Dr. Nugent, in attempting to explain the origin of this
bituminous lake, inclines to the fide of fhe Huttonian geo-~
logifts, grounding his opinion on the general charaéter of
the country, and feveral local appearances, fuch as the
amazing quantity of alluvial foil and bituminous fubftances
brought down by the river Orinoko, and depofited om the
fhores of the gulf of Paria, and the weit fide of ‘Trinidad ;
as alfo the traces of fubterranean fire, fuch as hot fprings,
vortices, frequent earthquakes, and two fingular volcanic
mounds at Point Icaque.

«© A vaft river like the Orinoko,” he fays, “ muft for
ages have rolled down great quantities of woody and vege-
table bodies, which, from certain caufes, as the influence

LAK

#f currenf$ and eddies, may have been arrefted and accu-
mulated in particular places; they may there have under-
gone thofe transformations and chemical changes which
‘various vegetable fubftances fimilarly fituated have been
proved to juffer in other parts of the world. An accidental
fire, fuch as is known frequently to occur in the bowels of the
earth, may then have operated in feparating and driving off
the newly-formed bitumen, more or lefs combined with
filiceous and argillaceous earths, which forcing its way
_ through the furface and afterwards becoming infpiflated by
expofure to the air, may have occafioned fuch f{cenes as I
have ventured to defcribe. The only other country accu-
rately refembling Trinidad, of which I recolleé to have
read, is that which borders on the gulf of 'J'aman, in Crim
Tartary. From the reprefentations of travellers, {prings
of naphtha and petroleum equally abound, and they defcribe
volcanic mounds precifely fimilar to thofe of Point Icaque.
Pailas’s explanation of their origin feems very fatisfactory,
and I think it not improbable that the river Don and fea of
Aizof may have acted the fame part in producing thefe ap-
pearances in the one cafe, as the Orinoko and gulf of

Paria appear to have done in the other. It may be fup-
pofed that the deftru@ion of a foreft, or perhaps even a
great favanna on the fpot, would be a more obvious mode
of accounting for this fingular phenomenon; but all this
part of the ifland is of a recent alluvial formation, and the
jand all along this coatt is daily receiving a confiderable ac-
eeffion from the furrounding water. The pitch-lake, with
the circumjacent tra, being now on the margin of the fea,
muft, in like manner, have had an origin of no very diftant
date; befides, according to the reprefentation of captain
Mallet, which has been frequently corroborated, a fluid
‘bitumen oozes up and rifes to the furface of the water on
oth fides of the ifland, not where the fea has encroached
and overwhelmed the ready-formed land, but where it is obvi-
vanes in a very rapid manner depofiting and forming a new
‘ Ol 73.

The obfervations of captain Mallet, above-mentioned, but
the accuracy of which Dr. Nugent had no opportunity of
afcertainiag perfonally, are, that ‘ near Cape la Brea (La
Braye) a little to the S.W. is a gulf or vortex, which in
flormy weather gufhes out, raifing the water five or fix feet,
and covers the furface for a confiderable fpace with petro-
leum, or tar.””—“ On the E. coaft,"’ he adds, “in the bay
of Magaro, there is another gulf or vortex fimilar to the
former, which, in the months of March and June, pro-
duces adetonation like thunder, having fome flame with a
thick black fmoke, which vanifhes away immediately ; and
in about twenty-four hours afterwards, is found along the
fhore of the bay a quantity of bitumen or pitch, about
three or four inches thick, which is employed with fuccefs.”
‘The fame author likewife quotes Gumilla as ftating, in his
Defcription of the Orinoko, that about feventy years ago,
a {pot of land on the weftern coaft of this ifland, near half
avay between the capital and an Indian village, funk fuddenly,
and was immediately replaced by a fmall lake of pitch, to
the great terror of the inhabitants.”” Mallet’s Topographical
Sketch of the Ifland of Trinidad.

’ Lake of the tee Mountains, a piece of water, that lies
welterly from Montreal, being properly the mouth of Ot-
tawa river; 20 miles long, and 5 broad. It is furrounded
by cultivated fields of the Iroquois and Algonquin Indians,
whofe village flands on a delightful point of land, that
projects into the lake. Each tribe has a Roman Catholic
miffionary. They attend public worfhip in the fame church.
‘Their paftors have taught them to read and write, Their
avarriors are about 500. :

_ Lake of the Woods. See Woons.

LAK

Lake River, ariver of America, which runs into the
Miffifippi, N. lat. 46° 30’. W. long. 95°.

Lake River, Little, a river which runs into the Miffifippi,
N. lat. 45° 36’. W. long. 94° 23'.

Lakes, Subterranean. That there are in many places
immentfe fubterranean lakes, can fcarce be doubted, becaufe
we fee them in fome places ; but their effeéts are often per-
ceived where they are not feen, and puzzle the people who
attempt to account for thofe effeéts upon other principles.
The famous Zirchnitzer lake in Carniola, which fills and
empties itfelf, at times, in an impetuous manner, bringing
up with its waters fifh, and even wild fowl, communicates
with another immenfe fubterranean lake in the mountain
Savofnick ; and according to its filling or emptying, the
upper one is alfo filled and emptied. “See Duck.

The grotto Podfpetfchio, in the fame country, gives an-
other inflance of fuch a fubterranean lake. ‘The people of
the neighbouring country enter the fide of the mountain
where this lake is, by a {mall opening, through which they
go toa cavern of a great width and height; and at the end
of this is a fmall opening again, through which they go on
to the edge of a vait fubterranean piece of water. They go
with torches, and find the water very clear and fine. . It is
ten cubits deep at the edge, and doubtlefs-is much more in
the middle. ‘The water runs into this lake by a large chan-
nel, and runs out of it again by another, falling down a pre-
cipice into another lake, and that with fuch a noife, that the
report of a piftol cannot be heard near it. Stones thrown in
every way are heard to fall into water, and there is great
reafon to fuppofe the lake a German mile long ;. for at this
diftance there is another water difcovered through fuch an-
other cleft of the rock, which ftands at the fame horizontal
height as this, and is fubjeét to the fame accidents at the
fame time. This vaft body of water fometimes all runs off
in a few minutes, and leaves the bafon dry, and after fome
weeks it fills again witha frightful noife. As thefe accidents
always happen to both the waters above mentioned, at the
fame time, they appear very plainly to be only the two fides
of the fame lake. Phil. Tranf. N> ror.

We have in England many of thefe refervoirs, the water
of which is always remarkably clear and cold, and is fo
loaded with fpar, that it generally incrufts things very
quickly that are put into it; and when raifed into vapours,
asa part of it fometimes is, by the fubterranean heat, or
carried up with other vapours, ftops at the ceiling of the
vaults, and there forms ftalaGtite, and other fuch concre-
tions. In many of thefe lakes alfo are found the round
balls of {par, called fulagmite. They are compofed of fe- ~
veral crufts gathering round fome central nucleus, and
often exceed the fize of a {chool-boy’s marble. Phil: Tranf.
N? 144.

In Pen-Park hole, in Gloucefterfhire, there is a -remark-
able inftance of this, that ftrange cavern containing one of
the largeit of the lakes in our kingdom.

It was accidentally difcovered by fome miners: it is
twenty-nine fathoms-deep from the furface, being a vaft ca-
vern of the fhape of a horfe-fhoe, furrounded with rugged
rocks and rough walls of earth, containing in the midtt of
it a river or fubterranean lake, twenty fathom broad and
eight fathom deep, of the fame cold and petrifying water
with the other refervoirs of this kind.

Laxe, or Laqus, a preparation of different fubftances
into a kind of magiftery for the ufe of painters, dyers, &c.
One of the fineft and firft invented of which was that of gum
lacca or lacque; from which all the rett,*as made by the
fame procefs, are called by the common name Jacques. See
Jac .or Lacca.

: Cc3 We

LAK

We may obferve more generally, that all vegetable co-
ours, which are foluble in water, are found to have a certain
degree of affinity for fome earths and metallic oxyds. Thefe
combinations are called lakes. ‘Thus, if a folution of aluin
is added to an infufion of madder, a mutual decompofition
takes place, and part of the alumine falls down intimately
united with the colouring matter of the madder: the fepara-
tion is much affifted by the alkali. They are chiefly of two
colours only, red and yellow: the red owing their colour to
madder, Brafil wood, or cochineal; and the yellow to the
different yellow infufions ufed in dyeing. Both are gene-
rally ufed for water colours, and in oil painting as tranf-
parent colours. Thefe pigments are almoft invariably com-

ofed either of alum, or fometimes the folution of tin, and
fone other watery folution of a colouring matter.

Of the red lakes, that made with cochineal is the moft
beautiful, and of the greateft value. It is called_carmine,
from its being applied to imitate the colour of the flefh.
For the method of preparing it, fee CocuineaL. See alfo
CARMINE.

On the receipt for making carmine, introduced under
the article CociiNEAL, a correfpondent has made the follow-
ing obfervation.

The carbonat of foda and alum, added in the firft in-
ftance, would be mutually decompofed, and the alumine,
with the colouring matter, would be precipitated with the
dregs, which are afterwards feparated from the clear liquor ;
fo that when the white of ess came to be added, the
earth of the alum and a portion of the colouring matter, faid
to be carried down by the albumen, cannot be prefent.
Should the procefs here given have any analogy to that
which is praétifed, it would appear that the folution of
cochineal in water has the white of egg added to it, in the
firft inftance, if it is at all neceffary, for the purpofe of
clearing the coloured folution, a property for which that
fubftance is remarkable. That after the liquid becomes
clear, and is feparated from the dregs, the carbonat of foda
and alum are added, when a precipitate, confifting of the
alumine united with the finer parts of the colouring matter,
may be expeéted. ‘Fhe remaining colouring matter, which is
of lefs beauty, is then ufed for'the red lake.

Inftead of ufing cochineal for making carmine, a much
clearer colour may be extraéted from the refufe of fcarlet
cloth. The bits of cloth are boiled in a folution of potafh,
which extra¢ts the colour, and holds it in folution. If to
this a certain portion of alum be added, the colouring mat-
ter will be precipitated with the alumine, of a greater or lefs
intenfity, proportionate to the quantity of this earthy bafis.
In Doffie’s Handmaid to the Arts, we are told that the beft
of the lakes commonly fold is made from the colour ex-
tracted from fcarlet rags, and depofited on the cuttle-bone ;
and that it may be prepared in the following manner: dif-
folve a pound of the bef pearl afhes in two quarts of water,
and filter the liquor through paper ; add to this folution two
more quarts of water, and a pound of clean fearlet fhreds,
and boil them in a pewter boiler, till the fhreds have loft
their fcarlet colour ; take out the fhreds and prefs them, and
put the coloured water yielded by them to the other: in
the fame folution boil another poitnd of the fhreds, proceed-
ing in the fame manner; and hkewife a third and fourth
pound. Whilft this is doing, diffolve a pound and a half of
euttle-fifh bone in a pound of ftrong aqua-fortis, in a glafs
receiver, adding more of the bone, if it appear to produce
any ebullition in the aqua-fortis ; and pour this {trained fo-
lution gradually into the other ; but if any ebullition be oc-
eafioned, more of the cuttle-filh bone-muft be diffolved as
hefore, and added, till no ebullition appears in the mixture.
The crimfon fediment depofited by the liquor thus prepared

' BAR

is the lake: pour off the water, and ftir tlie lake in two
allons of hard {pring water, and mix the fediment in two
gallons of, frefh water ; let this method be repeated four or
five times. If no hard water can be procured, or the lake
appears too purple, half an ounce of alum fhould be added
to each quantity of water before it be ufed. Having thus
fufficiently freed the lake from the falts, drain off the water
through a filter, covered with a worn linen cloth. When it
has been, drained to a proper drynefs, let it be dropped
through a proper funnel on clean boards, and the drops
will become {mall cones or pyramids, in which form the
lake muft be fuffered to dry, and the preparation is com-
leted.
- Lakes are alfo made from madder and Brafil wood. The
former is much more permanent than the latter, but does
not poffefs the fame beauty of tint. In order to make thefe
lakes, {trong infufions of thefe fubitances are firft obtained.
The Brafil wood infufion is beft made by boiling the chips
in pure water, and filtering the folution. (See Brasir
Wood.) The infufion of madder (fee Mapper) is belt
made in cold water, by which the pureft part of the colour
is only diffolved. To each of thefe folutions are added a
clear folution of alum, and then as much of an alkalias will
precipitate fo much of the alumine as will make the colour
of the precipitate of proper intenfity. A {mall quantity of
muriate of tin increafes the brilliancy of thefe lakes.

A beautiful lake, it is faid (udz infra), may be prepared
from Brafil wood, by boiling three pounds of it, for an
hour, in a folution of three pounds of common falt, in three
ga'lons of water ; and filtering the hot fluid through paper,
add to this a folution of five pounds of alum in three gallons
of water. Diffolve three pounds of the beft pearl afhes in a
gallon and a half of water, and purify it by filtering 5. put
this gradually to the other, till the whole of the colour ap=
pear to be precipitated, and the fluid be left clear and co-
lourlefs. But if any appearance of purple be feen, add a.
frefh quantity of the folution of alum by degrees, till a fear-
let hue be produced. Then purfue the directions given in
the firft procefs with regard to the fediment. If half a
pound of feed-lac be added to the folution of pearl afhes,,
and diffolved in it before its purification by the filtre, and
two pounds of the wood, and a proportional quantity of the
common falt and water be ufed in the coloured folution, lake
will be produced that will ftand well in oil or water, but it
is not fo tranfparent in oil as without the feed-lac. The
lake with Brafil wood may be alfo made by adding half an
ounce of anotto to each pound of the wood ; but the anotto.
mutt be diflolved in the folution of pearl afhes. ‘There is a
kind of beautiful lake brought from China; but as it does
not mix well with either water or oil, though it diffolves
entirely in fpirit of wine, it is not of any ufe ia our kinds
of painting. This has been erroneoufly called fafflower-
Handmaid to the Arts, vol.i. p. 61, &e.

In making yellow lakes, the coloured infufions muft be
fuch as to make the moft permanent dye. (See DyEinG.)
The precipitation of the colour is performed precifely in the-
fame way, and by the fame fubftances, as the red lakes. A-
very excellent yellow lake may be made from the infufion of
guercitron bark. That from turmeric is very beautiful, but
is not permanent. The procefs for the making of this is as.
follows: take a pound of turmeric-root in fine powder, three.
pints of water, and an ounce of falt of tartar; put all into
an earthen glazed. veflel, and let them boil together over a
clear, gentle fire, till the water appears highly impregnated.
with the root, and will ftain a paper to a beautiful yellow.
Filtre this liquor, and gradually add to it a ftrong folution
of roch-alum in water, till the yellow matter is all curdled,
together, and precipitated ; after this pour the whole into a

7 filtre..»

"~

LAK

filtre of paper, and the water will run off and leave the yel-
low matter behind. It is to be wafhed many times with
frefh water, till the water comes off infipid, and then is ob-
tained the beautiful yellow, called /ague of turmeric, and ufed
in painting.

In this manner may a laque be made of any of the tinging
fubftances that are of adomewhat ftrong texture, as madder,
logwood, &c.; but it will not fucceed in the more tender
fpecies, as the flowers of rofes, violets, &c. as it deftroys
the nice arrangement of parts in thofe fubjefts, on which
the colour depends.

A yellow lake for painting is to be made from broom-
flower in the following manner: make a ley of pot-afhes
and lime reafonably ftrong ; in this boil, at a gentle fire,
frefh broom-flowers till they are white, the ley having ex-
tracted all their colour; then take out the flowers, and put
the ley to boil in earthen veffels over the fire; add as much
alum as the liquor will diffolve ; then empty this ley into a

~-veffel of clear water, and it will givea yellow colour at the
bottom. Let all fettle, and decant off the clear liquor.
Wath this powder, which is found at the bottom, with
more water, till all the falts of the ley are wafhed off; then
feparate the yellow matter, and dry. it in the fhade. It
roves a very valuable yellow.

All the lake colours are changed by acids and alkalies.
An acid renders the red lake more fearlet, and the yellow
paler ; while an alkali gives a purple tint to the red, and an
orange or brown tint to the yellow. Artilts fometimes
take advantage of this property to change their colours.
The acid ufed for this purpofe fhould be the muriatic di.
luted, and the alkali aqua ammonia.

Lake, Orange, is the tinging part of anotto peecipitated
together with the earth of alum. This pigment, which is
of a bright orange colour, and fit for varnifh painting, where
there is no fear of flying, and alfo for putting under cryttal
to imitate the vinegar garnet, may be prepared by boiling
four ounces of the beft anotto and one pound of pearl-afhes
half an hour in a gallon of water ; and itraining the folution
through paper. Mix gradually with this a fclution of a
pound and a half of alum in another gallon of water ; defift-
ing, when no ebullition attends the commixture. T'reat the
fediment in the manner already direted for other kinds of
lake, and dry it in fquare bits or round lozenges. Hand-
maid tothe Arts, vol. i. p. FIQ.

Lake, Rofe. See Rofe Pink.

Laxz of Madder. See Mavver.

Lake-fjheries, in Rural Economy, a common name applied
to fuch as are carried on in lakes, or other itagnant waters.
See Fisu and Ponps.

Laxe-weed, in Botany. See ARSMART.

LAKEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Oberland ; eight miles E. of Mulhaufen.

LAKSHIMAN, in Hindoo Mythology, an incarnation of
the mighty ferpent Se/ba, (which fee,) born of Sumitra, fe-
cond wife of Dafaratha, raja, or king of Ayadeha (Oude) :
Lakthiman was thus the half brother of Rama, and became
incarnate for the purpofe of affifting him in his wars againft
Ravana, the tyrant of Lanka. (See Lanxa, Ravana,
and Rama.) Lakfhiman was farther connected with Rama
by efpoufing Urmila, daughter of Janaka, the adoptive pa-
rent of Rama’s wife Sita. See Janaka and Srra.

LAKSHMENT, one of the eight regular wives of
Krifhna y and he being the Apollo of the Hindoos, thefe
eight wives may poffibly be only a perfonification of the na-
tural notes. (See Krisuna.) Her name is fometimes
written Lakfhimany.

LAKSHMI, is the fakti or confort of Vithnu, the pre-

“fome.

BAK

fervative power of the deity. (See Sakri and Visinv.)

The extenfive fe& of Vaifhnava, or worfhippers of Vithnu,

efteem Lakfhmias mother of the world, and then call her

Ada Maya; and fuch Vaifhnavas as are faktas, that is,

adorers of the fupremacy of the female energy, or nature-

active, worfhip her extenfively as the type of the eternal

Being, and endow her with fuitable attributes. (See farther

hereon under Lrnca, Maya, and Saxra, Secrs of Hin-

doos; VaisuNAVA, and the articles before referred to.)

She is reprefented by the poets and painters as of perfec

beauty. Hindoo females are now commonly named after

her: and there are few in the long catalogue of their deities

whofe various names and funétions are fo frequently alluded

to in converfation and writing, either on theogony, mytho-

logy, poetry, or philofophy. Her terreftrial manifeftations

have been frequent, and her origin various. As Rhemba,

the fea-born goddefs, fhe arofe one of the fourteen gems

from the ocean when churned by the good and evil beings

for the amrita or beverage of immortality. (See Ruemsa.)

She then affumes the charater of Venus Marina, or Aphro-

dites of the Greeks; who, as Hefiod and Homer fing,

arofe from the fea, afcended to Olympus, and captivated

all the gods. [he operation of churning the ocean is no-

ticed under Kurmavatara, and the production of Rhemba,

Sri, or Lakfhmi is thus defcribed in the 36th fection of the
firft book of the Ramayana. (See Ramayana.) ‘“ The
gods, the afuras, and the gandharvas, again agitating the
fea, after a long time appeared the great goddefs, inhabiting
the lotus ; clothed with fuperlative Baie in the firlt bloom
of youth, covered with ornaments, and bearing every aufpi-
cious fign ; adorned with a crown, with bracelets on her
arms, her jetty locks flowing in ringlets, and her body,
which refembled burning gold, adorned with ornaments of
pearl. Thus was produced the goddefs Padma, or Sri,
adored by the whole univerfe, Padma by name. She took
up her abode in the bofom of Padma-nabha, even ef Heri,”’

that is, of Vifhnu, of whom thefe are names. Sri, as thig
deity is frequently called, diftinguifhes her more particularly
as the goddefs of fortune, the word meaning pro/perity ; but’
it is not given exclufively to Lakfhmi. (See Sxi, Papa,

and Kamara.) Others of her names are derived from the
lotus, which is the emblem of female beauty, and efpecially
applicable to this goddefs. (See under thefe articles.) He-
ripriya denotes the wife of Heri or Vifhnu. Asthe deity of
riches or fortune Lakfhmi would be invoked for increafe of
wealth, by a defiring Hindoo, ratheithan Kuvera, the Plutus
of their Pantheon. (See Kuvera.) In this character fhe
is fometimes called Locki, or Laki, meaning fickle ; and it-
may be only a fhortening or rapid pronunciation of Lakth-
mi, her moft common name, which is derived from the

Sanferit word /ak/h, light; fplendour ; equivalent to the Latin

lux, and it means farther Juck, luxury, fortune, &c. This

goddefs (as the fakti, or confort of Vifhnu, or Krifhna)

being the energy of the fim, is appropriately defignated by

a luminous appellation derived from fuch a fource,

In images and piétures of her, which are very common in
India, Lakfhmi is generally reprefented as a mere woman ; °
fometimes, however, four-armed ; often holding a fama, or
lotus, in an eafy and elegant attitude, and always very hand- -
With her lord Vifhnu fhe is frequently feen on the
ferpent Sefha; he repofing, fhe in refpectful attendance,
while a lotus fpringing from Vifhnu’s navel to the furface
of the fea (for this {cene is fubaqueous)) bears ’in its expanded
calyx, Brahma, the creator of the world, about to perform
the work of renovation. (See Karpa and Sesua.). Some-
times fhe is feated with her lord on Garuda, or Superna,
cleaving the air, of which Vifhnu is'a perfonification. (See,

SUPERNA.) } *

LAK

Supgrna.) In Vithnu’s moft fplendid avatara, or incar-
nation of Krifhna, fhe became manifefted as Rukmeni, or
Radha, the molt adored of the amorous deities, and mother
of Kama, the god of loye; here again correfponding with
our popular Venus, the mother of Cupid. (See Kama,
Krisuna, Rapwa, and Ruxment.) In the avatara of
Rama, Lakfhmi was his faithful fpoufe in the form of
Sita, as noticed under thofe articles. In that of Narfingha,
fhe was Narfinhi, or Nrifinhi; when Varaha, Varahi; and
as the Sakti of Narayana fhe is by her own feétaries called
Narayani; and in moit of the many incarnations of Vifhuu
fhe appears to have defcended with him, frequently under
her own celeftial name: as his confort generally, fhe is called
Vaifhnavi. See retpectively thofe articles.

The following extract from Moor’s Hindoo Pantheon
will fhew the veneration paid to this popular and beneficent
deity, of whom a milch-cow feems an apt fymbol, «In
the Sradha, or obfequies in honour of deceafed anceftors,
Lakihmi is, among other deities, earneitly invoked, parti-
cularly when, as the ritual expreffes, a votary is defirous,
by gifts to Brahmans, of obtaining celeftial blifs for the
defunét.”? A donation of a milch-cow is attended by many

_ appropriate ceremonies, finifhing with the following prayers ;
the acceptor holdiag, during the recital, the facred animal
by the tail.

1. May the goddefs, who is the Lakfhmi of all beings, and
refides among the gods, affume the fhape of a milch-cow and
procure me comfort.

2. May the goddefs, who is Rudrani in a corporeal form,
and who is the beloved of Siva, ailume the fhape of a milch-
cow and procure me comfort.

3. May fhe, who is Lakfhmi repofing on the bofom of
Vilhnu; fhe, who is the Lakfhmi of the regent of riches ;
the, whois the Lakfhmi of kings, be a boon-granting cow
to me.

4. May fhe, who is the Lakfhmi of Brahma; fhe, who
is Swaha, the wife of fire; fhe, who is the exerted power
df the fun, moon, and ftars, affume the fhape of a milch-cow
for my profperity.

5. Since thou art Swadha, the food of them who are the
chief among the manes of anceftors, and Swaha, the con-
fuming power of them who eat folemn facrifices; there-
fore, being the cow that expiates every fin, procure me
comfort.

6.1 invoke the goddefs, who is endowed with the at-
tributes of all the gods, who confers all happinefs, who
beftows abodes in all the worlds, for tlie -fake of all
people.

7. I pray to that aufpicious goddefs for immortality and
sjhappinefs, P. 138.

Under the following names and words fome particulars
will be found of the mythological perfons mentioned in the
preceding extraGt, not before referred to from this article.
Sradha, or obfequies in honour of departed anceltors.
Rudrani, the beloved of Siva, a name of Parvati. Su-
rabhi, the boon-granting cow. Swadha, Swahka, the fakti,
or energy of Pavaka, or fire.

Lakfhmi alfo prefides over marriages, and is confidered,
indeed, among certain fef&is of Hindoos, as the general
fource of all happinefs. Sheis found, by mythologiits, to
jhave characteriitic attributes and powers fimilar to the Ceres
.of the Greeks (Sri is, in one cafe, Sris, correfponding here,
likewiie, in name), and the Ifis of the Egyptians. On
thefe, and other points conneéted with the fubject of this
article, fee fir William Jones, and Mr. Colebroke, A fiat.
Ref. vols. i. iii. and vii. Many plates of her in her va-
zious forms, and Puranic legends and anecdotes, are like

LAL

wife given in Moor’s Hindoo Pantheon, whence this articlé
is chiefly taken. See allo Grnroos.

LAKTEA, in Geography, a fea-port of Sweden, in Eatt
Bothnia, at the mouth of a river near the gulf of Bothnia.
N.. lat. 64° 25/.

LALA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in the
Greater Armenia.

LALADA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Golconda 3 15 miles W.N.W. of Culloor.

LALAMSERAT, a town of Hindooitan; 28 miles We
of Benares.

LALAND. See Laaranp.

LALANDE, James pe, in Biosraphy, was born at
Orleans in 1622, and became diftinguifhed in the profeffion
of the law. He was famed as well for his extenfive and very
profound erudition, as by the public and private virtues
which he manifefted, in paffing through a long life, in’ the
exercife of various important fun@tions. He attained to the
higheft rank in his profeffion in his native place, and was
made mayor. He died in’ 1703, fincerely regretted by all
who knew him; he was author of feveral works, of which
the maft important were “ A Commentary upon the Cuftom
of Orleans ;” and * A Treatife on the Ban, and Arrier-
ban.’’ His integrity, beneficence, and zeal for the interelts
of his countrymen, obtained for him the honourable title of .
‘« father of the people.”? Moreri.

Laranpp, Josrry, JERomE ry Franeats, a celebrated
French aftronomer, was born at Bourg, in the department
of ? Ain, on the 11th of July 1732, of very refpeftable
parents. His father, who was pofleffed of property, in-
tended him for the bar, and accordingly fent him to Paris to
itudy the law, to which, for fome time, he applied with fo
much afliduity, as to more than anfwer the moft fanguine
expectations of his friends, when the fight of an obfervatory
awakened in him a propenfity, which deranged the projects
of his parents, and became the ruling paffion of his life. He
put himfelf under the inftruGtions of Le Monnier, one of
the then moft celebrated aflronomers of France, and profited
fo much by the leflons of his able inftruétor, as to afford
him the highelt degree of fatisfaction, who, on his part,
conceived for the young man a truly paternal affection, and
was determined to promote his interefts. An opportunity
foon offered; the great aftronomer Lecaille was preparing
to fet out for the Cape of Good Hope, in order to determine
the parallax of the moon, and its diftance from the earth.
To accomplifh this purpofe, it was neceffary he fhould be
feconded bv an obferver placed under the fame meridian, and
at the greatelt diltance that conld be conveniently chofen on
the globe. Berlin was fixed on, and Le Monnier fignified
his intention of undertaking the bufinefs himfelf, but the
moment when he fhould be ready to depart, he had the cre-
dit to get his pupil appointed in his ftead. Frederic, to whom
Maupertuis had explained the delicacy and difficulty of the
enterprize, could not forbear fhewihg fome aftonifhment when
the youthful aftronomer was prefented to him, ‘* However,”?
faid he, “ the Academy of Sciences has appointed you, and
you will juftify their choice.” From that moment his age,
Leing only eighteen, was an additional recommendation ; he
was admitted at court, welcomed by the academy, and be-
came intimate with the moft diftinguifhed perfons at Berlin.
On his return, the account which he gave of his miffion pro-
cured him free accefs to the Academy of Sciences, and its
Tranfactions were enriched every year by important :ommu-
nications from the young aitronomer ; “ the active part which
he took in the labours of the academy, was not confined to
the aftronomical {cience, we have from his pen, a defcription
of feven arts, as different from each other, as they are re-

Mote

=

LALANDE.

mote from the objeéts of his habitual meditations.” He
publithed the French edition of Dr. Halley’s tables, and
the hiltory of the comet of 1759, and he furnifhed Clairault
with immenfe calculations for the theory of that famous
comet. Being charged in 1760 with the compilation of the
*« Comoiffance des ‘l’emps,”” he entirely changed the form of

that work, and of this colle€tion he publithed thirty-two

volumes, viz. from 1775 to 1807. ;
In 1764, appeared the firlt edition of his “Traité A ftrono-

' mique,”’ which he afterwards completed, and upon which

his chief claim to glory refts. Lalande was the firft who
calculated the perturbations of Mars aud Venus, and in the
theory of Satellites, in which but little progrefs had been
made, he explained a motion which Baillie claimed as his own
difcovery. Avliterary difpute arofe out of this cizcumftance,
which, however, was conduGted with every regard to de-
cency, and the probable refult, as feen by difinterefted fpec-
tators, was, that both had been led to the fame difcovery.

’ He'compofed all the aftronomical articles for the “ Encyclo-

pedia of Yverdun:” thofe for the fupplements to the « En-

cyclopédie de Paris,” and thofe for the «¢ Encyclopédie Me- -

thodique,” fubftituting for the articles furnifhed by d’Alem-
bert, and which he had compiled from the works of Le
Monnier, fuch as were more complete and more modern,
from his own obfervations and improved theories.

To his written works he joined oral inftrutions during a
fpace of forty-fix years; for from the year 1761 he had re-

placed the firft maiter, De Lifle, in the chair of aftronomy,

in the college of France, and gave a new lultre to this curious
part of public initru€tion ina celebrated fchool, which pof-
‘felled the moft diftinguifhed profeffors of every kind, and
which enjoyed and merited the extraordinary privilege of out-
living the tremendous ftorms of a revolution, and efcaping
the almott univerfal deftruction which levelled all around it.
As a profeffor, he taught with fo much ability that his fchool
became a feminary of difciples who peopled the different ob-
fervatories of the world. In the midit of his other labours
he drew up his “* Voyage d’Italie,"’ the moit complete col-
leGion of curious cbje¢ts that travellers can confult; his
s¢Traité des Canaux ;’’ and his “ Bibliographie A ftrono-
mique,”” which is animmenfe catalogue of ail the works that
lave appeared on the fubjeét of that fcience.

In the year 1793, Lalande publifhed ** Abrege de Naviga-
tion hiftorique, theorique, et prattique,’’ containing many
valuable rules and tables; and in 1802 he publifhed a new
edition of Montucla’s hiltory of mathematics, in 4 vols.
4to. the laft two volumes being prepared from Montucla’s
papers, with the afliftance of La Place, La Croix, and
other French mathematicians. He publifhed alfo this year a
collection of tables of logarithms, fines, tangents, &c. adapted
to the pocket.

Affociated to almoft all the diftinguifhed fcientific focieties
in the world, he was their common bond of union by the
correfpondences which he thaintained ; and he promoted a
Circulation of intelligence from one to another. He em-

‘ployed the credit arifing from the univerfal reputation which
he enjoyed, for the general benefitof the feiences and their
cultivators, To the extraordinary ardour and ativity of
his charaéter, he joined a love for the trath, which he carried
to the borders of fanaticifm. Every degree of concealment
appeared to him unworthy of an honeft man, and ‘he there-
fore, without referve, uttered his fentiments on ali occafions,
and by the bluntnefs of his manners, he fometimes made him-
felf enemies, who not only calied in quettion his real merits,
but who excited againft him a crowd of detractors, and be-
caufe they could not rival his high reputation, they attempted
toblait his wel earned fame. He was not without his fingu-

-

larities and failings, but they were trifliog in comparifon of
his commendable qualities, yet his long and important fer-
vices were frequently forgotten in the recolleétion of trivial
failings.

In a work, not of the moft liberal caft, now under publi-
cation, in this country, Lalande has been charged with pro-
fanenefS and atheifm, but no authority is produced to fup-
port fuch charges, which, if true, onght to have been
fanétioned by fome fort of proof, or by well afcertained
facts ; and ifnot true, the editors of that work are guilty of
a crime againtt fociety not eafily obliterated. One of his eu-
logifts fays, «he always manifefted a benevolent difpofition,
and approved himfelf a man of honour, probity, courage,
full of aétivity for all ufeful things, and of jove and zeal in
behalf of his fellow creatures. ‘To imitate the great bene-
factor is the moit worthy homage we can pay to the infinite
goodnefs ; the fupreme intelligence which governs the uni-
verfe.”” He rendered ineltimable fervice to fcieace during
his life, and confulted its intereits after his death, by founding.
an annual prize to the author of the beft aitronomical
memoir, or mo{t curious obfervation. He died April 4th
1807, in the 75th year of his age. Eulogy pronounced
over his grave by De-Lambre and Dupont.

Laranpe, Micner Ricwarp pe, mafter of the king
of France's band, maitre de chapelle, and compofer in ordi-
nary of the chapel royal, and chévalier de l’ordre de St. Mi-
chel, born in 1657, was the fifteenth fon of a tailor at:
Paris, and brought up a chorifter of St. Germain Il’ Auxer-
rois. Excited by a {trong paffion for mufic, he foon fur-
paffed his mafter Chaperon. The violin was the firft initru-
ment to which he ferioufly applied ; but being recommended
to Lulli, asa performer in the opera orcheltra, he was fo
piqued at being rejected, that he broke his fiddle, and re-
nounced the practice of it for ever. The era of his pro-
{perity was, the being employed in teaching mademoifelle de
Noailles, who married the Maréchal de Grammont, and the
Maréchal faid fo many kind things of him to the king, that. .
he was appointed mufic-maiter to mademoifelles de Blois, and
de Nantes. In 1683, his majefty having created two new.
places of chapel-maiters, gave one of them to Lalande,.
whofe compofitions pleafed the king fo much that he ap-
pointed him fucceffively to the two places of chapel-mafter,
that of chamber-mufician to his majefty, and mafter of his-
band ; and foon after conferred on him the order of St. Mi-
chel. The king married him to Anne Ribel, who had an:
admirable voice, and fang wonderfully. He had only twe
daughters by this marriage, whom he loft in 1711 at 24
years of age. In 1721 he loft his fpoufe, aed the year fol- .
lowing, wanting confolation and a companion, he married.
the demoifelle de Cury, daughter of the furgeon to the prin-
cefs of Conté, but foon after being feized with a confump-
tive cough, and pain in his cheit, he died in 1726:at 67 ;.
45 years of which time he had {pent in the fervice of
Louis XIV. and XV. Lalande left behind him 60 motets,
or anthems, which have had the higheit reputation, and fet
feveral operas, but he never would jet any of them be per-
formed under his name.. It was under this able matter, (jays
M. Laborde, the zealous defender.of French mufic of every:
kind,) that a new fpecies of church mufic had birth,
which aftonifhed and ravifhed the whole court. « He ba--
nifhed the ufual monotony and drynefs of the choruffes and
recitatives. His fugues were compofed on lively fubjedts,
and mixed with agreeable fymphonies, and agreeable melo-
dies, which, before his time, had no exiftence. He was the
firft who had the time beaten by a coryphzus, and compofed
pathetic recitatives, and airs of {pirit. In fhort, he was the
creator of church.mufic, and even foreigners, ince the time

et

LAM

of Lalande, give the French the-pre-eminence in this kind of
mufic, over all the nations of Europe.’ Effai fur la Mu-
fique.

The Englifh, the Germans, and the Italians, we pre-
fume, will difpute this point with M. Laborde, and remind
him of their Purcel, Handel, Leo, &c, We heard fome of
this fublime mufic, at the Concert Spirituel, in 17703 and in
looking back at our memoranda for the effeé& which it had on
our feelings, we found that it was coarfe and noify, with
fcarcely a new paflage to make amends for the wort finging
which we had ever heard, in or out of the church.

LALANG, in Geography, an ifland near the N. coaft of
Sumatra, in the ftraits of Malacca. N. lat. 1° 45’. E.

“long. 99° 20!.

LALASIDE, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia
Minor, which, according to Ptolemy, made part of Cilicia,
fo called from the name of Lalalis, its capital. In the 4th
century of the Chriftian era, when the province of Ifauria
was formed of a part of Cilicia and Cataonia, this country
tbecame a part of Tfauria.

LALASIS, a town of Afia Minor, in Lauria.

LALBENQUE, in Geography, a town of France, in
‘the department of the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrist of Cahors. The place contains 1924, and the
-canton 9750 inhabitants, ona territory of 305 kiliometres, in
13 communes,

LALCOTTA, a town of Hindooftan, in Golconda;
317 miles N.E. of Rachore.

LALA, atown of Thibet ; 90 miles §. of Sarangpour.

LALIBALA, a town of Abyffinia; 140 miles $.S.E.
.of Gondar.

Larrpata, a town of Abyflinia; go miles S.S.E. of
-Gondar.

LALIM, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira ;
nine miles S.W. of Lamego.

LALINDE, a town of France, in the department of
the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Bergerac, The place contains 1606, and the canton 8208 in-
‘habitants, on a territory of 185 kiliometres, in 16 com-
munes.

LALLARY Pornr, a cape on the S.W. coaft of the
ifland of Banca. N. lat. 2° 48’. E. long. 106° 2',

LALM, a town of Silefia, in the principality of Jauer ;
20 miles W, of Jauer.

LALODA, a town on the W. coaft of the ifland of
‘Gilolo. N.lat. 1° 48’. E. long. 127° 22'.

LALGO,; a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 20 miles
E. of Silhet.

LALOUETTE, in Biography, an eléve of Lulli, beat
the time at the opera in Paris, and compofed the mufic of
feveral bailets and intermedes. He was one of the belt per-
formers on the violin of his time, was alfo mufic-mafter at
Nétre Dame, and died in 1728, aged about 75.

LALPET, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in the
Carnatic ;' 74 miles N. of Arcot.

LALSK, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Vo-
jogda, on the river Luza; 40 miles E,of Ufting. N. lat,
60° 50'. E. long. 47° 14’.

LALSOGND, a town of Hindooftan, in the fubah of
Agimere ; 10 miles N. of Rantampour, N. lat. 26° 44’,
£. long. 76° §3!.

LALVIFON, a town on the W. coait of the ifland of
Samar. N. Jat. 11°35’. E.long. 124° 52'. ;

LAMA, a town on the W. coatt of the ifland of Celebes,
6. lat. 1° 48’. E. long. 119° 15'.—Alfo, a town of
§Naples, in Abruzzo Citra; 12 miles E. of Sulmona.

Lama, or Lamas, the title of an order of priefts among

LAM

the weftern Tartars, on the frontiers of China, and particu.
larly in Thibet, who are held in great veneration. Lama,
in their language, is a prieft or minitter of religion; and
Lamifla is the wife of the Lama.

About the year 1426, the bonzes of Thibet affumed the
title of «*Grand Lama."' The moft powerful among them
made Laffa the place of his refidence, and was acknow-
ledged chief of all the lamas. He eftablifhed the law re-
fpecting the yellow cap; for it muft be obférved, that
there are two kinds of lamas, diftinguifhed by red and yel-
low caps. His fucceffor was the firft who appointed a
“ typa,’’ or prime miniiter, whom he entrufted with the
government of his ftates. The next in order was the firft
who took the diftinguifhing title of ‘dalai-lama,’”? by
which he was raifed far above the reft ; for * dalai’’ figni-
fies “‘ morally and phyfically extended, great, and almoft
without bounds,’’? The lama princes, however, were not
fole fovereigns of Thibet. The dalai-lama was indebted to
a prince of the T'artars of Kokonor, named Kouchi, for his
fovereignty over all Thibet: and in order to continue his
protection to him, he eftablifhed himfelf, together with his
troops, in the neighbourhood of Laffa. In 1714, the
Eleuthes made an irruption into Thibet, committed the moft
horrid ravages, put a great number of the lamas to the
fword, and fent feveral of them into Tartary, inclofed in
facks, and thrown on the backs ofcamels. Their king pre-
tended to be the only and real fovereign of Thibet; and or-
dered the lamas to renounce their authority over the people,
to retire to their monafteries, and to employ themfelves only
in faying their prayers. The dalai-lama loft ne time to im-
plore the proteétion of the emperor Kang-hi ; who affembled
a numerous army, and caufed it to march into Kokonor, from
whence he drove the king of the Eleuthes, and then entered
Thibet ; while another bedy of Chinefe troops penetrated
thither alfo by the province of Se-tchuen. The dalai-lama
was re-eftablifhed, and the reft of the lamas. were put in pof-
feffion of their pagodas. Thofe that remained of the troops
of the Eleuthes made their efcape through the defiles of
the mountains ; and as the reigning emperor has ever fince
protected Thibet, the Thibetians have nothing more to fear
from the incurfions of the Eleuthes, who, fince 1759, have
been fubje&ts of the empire. The tribute which tlie fove-
reign of Thibet fends to the emperor of China confifts
generally of gold or copper ftatues of the god ‘* Fo,” per=
fumes, amber, coral, precious ftones, woollen ftuffs, and
{word-blades. The emperor alfo requires from the dalaie
lama a certain number of veffels or {mall pitchers, filled with
water from the Ganges, Ever fince the expulfion of the
Eluth Tartars, the kingdom of Thibet is regarded as dee
pending on the emperor of China, which they call Cathay ;
and at Laffa, the capital, two mandarins relide, with a gare
rifon of 1000 Chinefe to fupport the government ; but their
power does not extend far; for in reality the lama, whofe
empire is founded on the fureit.grounds, perfonal affeétion

and religious reverence, governs every thing internally-with _
It is well known, that the dalai--

unbounded authority.
lama is the great ebjeét of adoration for the yarious tribes
of Heathen Tartars, who roam through the immenfe traét
of continent which firetches from the banks of the Volga
to Corea, on the fide of Japan ;—the moit extenfive reli-
gious dominion, perhaps, on the face of the globe. He is
not only the fovereign pontiff, the vicegerent of the deity
on earth ; but as fuperftition has ever the greateft influence,
where it is removed fartheft from its obje&, the more remote
Tartars abfolutely regard him as the Deity himfelf. They
believe him immortal, and endowed with all knowledge and
virtue. They annually affemble from different parts to a
‘ iP

\

oo tte ies al a

LAMA.

fhip and make rich offerings at his fhrine ; and even the
emperor of China does not fail to make acknowledgments
to him in his religious capacity, and aétually to entertain at
a great expence, in the palace of Pekin, an inferior lama,
deputed as his nuncio from Thibet. According to Mr.
Turner's account, the Thibetians conceive of him as imma-
culate, immortal, omniprefent, and omnifcient. They view
him ofly in the moft amiable light, as perpetually abforbed
in religious duty ; and when called to beftow attention on
mortal beings, as employed only in the benign office of dif-
tributing confolation by his bleffing, and in exerciling the
firt of all attributes, forgivenefs and mercy. He is alfo
the centre of all civil government, which derives from his
authority all its influence. It isthe orthodox opinion among
the votaries of the grand lama, that when he feems to die
either of old age or of infirmity, his foul only quits a crazy
habitation to feek another and better; and that it is dif-
covered again in the body of fome child, by certain tokens
known only to the lamas or prie{ts, in which order he al-
ways appears. ‘The dalai-lama, who prefided in Thibet in
1774, when Mr. Bogle was commiffioned by the governor-
general of Bengal to vifit that country, was an infant, and
was difcovered a few years before by the Teefloo lama,
who, in authority and fanétity of charater, was next to him ;
and, confequently, during the other’s minority, acted as
chief. The refidence of the dalai-lama is at Pateli, or
Pontela, an immenfe palace on a mountain near the banks
of the Burrampooter, about feven miles from Lafla.. On
this mountain there are many pagodas, in the molt fump-
tuous of which he refides. He pafles great part of his life
on a kind of altar, where he fits motionlefs, in a crofs-legged
pofture, on a large and magnificent cufhion, and receives
with the greateft gravity the adorations, not only of the
Thibetians, but of a great multitude of pilgrims, who un-
dertake long and difficult journies to go and worfhip him on
their bended knees, and to receive his benediction. The
grand lama falutes no one; he neither uncovers nie rifes up
to any perfon, whatever his rank may be; with the fame
eyes he beholds at his feet the greateft princes and the meanett
of his fubjects. He contents himfelf with laying his hand
on the head of his worfhipper, who imagines that he ob-
tains, by this impofition alone, the remiffion of all his fins.
His votaries conceive, that all the divinity of * Fo’? relides
in him; and they afcribe to him all the attributes and pre-
rogatives already mentioned. ‘Their whole care is employed
in difcovering the place where it fhall pleafe him to be born
again; and even fome of the Tartar princes themfelves have
affiited in this interefting fearch ; but they are obliged to be
direted by certain lamas, who alone are acquainted with the
figns by which the new-born god may be difcovered, or ra-
ther, they only know what child the preceding dalai-lama
appointed to be his fucceffor. The Teefhoo-lama has fe-
veral palaces or caftles. The caftle in which the lama retides
is built of ftone or brick, with many courts, lofty halls,
terraces, and porticos; and the apartments are in general
roomy, and highly finifhed in the Chinefe ftile, with gilding,
painting, and varnifh, Stair-cafes and windows are conve-
niences to which they are utter ttrangers. ‘There is no ac-
cefs to the upper rooms but by a fort of ladders of wood or
iron ; and in lieu of windows they have holes in the cielings,
with pent-houfe covers, contrived fo as to fhut up on the
weather-fide. Firing is fo fcarce, that little is ufed except
for culinary purpofes; and they truft altogether for warmth
in their houfes to their furs and other clothing. In the
‘northern parts of Thibet there are gold-mines, which er2
the referved property of the lama, and rented out to thofe
who work them, Particular and difcriminating refpe@ is paid
= Vou. XX. © ;

to the fovereign Jamas after their death. The bodies of
thefe are depofited entire in fhrines prepared for them, which
are ever after confidered as facred, and vifited with religious
awe ; whereas the bodies of inferior lamas are ufually burnt,
and their afhes preferved with great care in little metallic
idols, which have places affigned them in their facred ca-
binets,

The lamas, who form the moft numerous as well, as the
moft powerful body in the flate, have the priefthood entirely
in their hands; and befides they fill up may monallic or-
ders, which are held in great veneration among them. The
inferior gradations, from the prefident of a monaftery, who
is always ftyled lama, in addition to the name of the {lation
to which he belongs, are Gylong, Tohba, and Tuppa.
On the eftablifhment of the monaltery of T'eefhoo Taom-
boo, there were reckoned at that period no lefs than 3700
pylongs for the performance of daily fervice in the Goomha,
or temple: and four lamas, chofen from among them, fuper-
intend and direct their religious ceremonies. (See Gy-
LonGs.) Youth intended for the fervice of the monattery
are received on the eflablifhment at the age of eight or ten
years, and then called ** ‘Tuppa;” at fifteen they are ufually
admitted into the order of * Tohba ;’? and from that of
Tohba, if they are found, upon examination, duly qualified,
they are advanced to the clafs of Gylongs, between the
age of 21 and 24; and with fufficient intereft, they may
then be promoted to the fuperintendence of fome endowed
monattery, and obtain the rank of lama. The priefts are
habited in long robes of yellow cloth, with a conical cap
of the fame colour, having flaps to fall down and cover the
ears. ‘This peculiarity of colour diftinguifhes one of the two
religious fe@s that divide almoft the whole of Tartary, from
Turkeftan to the eaftern limits of this continent. The other
colour is red; and the tribes are known as belonging to the
red, or yellowcap. The former differ principally from the fec-
taries of the yellow, in allowing the marriage of their priefts.
But the latter are confidered as the moft orthodox, as well
as poffefled of the greateft influence. The emperor of
China is decidedly of this tribe, and has fanétioned his pre-
ference of the yellow colour, by a fumptuary law, which
limits it to the fervice of religion, and the imperial ufe. The
two feéts are diitinguifhed by the appellations of Gyllookpa
and Shammar ; the former having adopted the yellow colour,
and the latter the red. Three iamas are placed at the head
of each feéts Dalai-lama, Feefhoo-lama, and Taranaut-lama,
prefide over the Gylicokpa, who have their refidence at
Pootalah, Tefhoo Loomboo, and Kharka, This fe& pre-
vails over the greateft part of Thibet, and a divifion of it
is eftablifhed in a province of the Deccan, called Seurra, or
Sirrore. In like manner three lamas a‘fo prefide over the
Shammar, and have their refidence in Bootan, in feparate
monatteries. Great contentions formerly prevailed between
thefe teéts ; and the Shammar was under a neceflity of re-
tiring, and of fixing in a tra&t of country bordering on
Thibet, towards the fouth, marked by a line, inhofpitable
and intemperate inthe extreme. Here they eftablifhed them-
felves, as in a fecure afylum; while others, ityled Dukba,
itill live in tents and tend their flocks in a vagrant ftate.
But to return from this digreflion—The inhabitants of
Thibet are not the only people who may attain to the dig-
nity of lama. ‘Tartars, and even Chinefe, have afpired to
the priefthood, and repaired to Laffa in hopes of obtaining
it. If they can be admitted among the difciples of the grand
lama, the number of whom is fixed at 200, they confider
their admiffion as the commencement of their promotion,
and the firft ftep towards dignity and power; the fubaltern
grand lama being chofen from among thefe difciples. When

Dd they

BAM

they have atrived at this dignity, they live in {plendour and
opulence, and are continually iurrounded by a crowd of
adorers, who load them with prefents. The richett and
mott confiderable of the Tartar lamas, who inhabit ‘Vhibet,
are thofe whom the Chinefe call Mong-fan ;” they poflefs
extenfive domains to the north of the province of Yun-nan,
between the beautiful rivers of Kinche-kiang and Vou-
Jeang. Thefe lands were granted to them by Oufan-guei,
who became mafter of Yun-nan, whea the Mantchew ‘Tar-
tars fubdued “hina, in order to bring them over to his
party, and that by their means he might gain the fupport
of all the lamas of Thibet. Although the Mantchew Tar-
tars had never any lamas, they no fooner undertook the
conquett of China, than they protected them openly through
policy ; and foon after, government caufed magnificent
pagodas to be erected for them, The example was fol-
lowed by a great number of princes, princeffes, and wealthy
people, who vied with one another in zeal for building tem-
ples for them, and thus the lamas greatly multiphed in
China. They are alfo rich there; for moit of thefe lamas
appear in public in veitments of red and yellow fattin, orna-
mented with the moft valuable furs. ‘They are all mounted
on excellent horfes, and followed by a number of dommeitics,
eorrefponding to their rank @s mandarins ; for the emperor
permits them to carry a cufhion and the other badges of
dignity which belong to the quality of mandarin, The
lamas of Thibet are lefs magnilicent in their drefs ; wearing
only a napped kind of woollen ftuff, called in China‘ pou-
lou,” which is ufed for covering feats, becaufe it generally
laits long and retains its colour, Belides a cap, the lamas
have feveral bonnets, or tiaras, that are the ditinguifhing
marks of the different degrees of honour to which they
have arrived. The cap, which {trikes the European molt,
very much refembles a bifhop’s mitre : it is worn by them on
horfeback as well as on foot. The obligations which the
office of lama impofes are neither.few nor trifling ; but there
is not one among them who enzages to dilcharge them
all, They divide and fhare the burden. One takes the
charge of obferving one precept, and another oblizes him-
felf to prattife another. They have alfo certain common
prayers, which-they chaunt in a very agreeable manner ; znd
they are obliged to renounce the vanities of the world, to
live in celibacy, and to have no concern in trade or com-
merce. ;

The lamas are extremely fuperftitious, and much addiéted
to magic. Grotier’s China, vol. i. Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvii-
part ii. Turner’s Account of an Embaily to the Court of
the Tefhoo Lama, in,Thibet, 1S06.

LAMALMON, in Geography, a lofty‘mountain and {pa-
cious diftri@ of Abyflinia, where is the pafs through which
the road of all caravans to Gondar lies ; and where they take
account of all baggage and merchandize, which they tranf{-
mit to the Nagadé Ras, or chief officer of the cuftoms
at Gondar. Here'is alfo levied, with great rigour, and
for the moft part with injuflice, a payment due to the
proprietor of the ground. From its bafe this mountain
has the appearance of being fharp-pointed ; but on the top
of it is a large plain, called Lama, part laid out in pal-
ture, but the greater part bearing grain. It abounds with
{prings, and feems to be the great refervoir from which
arife moft of the rivers that water this part of Abyvfinta.
- A multitude of ftreams iffue from the fammit in all direc-
tions; the fprings boil out from the earth in large quan-
tities, capable of turning a mill. ‘They plough, tow, and
reap bere at all: feafons; and the hufbandman mutt blame
his ewn indolence, and not the foil, if he bas not three
harvefls. In one place, fays Mr. Bruce, we faw. people

LAM

bufy cutting down wheat ; immediately next to it, others
at the plough; and the adjoining field had green corn in the
ear, and a little further, it was not an inch Ne te the ground.
Lamalmon is on the N.W. part of the mountains of Samen:
that of Gingerohha, with two pointed tops, joins it on the
north; but neither Lamalmon nor Gingerobha, though
higher than the mountains of Tigré, are equal in height to
fome of thofe of Samen. The mercury in the barometer
on the top of Lamalmon ftood at 202 Englifh inches.
The language of lamalmon is Amharic; but there are
many villages where the language of the Falafha is fpoken.
Thefe are the ancient inhabitants of the mountains, who
{lill preferve the religion, language, and manners of their
anceltors, and live in villages by themfelves. ‘Their number
is confiderably diminifhed, and they are now wholly addicted
to agriculture, hewers of wood, and carriers of water, and
the only potters and mafons in Abyffinia. In general they
live better than the other Abyffinians, which they, in re-
venge, attribute to their fkillin magic, not to fuperior in-
duftry. ‘heir villages are genera'ly ftrengly fituated out
of the reach of marching armies, or otherwile they would
be conttantly rifled, partly from hatred, and partly from
hopes of finding money. ‘The river Macara ts the boundary
between Lamalmon and Waggora; and the latitude of
fome {mall villages called Macara was 13' 6'S". Bruce’s
Travels, vol. ii. si
LAMANON, Rosert Pavt, in Biography, a member ~
of the Academy of Sciences at Paris, and member of the
Mufeum in the fame city, was born at Salon, in Provence,
in 1752, of an old and refpeétable family. He was deftined
for the church, and fent to Paris to comp’ete his the-
ological iludies. He rofe to the dignity of canon, but by
the death of his father and elder brother he came into pro-
perty, which enabled him to follow the bent of his inclina-
tions, by devoting luimfelf to the phyfical fciences. He
travelled through Provence and Dauphiné, and fealed the
Alps and Pyrenees: ‘at the fight of thefe vaft natural la-
boratories the bent of his mind burit forth initantaneonfly ;
he climbed to the fummit of rocks, and explored the abyfs
of caverns, weighed the air, analyfed fpecimens, and, in
this ardent fancy, having attained the fecrets of creation,
he formed a new fyitem of the world.’’ Upon his return
home, he applied with great ardour to tue ftudy of me-
teorology, natural philofophy, and the other branches ef
the hiltory of nature. He ‘pent three years at Paris, and
gave to the learned focieties there many yery valuable
papers, particularly a memoir on the Cretans, a memoir on
the theory of the winds, and a treatife on the alteration in
the courfe of rivers, particularly the Rhone. He again
vifited Switzerland ard Italy, going firft to Turin, where
he allied himfelf to the learned of that country; after his
return, laden with the fpoils of the countries which he
traverfed, he employed himfelf in the arrangement cf the
interclting fruits of his journey. It was at the time when
Lamanen was preparing for the prefs his great work on
the « Theory of the Earth,” that the French government
conceived the valt project of completing the difcoveries of
captain Cook: the Academy of Sciences was entrufted with
the care of {electing men capable of reGifying the common
notions of the feuthern hemifphere, of improving hydro-
graphy, and advancing the progrefs of natural hiltory ;
they invited, at the recommendation of the iluftrious Con-
doreet, Lamanon to fhare the danger, and to partake in
the glory, of this great enterprize. He eagerly catched at
the offer, haitened to Paris, refufed, in a conferen@e with
the minifter, the falary offered him, and taking a hatly leave
of his friends, departed for Breft. On the iit of Auguit,

S 1755»

LAM

1785, the armament fet fail under the orders of La Peroufe,
an experienced commander; the commencement of the
voyage was highly profperous. After fome delays, and
having embraced every opportunity of making obfervations,
the veffels arrived at the ifland of Maouna, one of the
fouthern Archipelago. Lamanon, eager to affure himfelf
of the truth of the accounts of that country, debarked with
Langle, the fecond in command. Having explored the
lace, and being upon the point of returning, they were
attacked by the natives; a combat enfued, and they, with
feveral of the boat's crew, fell a facrifice to the fury of
thefe barbarians, Thus perifhed Lamanon, a young man
ardent in the purfuits of fcience, difinterefted in his prin-
ciples, and a zealous advocate for the interelts of freedom.
His eulogift, M. Ponce, faid of him, ‘‘ that he feemed
born to bring about a revolution in fcience ; the depth of
his ideas, the energy of his charaéter, the fagacity of his
mind, united to that lively curiofity, that can draw inftruc-
tion out of every thing which he faw, and which leaves
nothing unexplored, would have led him to the molt valu-
able difcoveries.”’ ‘

LAMANTES, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Calabria Citra; 12 miles S.W. of Cofenza.

LAMARCKIA, in Botany, is a cryptogamic, and, in
every fenfe, very obfcure genus of marine plants, founded
by the Abbate Jofeph Olivi, in his Zoologia Adriatica, an
Italian work in quarto, publifhed at Baflano in 1792, and
treating of various matters relative to the natural hiltory of
the gulf of Venice. What relates to the prefent genus is
copied into Uiteri’s Annalen, f3'c. 7.76. It was named
in honour of the celebrated French botanift John Baptilt
Monet, Chevalier de la Marck, who, fince the French re-
volution, has adopted Lamarck as his furname. His inde-
fatigable application and {kill in the {cience of botany, are
evinced by his Didionaire, and his Jilufiration des Genres,
fo often quoted by us. He has, however, for fome time
withdrawn himfelf from the former work, devoting his at-
tention to conchology. Of his claims to botanical com-
memoration, there can be no doubt; but he has already re-
ceived this reward of his labours, in the WWonetia of L’He-
ritier, adopted in Willdenow, Sp. Pl. v. 1. 669, and the
new edition of Hort. Kew. v. 1. 2643; nor can we on any
occalion confent to the unauthorized ard truly foolifh con-
trivance, of naming two different genera after one and the
fame perfor. If we retain the Butea of Koenig, for in-
ftance, it muft be in honour of the late marchionefs of
Bute, not of the firft earl, already juftly immortalized in
the Stuartia of Linnzus. It is however extremely pro-
bable that Olivi might be ignorant of the Afonetia; or he
might prefer for it the name Azima, fubfequently given
by Lamarck himfelf, but whofe meaning we know not.
See his Di&. v. 1. 343.

The Burfa marina of Cxfalpinus and Bauhin, and the
Vermilara retufa of Imperato, have given occafion to the
eftablifament of the prefent genus, whofe charaéter is thus
given by Olivi.

Plant rooted, fomewhat coriaceous, foft, compofed of
minute bladders, perpendicular to the axis, which are mem-
branous, green, cylindrical, approximated, terminating at
each end in very flender, tubular, conneéting filaments.
FruGification coniilting of fmall globes, {cattered among the
bladders and filaments.

The fpecies are

1. L. Burfe. Pouch Lamarckia. (Alcyonium Burfa;
Linn. Syit. Nat. v. 1.1295. Pallas Zooph. 352. Burfa
marina; Cafalp. 608. Bauh. Pin. 368. Fucus Burfa ;
Turn. Hik. Fucor. v. 3.6. t. 136. Engl. Bot. t. 2183.)

LAM

—Globofe, depreffed, hollow, with fine, fcattered, internal
threads.— Found in the fea in various places, efpecially upon
limeftone rocks, moft commonly attached by ita roots to
fome {mall calcareous fragments. Each plant is a hollow
{pongy ball, from one to ten inches diameter, green, com-
pofed of entangled, pellucid, jointed fibres, bearing nu-~
merous concentric oblong veficles, whofe obtufe fummits,
reaching to the outfide of the ball, give it a papillary or
velvety appearance. Such at leaft was the ftruéture of the
fpecimens deferibed in Eng]. Bot. nor have we found the
bladders conneéted at each end with the filaments. The
roots were attached to fragments of fhells. No fruétifica-
tion could be deteéted, and the plant was referred to Fucus,
after Mr, Turner's example, merely till the whole fubjeé
of fubmarine plants fhould be better underftood. Olivi
fays, that when cut it contraéts mechanically, by means of
the internal fibres, which he fuppofes gave rife to the
opinion of its being an aminal, or A/cyonium.

2. L. Vermilara. Branching obtufe Lamarckia.
milara ritufa; Imperat. Hift. Nat. 646. Ulva decorticata ;
Woodw. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 55.)—Branched, fome-
what forked, cylindrical, and cbtufe.—Native of the Medi-
teranean fea, in deep water —This has the form of Fucus
loreus, with a refemblance $n its furface and colcur to
F. tomentofus. Mr. Woodward, who faw but one fpecimen,
brought. from the Mediterranean, found great difficulty io
fettling its genus. Its fl*udture refembles an U/va ttripped
of the cuticle. There can be little doubt of its generic
affinity to the abave. S.

Lamarcxta is alfo the name of a genus eftablifhed by
Moench, and adopted by Decandolle in his new edition of
Lamarck’s Flore Frangaife, v. 3. 30, a8 well as by Bivona
Bernardi, in his Stcularum Plantarum, Centuria 1, n. 46.
This genus confiils of one fpecies only, as far as we are
informed on the fubje€t, which is Cyzofurus aureus of
Linnzus, figured in the Flora Greca, t. 79, a beautiful
grafs, but we are at a lofs to imagine any chara¢ter
by which it can be feparated from Cynofurus ; fee that
article

A New Holland fhrub, belonging to Tetrandria Mono-
gynia, has been ca!led Lamarckia dentata, in Donn’s Hort.
Cantabr. ed. 5- 32. We are not acquainted with it¢
characters, but prefume it is what fome have named Hayg

Ver-

Jerrata.

LAMAS, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
province of Tras los Montes ; 18 miles S.W. of Braganza.
—Alfo, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 15 miles E.S.E. of
Lugo.—Alfo, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of Truxillo ;
180 miles E.N.E. of Truxillo.

LAMB, in Agriculture, a general name applied to the
young of the fheep kind. When lambs come early in the
feafon, great care fhould be taken to keep them dry and
warm, as well as to provide a plentiful fupply of food for
the ewes, and always to let them have the drieft paflures, as
witliout due attention to fuch circumitances, much lofs wilk
frequently be fultained by their dying, or remaining long in
a weakly ftate, almoft without growth.

It is obferved by Mr. Young, that “there is no bufinefs
on a farm that demands more care, attention, and affiduity,’’
than that ef ewes in lambing feafon, “As foon as the
farmer looks for the ewes beginning to lamb, they ought, hie
thinks, every night to be folded in the ilanding littered fold,
on one fide of which there fhould be a {mall cottage hur,
built to be warm, with a chimney and ftove for heating mikk,
and a bed for the fhepherd to lie down upon. Here he is te
fleep through the lambing feafon, that he may be ready to
watch, afliit, and tend any ewes that he fees very near lamb-

d 2 ings

LAM

ing, and, if neceffary, to give the amb fome warm cow’s
milk. Some of the confiderable Norfolk farmers, have, he
obferves, thefe huts on four wheels, to draw about with the
flock wherever they may be; but to have one littered and
well fheltered ftanding-fold, on a moderate farm, and two
or three conveniently placed on a large one, to.take the flock
to, without any diltant driving, is, he fuppofes, far prefer-
able to that method. And he advifes, that upon inclofed
farms, where the referve of rouen may be fuppofed to be
much greater than is generally poffible on flock-farms, the
fheep, as they drop their lambs, fhould be drawn from the
flock of ewes, and put to this food, thon which an entire
reliance may be had ;”? and that it fhould be remembered,
that all turnips fhould be confumed in February, which cir-
cumltance proves the valt importance of réferved grafs as a
fubftitute. Towards the clofe of Jaly the lambs of the
flock fhould be weaned ; in this bufinefs, it is noticed, that
they are much earlier in Suffex, than in Suffolk. And that
«clover in bloffom is, of all other food, the.molt forcing ;
faintfoin rouen excellent ; and if the farmer has neither, he
ought to have made a referve of a fweet good bite of frefh
grafs for them;’’ and that itis effential that due provifion
{hould have been made before this period. See Surzp.

Lamp-houfe, in Rural Economy, by the farmer the com-
mon name of the place where lambs are fattened. It. is
fometimes termed fuckle. A proper rack and trough fhould
be fixed up init. See Lams /uckling.

Lan-fuckler, acommon name applied to the perfon who
practifes or carries on the bulinefs of fattening houfe-lamb.
See the next article.

Lamp-/uckling, a name ufed to fignify the art of fattening
houfe-lamb. 2

It has been obferved by the author of the Agricultural
Report of the County of Middlefex, that, in the perform-
ance of this bufinefs, the ewes which begin to lamb about
Michaelmas, are kept in the clofe during the day, and in the
houfe during the night, until they have produced twenty or
thirty lambs. Thefe lambs are then put into a lamb-houfe,
which is kept con‘tantly well littered with clean wheaten
{traw ; and chaik, previoufly baked in the oven, both in
lump and in powder, is provided for them to lick, in order
to prevent loofenefs, and thereby preferve the lambs in
health. As a prevention again{t gnawing the boards, or
eating each other’s wool, a little wheat ftraw is placed, with
the ears downwards, in a rack within their reach, with which
they amufe themfelves, and of which they eat a {mall quan-
tity. In this houfe they are kept, with great care and at-
tention, until ft for the butcher. The mothers of the
_lambs are turned every night, at eight o’clock, inte the lamb-
houfe to their offspring. At fix o’cleck in the morning,
thefe mothers are feparated from their lambs, and turned
into the paltures ; and at eight o’cleck fuch ewes as have
Jof& their own lambs, and thofe ewes whofe lambs are fold,
are brought in, and held by the head till the lambs by turn
fuck them clean: they are then turned into the paflure; and
at twelve o’clock the mothers of the lambs are driven from
the pafture into the lamb-houfe for an hour, in the courfe
of which time each lamb is fuckled by its mother: At four
o'clock all the ewes that have not lambs of their own are
again broucht to the lamb-houfe, and held for the lambs to
fuck ; and at eight the mothers of the lambs are brought to
‘them for the night. And where an ewe gives more milk
than her lamb will fuck, the fuperabundance is given to the
twins, or to any other lamb whofe mother may not be able
to furnifh it with fufficient food. The fhepherd muft in this
cafe hold the ewe, or fhe would not fuffer the ftrange lanb
to fuck. From their timid nature, it is extremely effential

8

LAM

that they fhould be kept free from every [pecies of un-
neceflary difturbance. This method of fuckling is, it is
ohferved, continued all the year. The breeders {elect fuch
of the lambs as become fat enough, and of proper age (about
eight weeks old) for flaughter, and fend them to market
during December, and three or four fucceeding months, at
prices which vary from cne guinea to four, and the reft of
the year at about two guineas each.
for the ewes, and fome of them die under exéefs of ex-
hauttion. However, care is taken that they have plenty of
food; for, when green food, viz. turnips, cole, rye, tares,
clover, &c. begins to fail, brewer’s grains are given them in
troughs, and fecond-crop hay in racks, as well to fupport
the ewes, as to fupply the lambs with plenty of milk; for
if that fhould not be abundant, the lambs would become
itunted, in which cafe no food could afterwards fatten
them. It is remarked, that grains were firlt given to ewes
by the late Mr. Naylor, of this county, and that he alfo
was the firft perfon who pulled out all the remaining front
teeth of a broken mouthed ewe ; obferving that they fed
much -better without teeth than with the lofs of one or
two.

The ewes for this purpofe fhould be kept free from the
foot-rot and {cab ; and if they have any pitch-mark on them
when they lamb, it muit be cut off before the lambs be taken
into the houfe, or they will eat it, and thereby greatly pre-
judice their future growth,

And thefe ewes are always, the author of the Middlefex
Report fays, without exception, of the Dorfetfhire breed ;

and even of thefe there is not mere than one in three that

will lamb fufficiently early for the purpofe of houfe-lamb.
The early lambing ewes are fought for by the breeders of
this county with great diligence throughout the county of
Dorfet, and at the fairs where fuch itock is ufually fold.
The prices vary from 35s. to 42s.
Such lambs as can be warranted of a fair complexion after
being butchered, are held in the highelt efteem, which thofe
bought promifcuoufly in Dorfetfhire, or at the fairs, cannot
be: this preference induces thofe breeders and fucklers wh
are in the fecret, to fele rams which they can depend on
for getting lambs whofe meat fhall be of that quality. The
fucklers, falefmen, and butchers of London, he afferts, are
aware that {ch lambs as have fharp barbs on the infide of
their lips are certainly of a deep colour after being butchered ;
and all thofe whofe barbs are naturally blunt do as certainly
produce fair meat. ‘This knowledge has been the occafion
of many lambs of the latter kind being kept for rams, and
fent into Dorfetthire, exprefsly for the purpofe of improving
the colour of the ficth of the houfe-lambs. The iffue of
fuch rams can generally be warranted fair, and fuch meat
always fells at a higher price: hence he fuppofes arofe the
miftaken notion, that Middlefex rams were neceflary to pro-
cure houfe-lambs. And it has been further obferved, that,
“in order to condu& this fort of fattening with profit and
fuccefs, a lamb-houfe or fuekle of proper dimentions muft
be provided.”’ And that, ‘it is found from practice, that
a range of building from fixty to feventy feet in length, and
fifteen or eighteen in breadth, with three or more coops or
divilions of different fizes at each of the ends, tor feparating
the lambs according to their eges, is fufficient for containing
and conducting the bufinefs of from one hundred anid fixty,
to one hundred and eighty lambs. That the lambs may be
enabled to find their mothers with facility, the ewes, when
they are feparated from. them, fhould be kept apart with
deal hurdles in the middle of the houfe, fo that they may be
convenient for the lambs in the coops at the ends. f
But this is a practice which can only be undertaken with
advantage,

This is fevere work.

eS ere

LAM

advantage, in fituations at no great diftance from large
towns, where there is great demand for early lamb ; as upon
their being ready at an early period, as towards the latter
end of December, depends the great profit to be derived
from the fyitem.

The principal objects in this fort of management are thofe
of attending to the regular feeding of the ewes, the varying
of their food with propriety, and keeping the houfe per-
fe&ly warm, clean, and {weet, fo that the procefs of fatren-
ing may proceed in a regular manner without any check
being fuftained.

The writer of the Middlefex Report obferves, that a
friend of his, who is well acquainted with the fubjeé, fays,
the farmers of Middlefex do not now rear half fo many houfe-
lambs as they did about forty years ago. In Surrey they
are likewife falling of. The fuckling fyltem is removing to
a greater diftance from the metropolis, to which place many
far lambs are now fent alive, in light four-wheeled covered
carriages.

Lams, Grafs, the name of fuch lamb as is principally
fattened while the ewes are at grafs, or other kinds of
green food. In the Report of Middlefex, it is remarked,
that the vicinity of Smithfield market, makes early grafs-
lambs an object of confiderable importance to the farmers of
that county. The Dorfet ewes are chiefly feleted for this
purpofe. They are purchafed at Weyhill, Kinglton, and
other fairs, forward enough to drop their lambs in January.
The price from 30s. to 35s. The breeders keep the ewes
and lambs principally on turnips and fecond-crop hay.
They fell the lambs in the months of April and May, fat,
at from 25s. to upwards of 35s. each. ‘The ewes, being
dried early, are fattened and brought to market about
Michaelmas, and fold at the fame prices. The wool is about
three pounds, which, at rod. amounts to 2s.6d. The
whole of the itock is cleared within the year, and the profit
or lofs thereby afcertained. The account in general is as
follows :

Statement.
The lamb fells for - - - fb Toe
The ewe for - . - IIo oO
The wool at zs. 6d. or - - eee nas
Together get! the fear ind)
Dedu& prime cot 112 ©
Remains the increafe of a ewe in one year 1 10 0

—_-

. Lams, Houfe, a term applied to that fort of lamb that is
fed and fattened in houfes conitructed for the purpofe. The
principal art in this bufinefs, as has been feen above, is to
have the lambs fuch as will turn out of a fair delicate colour
On being killed, and having them ready at an early period
of the feafon. See Lams-fuckling.

Lams-£arth, in Hujbandry, is a whitifh ftony loam. The
mame feems only a corruption of the word /oam-carth.

Lams Head, in Geography, a cape of Ireland, forming the
northern point of the entrance to Kenmare river, in the
county of Kerry. N. lat. 51°41’. W. long. 10° 1!.

.. Lams Head, a cape on the S.E. coaft of the ifland of
Stronfa, one of the Orkneys, N. lat. 58°57’. W. long.
af 2s'. :

Lams Jffand, a {mall ifland of Scotland, in the mouth of
the Forth ; one mile N.N.W. from North Berwick.

_ Lame’s Letiuee, in Gardening, the common name of an
early, well-known, herbaceous plant. See VALERIANA.

Lamp, Pafchal. See Paschal»

LAM

LAMBA, in Geography, one of the {maller Shetland
iflands, between Shetland and Yelle. N. lat. 60° 45. W.
long. 1° 39'.

AMBALE, a town of Africa, in the country of the
Foulis, on the Senegal ; 75 miles S.E. of Goumal.

LAMBALLE, a town of France, in the department of
the Northern Coatts, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of St. Brieuc. The place contains 3803, and the can-
ton 12,685 inhabitants, on a territory of 225 kiliometres,
in 14 communes.

LAMBAN, a town of Afia, in the country of Guriel,
on the Black fea; 50 miles S.W. of Cotatis.

LAMBANESS, a cape on the N.E. coalt of the ifland
of Unit. N. lat. 61? 10°. E. long. 1 4’.

LAMBANLAOTE, a fimall ifland on the eaft fide of
the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 61° 39’. E. long. 21° 16.

LAMBASSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa,
in Numidia, which became an epiicopal fee.

LAMBATIVES, or rather LamsiTives, in the Materia
Medica, a form of medicine to be licked off the end of a
liquorice-ftick.

Lambatives amount te the fame with /indu/es, lohocks, and
eclegmas. ;

LAMBAY, in Geography, an ifland belonging to the
county of Dublin, Ireland, fituated in the Irifh lea ; 2 miles
eaft from the Mainland. It is about three miles in length,
and 14 mile in breadth, and is remarkable for valt quantities
of rabbits and fea-fowl. Crabs, lobfters, and oyfters are
taken in great plenty ; and abundance of kelp is made on
it. N. lat. 53° 30’. W.long. 6°. Carlifle, &c.

LAMBAYEQUE, a town of the vice-royalty of
Peru, and capital of the jurifdi€tion of Sana. in the dio-
cefe of Truxillo, in a pleafant and fertile fituation, and con-
taining about 1500 houfes, fome of which are built of brick,
fome of cane and plaifter, and others altogether of cane.
The inhabitants ammount to about 8000; fome are opulent ;
but the greater number confilts of poor Spaniards, Mulattoes,
Meftizos, and Indians. he parifh church, conftruéted of
{tone, is large and beautiful, and fplendidly adorned: It
has four chapels, called «* Ramos,’’ with an equal number
of priefts. This town is the refidence of a corregidor, who
has many other towns under his jurifdiction. It is wafhed
by ariver of the fame name, 95 miles W.N.W. of Truxillo,
The high road from Piura to Lima paffes through this town.
Some wine is made in the vicinity, and the poor are occu
pied in weaving coarfe cotton cloths. S. lat. 6 40. W.
long. 79° 56.

LAMBDOIDES, in Anatomy, the future conne@ing
the occipital to the two parietal bones, and fo named be
caufe it confilts of two lateral divergent branches like thofe
which compofe the Greek capital lambda. See Cranium.

LAMBECIUS, Perer, in Biography, was born at
Hamburgh in 1628, where he received the early part of his
education, and from whence he proceeded to the univerfities
of Holland and France to purfue and complete his itudies.
He made great progrefsin polite literature and the law, and
at the age of nineteen he became known by a work on
Aulus Gellms. He was ele&ed: licentiate-in-law at Tou.
loufe ; he {pent two years at Rome with cardinal Barberini ;
and on his return to Hamburgh he was appointed to the pro-
fefforfhip of hiftory in 1652 ; and in 1660 was made rector
of the college in that city. He was rendered extremely
uneafy by being charged with fepticifm, and by the temper
of his wife, whom he had married probably becaufe fhe was
rich, but who refufed to let him fhare in her abundance.
In 1662, he therefore abandoned his family and country, and
went firit to Vienna, and from thence to Romie, where he

was

LAM

was favourably received by Chriftina, queen of Sweden,
and pope Alexander VII. He now openly alijured Luthe-
ranifm, and declared himfelf a Catholic, to which religion
he had been converted many years before. Returning to
Vienna, he was appeinted fub-librarian, and then Jibrariau-
in-chief to the emperor, in which poft he died in 1680.
Lambecius was author of many works, as ‘“ Orie
gines Hamburgenfes,” in gto. ; ‘ Codini et alterius ano-
nymi excerpta de Antiquitatibus Conllantinopol.” Greek,

with a Latin veriion and remarks, fol. 1655: ‘ Prodro- ~

mus Hiitorie Litterariz,"’ fol.; A Colicction of Latin
Difcourfes on various Ovcations,” gto. 1660 ; but the moft
laborious of his performances was entitled * Commenta-
riorum de Augufla Bibliotheca Cafaria Vindcbonenfi,” in
eight volumes, folio. This work contains a hiftory of the
imperial library at Vienna, with a deferiptive catalogue of
its numerous MSS. upon a critical and hillorical plan.
Moreri. Bayle.

LAMBENT Fine. See Finn.

LAMBERT, Avyswna-Treresa pe Marcurxor pe
CourcetLes, Marchione/s of, in Biography, a celebrated lite-
rary lady, was born at Paris in 1647. Her father died
while fhe was an infant, and her mother took fora fecond huf-
band M. Bachaumont, whe was exceedingly careful to cuiti-
vate the promiling talents of his daughter-in-law. She mar-
ried Henry Lambert, marquis of St. Brie, in 1666, who died
in 1686, leaving her with one fon, and a daughter. She
was involved in tedious law-{uits, which, by her great ad-
drefs, were brought to a happy conclufion. When fhe felt
herfelf unemborrafied, and miltrefs of a confiderable eftate,
the fixed her retidence at Paris, and devoted herfelf to. letters,
and the fociety which cultivated them. The latter days of
this lady were crowded with fufferings, which the confola-
tions of religion enabled her to endure with fortitude. She
(lied at a very advanced age in 1733, Her principal works
are “ Les Avis d’une Mere a fon Fils: et d'une Mere a fa
Fille 3?’ “ Nouvelles RefleGtions fur Jes Fernmes, ou Meta-
phyfique d’Amour ;” “ Traité de PAmitie.”” Of thefe,
and of her other works, the ityleis elegant, and the thoughts
ingenious. The ‘¢ Advice’? to her children breathes all the
tendernefs of a parent, joined to the correétrels of fentiment
of a philofophical moraliit. The heart of Madame de Lam-
bert was as warm as her. underftandiag was enlarged; fhe
ferved her friends with zeal, aud delighted in acts of gene-
rofity,

Lampert, Francis, a French monk, who quitted his
convent to embrace the reformed religion, defcended from a
noble family, was born at Avignon in the year 1487. At
the age of fifteen he entered himfelf among the Francifcan
friars. and continued in the community twenty years ; during
which time he acquired celebrity as a preacher, and was
made general of the order. He was a though:ful man, and
a diligent enquirer after the truth; and in the courfe of his
invettigations he faw reafon to renounce the doétrines of the
atholic church, and to adopt thofe of the Reformation.
He, of courfe, found it necefary to withdraw from his
native country, and in 1522 he went into Switzerland. He
became a popular preacher among the Proteftants, and hav-
ing continued fome time at Balil, he fet out for Wittemberg
to vit Luther, in the year 1523. With that eminent te-
former he grew into high efteem, and it was determined he
thould go to Zurich, to affilt in diffeminating the principles
of the reformation through France. The project was aban-
doned, and: he .was fettled in fome employment in the univer-
fity of Wittemberg, where he molt probably continued till
the year 1526. In the following year he was appointed
Aiyinity-profeffor at the univerfity of Marpurg, and in 1530

LAM

he died at the age of forty-three. He was author of com-
mentaries on almoft all the parts of the Old and New Tef-
tameut, and of many theological and controverfial pieces.
Bayle. © Moreri.

Lampert, Joun Henry, an eminent mathematician and
aflronomer, was born at Muhthaufen, in the Sundgaw, a
town in alliance with the Swifs cantons, Aug. 29th, 1728.
His father was by ‘trade a ftay-maker, and with difficulty
provided for the wants of his family. Having no better
profpects for his fon than by bringing him up to his own
bufinefs, he endeavoured to obtain for him an education
fuitable to his fituation, and fent him to a public fchool,
where he was taught the rudiments of- learning, at the ex-
pence of the eorperaticn, till he was twelve years old.
Here he diltinguifhed himfelf among his {chocl-fellows, and
fome attempts were made to provide him with the means of
{ludying theology as a-profeffion. Encouragement fufficient
for the purpefe could not be obtained, and he was under
the neceffity of relinquifhing all thoughts of a ftudious life,
and obliged to begin learning his father’s trade. Though
occupied all the day, yet he devoted a confiderable part of
the night to the profecution of his ftudies ; and to furnifh
himfelf with candles, he fo'd for half-pence or farthings {mall
drawings which he delineated while employed in rocking his
infant iilter ina cradle. He met with an old book on the ma-
thematics which gave him inexpreffible pleafure, and which
proved that he had a genius for fcientific purfuits. Seein
the turn which the young man had for knowledge, fevera
learned men afforded him affiltance and advice, and they had
the pleafure of finding him improve, under their patronage,
with a rapidity beyond their moft fanguine expectations.
He was now taken from the drudgery of the fhop-board,
and M. Ifelin, of Bafil, engaged him as his amanuentis, a
fituation which afforded him an opportunity of making fur-
ther progrefs in the belles-lettres, as well as philofophy and
mathematics. In 1748, his patron recommended him to
baron Salis, prefident of the Swifs confederacy, to become
tutor to his children, in which office he gladly engaged. His
talents as a philofopher and mechanician began to difplay |
themfelves in his inventions and compolitions. After living
eight years at Coire, he repaired, in 1756, with his pupils,
to the univerfity of Gottingen, where he was nominated a
correfponding member of the Scientific Society im that
place, and from thence he removed, in the following year,
to Utrecht, where he continued twelve months. In 1758,
he went with his pupils to Paris, where he acquired the
efteem and friendfhip of D’Alembert and Meffier ; and from
thence he travelled to Marfeilles, where he formed the plan
of his work «On Perfpective,"’ which he publifhed in the
following year at Zurich, In 1760, he publithed his
« Photometry,”? and was elected a member of the Eleétoral
Bavarian Scientific Society. Lambert was author of many
other pieces befides thofe which have been already men-
tioned : among thefe were his ‘* Letters on the Conttruétion
of the Univerfe,”” which were afterwards digetted, tranflated,
and publifhed under the title of ‘Ihe *Syftem of the
World.” In the year 1764, he made an exeurfion to
Berlin, where he was introduced to Frederick II., who,
fenfible of his great fervices to fcience, gave directions to have
him admitted a regular member of the academy ; this ap-
pointment enabled him to devote himfelf wholly to the
purfuit of his favourite itudies. He enriched the tranfac-
tions of feveral learned focieties with his papers and treatifes,
{ome of which he publifhed feparately. He died Sept. 25th,
1777, when he was in the soth year of his age. Mott of
his mathematical pieces were publifhed in a colleétive form
by himfelf in three volumes, in which almoit every ii

°.

LAM

of mathematical fcience has been enriched with additions
and improvements. LEnulogy prefixed to ‘The Syftem of
the World.’? London, 1500.

Lampert, Jou, a diltinguifhed general on the fide of
parliament during the civil wars of Charles I., was defcended
of a good family, and was, at the commencement of the
troubles, a ftudent of law. He had a fuperior command at

‘the famous battle of Nafeby, and on account of his fkill
and prowefs he became a favourite of the independent party,
who endeavoured to obtain for him the lieutenancy of Ire-
Jand, but the Prefbyterians carried it againit him in favour
of Waller. He was confided in by Cromwell, to whom he
was confidered as fecond in rigour and military talents, and
whom, it is faid, he equalled in ambition. He oppofed the
project of making Cromwell king, though he had a great
hand in placing him protector at the head of the ftate. He
fel! into difgrace, and retired with a penfion to Wimbledon,
where he employed himfelf in cultivating his garden ; but
upon the death of the protector he returned to public hfe,
and was extremely ufeful to the party of Richard. Monk
was the great rival of Lambert, and as the former was fuc-
cefsful, the latter was not only humbled, but made prifoner
and committed to the Tower. At the reftoration, he and
fir Henry Vane were excepted from the act of indemnity :
he was brought to trial and condemned, but by humble
fubmiffion he was reprieved at the bar. He was baniihed
to Guernfey, where he furvived forty years. Hume.

Lampert, GeoxGe, was among the firlt Englith artiils
who obtained celebrity upon the revival, (if it may be fo
cealled,) of painting in this country ; which now itands fo
juftly exalted in arts as well as arms, among the nations pf
Europe.

' Lambert’s tafte led him to admire and to imitate the
ftyle of Gafpar Pouflin in landfeape; and he has produced
feveral works of contiderable merit ; which, if they have not
the brilliancy and force of Gafpar, are rich, and abound
with beauties of a gentler kind. He alfo painted fcenes
from common nature, and at the Foundling hofpital may be
feen one he prefented to that inftitution, which is deferving
of very great praife. He was engaged to paint f{cenes for
the play-houfes, for which his pencil was peculiarly qualified,
and, in concert with Scott, painted fix large piétures of their
fettlements for the aft India Company, which are placed
at their houfe in Leadenhall-ftreet. He died in 1765.

Lambert, Micuut, was the favourite finging matter,
and compofer of fongs in France, about the middle of the
feventeenth century. te had fo many {cholars, that he was
ebliged to teach a confiderable number at a time, and at his
own houfe, where he formed a kind of academy, and where
he finifhed every leffon with finging, to his own accompani-
ment, feveral fongs to a brilliant and enraptured audience.
Marcel, the celebrated dancing-mafter, did the fame, danc-
ing with his beft fcholars at the end of the leffons which he
gave at home on his public days. The reputation of Lam-
bert, like that of Abelard, was fo great, that his pupils
followed him into the country as far as Puteaux, where he
had a villa, Lulli married the daughter of this muticiaa,
who was born im 1610, and died in 1696.

_ Lampert, Assi pe Sr. Bertin, in 1095 taught gram-
mar, dialeétics, theology, and mutic.

Thefe {ciences, at that time, were equally refpefted, mufic
haying no other object than the praifes of the divinity.

Lampert, be, Saint, publifhed, in 1702, ‘ Les Prin-
cipes du Clavecin,”’ or Initructions for the Harpfichord, con-
taining,a clear explanation of all that concerns the clavier, or
keys, in their rotation on that inftrument; and ** A Treatife
‘of Accompaniment,” for many inftruments, St. Lambert,

LAM

in bis inflruétions for the harpfichord, propofes the reducing
all clefs to one, in order that the two hands fhould play from
the fame clef. Monticlair has new-modelled this fy{tem, to
adapt it to the five lines, or itaff, and general compafs of
the voice ; and the abbé de la Caffagne, in his Elements of
Singing, has adopted this fyflem and extended it. The
batis of which being nothing more than tranfpofition, it is
now become wholly ufelefs, by the clear and fimple manner
in which mufic is taught, that is, without tranfpofition, and
by playing every thing juft as it is written. This is M.
Laborde’s account of thefe publications, in which he feems
not to know, that the plan of abolifhing all clefs but one.
belongs not to any of the gentlemen who have publithed it
in France, but to our countryman Salmon, who, in the
time of Charles II. publifhed “An Effay to the Advance-
ment of Mufic, by cafting away the Perplexity of different
Clefs, &c.?? and when M. Laborde fays, that fuch a re-
formation is not wanted, becaufe mufic is now taught in fo
clear and fimple a manner, as to render all clefs but the tre-
ble and bafe ufed in harpfichord pieces unneceflary ; that
intelligent author forgets to tell us how performers on keyed
inftruments are to be enabled to play, from the feore of a
chorus for voices and inftruments, in which the vocal. parts
and many of the inftrumental are all written in different clefs.
But for a further difcuffion of this fubje&, fee the article
Cer.

Lampert, in Geography, a town of Canada, on the river
St. Lawrence. N. lat. 45° 34’. W-.long. 73’ 14!

Lampert Bay, a bay on the N.E. coalt of the ifland of
St. Chriltopher ; two miles S.W..of Muddy Point.

LaAmBeErt’s Point, a cape of the ifland of Barbadoes, on
the W.S.W. coatt.

Lampert’s Blue. See Azure, and Brvr ultramarine.

LAMBERTIA, in Botany, received its name from the
writer of the prefent article, in honour of his highly valued
friend Aylmer Bourke Lambert, efg. F.R.S. and F.A.S.
a vice-prelident of the Linnwan Society, one of the moft
ardent and experienced botanilts of the prefent age, whofe
ample herbarium and library are ever open to the cultivators
of his favourite feience, as his heart is to the beft feelings
of friendfhip.—His botanical treatife on Cjnchona, his fump-
tuous work on the Fir tribe, and his various effays in tte
Tranfaétions of the Linnaan Society, are amply fnfficient
to aflert his claim to the honour in queftion——Sm, ‘i'r, of
Linn, Soc. v. 4. 214. t 20. Cavan. Ic. v. 6.31. Brown
Tr. of Linn; Soc. v. 10. 187. Prodr. Nov.. Holl. v..2.

286. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.v. 1. 201—Clafs and order,
Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate; Lim. Pro-
tee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Involucrum of: many oblong, tmbrica-
ted, colovred leaves, the inner ones gradualiy the large,
containing from one to feven flowers, deciduous. Perianth
none. Cor. Petals four, cohering at the bafe, linear-lan-
ceolate, equal, revclute from above their point of union
bearing the itamens. Neétary of four glandular. {cales at
the bale of the germen, fometimes united. Stam. Filaments
none 3, anthers four, feflile at the inner fide of the revolute
part of each petal, linear, at length recurved. Pit. Ger-
men fuperior, turbinate, fringed at the top; ftyle thread-
fhaped ; {tigma rather thicker, prominent, awl-fhaped, fur-
rowed, eric: Follicle roundifh-wedge-fhaped, fomewhat
wocdy, more or lefs horned or tubercular, of one cell.
Seedt:two, orbicular, compreiled, each encompaffed with a
rounded wing. Common receptacle flat, without {cales.

Eff! Ch. Petals four, cohering, fpirally revolute, bear-
ing the ftamens. Ne¢tary of four fcales. Stigma awl-
fhaped. Follicle wocdy. Sceds two, bordered, Involu-

crum,

LAM

erum of many leaves, imbricated, coloured, deciduous. Re-
ceptacle flat.

Obs. We have borrowed feveral corre&tions of the ori-
ginal characters of this genus, from the able performance
ef our friend Mr. R. Brown, publifhed in the TranfaCiions
of the Linnzan Society, v. 10, illuftrative of this who'e na-
tural order of Proteacee. If we differ from him in terming
corolla what he calls calyx, it is a matter of opinion, attended
with much doubt. - The late Mr. Dryander, however,
agreed in this point with us.

One fpecies of Lambertia only was originally known, the
formofa, to which Mr. Brown adds three others. We fhall
give them in the order he has chofen. He remarks, that
« they are all very beautiful fhrubs, with whorled branches.
‘The leaves are three in a whorl, moftly undivided, entire.
Involucrums terminal, folitary, coloured, moftly feven-
flowered, rarely fingle-flowered; in the former cafe the
flowers are rariged in two whorls, correfponding with the
difpofition of the foliage, and having an odd terminal one ;
hence it is probable fome f{pecies with four flowers only may
exit. The fol.icle is almolt wedge-fhaped, furnifhed at the
edges, upwards, with points, fometimes clongated into
horns, and fometimes the fides are armed with promi-
nences.”’ : "

1. L. uniflora. Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 188.—
« Flowers folitary in each involucrum. Leaves gbevate,
with a point, {mooth, reticu'ated. Follicle pomted at one
fide, without horns."’—Gathered by Mr. Brown in Lewin’s
Land, on the fouth coalt of New Holland, growing about
rocky inlets, near the fhore.

2. L inermis. Ibid.—- Flowers feven in each involucrum ;
twice as long as its inner leaves. Style fmooth, Follicles
pointed at one fide, without horns. Leaves oblanceolate or
obovate, pointlefs ”’—Native of the flony fides of hills in
Lewin’s Land. - L. formofa, var. longifolia, Andr. Repof.
t. 69, agrees in moft refpects with this, though not cited ia’
Mr. Brown’s Prodromus, where he has omitted it as a fy-
nonym of true farmoj/a. The fruit drawn in this plate may
belong to the latter. The involucrum ts reprefented green.

3. L. formofa. Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 223. t. 20.
Cavan. Tc. v. 6. 32. t. 547. (Protea neétarina; Wendl.
Sert Hannov. fafe. 4. 5. t. 21.) — Flowers feven in each in-
volucrum; the length of its inner I¢aves. Style hairy.
Follicle pointed at cne fide, two-horned at the other.
Leaves linear-lanceolate, fharp-pointed, recurved at the
edges.’’—Native of ftony heaths near Port Jackfon, New
South Wales, from whence we received fpecimens among
the firft that were fent to Europe by Dr. John White.
The denves are green and fmooth above ; white, and reticu-
Jated with veins, beneath. Jnvolucrum and flowers of a fine
rofe-colour or crimfon.

4. Li? echinata. Brown n. 4.— Leaves linear, fmooth,
reticulated ; dilated, lobed and pointed at their extremities.
Follicles two-horned, thorny all over.’’—Native of the ltony
fides of hills in Lewin’s Land. where Mr. Brown gathered
it in fruit, but never faw the flowers. Hence its genus re-
mains doubtful, efpecially, as that intelligent writer obferves,
-on account of the leaves being lobed, which is contrary to
the nature of the other f{pecies.

LAMBESA, or Lampsgss, in Ancient Geography, (Tex-
moute), a town of Mauritania Sitifenfis, fituated on mount
-Audus. It was the moft confiderable town of the country,
and the third legion of Auguftus was quartered in it. Its
ruins and infcriptions are {till noticed.

LAMBESC, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the mouths of the Rhone, and chief place

LAM

of a canton, in the diftri€t of Aix; 12 miles N.W. of Aix.
The place contains 4000, and the canton 10.530 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2574 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

LAMBESE, a town of Algiers, in which are magnifi-
cent ruins of an amphitheatre, a temple of Efculapius, &c. ;
45 miles S. of Conftantine. See Lampgsa.

LAMBETH, an extenfive parith, feated on the fou-
thern bank of the river Thames, in the hundred of
Brixton, and county of Surrey, England. It is direétly
oppotite to Weftmin{ter, to which city it is connected by a
handfome ftone bridge acrofs the river. The whole is
bounded by Southwark to the waft, Newington Butts and
Camberwell to the fouth, and Batterfea to the welt. The
circumference is about 16 miles. In Domefday-book, it is
faid to contain 204 plough-lands. At the beginning of the
feventeenth century, it appears, by the churchwardens ac-
counts, to have confifted of 1262 acres of arable land, 1026
of pafture, 125 of meadow, 13 of ozier, 27 of garden
ground, and 150 of wood, making in the whole 2603; the
commons and waite land, fuppofed to be about 330 acres,
not being charged, will increafe it to-2933 acres.
fent, the whole extent is about 4ooo acres ; of which about
1390 are occupied by houfes and other buildings, wharfs,
manufactories, ttreets, and roads; 415 by pleafure gardens,
including thofe of Vauxhall; 80 by market gardens; 300
by farming gardens; 40 by nurferies; 250 are now incloting
from common; and 30 are to remain common. ‘The parifh
is divided into fix liberties or precinéts, refpectively called
the Biflop’s, the Prince’s, Vauxhail, Marfh and Wall,
Lambeth-Dean, and Stockwell; the whole containing, ac-
cording to the return to parliament in the year 1800, 5009
houfes, and 27,985 inhabitants, of whom 5148 were ftated
to be employed in various trades and manvfaciures, and 955
in agriculture. Archbifhop Hubert Walter obtained from
king John a grant of a weekly market, and a fair of fifteen
days, upon condition that the fame fhould not be detrimental
to the interelts of the city of London. In the archbilhop’s
MS. library, is a charter from the city, fignifying their
confent, ftipulating only, that tle fair fhould begin on -thé
morrow after the anniverfary cf St. Peter ad vincula. The
market and fair are both dilcontinued. The earlieit hiftori-
cal fact on record relating to Lambeth, is the death of Har-
dicanute, which happeued here in the year 1041, while he
was celebrating the marriage fealt of a noble Dane. Here
alfo, Harold, who ufurped the throne on the death of
Edward the Confeflor, is faid to have placed the crown on
his head with his own hands. Henry II]. held a folemn
Chriftmas here in the year 12313 and a parliament on Sep-
tember 14, in the year following. A moft violent outrage
was committed in Lambeth church, on Sunday February 19,
1642-3. The ftory is varioufly told by the different parties ;
but it ftands on record as an inftance of the fatal effets of
civil difcord, from the outrages of which no place, however
facred, is exempt.

Of the archbifhop’s palace, the chief obje& of note in the
parifh, it will be proper to ftate a few particulars. It is
fituated near the river; and is certainly a very large pile of
building, exhibiting the architeétural {tyles of various ages.
It appears that this palace was, in a great meafure, if not
wholly, rebuilt by archbifhop Boniface in the year 1262.
If any part of this ftruéture now remains, it is the chapel ;
the architecture of which might induce one to afcribe it to a
more early period. Under the chapel is a erypt, the arches
of which are built with flone, as is the chapel; the roof of
the latter is of wood and flat; the windows were formerly
of painted glafs, put up by cardinal Morton. In the chapel
were interred the remains of archbifhop Parker, The great

hall

At pre- *

>

4
7

;

|

LAM

hall was rebuilt by archbifhop Juxton, after the civil wars,
at an expence of 10,500/. It is 93 feet long by 38 wide ;
and hasa fine carved wooden roof. The guard room, built
before the year 1428, has a roof fimilar to that of the hall.
Cardinal Pole is faid to have ereéted the long gallery, which
_ meafures go feet by 16. In this room-are feveral portraits
of archbifhops, and other illuitrious characters. In the
_ great dining-room, 38 feet by 19, are alfo portraits of all
the archbifhops from Laud to the prefent time; this feries
“is particularly interelting, as, among other things, they thew
the gradual change of the clerical drefs. Archbifhop Til-
lotfon was the firft to wear a wig; which however refembled
the natural hair, and was worn without powder. A noble
library oceupies four galleries, over a {mall quadrangular
cloifter. The firft collettion of books was bequeathed by
archbifhop Bancroft ; but thefe were feized in the civil wars,
and though much injured, and fome loft, yet the chief itock
was reltored by archbifhop Juxton, after the reftoration.
Archbifhops Sheldon, Tenifon, and Secker augmented the
library ; and the number of books is now fuppofed to be,
at lealt, 25,000 volumes. In the windows is fome fine
inted glafs. (See Brayley and Herbert’s Illuftrations of
Lambeth Palace, 4to. 1806, for various views of this palace,
‘and portraits, &c. from the painted glafs). The MS.
library contains a large and valuable colle@tion of records and
‘MSS. At the weit end of the chapel is a lofty building,
called Lollards’ tower, built by archbifhop Chichelé in the
years 1434 and 1435. At the top isa {mall room called
the prifon, in which it is faid the Lollards were confined
“The gateway, and the adjoining tower, which are of brick,
were built by archbifhop Morton about the year r4go.
‘The gardens and park, which contain nearly thirteen acres,
are laid out with great tafte ; they were much improved by
‘the late archbifhop, who made a convenient accefs to the
houfe, for carriages, through the park. It has been faid,
but erroneoufly, that Stephen Langton is the firft archbifhop
upon record avho refided at Lambeth. Hubert Walter was

_ there in r198; and many of the public a&ts of the metro-
_ -politan were performed at Lambeth prior to that period.

- Contiguous to the palace is the parifh church, which was
rebuilt between the years 1374 and 1377. The tower,
which is of free-ftone, {till remains; the other parts of the
prefent ftruéture appear to be about the age of Henry VII.
The church now confilts of a nave, two aifles, and a chancel.
Two chapels, called Howard’s.and Leigh’s, were built in
1522; they were incorporated with the church when it was
repaired in 1769. Among the numerous fepulchral me-
‘morials in this church, thofe moft worthy notice are for the
archbifhops Tenifon, Hutton, and Cornwallis, and a marble

flab to the memory of the celebrated antiquary Elias
Afhmole.
_ In this-parifh are fituated the Afylum, inftituted in 1758,
‘for the reception of female orphans; and the Weftminiter
Lying-in-Hofpital, built in 1765.
About the énd of the feventeenth century, a manufa@ture

of plate glafs was eitablifhed at Vauxhall, in this parifh,

if

a

under the patronage of the duke of Buckingham ; the prin-
‘cipal artift was Roffetti. It was carried on with great
fuccefs, and the glafs was thought to excel that made at
Wenice. (See Grass and Looxinc-crass.) The impor-

“tation of foreign timber, which for many years has formed

a confiderable and important branch of our commerce, has
been a fource of wealth to this parifh, where are feveral
wharfs for that trade, fupplied with ftores which are almolt
incredible. At Vauxhall are fome very large diftilleries,
and feveral potteries ; the manufacture of ftone earthen-
ae e faid to have been firft introduced here from

OL. .

;
LAM

Holland. On the feite of Cuper's gardens (formerly a plac
of public entertainment,) are Meffrs. Beaufoy’s extenfix
vinegar works. Mr. Pennant, who went over the premife,
mentions a veflel full of {weet wine, containing 58,109 ga-
lons, and another full of vinegar, containing 56,799 gallons;
befides thefe enormous veflels there are feveral others ~whia
contain from 32,500 to 16,974 gallons each. . In the yer
1769, Mrs. Coade eftablifhed in this parith, near Weftminite
bridge, a manufacture of artificial ftone, which is cata
moulds and burnt. ‘It is intended to anfwer the purpofe ¢
ftone, for every fpecies of ornamental architeGture, at :
much cheaper rate than carving, Where it has been placec
in expofed fituations it has been found to endure the froft.
Mefirs. Watts have lately eftablithed a manufa@ture of patent
fhot in this parifh: the principle of making this thot is, to
let it fall from a great height into the waiter, that it may
cool and harden in its paflage through the air, and thereby
better retain its {pherical fhape. The height of the tower
at this manufactory is about 140 feet ; the fhot falls 123
feet fix inches. - About the fame time Me‘Irs. Bolton, Mor-
gan, and Co. eftablifhed a manufacture here under the title
of the woollen yarn company ; every branch of the clothing
manufaéture, from forting-the wool to making the cloth,
was carried on entirely by machinery ; but the undertaking |
was foon given up. About a century ago, there was a
place of entertainment called Lambeth Wells, fituated in
what is now called Lambeth Walk. A riding-fchool, for
the exhibition of feats of horfemanthip, was opened in this
parifh about the year 1768, by Mr. Philip Aftley. At firtt
it was an open area; in 1780 it was converted into a covere
amphitheatre, and divided into boxes, pit, and gallery
Spring Gardens, Vauxhall, (which is mentioned in the Spe
tator as a place of great refort,) is open during the great
part of the fummer, being illuminated with a great num
of lamps; the entertainment confifts of a concert of mu
performed, in fine weather, in the open air; the price
admiffion, till 1796, was one fhilling; it is now three fhillin
and open three times each week during the fummer mon
Lyfons’s Environs of London, vol. i. 4to.
LAMBIN, Deynis, in Biography, an eminent c
was born at Mortreuil-fur-Mer in the year 1516. He
appointed profeffor of the belles lettres at Amiens;
this he refided long in Italy with cardinal de Tournon,
on his return to Paris obtained the Greek profefforth
the royal college. He acquired a great reputation a
the learned by his commentaries on Lucretius, Cicero,
tus, and Horace. He tranflated from Greek into the
language, the Ethics and Politics of Ariftotle, and
orations of Demofthenes and A2fchines. He died in
the occafion of his death was the great fhock which
ceived from the news of the murder of his friend Rai
the maffacre of “St. Bartholomew. He was a man
‘found erudition and great induftry. Moreri.
LAMBOURNE, or Lamzorn, in Geagraphy,
cient market town of Berkihire, England, is about
N.E. of Hungerford, and 65 W. of London. A
was eftablifhed here at a very remote period; an
charter of 1227, it is called Choping-Lambourn, }
fair was granted to the family of Fitzwarren. Int
of Henry VI. the charter was renewed, and tv
tional fairs granted in favour of the dean and chapt
Paui’s, London. The market is much declined ; | here
are ftill held three fairs annually. In the market p} 5 :
ftone crofs of a tall, plain fhaft, on fteps. The Fih 48
co-extenfive with the hundred to whizh it gives ng&- In
the year 1800, the population of the town, with depen-
dant hamlets, was 2045. ‘Che parifh church is jpaciovS
Ee and

LAM

nd handfome/ building, in the form of a ecrofs; on its
uthern fidg are two chanting-chapels, one of which was
unded byJohn Eftbury, who died in 1372, and the other
y his defcendant of the fame name, who died in 1485.
ear the church is an alms-houfe, or hofpital, founded by
hn Eltbury, for ten poor men. In fhe north tranfept of
he church is a monument for fir Thomas Effex, who died
1558, with effigies of himfelf and his lady, in alabalter.
yfons’s Magna Britannia, vol. i.
LAMBRA, atown of European Turkey, in Livadia ;
4 miles S.S.E. of Athens.

LAMBSDORFF, atown of Silefia, in the principality
f Neiffe; 9 miles N.E. of Neifle.

LAMCAL, a town of Pegu, on an ifland in the Ava;
56 miles N.E. of Perfaim.

LAME, in the AZanege, is ufed in feveral phrafes of that
art ; as Jame of an ear, called in French doiteux de T oreille,
is faid of a horfe, when he halts upon a walk or trot, and
keeps time to his halting with the motions of his head; for
all lame horfes do not keep time in that manner. See
Hattie.

Lame of the bridle, is ufed by way of raillery, to fignify
the fame thing. ;

LAMECH, in Scripture Biography, the fon of Methu-
| fael, of the race of Cain, the fifth in defcent from him, and
the father of Jabel, Jubal, Tubalcain, and Naamah. He
married two wives, Adah and Zillah, and is fuppofed to
have introduced polygamy. To his wives he faid, “ Hear
my voice, ye wives of Lamech: for I have flain a man to my
wounding, anda young man to my hurt: if Cain fhall be
avenged feven-fold, furely Lamech feventy and feven-fold.””
(Gen. iv. 24, 25.) Thefe words have perplexed Biblical cri-
tics. Some interpretations have been given of this paflage
which muft be confidered as founded on mere fables, and
they are not worthy of recital. Onkelos, who wrote the
firft Chaldee paraphrafe on the Pentateuch, reads the words
with an interrogation: “ Have I flain a man to my
wounding, and a young man to my hurt?” and accord-
ingly he paraphrafes it thus: ‘I have not killed a man,
that I fhould bear the fin of it; nor have I deftroyed a
young man, that my offspring fhould be cut off for it.”’
Dr. Shuckford has improved this interpretation, by fup-
pofing that Lamech was endeavouring to reafon his wives
and family out of their fear of having the death of
Abel revenged upon them, who were of the pofterity

£ Cain. As if he had faid, ‘* what have we done, that
re fhould be afraid? We have not killed a man, nor
fered any injury to our brethren of any other family ; and

God would not allow Cain to be killed, who had murdered

3 brother, but threatened to take feven-fold vengeance on

y that fhould kill him ; doubtlefs they muft expe& much

-ater punishment, who ihould prefume to kill any of us.

. erefore we may furely look upon ourlelves as fafe under
protection of the law and of the providence of God.”
,AMECH was alfo the fon of Methufelah, and father
Noah ; at whofe birth he was 182 yearsof age; and he

after it 595 years, fo that his whole life was 777 years,
5 born A.M, 874, and dying 1651. See ANTEDILU-

\MEGAL, in Geography, a town of Portugal, in the
Plce of Beira; g miles’ N.W. of Pinhel.

-MEGO, 4 city of Portugal, in the province of

ei. the fee of a bithop, fuffragan of Braga; fituated ona
Plaitear the Duero, and furrounded with mountains. It
Conté two cathedral churches, an hofpital, four convents,
and aut 4500 inhabitants. The adjacent country pro-

LAM

duces excellent wines; 36 miles E. of Porto,
7'.. W. long. 7° 27!

LAMELAN, anifland in the Baltic, near the S.E. coat
of the ifland of Aland; eight miles long and four wide.
N. lat. 60° 5’, E.long. 37° 45’.

LAMELLA, derived of /amina, and fignifying as much
as little lamine ; little, thin plates, or laminz, ‘whereof the
fcales and fhells of fifhes, &c.are compofed.

LamerLi», in Botany, the gills, or thin vertical plates
which compofe the bymenium, or fructifying membrane of
that great genus of fungi called Ayaricus, to which the
common eatable mufhroom belongs. (See Hymenrum and
Acaric.) Scheffer and Hedwig have found the feeds to be
lodged copioufly in the fubftance of thefe plates.

LAMENESS, Cxaupicario, in Surgery. Lamenefs
arifes from a variety of caufes. -From native deformity, or
from the thigh being put out of joint in the birth ; from the
bad conformation of the cotyloid cavity of the offa innomi-
nata; from the weaknefs of the hips; from external
accidents ; and from difeafes. See Lec and Luxarion.

LAMENTATIONE, Jtal. applied to amufical move-
ment, requires that it fhould be fung or played in a
plaintive and mournful manner,

LAMENTATIONI, in the plural, implies complaints
and lamentations. Between the time of the reformation and
Charles I., there was a kind of maudlin piety, which had
feized Chriftians of all denominations. Among Calvinifts,
it exhaled itfelf in pfalmody, and in others in lamentations.
The Scots, among their old pathetic airs, have many laments.
The Italians fung them in Latin, like the Salmi peniten-
tiale; and in their own language. Thi fixteenth century
was very prolific in lamentationi. But in England even the
lute was to weep, and be forrowful: for Dowland, the fa-
mous lutenift, publifhed Lachrime, or “ feven tears, figured
in feven paflionate Pavins.”? The poetry of thefe whimper-
ings feems much inferior to that of Sternhold and Hopkins.
However, the beft Englifh compofers of the times thought
them worthy of the beft mufic which they could fet to
them, in four and five parts. Sir William Leighton, knt.,
who fet many of them himfelf, was the editor of a collec-
tion of lamentations to four and five voices, with an accom-
paniment for the lute ; and in the lift of the compofers we
have Bird, Dr. Bull, Orlando Gibbons, Dowland, Robert
Jhonfon, Forde, Hooper, Kinderfley, Nat. Gyles, Co-
perario, Pilkington, Luifo, Peirfon, Jones, Alfonfo Ferra-
bofco, Ward, Weelkes, Wilbye, and Milton, the father of
the great poet.

LAMENTATIONS, acanonical book of the Old Tef- .
tament, written by the prophet Jeremiah, according to arch-
bifhop Uther and fome other learned men who follow the opi-
nion of Jofephus and St. Jerom, on occafion of Jofiah’s
death. But this opizion does not feem to agree with the
fubject of the book, the lamentation compofed by Jeremiah
on that occafion being probably loft. Some have fuppofed
that the fifty-fecond chapter of the book of Jeremiah was
probably added by Ezra, as a preface or introduction to the
Lamentations.

The learned bifhop Lowth, in his admirable book entitled
«© Prelectiones de Sacra Poefi Hebreorum,’’ has treated at
large of this elegiac poem; illuftrating its general nature
and form, its metre or verfification, and its fubjeét, fenti-
ments, andimagery. The Lamentations, he fays, confift of
a number of plaintive effufions, compofed upon the plan of
the funeral dirges, all upon the fame fubjeét, and uttered
without conne¢tion as they rofe in the mind, in along courfe
ef feparate ftanzas. Thefe were afterwards put together,
and formed into a collection, or correfpondent whole. In the

character

N. lat. 419

LAM

charaéter of a mourner he celebrates, in plaintive ftrains, the
obfequies of his ruined country ; whatever pretented itfelf to
his mindin the midit of defolation and mifery, whatever
ftruck him as particularly wretched and calamitous, what-
ever the inftant fentiment of forrow dictated, he pours
forth in a kind of fpontaneous effufion. He frequently
paufes, and, as it were, ruminates upon the fame object ;
frequently varies and illuftrates the fame thought with dif-
ferent imagery, anda different choice of language ; fo that
the whole bears rather the appearance of an accumula-
tion .of correfponding fentiments, than an accurate and con-
netted feries of different ideas, arranged in the form of a re-
gular treatife. The nature and delign of the poem neither
required nor admitted of a methodical arrangement. The
whole poem, however, may be divided, according to our
author, into five parts ; in the firft, fecond, and fourth, the
prophet addreffes the people in his own perfon, or elfe per-
fonifies Jerufalem, and introduces that city as a character :
the third’part is fuppofed to be uttered by the chorus of
Jews, reprefented by their leader, after the manner of the
Greek tragedies ; and in the fifth, the whole nation of the
Jews, on being led into captivity, pour forth their united
complaints to Almighty God. This laft, as well as the
other, is divided into twenty-two periods, according to the
number of the letters of the alphabet with this ditierence,
that in the four other parts the initial letters of each period
exaGily correfpond with the alphabetical order. The form of
compofition employed in this poem is a fpecimen of the
acroitic or alphabetical poetry of the Hebrew: and the
manner and order of this kind of verfe are as follow: Each
of the five parts, or grand divifions, is fubdivided into 22
periods, or ftanzas ; thefe periods in the three firft parts are
allof them triplets, or they confilt each of three lines, only
in each of the two former parts. ‘There is one period confift-
ing of four lines. In the four firft parts, the initial letter
of each period follows the order of the alphabet ; but the
third part is fo very regular, that every line in the fame pe-
riod begins with the fame letter, fo as neceflarily to afcer-
tain the length of every verfe or line in that poem: and
though the lines are not thus diltinétly marked in the
other parts, their limits may be afcertained by refolving the
fentences into their conftituent members. By this method
of computation it appears, that in the fourth part all the pe-
riods confift of diftichs, as alfo in the fifth, which is not
acroftic ; but in this laft the lines are extremely fhort, where-
as inall the reft they are long. In this poem there are lines
and verfes which are longer by almoft one-half than thofe
which occur ufually, and on other occafions. The length of
them feems, on an average, to be about twelve fyllables : and
the prophet feems intentionally to ‘have adopted this kind of
metre, as being more diffufe, more copious, more tender,

~ in all refpeéts better adapted to melancholy fubjects.

That the fubje& of the Lamentations is the deftruGtion of
the holy city and temple, the overthrow of the ftate, the ex-
termination of the people, and that thefe events are defcribed
as a€tually accomplifhed, and not in the ftyle of prediétion
merely, muft be obvious, as our author conceives, to every
reader. The prophet has fo copioufly, fo tenderly, and
poetically bewailed the misfortunes of his country, that he
feems completely to have fulfilled the office and duty of a
mourner. Inthe opinion of the learned prelate, there is not
extant any poem, which difplays fucha happy and fplendid
feleGtion of imagery in fo concentrated a ftate. What can
be more elegant and poetical than the defcription of that
once flourifhing city, lately chief among the nations, fitting
in the charaéter of a female, folitary, afflicted, in a ftate of
widowhood, deferted by her friends, betrayed by her deareft

LAM

conneétions, imploring relief, and feeking confolation in vain ?
What a beautiful perfonification is that of * the ways of
\ Sion mourning becaufe none are come to her folemn feats ?”
How tender and pathetic are the complaints that occur in
ch. i. 12 and 16? But to detail its beauties, fays Lowth,
would be to tranfcribe the entire poem. Gregory's Tranf,
fe&. 22. vol. ii,

Indeed the fubje& of this book is of the moft moving
kind ; and the ftyle throughout lively, pathetic, and affe@-
ing. In this kind of writing the prophet Jeremiah was a
great mafter, according to the chara&ter which Grotius
gives him: ‘ Mirus in affeGlibus concitandis.’? See Jer-
MIAH.

LAMENTIN, La, in Geography, a town of the ifland
of Martinico, on the W. coalt. N. lat. 14° 36'. W. long.
60° 57’.

LAMENTUNG, a town of Thibet; 25 miles E. of
Jhanfi Jeung.

LAMETOUNAH, a town of Africa, in Sahara,
about feven days’ journey S. of ‘Tripoli.

LAMETUK, a town of the fate of New Jerfey ; 15
miles N.W. of New Brunfwick.

LAMGI, a petty kingdom of Afia, that lies to the
weit of Nipal or Napaul; which fee.

LAMIA, in Biography, the mott celebrated female flute-
player in antiquity. Her beauty, wit, and abilities in her
profeffion made her regarded as a prodigy, The ho-
nours fhe received, which are recorded by feveral authors,
particularly by Plutarch and Athenzus, are fufficient tefti-
monies of her great power over the paffions of her hearers.
Her claim to admiration from her perfonal allurements, does
not entirely depend, at prefent, upon the fidelity of hifto-
rians; fince an exquifite engraving of her head, upon an
amethyit, with the veil and bandage of her profeflion, is
preferved in the late king of France’s colle@tion, which, in
fome meafure, authenticates the account of her beauty.

As fhe was a great traveller, her reputation foon became
very extenfive. Her firft journey from Athens, the place
of her birth, was into Egypt, whither fhe was drawn by
the fame of the flute-players of that country. Her perfon
and performance were not long unnoticed at the court of
Alexandria; however, in the confli&t between Ptolemy
Soter, and Demetrius, for the ifland of Cyprus, about 312
years B.C. Ptolemy being defeated in a fea-engagement,
his wives, domeftics, and military flores ‘fell into the hands
of Demetrius.

Plutarch, in his life of this prince, tells us, that © the
celebrated Lamia was among the female captives taken in
this victory. She had been univerfally admired, at firft, on
account of her talents, for fhe was a wonderful performer
on the flute; but, afterwards, her fortune became more
{plendid, by the charms of her perfon, which procured her
many admirers of great rank.”? The prince whofe captive
fhe became, and who, though a fuccefsful warrior, was faid
to have vanquifhed as many hearts as cities, conceived fo
violent a paflion for Lamia, that, from a fovereign anda
conqueror, he was inftantly transformed into a flave; though
her beauty was now on the decline, and Demetrius, the
handfomeit prince of his time, was much younger than
herfelf.

At her inftigation, he conferred fuch extraordinary hene-
fits upon the Athenians, that they rendered him divine ho-
nours ; and as an acknowledgment of the influénce, which
fhe had exercifed in their favour, they dedicated a temple to
her, under the name of “ Venus Lamia.”’

Athenzus has recorded the names of a great number of
celebrated Tibicinz, whofe talents and beauty had capti-

Ee2 vated

LAM

vated the hearts of many of the molt illuftrious perfonages
of antiquity.

Horace {peaks of bands of female flute-players, which
he calls Ambubaiarum collegia (Ambubaia is faid, by the com-
mentators, to be a Syrian word, which, in that language,
implies a flute, or, the found of a flute), and of whom there
were ftill colleges in his time. But the followers of this
profeflion became fo numerous and licentious, that we find
their occupation prohibited in the Theodofian code ; how-
ever, with little fuccefs : for Procopius tells us, that in the
time of Juftinian, the filter of the emprefs Theodora, who
was a Tibicina, appeared on the {tage without any other
drefs thana flight fcarf thrown loofely over her. And
thefe performers were become fo common in all private en-
tertaiaments, as well as at public feafts, obtruding their
company, and placing themfelves at the table, frequently
unafked, that, at the latter end of this reign, their profeffion
was regarded as infamous, and utterly abolifhed.

Lamia, in Ancient Geography, a town of Greece, in
Theffaly, famous for the war which the Greeks waged
again{t the Macedonians, after the death of Alexander the
Great.

Lama, in Ichthyology. See Squatus.Carcharias.

LAMIA, Aziz, among the Ancients, a kind of de-
mons, .or evil {pirits, who, under the form of beautiful wo-
men, are faid to have devoured children. :

Horace makes mention of them in his Art of Poetry.—
Some authors call them Lanie, &@ laniando. Philoftratus
fays, they are alfo called Larve, or Lemures, as if they
were all the fame. Bochart will have the word to be Phe-
nician, and derives it from P>¢y5, fo devour ; allecing, that
the fable of the Lamie came from Lybia. See Lamium.

LAMINA, in Anatomy, aterm applied in anatomical
defcriptions to parts which take the form of thin plates. In
this fenfe we {peak of lamine of cellular fubftance, of mem-
brane, of bone, &c.

Lamina, in Botany, the expanded part of each petal of a
polypetalous corolla, fupported by the wnguis or claw, and
analogous to the limb of a monopetalous one. (See Lim-
sus.) It generally fpreads, fo as to forma confiderable an-
gle with the claw, in order that its upper furface may be pre-
fented to the ftrongeft light, as inthe pink, and wall-flower,
or ftock. The term /amina is alfo ufed by Forfkail, and
adopted by fome others, for the expanded part of a leaf,
that is, for the leaf itfelf ;. fuch application of the word ~is
therefore altogether fuperfluous. See Lear.

LAMIN, in-Phy/iology, thin plates, or tables, where-
ef any thing confitts.

LAMIODONTES, is the name given by Dr. Hill to
the gloflopetre. ,

LAMIOLA, in Jchthyology, is the name given by the
» modern Italians to a fifh called in Cornwallthe fope. See
SeuaLus Galeus. :

LAMIRAS, in Biography, a famous poet and mufician
of Thrace, who, according to fome authors, was the in-
ventor of the Dorian mode. He lived before Homer, and
is faid to have been the firft mufician who united the voice to
the found of the cithara.

LAMISA, in Geography, a town of the principality of
Georgia, in the province of Carduel ; 60 miles W. of
Tefils.

LAMIUM, in Botany, a Latin word of difputed mean-
ing and derivation, ufed by Pliny to defignate the Dead
Nettle, for which it has ever fince ferved as the botanical
generic name. Some derive it from the fuppofed place of
growth of the plant or plants in queflion, ad Jamas, that is,
about ditches or puddles by the way fide; but this is by no

Tro

LAM

means appropriate. Linneus in his Philofophia “Bolanicay
p. 167, explains the word by Lamia larvata, a mafked
forcerefs, as if the fhape of the flower, refembling a mafkj
or rather a gaping mouth befet with fharp teeth, had fug-
gelted thatidea. Ambrofinus, however, indicates the molt
direct etymology, from Actor, the throat, alluding to’ the
fhape of the flower, from which word alfo that of Jamia it-

felf, as the appellation of a certain voracious beatt ov fifh, or |

of a forcerefs fuppofed to devour children, evidently ori+
ginated.—Linn. Gen. 292. Schreb. 288. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 86. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2,
v. 3. 392. Sm. Fl. Brit..626. Juff.113.. Tourn. t. 85.
Lamarck Tluitr. t. 506.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gym~
nofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
dilated upwards, with five, nearly equal, awned teeth, per-
manent. Cor. of one petal, ringent ; tube cylindrical, very
fhort ; limb gaping; throat inflated, comprefled, gibbous,,
its margin furnifhed, at each fide, with one or more little re=
flexed teeth ; upper lip vaulted, roundifh, obtufe, undivided
or two-lobed ; lower lip fhorter, inverfely heart-fhaped, |
emarginate, more or lefs reflexed. Stam. Filaments four,
awl-fhaped, concealed by the upper lip, two of them longer
than the others; anthers incumbent, oblong, hairy. Pz/.
Germen in the bottom of the calyx, four-cleft ; ftyle thread
fhaped, of the fame length and fituation as the ftamens ;
ftigma cloven, acute. Peric. none, except the open-mouthed
calyx, containing the feeds at the bottom. Seeds four, level-
topped, fhort, triangular, convex at one fide, abrupt at
each end. : ;

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, with fpreading, briftle-pointed

. teeth. Upper lip of the corolla vaulted ; lower two-lobed ;

throat inflated, its margin toothed at each fide.

A very natural genus, well diftinguifhed by its effentiak
character, of the mouth of the flower being furnifhed with
one or more teeth at each fide. Thefe are fometimes flender,
and almolt capillary ; fometimes dilated and oblique. Lin-
neus thought the upper lip was neceffarily undivided, or at
moft only toothed; but in fome recently difcovered {pecies.
it has a two-lobed termination, above the vaulted part. The
fpecies of Lamium are as yet but imperfetly afcertained,,
notwithftanding what has been done in Willdenow and the
new edition of the Hortus Kewenfis. The 14th edition of
Syf. Veg. enumerates but eight; Willdenow has thirteen.
To thefe we have fome to add, even from the gardens; and
many miftakes to correét, refpeGting fpecies already efta-
blifhed. A review of the»whole is neceffary, though fome
may be lefs particularly mentioned than others. Our whole
lift amounts to twenty.

1. L. Orvala. Great Dead Nettle, or Balm-leaved
Archangel.—Linn. Sp. Pl. 808. Curt. Mag. t. 172.
(L. pannonicum; Scop. Carn. ed. 2. v. 1. 406. t. 27. LL;
meliffzefolium; Mill. Ic. t. 158- Galeopfis maxima pan-
nonica; Cluf. Hift. v. 2. 35.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, un-_
equally and fharply ferrated. Throat of the corolla inflated ;
upper lip fharply toothed. Calyx coloured. Stem nearly
cylindrical, fmooth.—Native of Hungary, Carniola, and
Italy. We have gathered it, of a very large fize, near

Caftello Nuovo, 19 miles from Rome. The magnificence
of its great crimfon inflated flowers entitles it to a place in

the flower-garden, where it is a hardy perennial, blofloming ~
in April or May, and fometimes fuffers from our inclement
fprings. The /lem, two or three feet high, is remarkable
for its roundnefs and polifhed fmoothnefs. The kaves are —
three or four inches long, and nearly as broad, rugofe, dark,“
{earcely at all hairy. Orwala isan old name for Clary, ufed
by Dodoneus; we know not why it was applied to ae
plant."

ail

LAMIUM.

y plant. If Lamium montanum, faxatile, ferme. glabrum, fore
amplo, purpureo, cum labio fuperiori crenato ; Till. ‘Pit 92.
t. 34. f. 13 quoted with doubt by Linnzus, be this prefent
, fpecies, the figure is very bad, yet we know no other to
which it is more appropriate.

The Orvala, garganica, Linn, Sp. Pl. 807. (Papia gar-
ganica, foliis urticz, altiis et elegantér incifis, flore pur-
pureo; Mich. Gen. 20. t. 17.) is now acknowledged to be
avariety of L. Orvala, differing only in an accidental deeper
divifion of the corolla, as well as of the leaves. Curtis in
his fpecific character of the f{pecies in queftion, copied from
Syf. Veg. ed. 14, retains an error of the tranfcriber or
printer, caulibus coloratis for calyce colorato.

4 2. L. levigatum. Smooth Dead Nettle.—Linn. Sp.
PI. 808. Krock. Silef. n. 926, by the defcription. Sab-
bat. Hort. Rom. v. 3. t. 34. Willden. (1. purpureum
; feetidum, folio parvo acuminato, fl re majore ; Pluk. Phyt.
t.198. f. 1. L. folio oblongo, flore rubro ; Segu. Veron.
| vy. 3. 131. Galeopfis five urtica iners, flore purpurafcente
_ majore, folio non maculato; Bauh. Hitt. v. 3..321.)—
_ Leaves héart-fhaped, pointed, ftrongly ferrated, nearly
_ {mooth as weil as the ftem. Upper lip of the corolla ab-
rupt, entire. Calyx nearly fmooth, with taper ‘teeth much
longer than its tube, and almoft equal to the corolla. —Na-
tive of Italy. Pallas mestions finding it in Siberia, Krocker
in Silefia. The Linnean fpecimen was fent by Seguier,
with his own fynonym and that of J. Bauhin, the latter
being verified by the place of growth, near Vicenza. The
root is perennial, in forme degree creeping. Stem a foot high
or more, fquare, purplith, leafy, fmooth, or flightly be-
fprinkled with foft hairs curved downward. Leaves broad-
heart-fhaped, ftrongly and unequally ferrated, with an
elongated entire point, fcarcely rugoie, very little downy,
" rarely if ever {potted ; the lower ones on loug ftalks, upper
on fhort ones.. Flowers eight or ten in a whorl. Tube of
the calyx curved, but little dilated, pale, veiny, fmcoth or
flightly downy, about a quarter of an inch long; teeth al-
moft twice that length, very taper, fomewhat hairy, ex-
eatin: beyond the fuil-grown unopened corolla, widely
fpreading. Corolla about the fize of the common L. album ;
__ upper lip blunt, entire, gibbous, flightly downy, and bright
purple externally, pale and fmooth within; throat wide,
often fpotted, with one fhort narrow cooth, and the radi-
ment of another, at each fide; lower lip fmall, of two
rounded ferrated {preading lobes.—Such is the plant of the
Linnzan herbarium, but the long defcription in the Spec.
Plant. feems to agree better with the mo/chatum hereatter
defcribed, which therefore fome have taken for the /evi-
gatum, Plukenet’s figure is totally erroneous as to the calyx.
Willdenow retains Boccone’s fynonym, mifapplied to this
plant by Linneus, and repeats it under rugo/um, to which it
properly belongs! Haller miftook his own N° 270, which
is L. maculatum, for levigatum, and tranfcribes from Linnzus
caule brevi inttead of levi.

3. L. rugofum. Wrinkled Dead Nettle.—Ait. Hort.

_ Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 296. Willd. n. 3. (L. hirfutum; La-
marck Dic. v. 3. 410. L. amplo, ferrato, nigricante,
fubrotundo, rugofo folio; flore rubro; Bocc. Muf. 35.
t. 23. L. montanum ‘hirfutum, folio oblongo, flore pur-
pureo; Till. Pif. 93. t.35. f. 1.)—-Leaves heart-fhaped,
‘acute, roundly ferrated, rugofe, hairy as well as the ftem.
Upper lip of the corolla abrupt, notched; lateral teeth
folitary, briftle-fhaped. Calyx flightly hairy, with teeth
fhorter than its tube.—Native of Italy, Sicily, and France ;
cultivated in our more curious gardens for at leaft 45 years
paft. It is perennial, flowering in July and Auguft. The
whole plant is much more hairy than the laft. Leaves rather

crenate than ferrated, all on longifh ftalks, dark, rugofe,
and hairy. Flowers purplifh red; tube of the corolla
{mooth, curved, longer than the calyx-teeth; throat and
upper lip hairy ; teeth at each fide of the mouth folitary,
very long and narrow; lower lip fmall. There can furely
be no doubt of Tilli’s fynonym, though hitherto ne-
glected. ;

. L. garganicum. Woolly Dead Nettle.—Linn. Sp,

4
Pl 808. Trew. Ehret. t. 75. Sm. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 93.
t. 48. (L. garganicum, fubincanum, flore purpurafcente,

cum labio fuperiori crenato; Till Pif. 93. t. 34. f. 2.)—
Leaves heart-fhaped, bluntly ferrated, rugofe, downy as
well as the ftem. Corolla inflated; with a ftraight tube,
much longer than the calyx ; orifice with two teeth at each
fide.—Native of Italy. It has been cultivated in Chelfea
garden ever fince 1729, and flowers in May. Its foft
downy greyifh afpect, and finely rugofe aves, at once dif-
tinguifh this fpecies. The /lem is thick and clumfy, two
feet high. Flowers large, copious, and handfome, with a
pale tube ftreaked with red, and light purple lips, the upper
one cloven at the fummit; the throat is nearly as much in-
flated as that of LZ. Orvala. Trew’s figure was overlooked,
or there would not have been another of this plant given in
Exotic Botany, the latter work being intended for fpecies
not properly reprefented already. It is much to be wifhed
that other periodical publications would fo far pay regard to
the fame principle, as to give fuch plants a preference.

5. L. maculatum. Spotted Dead Nettle.—Linn. Sp.
Pi. 80g. (L. Plinii campoclarenfe et montanum ; Column,
Ecphr. 190. t. 192. f. . L. n.270; Hall. Hilt. v. 1.
118.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, ftrongly ferrated, acute, hairy.
Tube of the corolla curved, longer than the calyx; upper
lip entire; lateral teeth folitary, fleader. Flowers about
ten in a whorl.—Native of Italy, France, Greece, Switzer-
land, and Germany, flowering in the {pring ; it is imper-
feétly naturalized about Bayfwater, having probably efcaped
formerly from the neighbouring garden of fir John Hill,
Its natural fituation is in wafte ground, or about banks and
hedges, where the radical aves, diftinguifhed by a broad
irregular central ftripe, make an elegant appearance through
the Italian winter; but this mark commonly difappears from
the upper leaves. The rzot is perennial, fomewhat creeping.
Stems a foot high, rather hairy. Leaves heart-fhaped,
rather acute but noi pointed, ftrongly but bluntly ferrated.
Flowers purplifh red, downy. Calyx tumid, nearly {mooth,
with fringed teeth about its own iength, and,much fhorter
than the tube of the corolla. The lower /ip of the flower is
concave and finely crenate.

Haller properly, perhaps, quotes the Galeopfis of Rivinus
for this fpecies; but the Galeopfis of Camerariug, Epit..
t. 865, though faid to have a red flower, is mauifeltly a re-
prefentation of Galeabdolon luteum, Sm, Fl. Brit. 631. Both
thefe are cited by Linnzus under Lamium album = Ri-
vinus having confounded a/bum and maculatum. _ Pallas, as ap-
pears by his herbarium in the hands of A. B. Lambert, efq..
miftook maculatum for purpureum.

6. L. album. White Dead Nettle.—Lien. Sp. Pl. So9.
Curt. Lond. fafe. 2. t.454 Engl. Bot. t..765.—Leaves
heart-fhaped, pointed, ftrongly ferrated, hairy. Flowers.
about twenty ina whorl. Tube of the calyx fhorter than
its teeth, Upper lip of the corolla notched ; lateral teeth .
folitary, lanceolate.— Native of watte ground, almoft through-.
out Europe, flowering in fpring, fummer, and autumn. The
leaves are more pointed than in the lait,. and unfpotted ;_ the
flowers white and more numerous, rarely affuming a bluth of
pale purple. There is commonly a coniiderable diftance, or

naked part of the item, between the ftalked lower nage
an

LAMIUM.

and the more feffile upper ones where the flowers are fituated.
The fummit is overtopped by one or two pair of leaves with-
out flowers. ‘Che tube of the corolla is longer than the ca-
lyx ; its lower lip flattifh, wavy, fcarcely crenate.

7. L. capitatum. Muflin Dead Nettle.—Leaves heart-
fhaped, bluntifh, crenate, hairy, on longifh ftalks. Flowers
overtopping the ftem. ‘Tube of the calyx equal to its teeth.
Upper lip of the corolla notched ; lateral teeth folitary,
very flender.—We know not the native country of this
{pecies, which we obtained from Chelfea garden, and have
long cultivated. It is fometimes overlooked as a variety of
the laft ; fometimes fold for Z. mole hereafter mentioned ;
yet nofpecies can be more diltin&. It is perennial, flow-
ering in July; when the copious and delicate femitranfpa-

rent white flowers, which rife in two whorls above the top °

of each item, look as if a thin muffin veil had been thrown
over the plant, efpecially while the dew is upon them. The
lateral teeth are peculiarly flender ; the anthers pale, with
fcarlet pollen. The /eaves are fmall, roundith, light. green,
{peckled with paler or whitifh fpots. Stems rather decum-
bent. We can find no fynonym for this plant.

8. L. ffriatum. Pencilled Dead Nettle.—Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gree. Sibth. 405. Fl. Grac. ined. t. 557.—Leaves heart-
fhaped, bluatifh, ferrated, on longifh flalks. Upper lip of
the corolla cloven; its fegments fpreading and toothed;
lateral teeth double. Found by Dr. J. Sibthorp, (who
fufpeéted it to be the Bzarwly of Diofcorides), very plenti-
fully in all the wafte ground of Greece and the Archipelago ;
yet no other modern botanift appears to have noticed this
elegant and ftriking plant. Its habit is not unlike LZ. album,
but the /eaves are rounder, with longer ftalks, and the /fem
is more uninterruptedly leafy. The foqwers are fingularly
Jarge and handfome, white ftriped with crimfon, com-
poling feveral whorls, the upper ones rifing above the
top of the ftem, as in the laft. Their upper lip ends in
two oblong toothed divaricated lobes; the lower is convex
and crenate; the lateral teeth are in pairs, acute and
{preading.

9. L. bifidum. Cloven White Dead Nettle.—Cyrill.
“Rar. fafc. 1. 22. t. 7. Willden. (L. parvum, flore albo, cum
labio fuperiori bifido; Till. Pif. 93. L. equicolorum ;
‘Column. Ecphr. ror. t. 192. f. 2.) —Leaves triangular-
heart-fhaped, deeply cut and crenate; the upper ones
crowded. Calyx tumid, with fhortifh triangular teeth.
Upper lip of the corolla cloven; its fegments {preading,
emarginate, lateral teeth folitary.— Found in watte ground
about Naples, towards the fea, where the writer of this
gathered it in March 1787. Its general habit approaches
to L. purpureum, but the flowers are {now-white, with a
cloven#fummit, and the floral eaves, crowded (as in that
{pecies) about the top of the /lem, whofe middle part is al-
mott naked, are of a triangular heart-fhape, deeply cut and
lobed as well as crenate, hairy, and marked with a narrow
central white ftripe, juft as Columna reprefents them, con-
cerning whofe fynonym we prefume there can be little doubt,
though he appears not to have feen the corolla, Spirits of
wine extract an orange colour from thefe flowers, which we
do not perceive in any ether Lamium.

10. L. mofchatum. Mufky White Dead Nettle.—Mill.
Did. ed. 8.n, 4. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 394. (L.
orientale, nunc mofchatum nunc feetidum, magno flore;
‘Tourn. Cor. 11.3 according to Miller, but the Hort. Kew,
rejects this fynonym, without affinging a reafon.)—Stem
very fmooth. Leaves heart-fhaped, obtufe, crenate; the.
floral ones nearly feffile. Calyx-teeth nearly equal to the
corolla. Upper lip of the corolla entire ; lateral teeth foli-
tary, dilated.—Native of the Levant. Miller cultivated it

12

-or confounded with, the devigatum.

in 1739, but it found no place in the firft edition of Hort.
Kew. This we believe arofe from its having been taken for,
Into this error we our-
felves have formerly fallen, mifled by the long defeription in
Linn. Sp. Pl. 808, which fo precifely accords with the mo/=
chatum, rather than with /evigatum, that we have no doubt
from which of the two it was made. Thisis an annual {pe-
cies, cultivated, or rather fpontaneoufly fowing itfelf, from
time immemorial in Chelfea garden near the entrance, and
flowering in the fpring. ‘Ihe /eaves of the young plants
that come up in autumn remain through winter, and accord-
ing to Miller, are prettily marked with white like the Cycla-
men. The /fems, from 10 to 20 inches high, are remarkably
fmooth, with blunt edges, and purplifh. Leaves of the
flem heart-fhaped, approaching to triangular, rather elon-
gated but obtufe, veiny, of a light glaucous green, f{mooth
or finely downy, the margin crenate rather than ferrated ;
the floral ones nearly feflile. Whorls feveral, not reaching
to the top of the item, each of about ten white fowers, whole
calyx is pale and {mooth, with very long tapering rough-edged
teeth, extending beyond the mouth of the corolla. The
upper lip of the latter is downy, convex, abrupt, and entire ;
lower of two rounded, flattifh, flightly crenate lobes; la-
teral teeth folitary, broad, pointing forward. We have not
noticed the mufky fcent.

11. L. giechomoides. Ground-ivy-leaved Dead Nettle.—
(Moldavica orientalis, hedere terreftris folio; Tourn.
Cor, 11.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, ftrongly crenate, on long
ftalks, Calyx-teeth hort, triangular. Corolla longer than
the leaves; upper lip notched; lateral teeth in pairs,—
Gathered in the Levant by Tournefort, one of whofe {peci-
mens is before us. No recent author feems to have known
this fpecies, which is perhaps more akin to our friatum,
N° 8, than any other. The /aves are fmall, not an inch
long, correctly heart-fhaped, ftrongly crenate, or ferrated,

flightly hairy, on foot{talks moftly twice their own length,

except thofe of the floral ones, which fcarcely exceed the
calyx. The teeth of the ca/yx are fhort, triangular, awnlefs,
roughifh. Corolla purple, downy; tube full twice the
length of the calyx ; throat inflated; lateral teeth {mall,
double ; upper lip abrupt and deeply notched ; lower of two
rounded wavy lobes. Anthers very hairy.

12. L. tomentofum. ,
(L. orientale incanum, flore albo, vel purpurafcente, cum
labio fuperiori crenato ; Tourn. Cor. 11.)—Leaves roundifh-
heart-fhaped, ftrongly crenate, downy on both fides, ftalked.
Calyx-teeth lanceolate, very hairy. Upper lip of the co-
rolla crenate, very hairy ; lateral teeth folitary, awl-fhaped,
narrow.—Gathered by Tournefort in Armenia, This is
remarkably downy and hoary, efpecially the younger
foliage, the calyx, and the upper lip of the corolla. The
eaves are much under an inch in length, very deeply and
fharply crenate, the upper ones moft pointed, all denfel
villous, on ftalks of various proportions. ‘Teeth of the
calyx aslong as its tube, lanceolate, narrow, acute, denfely
villous. Corolla about the fize of L. album, purplifh or
white ; its tube as long as the calyx, fmooth; throat but
little inflated ; lateral teeth folitary, long and flender ; upper
lip much arched, minutely crenate, villous ; lower of two
rounded, flat, entire lobes.

13. L. molle. Pellitory-leaved White Dead Nettles—Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 297. ed. 2. v. 3. 394. (L. parie-
tarie facie; Moris. Hort. Bles. 278. L. album, parie-
tarie folio, virginianum; Pluk. Almag. 203. Phyt. t. 41.
f. 1.)—Leaves pointed, ftalked, nearly entire; the lower
ones heart-fhaped, the upper ovate. Calyx-teeth briftle-
fhaped. Upper lip of the corolla crenate, hairy ; a

teet,

Downy Dead Nettle. —Willd. n. 11.

>)

LAMIUM.

teeth folitary, awl-fhaped,—Native of Virginia, as appears
by Plukenet’s fynonym, overlooked by fucceeding writers.
This plant feems to have been early in our gardens, but is
now little known, if not totally loft. Another fpecies,
hereafter defcribed by the name of ocymifolium, is generally
miftaken for it, and is referred to as mo//e in FJ. Brit. under
L. purpureum. The true molle is, however, now well knewn
tous, by dried {fpecimens from the French gardens. Its
habit and fize approach to the album, but the eaves are re-
markable for being either quite entire, or very flightly toothed
about the middle part only; they are an inch anda half long,
broad at the bafe, and often heart-fhaped, the extremity
pointed and acute ; both fides fomewhat downy, veiny, even,
not rugofe. The /falks of the floral leaves are very fhort 5
thofe of the relt longer. Flowers the fize of L. album,
white ; their tube as long as the calyx-teeth, which are
briftle-fhaped, narrow and hairy. Seeds very fmooth,

14. L. ocymifolium. Bafil-leaved Red Dead Nettle.—(L.
pufillum rubrum, parietariz facie, americanum ; Pluk. Al-
mag. 204. Phyt.t. 41. f. 2, )—-Leaves ovate, obtufe, entire,
ftalked ; the upper ones crowded. Stem naked in the mid-
dle. Calyx-teeth lanceolate. —This has long been in Chelfea
' garden, where it is almoft a weed. From Plukenet’s fy-
onym it appears to have come from America. No fuc-
ceeding author has noticed the plant. The root is fmall and
annual. Stem a foot high, or fomething lefs, fimple, except
a {mall branch or two near the bafe, ere&, fquare, {mooth,
leafy at the bottom and top only, being for the greater part
of its length entirely naked, like the ftem of L. purpureum,
but ftill more remarkably fo. The lower /eaves are few,
roundifh-ovaie, flightly crenate, on longifh ftalks, and nearly
mooth ; floral ones about fix or eight pairs, crofling each
other, crowded together at the top of the ftem, compoling a
fort of pyramid, each leaf about three quarters of an inch
long, ftalked, ovate, obtufe, tapering at the bafe, entire,
except here and there a cafual notch in fome of them, all
flightly hairy, paler underneath. Whorls crowded, of nu-
merous {mall purple flowers, much like thofe of L. purpu-
reum. Calyx nearly {mooth, its teeth as long as the body,
{preading, broad at their bafe, with taper rigid points.
Seeds curioufly befprinkled with pale, prominent, minute,
tubercles, as is more or lefs the cafe in the three fol-
lowing.

15. L. purpureum. Common Red Dead Nettle —Linn.
Sp. Pl. 809. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t. 42. Engl. Bot. t. 769.
Fl. Daa. t. 523.—Leaves heart-fhaped, obtufe, unequally
crenate, italked ; the upper onescrowded. Stem naked in
the middle. Calyx-teeth lanceolate. Tube of the corolla
elofed with hairs near the bottom.—Very common, in watte
as well as cultivated ground, thoughout moft parts of Europe,
flowering at various feafons. The rootis annual. Stem from
fix to twelve inches high, fquare, afcending, often branched
at the bottom, naked in the middle, crowded with leaves and
flowers at the top. Leaves broad-heart-fhaped, bluntifh,
rugofe, unequally crena‘e, downy, on ftalks of various
lengths. F/owers in whorls among the upper leaves, reddifh-
purple, variegated with white, and {potted with dark pur-
ple, their lateral teeth fmall, in pairs, very near the under
lip. The infide of their tube was found by Mr. J. D.
Sowerby to be clofed near its bafe with a denfe circle of
hairs; fee Engl. Bot. t. 1933. The calyx is like the laft
fpecies.—A curious variety was found near Sudbury, by
Mr. Jofeph Andrews, who communicated it to the late pro-
feffor Martyn, fen., and whofe original fpecimen is in our
hands. In this the margin of all the eaves is perfeGly
entire. The flowers are rather fmaller than ordinary, and

were faid to produce no feed.. This variety is in Engl,

Bot. p. 769, at the end, miflaken for our ecymifalium lak
deferibed.

16. L. incifum. Cut-leaved Red Dead Nettle —Willd.
n.g. Engl. Bot. t. 1933. (L. diflectum; With. 527. L-
purpureum #; Sm Fil. Brit. 627. L. rubrum minus, fohiis
profunde incifis ; Raii Syn. 240. Pluk. Phyt. t. 41. f. 3.)
— Leaves heart-fhaped, dilated, obtufe, ttalked, irregularly
cut ; the upper ones crowded. Stem naked in the middle.
Calyx-teeth lanceolate. Tube of the corolla pervious.—
Found in cultivated’ ground in France and England. We
have it from Norfolk and Suffolk. This is fo like the laft,
except the aves being more deeply cut, that we fhould have
flill confidered it as a variety, but for the want of hairs in
the tube of the flower. The whole fhape of the corolla,
indeed, is more flender, approaching to that of L. ocymi-
folium, or of the following amplexicaule.

17. L. amplexicaule. Common Henbit Dead Nettle.—Linn.
Sp. Pl. 809. Curt. Lond. fafc. 2. t. 46. Engl. Pot. t. 770.
Fl. Dan. t. 752. (Galeopfis folio caulem ambiente, major
et minor; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 63.)—Floral leaves feffile,
kidney-fhaped, obtufe, ftrongly crenate, or fomewhat lobed,
embracing the ftem. ‘Teeth of the calyx linear-awl-fhaped,
as long as its tube.—Native of fandy fields of Europe,
flowering in the fpring. Eafily diftinguifhed by the rounded,
feffile, itrongly crenate, and often in fome degree lobed,
leaves of the item, in which it effentially differs from the two
lait. The calyx, moreover, differs in being extremely hairy,
with more upright teeth, as long as the body, and of a very
narrow awl-fhaped, almoft linear, figure, by which latter
character it is alfo diltinguifhed from two hereafter de-
{cribed. The little red flowers are fingularly pretty, the
bright crimfon of their downy upper lip, while the reft of
the corolla is {mooth and paler, gliftens, like minute rubies,
when moift with dew, and attraéts the eye at a confiderable
diftance. A fmall undivided tooth ftands at each fide of
the mouth, though Willdenow once thought otherwife, and
on account of that fuppofed deficiency, founded a new genus
on this plant and Galeobdolon duteum, by the uame of Pol-
lichia ; a meafure now. happily abandoned, as thofe two
plants have fcarcely any chara&ter incommon. Some of the
earlier flowers of L. amplexicaule never expand, but the in-
ternal organs are perfe&t, and produce good feed. Linnzus
fays all its flowers are generally thus clofed in Sweden,
owing, probably, to the coldnefs of the feafon when it
bloffoms.

18. L. palmatum. Palmate Henbit Dead Nettle.—(L.
multifidum ; Pallas. It. v. 1. 168.)—Floral leaves feffile,
embracing the ftem, palmate ; lobes three or five-cleft.
Teeth of the calyx lanceolate, pointed, as long as igs tube.
—Gathered on the banks of the Wolga by Pallas, who, as
appears from his fpecimens-lent us by Mr. Lambert, firft
took it for amplexicaule, which it moft nearly refembles, and
afterwards for multifidum, under which name it is mentioned
in his travels, quoted by Willdenow. From the latter it
differs totally in fize and afpeé, as well as in the charaGter
of its eaves and calyx. From the former it is fatisfactorily
diftinguifhed, however like at firft fight, by the deeply pal-
mate floral-leaves, whofe lobes are fubdivided into three or
five broad fpreading fegments ; and {till more decidedly by
the broad bafe of the calyx-teeth, which contra& fuddenly
into a fharp point.. The corolla varies in fize, or degree of
expanfion, as inthe preceding. The root, like that, appears
to be annual, throwing up feveral /fems about a fpan high.
The lower /eaves are ftalked, but otherwife refemble the
upper ones, except, indeed, thofe near the root, which are
fmaller and lefs cut. :

19. L.. multifidum. Finely-cut Oriental Dead Nettle — -

Linn. .

LAM

Linn. Sp. Pl. 809. (L. orientale, foliis elegantér laciniatis ;
Tourn. Cor. 11. Commel. Rar. 26. t. 26.)—Floral leaves
feflile, divided to the bafe, into many lobed or pinnatifid feg-
ments. Teeth of the calyx triangular, pointed, one-fourth
the length of its tube.—Gathered by Tournefort in the Le-
vant. He probably brought home feeds, by which it was
introduced to the gardens of France, Holland, and, if Mil-
ler be corre&, Chelfea phyfic-garden. On his authority
this fpecies has found a place in the new edition of Hort.
Kew. though long fince a ftranger amongit us. Indeed
the plant is very little known to botanitts. We have an
indubitable fpecimen, but whether wild or cultivated we
know not. It is in all its parts thrice the fize of the two
Tait. The root fcems to be annual, throwing up feveral
fquare, leafy, “finely downy, often branched Jfrems. The
floral /eaves are an inch or inch and half long, fefiile, nearly
fmooth, divided almoit, or quite, to the bottom_into five
fegments, the middle one being the largeft, all narrow at
the bafe, dilated outwards, deeply lobed or pinnatifid, the
lobes rounded or bluntifh. F/owers many in each whorl, as
large as thofe of L. album, or larger, of a fine red, with fo
very hairy an upper lip as to refemble fome kind of Phiomis.
The lateral teeth are folitary and acute. Calyx denfely
clothed with filky hairs, its teeth broad, about a quarter
as long as its tube, pointed, one rather wider than the
ret. ;

20. L? hijfpidulum. Rough-ftalked American Dead Net-
tle.—Michaux Boreal-Amer. v. 2. 4.—Stem rather briftly.
Leaves on long ftalks, broad-heart-fhaped, flightly downy.
Flowers axillary, folitary.—Found in fhady woods about
the river Tennaffee, by Michaux, who mentions that the co-
rolla is moderately large and white. The flowers being foli-
tary in the bofom of each floral leaf, excites a great doubt
of its genus, but having no other information re{pecting this
fpecies, we here fubjoin it to the re{t, till further information
can be procured. 5S.

LAMIJUNGH, in Geography, a country of Afia, de-
pendent on Thibet, N. of Gorkah.

LAMLASH, or Hoty Isianp, an ifland fituated be-
fore the bay of Lamlaih, about two miles long and half a
mile wide; the whole being a mountain covered with heath,
but having fufficient palture and arable land to feed a few
cows, fheep, and goats, and to raife a {mall quaitity of
corn, and few potatoes. N. lat. 55° 34’. W. long.
4 58. ,

Lamiasu, a town or village of Scotland, on the E.
coalt of the ifland of Arran, fituated on a bay to which it
gives name, and which, according to Pennant, forms the fafett
harbor in the globe, with depth of water for the largeft
fhips. N. lat. 55 35’. W. long. 5° 59’.

LAMMAS-DAY, the fit of Auguft; fo called, as
fome will have it, becaufe lambs then grow out of feafon,
as being too big. Others derive it from a Saxon word,
fignifying loaf-mafs, becanfe on that day our forefathers
made an offering of bread prepared with new wheat.

On this day the tenants who formerly held lands of the
cathedral church in York, were bound by their tenure to
bring a lamb alive into the church at high mafs.

It is celebrated by the Romifh church in memory of St.
Peter’s impr:lonment.

LAMMERMUIR, in Geography, a mountainous dif-
tric of Scotland, forming the N. part of the county of
Berwick, about 16 miles long and fix broad.

LAMNE, in Jehthyology, a name given by Appian, and
fome other of the oid Greek authors, to the common
fhark, or, as we ufually call it, the white hark, the lamia
and canis carcharias of authors. See SquaLus Carcharias.

LAM

LAMNICKH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Stiria; 10 miles N. of Cilley.

LAMO, a fea-port of Africa, on a {mall ifland formed
by a river on the coatt of Zanguebar, dependent on the
Portuguefe. S. lat. 1° 55’. E. long. 41° 27’.

LAMOIGNON, Wriuiam pr, in Biography, marquis
of Batville, defeended from an honourable family, was born
at Nivernois in 1617. He was admitted a counfellor of
Paris in 1635, made matter of requefts in 1644, and in
1658, on account of his great probity and honour,’ he was
raifed to the office of firft prefident of the parliament,
Upon his nomination to the prefidentfhip, cardinal Mazarin
faid to him, “* If the king had known a worthier and fitter
man, he would not have appointed you ;’’ but he paid him
a much higher compliment, by retufing a large fum of
money, ‘Offered by another perfon for the fituation, at the
fame time obferving, “¢ Whatever occation his majefty may
have for money, it would be better to expend it for a good
prefident, than receive it.’’ Lamoignon did not difappoint
the expeétations formed of him: he fulfilled all the duties
of the fituation with equal zeal and prudence, fupporting
the dignity and privileges of the body over which he pre-
fided, difcouraging the chicanery of the bar, raifiag his
voice for the people, and~devoting his health and life to
the public fervice. He was once founded with regard to
his opinion of a criminal, over whofe trial he was to pre-
fide as judge, by Colbert the minifter, to which he replied,
“« A judge gives his opinion but once, and that is from the
bench.” He died at the age of fixty, in the year 1677.
His “ Arretés,’” on various important points of French
law, were firft publifhed in 1702, and again reprinted in
1781. In his manners he was fimple, in his condué rather
auftere, but to the widow, the orphan, and the friendlefs,
he was the mildeft of all human creatures. He relaxed
from the toils of his office, in the pleafures of literature,
and literary men. Boileau, Racine, Bourdaloué, &c. were
his particular friends. Moreri,

Lamoicnon, CurisTIAN FRANcIs Dk, eldeft fon of the
preceding, was born at Paris in 1644: of his education the
moft exact care was taken by his father, and at a proper
age he was placed in the Jefuits) college, under the parti-
cular tuition of the celebrated father Rapin, whofe favourite
difciple he was. Having finifhed his ftudies, he travelled
through different countries for the improvement of his mind,
and in 1666 he was admitted a counfellor of pzrliament.
In 1674, he was appointed to the oilice of advocate-general,
which he held during the {pace of 25 years, with the higheft
and moft unblemifhed reputation, diftinguifhed as much for
his eloquence, as by his zeal for juftice and the public good.
In 1690 the king nominated him to a poft of more eafe,
and better adapted to his health, but his love of employ-
ment retained him feveral years longer at the bar, till at’
length, being urged as well by his own feelings, as the re-
prelentations of his family and friends, he fought for an
honourable repofe. He then indulged in the love of letters,
and, in 1704, was admitted a member of the Academy of
Infcriptions, of which he was foon appointed the prefident.
In this flation he difplayed as much talent and readinefs in dif-
euffing a literary queftion, as he had formerly done a point
of jurifprudence. He died in 1709. Many of his {peeches
were publifhed, but the only work which he fent to the
prefs was “ A Letter on the Death of Father Bourdaloue.”
Moreri.

LAMOILLE, in Geography, a river, which runs into
lake Champlain, 28 miles N. of Newhaven, N. lat. 44° 37,
W. long. 73° 14!.
» LAMORRAN Creek, a creek in the Englifh channel,

oa

.

a

LAM

on the coaft of Cornwall, at the mouth of a fmall river,
which joins the Fale; 3. miles S. of Truro.

LAMOTIS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall country of
Afia, in Cilicia, which took’ its name from the town of
Lamus. Ptolemy.

LA MOTTE, in Biography, an admirable violinift,
born in Flanders : when very young, he was regarded 'as the
firft folo player at Vienna. In 1777 he came to England.
He had his firft regular inftruGtions from Giardini, and it
- js related of him, that when he quitted Giardini, he travelled
through Italy, till in fearch of another matter ; and being
arrived at Leghorn, where Nardini then lived, he would
have become his fcholar; but after hearing that celebrated
performer execute one of his own folos, of the moilt dif-
fieult kind, and being, in his turn, afked to play, he de-
fired leave to perform the fame folo which he had juft
lieard, and which was new and in MS. fo that he never
eotild have praétifed it; however, he acquitted himfelf fo
well, that Nardini declined taking as a /cholar one who was
already fo able a maj/fer of his inftrument.

The concertos which he played at the Pantheon concerts
were full of new difficulties of execution, expreffion, and
double ftops, which he performed with fuch grace and
feeming facility, that none but fiddle-players; who know
the finger-board of the violin, and the difficulty of bowing
certain paffages, would imagine that he had any difficulties
to encounter. His tone was not very powerful, but per-
fe&ily {weet and even, from the loweft note on the violin,
to the end of the finger-board. His high notes were of
the flute kind, nearly as fweet as the fons harmoniques.

This performer, whofe conftitution was very delicate,
deemed confumptive, when he left England in 1779, at
which time he returned to the continent, where he died.

Lamorre, WiLtiam, an eminent French furgeon and ac-
coucheur, was of Walogne, in Normandy. He ftudied his
profeffion at Paris, where he attended the praétice of the
celebrated hofpital, ? Hotel-Dieu, during five yearés He
was diltinguifhed particularly by his fkill and fuccefs as an
accoucheur, not only at his native town, but throughout
the neighbouring country, during a long period. He left
three fons, two of whom were phyficians, and the third
fucceeded him in his own department.

His firft publication, entitled «* Traité des acconchemens
naturels, non naturels, et contre nature,’’ was firft pub-
lifhed in 1715. It went through many editions, and was
tranflated into feveral languages ; and was generally deemed
the beit treatife of the time, after that of Mauriceau,
which Lamotte cenfured. It contained an account of four
hundred cafes, with judicious practical refle€tions, the re-
fult of thirty years’ pra€tice. His next publication was a
«* Differtation fur la Generation, et fur la Superfétation ;"?
containing alfo an anfwer to a book, entitled ** De l’In-
decence aux Hommes d’accoucher les Femmes, et fur l'Ob-
ligations aux Meres de nourrir leurs Enfans,’’ Paris, 1718.
He denied the occurrence of fuperfztation, and combated
the opinions of the ovarifts, and the doérine of animal-
cules; and in his reply to Hecqutt, he relates a number of
untoward accidents, occafioned by the ignorance of mid-
wives. In 1722, he publifhed, “* Traité complet de Chi-
rurgie, contenant des Obfervations fur toutes les Maladies
chirurgicales, et fur la Maniére de les traiter,’’ which has
Been feveral times reprinted. The laft edition was publifhed
in 1771, with notes by profeffor Sabatier. This was a valu-
able praétical work, but disfigured by the egotifm of the
author, and his contempt for his profeffional brethren;
whence Haller obferves, ‘ laudes fuas non negligit, non

VoL, XX.

LAM

perinde fame collegarum ftudiofus.’’
Eloy. Diét. Hilt. de Med.

LAMP, an inftrument ufed for the combuttion of liquid
inflammable bodies, for the purpofe of producing artificial
light.

The moft fimple lamp confifts of a veflel.of almoft any
fhape, containing oil or alcohol, with a tube projecting
little above the furface of the liquid, and con aining any
fibrous fubftance capable of railing the liquid to the top of
the tube, by capillary attraGtion. The oil, thus raifed and
diffufed through the fibrous fubftance, is fo detached from
the main body of the liquid, as to admit of being heated to
a temperature fufficient to volatilize the oil, the vapour of
which, in a ftdte of combuftion, conftitutes the flame of the
lamp. ‘

In the management of the lamp of the moft fimple kind,
fo far as relates to the fupply of oil, three things are nece!-
fary to be obferved. 1. The wick muft be'of fuck a fub
ftance as beft to promote capillary attraction. 2. It thould
not be twilted too much, in which cafe its capacity for the
oil is too little ; nor fhould it be fo loofe as to diminifh ma-
terially its capillary attraCtive power. This is frequently
the cafe, when the wick has been too long immerfed in the
il. 3. With regard to the diftance of the flame from the
furface of the oi!.—If the flame be too near the furface, a
leffer quantity of oil will acquire the intenfe heat neceflary to
raife it into vapour, fince the heat communicates with the
fluid. On the contrary, when the flame is too high above
the oil, the capillary attra€tion, which decreefes in fome
ratio of the diftance, is infufficient to fupply the neceflary
quantity of oil.

Experience has long ago eftablithed, that cotton is the
belt medium for the tranfmiffion of the oi], which is pre-
pared in a particular way for the purpofe.

During the flow combuftion of oil, as obferved in the
common !amp, as well as that of tallow in candles, the fatty
matter is decompofed, producing a quantity of vapour,
which inflames in contaét with oxygen; and a cloudy ex-
halation in the form of fmoke, confifting of numerous {mall
particles of carbonaceous matter, which, if colleG@ed, con-
ftitute the article called lamp-black. © Befides the offenfive
{mell and appearance of this fubftance, there is an evident
wafte of combuitible matter, capable of producing both
light and heat. js

The evil arifing from the fmoke and fmell of Jamps wat
formerly fo great, as to prevent their introduétion into do--
meftic ufe, notwithftanding the flrong inducement of con-
venience and economy. ‘

The public have long been in peffeffion of a complete re-
medy for this, and feveral other difadvastages in lamps, by
the invention of the Argand lamp. ‘This invention embraces
fo mary improvements upon the common lamp, aad has be-
ceme fo general throughout Europe, that it may be jultly
ranked among the greateft difcoveries of the ase. As a
fubftitute for the candle, it has the advantage bf great ecd-
nomy and convenience, with much greater brilliance ;-and
for the purpofe of producing heat, it is an important inftru-
ment in the hands of the chemilt.

We may with fome propriety compare the common Jamp
and the candle to fire made in the open air, without any
foreed method of fupplying it with oxygen; while the Ar- -
gand lamp may be-compared to a fire in a furnace, in which -
a rapid fupply of oxygen is furnifhed by the velocity of the
afeending current. This, however, is not the only adyan-
tage of this valuable invention, It is obvious that if the
combuiftible vapour occupies a coniiderable area, the omy-

Pt ’ gen

Haller Bibl. Chir.

LA

gen of the atmofphere cannot combine with the vapour in
the middle part of the afcending column. ‘The outfide,
therefore, is the only part which enters into combuttion ;
the middle conttituting {moke. This evil is obviated in the
Argand lamp, by direéting a current of atmofpheric air
through the flame, which, inftead of being raifed from a
folid wick, is produced from a circular one, which fur-
rounds the tube through which the air afcends. Betore we
enter more fully into the merits of the Argand lamp, we fhall
give a defcription of it, with reference to drawings of its
different parts. Thefe drawings are taken from the lamps
of modern conftruétion, which have recently been much im-
proved. The wick is now raifed by a fcrew, inftead of the
rack and pinion; which is fo great an improvement upon
the latter, both in fimplicity and convenience, that it is be-
coming general. :

Fig. 1. (Plate Lamps) is a view of the lamp complete, to a
{cale of one-third the real fize. A is a refervoir, which is
on the principle of the bird-fountain, keeping the oil always
at the fame height in the burner B, through the communi-
cation C,

The burner B is compofed of three tubes, a, 4, and ¢.
The two firft are feen’ in feGtion only ; while the whele of
one fide of c is feen.

Fig. 2. The tube ¢ is foldered~into the bottom of the
tube a, and open throughout, communicating with the re-
teptacle D, which ferews on the outfide of the tube a, and
ferves at once to catch the oil which may accidentally run
over the tube a, and admit the air through the apertures
n, p, which has to afcend through the tube c.

The oil which comes in through C will occupy the ca-
vity g 4, between the exterior Ges of the tube c, and the
interior of a, which muft, of courfe, rife to the height of
the aperture ¢, in the refervoir A, as feen in fig. 3. The part
de, jig. 25 called the bucket, is a fhort tube to receive the
circular wick. This part is feen in fg. 4, with the wick
upon it, df. It is made to work freely upon the tube c.
The latter has a {piral groove cut upon it, into which a pin
at o enters; fo that when the bucket is turned round by a
catch r, which works ina longitudinal flit in 4, it will be raifed
or lowered by turning the tube 6 in different directions, and

-is, therefore, the means of raifing or lowering the wick.

A wire, s, 1s attached to the tube 4, which bends down
parallel to, and touching the outfide of, the tube a. The
part £/xzy fits upon the tube a, The part £/ is provided
with fhallow fides to receive the glafs E, and is connected
with aring y, by wires x, z, fg. 1. The whole of this part
turns with the glafs E, and at the fame time carries round
the tube 6, by means of the wire s, which is connected to
£/and y, for the purpofe of raifing or lowering the wick.
When oil is to be introduced into the refervoir, A is fcrew-
ed off, and inverted. The aperture #, fig. 3, is then opened,
by puthing down the fliding focket v, which ought to fit
the interior cylinder pretty’ accurately. The globe mutt
now be filled at the hole¢: the focket v'is next pulled over
the hole. The ball may now be held in an erect pofitron,
and replaced in the lamp; after which the focket v may be
puthed below the hole ¢, by means of the handle w. The
oil will now rife to a Height in F, and in B, till it reaches
the higher part of the aperture ¢, fig. 3, and will maintain
the fame height till the oil in the globe gets to the fame
level. The reafon of this hydroftatical phenomenon will be
eafily perceived. When the oil in B and F gets a little
below the aperture #, a bubble of air enters and afcends into

the globe, the fame quantity of oil defcending to give it place.
This refervoir, although it is fully fitted for giving a re-

M P.

gular fupply of oil, is attended with one difagreeable pro-
perty. ‘The air in the upper part of the globe being much
more expanfible by heat than liquid bodies in a warm room,
its {pring becomes greater than the preflure of the exterior
air ; in confequence of which, the oil is apt to flow over
the tube a, and liable fometimes to overflow the veffel D.
Another difadvantage is alfo attendant on this bulky refer-
voir. When the lamp is ufed on a table, the fhadow renders
one fide of it ufelefs. ‘The above inconveniences in the
Argand-lamp have been, in fome meafure, obviated by the
invention of Mr. Peter Kier of Kentifh Town. He raifed
the oil by means of a column of a heavier fluid. In the
plate, fgs. 5 and 6, are exhibited an elevation and feétion
of one of thefe lamps; the fection only requires to be ex-
plained. From the flender figure of the vafe, it is evident
that the flame is permitted to throw its light in all dire€tions,
downwards and upwards, nearly in the fame manner as a
candle. The interior part is divided into feyeral compart-
ments by the diaphragms at F and C. The {pace AA
above F is open to the atmofphere; but the fpace BB,
beneath C, is clofe. A tube F G proceeds from the fpace
AA to the {pace B B, fo as to reach nearly to the bottom at
G, and another tube, CD, proceeds from BB upwards
through A A, without communicating with this laft {pace,
and is enlarged at the upper part, fo as to receive a wick
with the apparatus of Argand, or any other. A folution of
fea-falt, or the mother water of falt, being firft poured in,
by meafure, at E, flows down the tube into B B, and fills that
{pace. A like meafure of oil is next poured, which alfo de-
{cends into B B, and forces the denfe faline liquor upwards
through G F into the fpace A A. The fpecific gravity of
this laft is adjutted by dilution ; fo that when the {pace A A
is properly filled, the oil fhall ftand in equilibrio at the re-
quifite height near E, viz. the furfaces in A and at E
are elevated above the lower orifice at G, in the inverfe
proportion of the fpecific gravities.

This proportion is ufually about three to four; fo that
if any of the oil be taken away from E by combuttion, or
otherwife, there will be a fubfidence of the heavy fluid in
AA to preferve the equilibrium; and during the whole
fubfidence in A A, there will be a correfpondent depreflion
of the upper furface of oil, near E, which will be meafured
by four-third parts of the firft clevation of the denfe fluid
above the partition FD. Now, the fallin AA may be
rendered very {mall, by enlarging the diameter of the veffel
at that part, and at BB; and the elevation of E above A,
and, confequently, the infulation of the radiant flame, may
be governed at pleafure by prolonging the interval DC.

It is poffible, in the manipalation of this lamp, that fome
oil, or pieces of {nuff, may fall into the fpace A A, and
float upon the liquid. This effe& is, toa certain extent,
beneficial, beeaufe the covering of oil prevents evaporation ;
but if this fhould require to be remedied, it is eafily done,
by pouring the whole contents of the lamp into a bafin, and
after a few moments repofe, or ftraining, returning the liquids
again into the lamp at E by a fyphon, or funnel, in which
they will take their proper places by means of their relative
weights. We may recapitulate the good qualities of this
lamp in a few words. 1. It is capable of any form or ap-
paratus for the burners, 2. It prefents no obftacle to in-
tercept the emitted light. And, 3. As it raifes the oil by
the mere gravitation of a non-elaftic fluid, it cannot, in any
cafe, like the fountain lamp, raife more than is wanted.

A great variety of other lamps are at prefent expofed for
fale, having different means of fupplying the oil, but none
fo fufficiently ftriking as to merit minute defqiption.

II The

LA

The grand and moft effential properties of the lamp are
confined to the means of fupplying the flame with oxygen, fo
as to produce the moft perfeét combuttion, and for which
we are almoft entirely indebted to Argand. We thall there-
fore conclude this article with fome remarks upon the merits
of this valuable invention, and fhew in what inftances it has
been improved in its mott effential points. _

In the original lamp of Argand, a perpendicular column of
air was perpetually afcending through the glafs chimney of
the lamp ; one part of it pafling through the central tube c,

Jags. Land 2; and the reft through the holes g and ms round
the circular plate 4/. This part was formerly a cylinder ex-
tending down to the receptacle D. Se

With this perpendicular current alone, it is well known
that the Argand lamp would not burn whale oi/, and the pu-
rification of this oil, to render it fit for the purpofe, became a
defideratum, on account of the high price of the {permaceti
oil. This great objet was not accomplifhed by purifying
the oil, but an improvement was.made in the lamp itfelt,
which effeCtually anfwered the defived purpofe. For this
difcovery we are indebted to an ingenious and {cientific ma-
nufaéturer of Derby. It is curious to obferve, however,
that no advantage was taken of this invention for twenty years,
during which time it had been ufed in the cotton mills of this
difcoverer, and now the fame end is accomplifhed by a fimpler
contrivance. The above improvement confifted in placing
over the mouth of the tube ¢ a plate of metal about the dia-
meter of the tube, and at fuch a height as to be a little fhort
of the apex of the flame. By this means the afcending co-
lumn of air was turned out of its perpendicular courfe, and
thrown immediately into that part of the flame where the
fmoke was formed, and which, by this means, was com-
pletely confumed, producing at the fame time a more than
ordinary brilliant light.

The fame effeét is now produced by the fhape of the lamp
glafs E, in the figures already alluded to. The exterior
current of air which enters the holes g, m, &c. rifes with a
velocity proportioned to the length of the glafs chimney, and
to the rarefaction of air in the fame, ftrikes upon the fhoulders
N and O, by which it is propelled into the upper part of the
flame. This happy form in the glafs appears to have been

. the refult of accident. Had the manufaGturer been aware of
its importance, it would have either been the fubjec& of a pa-
tent, or at leait {trongly recommended to the public in the
way of puffing. We fee at the prefent time different fhaped
glaffes, {ome of which are rather worfe than the original plar,
inftead of improvements. ; ;

The theory of the action of the chimney lamp, is fo nearly
allied to the principles of furnaces, which we have given under
that article, that the reader will no doubt get iome ufeful
hints, relative to the conftruétion of lamps, by perufing the
fame.

_ The hydro-pneumatic lamp is conftru€ted_ upon fimilar
principles to the celebrated water engine erected by father
Hell, at Chremnitz, in Hungary ; the defcent of one-half
of the fluid to a certain depth below the fource, raifes the
other half an equal height above the fource. This principle
has been, with great fuccefs, applied to the lamp, we believe
at firft by the French, but has lately been brought to per-
fection by Mr. R. W. King, of Holborn, who manufactures
thefe articles. Figs. 1, 2, and 3, of Plate II. explain the con-
ftruction of this ingenious contrivance. Figs. 1 and 3 are
fe&ions to which our defcription will principally apply ; A A
isa cylindrical veffel, divided by horizontal partitions into
four chambers, viz. B, C, D, and E.. The upper one, B, is to
contain the oil which is for the immediate fupply of the.

M P.

flame: the next, C, is for the portion of oil which defcends
into the inferior chamber E, through the pipe a, and forces
the contained air up through the pipe 6, into the upper
chamber B, and prefling upon the furface of the oil contained
therein, caufes it to alcend the pipe d, to the lamp F,
which is on Argand’s principle, and of the fame conftruétion
as before explained : ¢ is a pipe to condué the external air
down into the chamber C ; and f is a pipe to convey the
walte oil, which may drip down from the lamp, into the mid-
dle chamber D, which is merely a refervoir for fuch watte
oil. G isa tube pafling down to the fecond chamber C, to
fill it with oil ; it is clofed at pleafure by an air-tight plug 4,
fitting into the end of it ; the lower orifice of the pipe a is
clofed by a piece of hat i, acting as a valve, which 1s fhut by
a {piral {pring beneath it, but opened by a wire paffing down
the tube a, and alfo through the filling tube G, the plug of
which, when in its place, preffes down the wire, and opens
the valve: fuppofe the plug removed, the {pring will clofe
the valve i. Oil is now poured in at the end of the pipe G; it
runs down into the chamber C, and fills it, then rifes in the
pipe, which having a hole in one fide, near its upper end, the
oil alfo flows into, and fills, the upper chamber B. The plug
4 is now inferted into its place; this fhuts off the communi-
cation of the open air, both with the chambers B and C, but
depreffing the wire, as before explained, opens the valve i,
and the oil in the middle chamber C defcends, by its gravity,
through a, as fhewn by the arrow, and enters the lower
chamber E, from which it expels the air by the pipe 4, into
the chamber B. The end of this pipe being covered by an in-
verted hood, the air afcends by bubbles, through the oil,
into the top of the chamber, and preffing on the furface of
the oil, forces it up the pipe d, to the lamp in which it ftands
at the level of the dotted line 4, at which level it will evi-
dently continue, till the upper chamber is exhaufted, and the
contents of C defcended into E. The lamp is now replenifhed
by the following means ; the whole apparatus is inverted, as
fhewn in fig. 3 ; the oil now runs down the pipe 4, and filling
its hood, flows over into the upper chamber B, which it
fills, the atmofpheric air entering the pipe einto the chamber
C, and thence by the pipe a into the chamber E, the air
contained in the chamber B efcaping at the pipe d. The
lamp is held inverted for about a minute, and is then fet
upright. Frefh oil is now poured in at the plug 4, to fill the
fecond chamber C, and then the plug being put in, the above
operation is repeated. :

By this ingenious application of the principles of hy-
droftatics, the lamp F is conftantly {upplied with oil at pre-
cifely the fame level, which does not vary by any diminution
of the quantity of oil, or by the expanfion of the air by heat,
as in the fountain lamp, the included air being only applied
as the medium to tran{mit the preffure of one column of oil,
from C to E to aét upon, and raife a fimilar column from B
to the dotted line 4. The lamp is furnifhed witha glafs chim-
ney H, fimilar to that before defcribed, and for fome pur-
pofes this is furrounded by a glafs globe K, ground within-
fide to take off the glare of the light. The cylindric veffel
A A is included in an elegant. columnar pedeftal, fhewn in

Jig. 2, where the ring L is that which is turned round to ele-
vate the wick. Fig. 4. is a cap to cover the top, when the
glafs chimney is removed. The principal objeGtion to this
lamp, as originally conftruéted, was, that after inverting it,
the oil would, in certain pofitions of the lamp, return down
the pipe, and fill the lower chamber again, in which ftate it
would not burn. Mr. King has completely remedied this, by
bringing all the tubes, except the air and filling tubes, as
near as poflible into the centre of the lamp, Lamps of this

Ffe Kind

LAMP.

kind have been made to contain a fufficiency of oil to laft two
months, the veflel having the appearance of an elegant pe-
deftal to ornament a hall or ftaircafe. ° ’

A patent lamp; invented by ‘John Barton, efq. is deli-
neatedin fig. 5. of our plate; it is contrived fo as to always
have a fupply of oil maintained ata level, very near the
point of combuition, by floating the oil upon a fluid of greater
foecifie gravity. The oil is contained in a cylindrical veffel
A, jfg. 5, having a pipe, B, extending upwards from it to the
hnrners at a, a, a, where the wicksare placed. The bottom
ofthe veflel takes off with a ferew joint. fimilar to a fnuff-box,
that the infide of the veffel may be cleaned ; and in the cen-
tre of the bottom is an aperture of about half an inch in
diameter always open. This oil-veffel is immerfed in a heavier
fluid, contained within the external vefiel DEF G. A float
is attached*to the oil-veffel at H, and another, in addition to
it, 1s fixed tothe tube Bat I. In this fituation of things, the
edlumn of heavy fluid, (which may be falt water; ) from its
furface at ¢ to d, where the oil preffes upon it, (through the
hole in the bottom of the oil-veffel,) will fupport.a column
of oil, of a greater height, in proportion to the difference
of their {pecific gravities, from d up to e for inftance,
within an inch of the burners a, a, which is a fuffi-
ciently fmall diftance for the capillary attraction to draw up
a fupply of oil to the wick. As the oil diminifhes by burn-
ing, the water enters the hole in the bottom of the oil-veffel,
and ftill continues to fupport the column of oil, as at firlt,
the oil-veffel floating in the water by the floats at H and I.
By this means it is freed from the inconvenience we have be-
fore afcribed to Mr. Kier’s lamp, becavfe the burners de-
feend as the oil is confumed ; and therefore, though the oil
is not mamrained at the fame identical level, yet, with re-
fpe& to the burners, it is always at the fame diftance below
heir wicks. ‘The external veffel unfcrews at F, to get in
the oil-veffel A. The enlarged part or vafe D, at the top,
fhould contain very nearly, but not quite, as much as the oil-
veflel, In preparing the lamp, the external veffel is firft
filled with the water (poured in at the top of the vafe D)
as high as E’: the oil-veffel is now full of water, and retts
upon the bottom, becaufe the upper float I is not fupported.
The oil, being poured in at the top of the tube B, expels
the water from the veffel, and fills it at the fame time, railing
they water in the vafe D, and floating the oil-veflel. In this
fiate the lamp will contiaue, with the oil ftanding ate, until
it is all confumed.

A very fimple and efficacious Jamp has been lately prefent-
ed to the public, under the title of the Automaton lamp,
having fomething ingenious in the manner of fupplying it
with oil. We have given three figures of it at figs. 6, 7,8,
of the laft plate; it confilfts of a tin box, abcd, with a
burner confitting of two wicks of cotton at a. The box
is fufpended wpon pivots at e, entering eyes in the wire

, which is fmilar to the fufpenfion part of a fcale-beam.
When this lamp is full of oil, which is pqured in at d, it
affumes the horizontal pofition fig. 6, becaufe the mafs of oil,
abcd, is chiefly fituated behind the centre ¢, and balances
the weight of the wick atd; but as the oil diminifhes by
burning, the weight behind the centre is lefened, whilit that
of the wick continues without alteration. This occafions the
lamp to librate, as in fies. 7 and 8, fo that the oil is always
kept very sear the wick, by which means it will burn oil!
which is too impure for the capillary ation of a common
lamp. The nicety of its performance depends.upon the figure
of the veffel, and the place of the centre ecorrefponding
with the weight of the tubes:at d. This ‘the makers have by
experience determined te the greatelt accuracy. s

The Automaton lamp is in very general ufe in the north:
of England in cotton-mills, and other manufactories where
the gas-lights are not introduced, which is undoubtedly the
beft method.

Lamp, Cardan’s, is a contrivance of an author of that
name, which furnifhes itfelf with its own oil.

It confifts of a little column of brafs, tin, or the like, welk
clofed every where, excepting a {mall aperture at bottom,
in the middle of a little gullet or canal, where the wick is
placed. :

Here the oil cannot get out, but in proportion as it waftes,
and fo opens the paflage of that little aperturé.

This kind of lamp was mtich in ufe fome years ago; but
it has feveral inconveniences: fuch as that the air gets into
it by flarts and gluts; and that when the air in the cavity
comes to be much rarefied by heat, it drives out too mucli
oil, fo as fometimes to extinguifh the lamp.

Dr. Hook, and Mr. Boyle, have invented other lamps

that have all the conveniences of Cardan’s without the incon= _

venicnces.

The flame in a lamp never confumes the wick, till the
wick be expofed to the air by the flame’s falling downward $
and from thence it may be inferred, that a way found out
to keep the fuel, and confequently the flame, at the fame
height upon the wick, would make it Jaft a long time.
Many ways have been devifed to arrive at this, but it feems
only poffible to be done, in any degree of perfeétion, by
hydroftatics. Thus, let a lamp be made two or three inches
deep, with a pipe coming from the bottom almoft as high as:
the top of the veffel; let it be filled fo high with water, as
to cover the hole of the pipe at the bottom, to the end that
the oil may not get in at the pipe, and fo be lot. Ther
let the oil be poured in, fo as to fill the veffel almoft brim-
ful, which muft have a cover, pierced with 3s many holes
as there are wicks defigned. When the veffel is thus filled,
and the wicks are lighted, if water falls in by drops at the
pipes, it will always keep the oil at the fame height, or very
near ; the weight of the water being to that of the oil as
203, to. 19, which in two or three inches makes no great
difference. If the water runs fafter than the oil wafles, it
will only run over at the top of the pipe, and what does not
run over will come under the cil, and keep it at the fame
height. Phi’. Tranf. No. 245, p. 388.

The accefs of air is of the greate{t importance in every
procefs of combulftion. When a lamp is fitted up witha
very flender wick, the flame is fmall and of a very brilliant
white colour: if the wick be larger, the combuftion is lefs
perfect, and the flame is brown: a {till larger wick not
only exhibits a brown flame, but the lower internal part ap-
pears dark, and is occupied by a portion of volatilized
matter, which does not become ignited until it has afcended
towards the point. When the wick is either very large or
very long, part of this matter efcapes combuttion, and fhews
itfelf in the form of coal or fmoke. The different intenfity”
of the ignition of flame, according to a greater or lefs fup-
ply of air, is remarkably feen by placing a lamp with a:
fmall wick beneath a fhade of glafs, not perfeéily clofed:
below, and more or lefs covered above. While the current:
of air through the glafs fhade is perfectly free, the flame is
white ; but in proportion as the aperture above is dimi-
nifhed, the flames become brown, long, wavering, and

fmoky ; it inftantly recovers its original whitenefs when the -

opening is again enlarged. The inconvenience of*a thick -
wick-has been long fince obferved, and attempts’ have beer.
made to remove it ; in fome in{tances by fub{tituting a num=
ber of {mall wicks initead-of a larger; and «in others, by
6 making

ee

*

LAM

making the wick flat inftead of cylindrical, The moft {ci-
entific improvement of this kind is the lamp of Argand,
deferibed.in the preceding part of this article. In this the
wick forms a hollow cylinder or tube, which flides over an-
other tube of metal, fo as to afford an adjuftment with
regard to its length: when this wick is lighted, the flame
itfelf has the figure of a thin tube, to the inner as well as
the outer furface of which the air has accefs from below.
#ind a cylindrical fhade of glafs ferves to keep the flame
iteady, and ina certain degree to accelerate the current of
air. The inconvenience of a long wick, which fupplies
more oil than the volume of flame is capable of burning,
and which confequently emits fmoke, is feen at once by
railing the wick; and on the other hard, the effect of a
fhort wick, which affords a diminutive flame merely for
want of a fuflicient fupply of combuflible matter, is ob-
fervable by the contrary procefs. The moft obvious incon-
venience of lamps in general, arifes from the fluidity of the
combuttible material, which requires a veffel adapted to con-
tain it, and even in the beft conitructed lamps is more or
lefs liable to be fpilled. When the wick of a lamp is once
adjuited as to its length, the fame continues vearly in the
fame {tate for a véry confiderable time. Nicholfon's Jour-
nal, vol. i. 4.to.

By 17 Geo. 1]. cap. 29. a convenient number of glafs
lamps fhall be put in fuch places of the city of London,
as the mayor, aldermen, and commonalty fhall think fit ;
to be kept lighted and burning from fun fet to fun-rifing
throughout the year ; and rates fhall be made not exceed-
ing 6d. in the pound, nor above sos. a year on any one
perfon, for defraying the charges of them. Every alder-
man, with confent ef his deputy and common council, may
contract yearly for the fetting up lamps, and their lighting,
trimming, &c. and perfons malicioufly breaking down or
extinguithing the lamp, fhall forfeit 40s. for the firft offence ;
Sos. for the fecond ; and 3/° for the third, lewable by juf-
tices, or to be feut to the houfe of corre&tion. By itat.
11, Geo. III. c, 29. for paving and lighting London, the wil-
fully breaking or extinguifhing of any lamp incurs the pe-
nalty of zos. for each lamp or light deftroyed or extin-
guifhed. None but Britifh oil is to be ufed for lamps in pri-
vate houfes, under penalty of 40s. 8 Ann. cap. 9.

The ufe of lighted lamps in churches, and places of de-
votion, is very ancient. In the city of Fez is a mofque,
wherein are goo brazen lamps burning every night. In
Turkey, all the illuminations are made only with lamps.
Polydore Virgil afcribes the firft invention of lamps to the
Egyptians ; and Herodotus defcribes a feaft of lamps held
annually in Egypt.

Kircher fhews the manner of preparing lamps, which fhall
diffufe a light fo difpoled, as to make the faces of thofe pre-
fent appear black, Iblue, red, or of any other colour.

There has been a great difpute among the learned about
the fepulchral lamps of the ancients: fome maintain, they
had the fecret of making lamps that were inextinguifhable,
alleging feveral that have been found burning, at the opening of
tombs fifteen or fixteen hundred years old. But others treat
thefe relations as fables; and others think, that the lamps,
which were before extinguifhed, took light afrefh upon the
admiffion of freth air.

Dr. Plott, however, is of opinion, fach perpetual lamps
are things practicable, and has himfelf made fome propofals
of this kind. The linum afbettinum, he thinks, may do
pretty well for the wick, and that the naphtha, or liquid
bitumen, conftantly fpringing into fome of the coal-mines,
would anfwer for the oil.

If the afbeftos.will not make a perpetual wick, he thinks

LAM

there is no matter in the world that will; and argues, that
the tradition of fuch lanips muit be fabulous, or elfe that
they made them without wicks,

Such a lamp he thinks it poffible to make of the bitumen
{pringing into the coal-mines at Pitchford, in Shropfhire}
which, he fays, like other liquid bitumen, will burn without
a wick,

Thofe lamps that kindle on the immiffion of frefh air, the
fame author thinks, might be imitated by inclofing fome of
the liquid phofphorus in the recipient of an air-pump; which,
under thofe circumftances, will not fhine at all; but on let.
ting the air into the recipient, there will poflibly, fays he,
appear as good a perpetual lamp as fome that have been
found in the fepulchres of the ancients.

Lamp, Rolling, i Mechanics, is a lamp A B (Plate 1.
Lamps, Sig. q+) that has within it the two moveable circles
DE and F G, whofe common centre of motion is at
K, where their axes of motion crofs one another, in
which point alfo is their commen centre of gravity. If to
the inward circle’ you-join withinfide the lamp K C, made
pretty heavy, and moveable about its axis H1, whofe centre
of gravity is at C, the common centre of gravity of the
whole mechine will fall between K and C, and by reafon of
the pivots A, B, D, E, H, I, wiil be always at liberty to-
defcend ; and, therefore, let the whole lamp be rolled along
the ground, or moved in any manner, the flame will always
be uppermoft, and the oil cannot be fpilt. In this manner
the compafs is hung at fea; and thus fhould all the moon-
lanthorns be made that are carried upon a pole before coaches
or carriages which travel in the night.. Defag. Exp,-Phil. -
vol. i. p. 57.

Lamp-d/ack. Of this kind there are two forts;:one of
which is the light foot, obtained from burning pine and +
other refinous wood ; and another, which is the heavy black,
obtained by calcining bones in clofe veffels. See Biack.
See alfo Bonn and CHARCOAL.

Lamp-blowers are perfons who form various: articles
of glafs for toys, and for more important philofophical
purpofes, from tubes, &c. by means of the d/ow-pipe ; which.
fee.

The apparatus of thefe artifts confifts of a folid table, -
to the bottom of which is fixed a double bellows with a
foot-board, from which proceeds a pipe that conduéts the
blaft to the lamp. This lamp is a large bundle of cctton-
threads, placed in a tin veflel in the fhape of a horfe-fhoe,
and fupplied by lumps of tallow depofited by it, and pufhed
into the flame as the continued combuttion requires... The
{moke is conveyed awaysby a finall chimney fufpended over
the lamp. ‘The bla‘t-pipe in front of the table, at which:
the artitt is feated, drives the jet of flame away irom him;
fo that he fuffers no incenvenience from it.

The other articles of his apparatus are glafs’ tubes: of
various dimenfions;. and two or three very fimple iron tools, .
fuch.as:a {mall forceps, files, &c. The flame in full vigoarr
is abont four inches in length, which nearits extremity is of a
clear light blue, when it isthe hotteit, and beyond of a pale
yellow. The tubes, before the operation commences, are
well dried, fo as to he quite free from moifture. They are
then gradually heated by being firft held in the flame of ‘the
lamp without blowing, and then atthe edge of the cuter
yellow part of the jet of flame, and flowly brought to a itate
of fufion. The flame is fufficiently ftrong to bring to a:
very white-red heat a folid mafs of glafs, about the fize of a
playing marble, or even larger ; and this, when blown’ out-.
very thin, will make a bulb of the capacity of three ounces,
which is nearly the extent of the power of the commoa

lamp-blowing. The bulbs for thermometers-and other phi-
lofophical

LAM

lofophical purpofes are much lefs. (Aikin’s Dit. vol. i.
art. Gla/s.) Yor an account of the operation of hermetical
fealing, performed by the lamp-blowers, fee Hrrmericar
Sealing. For bending and joining glafs-tubes, forming
bulbs to tubes, and {pinning out glafs-threads, fee Tuse,
THERMOMETER, and THREADS.

Lamp furnace, is a furnace, in which the heat is produced
and maintained by the flame of a lamp introduced within it.
This furnace has no occafion for an afh-hole, a grate, or a
fire-place. It has only one opening below, through which
the lamp is introduced, and a kind of {mall chimney in its
upper and lateral part, for circulation of air, to keep up the
flame of the lamp, and to give vent to thef{moke. Tor the
deicription of an improved furnace of this kind, fee
Lewis’s Com. Phil. Techn. p.29. See FurnaAcE.

LAMPA, in Geography, a town of Chili, fituated on a
lake; 20 miles N. of Valparaifo.—Alfo, a town of Peru,
and capital of a jurifdiétion of the fame name, in the bi-
fhoprie of Cufco, 92 miles S. of Cufco. The foil is partly
fertile and partly unproduétive: the. vicinity abounds with
filver mines. S. lat. 14° 55’. W. long. 81° 44!.

LAMPACAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, a
little S. of Junkfeilon.

LAMPADARIUS, Emanuet, in Biography, an au-
thor who has written on the mufic of the Greek church.
« De Pfallendi arte, et ipfius etaliorum Poemata Ecclehiattica,
ad notas Muficas accommodata.’’ The Abbate Martini of
Venice, to whom we have afligned an article, found this
book, and made extraéts from it, in Greece; but we never
met with it in any public library, either at home or on the
continent, except the royal library at Turin. The title of
the Greek treatife, by Lampadarius, is the following :
$6 Teyyorwyee TNS mECHKNS sexynce” The extract from it by the
Abbate Martini, which is in our poffeflion, is too long for
infertion here, nor would it be of much ufe could we allow
It room, as no equivalents to the Greek chara¢ters are
given in modern notation; but with refpect to the author,
we find among the memoranda made in the king of Sar-
dinia’s library at Turin, in 1770, an account of a Greek
MS. of the rsth century, No. 353. b. i. 24. in which
Lampadarius is often mentioned as author of the mufic
to the hymns and prayers it contains. Fabricius, likewife,
Bibl. Grec. vol. ii. p. 269. 564. and 586, fpeaks of a
MS. in the Selden Collection at Oxford, and another in the
Jefuits’ library at Louvain, in which there are explanations
of the notes ufed by the modern Greeks, and mufical com-
pofitions by feveral authors, particularly Lampadarius.

LAMPADARY, Lamrapagius, an officer in the an-
eient church of Conftantinople, whofe bufinefs.was to fee
the church well lighted, and to bear a taper before the em-
peror, the emprefs, and the patriarch, when they went to
church, or in proceffion. The taper borne by the lampa-
dary before the emperor was encompafled with divers circles
of gold, in manner of crowns; thofe held before the em-
prefs and patriarch had but one. It feems they were of
emblematical ufe, and were intended to keep thofe great
perfons in mind, that their light was to illumine thofe in
inferior ftations,

There were alfo lampadaries in the emperor's palaces ;
and others in the houfes of the grandees. At firft, the pri-
vilege of having a lampadary, or torch-bearer, was only
granted to the principal officers of the crown, and the chief
magiftrates ; but afterwards the emperor allowed it to other
inferior officers, as queitors, treafurers, &c. They alfo bore
before the magiftrates the emperor’s image, &c. And it was
probably on account of this image, that they were firft per-
mitted to have a lampadary,

LAM
LAMPADIAS is ufed by fome authors for a kind of

bearded comet, which, as they pretend, refembles a burn-
ing lamp, being of feveral fhapes ; its flame or blaze tapering
upward fometimes like unto a fword, and being at other
times double or triple pointed.

LAMPADIUS, in Biography, a chantor of the church
at Luneberg, publifhed a {mall work in Latin, intitled
“ Compendium Mulice,’’ 12mo. 1537. This fhort traé,
which is in dialogue, and a kind of mufical catechifm de-
figned for incipients, has, at the end, a few fhort rules for
compofition, with examples.

LAMPAS, or Lamprnrs, a kind of {welling in the pa-
late of a horfe; fo called, becaufe it is cured by burning
with a lamp, or a hot iron; and arifing from abundance of
blood reforting to the firft furrow of the mouth, near the
fore-teeth, which caufes that furrow to {well as high as his
gatherers ; it hinders the beaft’s feeding, and makes him let
his meat fall, half chewed, out of his mouth.

LAMPASKE, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Na-
tangen; 20 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg. °

LAMPE, Frepericus ApoLpuus, in Biography, pattor
of St. Stephen's church in Bremen, became an antiquary at
15 years of age; and in 1703 publifhed, in 12me., a work
of great learning and refearch, intitled « De Cymbalis ve-
terum, Libri tres, in quibus quecunque ad eorum Nomina,
Differentiam, Originem, Hiftoriam, Miniftros, Ritus per-
tinent, elucidantur, cum Figuris ereis Trajeéti ad Khenum,”’
1703.

This author, in a way fimilar to Bartholinus, in treating
of the flutes of the ancients, has given us all the information
which could be gleaned from antiquity on the fubje& of the
cymbal, which is hardly a mufical inftrument, but rather a
chronometer to meafure and mark the time, in its military
ufe. In its religious employment, indeed, before large bells
were caft, it ferved both Pagans and Chriftians as a fignal
and call to terhple worfhip. Its clafhing tone in the field
may regulate the fteps of the foldiery in their march; but
even this purpofe feems better performed in China by the
gong and pierre fonore, or mufical ftone, ufed in proceflions,
as well as in the army: for thefe have real mufical tones, to
which there is no difficulty in tuning other inftruments.
Our author, by his claflical knowledge and diligence, has
nearly found as many names in ancient authors for the dif-
ferent kinds of cymbals, as the Perfian language furnifhes
for a horfe or lion. As nothing on the fubjeét has efcaped
the notice of the author, this little book will be found to
contain much precious information for a claffical antiquary
in mufic. Its learned author died of a hemorrhage at Bre-
men, in 1729, at the age of 46.

Lamps, Joun Freperic, a Saxon, who arrived in Eng-
land about the year 1726, began firft to be noticed as a
compofer about the year 1732. On the 25th of February
of that year, the following paragraph was inferted in the
“ Daily Poft:’? «* We hear that there is a fubfcription for
a new Englifh opera, called «¢ Amelia,” which will fhortly
be performed at the new theatre in the Haymarket, by a
fet of performers who never yet appeared in public.’’ This
opera, written by Harry Carey, and fet to mufic by Lampe,
was firft performed March 15th, 17325; in the principal
character of which, Mifs Arne, afterwards fo celebrated as
a tragic a€trefs, by the name of Mrs. Cibber, firft appeared
on the ftage as a fingers The mufic, which, according to
the advertifement, was fet in the Italian manner, having
been much applauded, was foon avowed by Lampe; and
Mifs Arne’s performance interefted every hearer. The

year

LAM

year 1737 was rendered memorable at Covent-Garden
theatre by the fuccefs of the burlefque opera of the * Dra-
gon of Wantley,’”’ written by Carey, and fet by Lampe,
“ after the Italian manner.’? This excellent piece of hu-
mour had run twenty-two nights, when it was ttopped, with
all other public amufements, by the death of her majeity
queen Caroline, November 20th; but was refumed again
on the opening of the theatres in January following, and fup-

orted as many reprefentations as the “ Beggar's Opera’”’
had done, ten years before. And if Gay’s original inten-
tion in writing his mufical drama was to ridicule the opera,
the execution of his plan was not fo happy as that of Carey ;
in which the mock heroic, tuneful moniter, recitative, fplen-
did habits, and ftyle of mufic, all confpired to remind the
audience of what they had feen and heard at the lyric
theatre, more effe€tually than the moft vulgar {treet tunes
could do; and much more innocently than the tricks and
tranfaGtions of the moft abandoned thieves and proititutes.
Lampe’s mufic to this farcical drama was not only ex-
cellent fifty years ago, but is flill modern and in good
tafte. ss

In 1741, his wife, (the fecond daughter of Charles
Young, filter to Mrs. Arne,) with Mifs Young, Sullivan,
the two Meffings, and Jemmy Worfdale, went to Preiton
Gild, and afterwards to Cheiter, where they performed the
*¢ Dragon of Wantley,” “ Margery,’’ the “ Sequel to the
Dragon of Wantley,”” &c. all compofed by Lampe. He
fet ‘ Nancy, or the parting Lover,’’ “ Pyramus and
Thifbe,” which had great fuccefs; and publifhed, in an
odtavo volume, a tract, intitled “* The Art of Mufic,’’ in
1740. But in 1737 he had publifhed a treatife, under the
title of «* A plain and compendious Method of teaching
Thorough-Bafe,”’ &c. 4to.; a work of great merit, and
the firft in our language, by which a ftudent can profit much
without a ma(ter, as the chords, engraved on copper-plates,
are all placed over the figured bafe, and the examples tran{-
pofed into different keys. 4

Lampe was a trulv ingenious man, well verfed in the
theory of the art, with a molt happy turn for humour, with-
out buffoonery, in his comic operas; and, moreover, a man
of probity, with great fimplicity of manners, and poffeffed
of a kind and benevolent heart. This excellent mufician
and worthy man, quitting London, with his family, in 1748,
* refided two years in Dublin; and in 1750 went to Edin-
burgh, where he was fettled very much to the fatisfa€tion of
the patrons of mufic in that city, and of himfelf; but in
July 1751, he was feized with a fever, which put an end to
his exiftence at the age of fifty-nine.

Lampe, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the govern-

ment of Wafa; 28 miles E. of Gamla Karleby.
~ LAMPEDOSA, an uninhabited but pleafant and fertile
ifland in the Mediterranean. The Catholics and Maho-
metans vifit a building upon it, which is divided into a
church and a mofque. Near it is a magazine, containing
the depofits of the vifitants, which are taken up by fome
Sicilian monks, and applied to the hofpital at Trapani.
The ifland is about 12 miles in circumference, has a good
port, is well fupplied with frefh water, and has, on the
eoalt, an excellent fifhery ; 63 miles W. of Malta. N. lat.
35° 40'. E. long. 12° 24!.

LAMPERN, in Ichthyology, a river fifh, being the pe-
tromyzon branchialis of Linnzus, found in many parts of
England, particularly in Oxfordfhire, and the neighbouring
counties, and there called the pride of the Jfis. The Latin
authors call it the lampetra minima and muftela fluviatilis.
See Perromyzon Branchialis.

The word lampern is ufed by the common people in Eng-

LAM

land for one fpecies of the lampetra, and is not to be cone
founded with the other called the lamprey, or the lamprey-
eel. See Perromyzon.

No lamperns are to be taken in the river Thames and
Medway, except from Auguft 24 to March 30. 30 Geo. II.
cap. 21.

LAMPETER, in Geography, a townhhip of America,
in Lancafter county, Pennfylvania, containing 2028 in-
habitants.

Lampeter. See LuAnBEDER.

LAMPETIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Magna Grecia, in the country of the Brutii.

LAMPETIANS, Lamperiant, in Ecclefiaftical Hif-
tory, a feét of ancient heretics, in the feventh century, who
fell in with fome of the opinions of the Aerians.

Their founder, Lampetius, is faid to have been one of
the chief of the Marcionites. They condemned all kinds of
vows, particularly that of obedience, as inconfiftent with the
liberty of the fons of God.

LAMPETRA, Lamprey, 4 lambendo petras, becaufe
this {pecies is fuppofed to lick the rocks, in Jchthyology, be-
longs, in the Artedian and Linnean fyftems, to the genus
of petromyzon. See Perromyzon Marinus.

This ts a fith that equally lives in falt and frefh water.
In the month of March it commonly runs up into the rivers,
and is then mott valuable for the table, as being fat and full
of eges; fo that the beft feafon for lampreys is in the months
ef March, April, and May, becaufe they are moft firm
when they firft leave the falt water, and become wafted and
flabby at the approach of hot weather; they are found in
feveral of our rivers, but the Severn is the moft noted for
them. They are taken in nets along with falmon and fhad,
and fometimes in weels laid in the bottom of the river. It
has been an old cuitom for the city of Gloucelter, annually,
to prefent his majefty with a lamprey pye, covered with a
large raifed cruft ; and as the gift is made at Chriftmas, the
corporation procure frefh lampreys at that time with great
difficulty. They are reckoned a great delicacy, either
potted or ftewed ; but are a furfeiting food, as one of our
monarchs fatally experienced, Henry the Firit’s death being
occafioned by a too full meal of this fifh. They are fome-
times found fo large as to weigh four or five pounds. ‘The
leffer lamprey, or petromyzon fluviatilis of Linnzus, fome-
times grows to the length of ten inches. Thefe are found
in the Thames, Severn, and Dee, and are potted with the
large {pecies, and are reckoned of a milder tafte. ‘They are
fold to the Dutch as bait for their cod-fifhery. Above
450,000 have been fold ina feafon at 4os. per thoufand. Of
late, above 100,000 have been fent to Harwich for the fame
purpofe. Tt is faid the Dutch have the fecret of preferving
them till the turbot fifhery. Another fpecies is the /ampern,
which fee.

Lamperra Jndica, the name of an Eaft Indian fifh of the
lamprey kind, caught in ftanding waters, and called by the
Dutch there dont ael, and ncegen oog, or nine eyes.

LAMPI, in Geography, a diftri or country of Guinea,
governed by aking, fubjeét to Aquambo.

LAMPICHELEON, a town of Hindooftan, in the
circar of Adoni; ro miles E. of Candanore.

LAMPIS, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 25 miles
E. of Tavatthus.

LAMPO, a town on the welt coaft of Celebes.
3° 55’. E. long. 120° 4!.

LAMPOCARYA, in Botany, fo denomisated by Mr.
Robert Brown, from Azure, to fhine, and xzevov, a nut, or
any fruit with a hard fhell, alluding to the hard and polifhed
feeds.—Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 238.—Clafs and

order,

S. lat.

LAM

order, Tetrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calamarie, Linn)
Cyperoidee, Jali.

Ef. Ch, Spikelets imbricated on all fides, fingle-flowered,
the outer feales being empty. Stamens four, fometimes
three or fix, ‘with permanent elongated filaments. Style
awl-fhaped, three-cleft. Stigmas undivided. Nut bony,
fhining, pointed with the permanent bafe of the ityle, its
fhell thickened upwards; the kernel fmooth.

Obf. This genus is intermediate between Cladium of
Browne’s Jamaica, and Gahnia of Forfter, differing from
the former in having the filaments elongated after flowering,
and a fharp-pointed nut; from the latter in having a {mooth
or even kernel. Gahnia /chenoides of Forlter appears, by a
-{pecimen in the Banktian herbarium, to be a Lampocarya.

1. L, afpera. Stamens four. Spike compound, leafy ;
-the partial ones fcarcely divided. Spikelets cluftered. In-
ner feales obtufe, {mooth. —Gathered by Mr. Brawn near
Port Jackfon, as well as in the tropical part ef New Hol-
Jand. The four ftamens are a very unufual number in this
family.

een hexandra. (Gahnia trifida; La Billard. Nov.
Holl. vy. 1. 89. t. 116.)—Stamens fix. Panicle clofe;
branches flightly divided. Spikelets colle&ted into round
heads. Scales all tharp-pointed. -- Gathered by La Billar-
diere in Van Diemen’s land. The /lems are two feet high,
round, leafy, f{mooth. Leaves fheathing, awl-thaped, long,
and flender. Panicle flender, ere€t, compofed of feveral
ftaiked heads of flowers, with two or three lanceolate
bracteas at the bafe of each. Mr. Brown doubts whether
this fecond {pecies be properly referred to the genus in
queftion. We fhould be much inclined to reduce both of
them to Gahnia.

LAMPOL, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the pa-
Jatinate of Braclaw, near the Dniefter; 56 miles S.S.W. of
Braclaw.

LAMPON, in Biography, a performer on the cithara,
who taught Socrates mulic in his old age, and who fung at
a feitival which Xenophon gave to the philofophers. So-
crates tells us, that he only began to compofe verfes, after
the was imprifoned, on account of the many dreams, in
which he was advifed to attach himfelf to mufic ; believing
that it was impoffible to arrive at one without the other.

He compofed hyrpns in praife of Apollo, and {et them to
amufic; but he was put to death fome days after. Others
teil us, that Damon was the mufic-matter of Socrates. See
Danon.

Lamroys, or Lampoon, in Geography, a country of Su-
matra, which is a portion of the fouthern extremity of the
ilayd, beginning, on the weft coaft, at the river of Padang-
goochie, dividing it from Paffammah, and extending acrofs
as far as Palembung, on the north-ealt fide, at which latt
place the fettlers are moftly Javans. On the fouth and eait
fides it is wafked by the fea, having feveral ports in the
itraits of Sunda, particularly Keyfen and Lampoon bays;
and the great river Yoolarg-bouang runs through the heart
of it, rifing from a configerable lake between the ranges of
mountains. That divifion of Lampoon, which is included
by Padang-goechie and a place called Naffall, is dittin-
guifhed by the name of Briuran; and from thence fouth-
ward to Flat-point, by that of Zaout-cawour, although
Mawour, properly fo called, lies in the northern divifion.
‘The country of Lampoon is beft inhabited in the central and
mountainous parts, where the people liye independent, and
in fome meafure fecure from the inroads of their eaftern
neighbours, the Javans, who, from about Palembung and
the ftraits, frequently attempt to moleft them. If you afk
the Lampoon people of theie parts, whence they originally

.

LAM

eame? they anfwer, from the hills, and point out an inland
place near the great lake, whence, they fay, their fore.
fathers emigrated. Thefe, of all the Sumatrans, have the
ftrongeft refemblance to the Chinefe, particularly in the
roundnefs of face, and conftruétion of the eyes. "They are
alfo the faireft people of the ifland; and the women are the
talleft, and efteemed the moft handfome. Their language
differs confiderably from that of the Rejangs, and they ule
characters peculiar to themfelves. ‘The titles of government
are Pangeran (from the Javans), Careeoo, and Kiddimang or
Nebechee ; the latter an{wering nearly to Dupatty among the
Rejangs. The diftri& of Croee, near mount Poogeng, is
governed by five magiftrates, called Pangow-leemo, and a
fixth, fuperior, called by way of eminence Pangow; but
their authority is faid to be ufurped, and often difputed.
The word, in common, fignifies a gladiator, or prize-fighter.
The Paogaran of Soko in the hills is computed to have four
or five thoufand dependants ; and fometimes, on going a
journey, he levies a fa/lee, or eighth part of a dollar, on each
family ; which fhews that his government is more arbitrary,
and more firiGly feudal, than among the Rejangs, where
the government is rather patriarchal. The Javanefe ban-
ditti often advance into the country, and make depredations
upon the inhabitants, who are not, in general, a match for
them. They do not ufe firearms, though in the northern
part of the iiland they are manufactured. Befide the com-
mon weapon of the country, they fight with a long lance,
carried by three men; the foremof guiding the point, and
covering himfelf and his companions with a large fhield.
Inland of Samankz, in the {traits of Sunda, there is a diftri€t,
as the Lampoons fay, inhabited by a ferecious people, who
are a terror to the neighbouring country. ‘Their mode of
atoning for offences againf{t their own community is by
bringing to their doofoon the heads.of ftrangers. Thefe re-
ports, however, depend on the credibility of a people who
are fond of the marvellous, and addicted to exaggeration.
The marners of the Lampoons are more free, or rather h-
centious, than thofe of any other native Sumatrans. An
extraordinary liberty of intercourfe is allowed between the
young people of different fexes, and the lofs of female chaf-
tity is not a very uncommon confequence. Both men and
women anoint themfelyes before company, when they pre-
pare to dance; the women their necks and arms, and the
men their breaits. They alfo paint each others’ faces, mak-
ing fantaftic {pots with the Yinger on the forehead, temples,
and cheeks, of white, red, yellow, and other hues. In
évery doofoon there is appointed a youth, well fitted by na-
ture and education for the office, who aéts as mailer of the
ceremonies, regulating every circumftance that pertains to
the dances and the aflembly, “The Lampoons eat-almoft all
kinds of ficfh indifcriminately ; and their goolies (curries or

made difhes) are faid by connoifleurs to have no flavour, -

They entertain itrangers with greater profufion than any
that is met with in the reft of the ifland. One man has been
known to entertain a perfon of rank and his fuite for fixteen
days, during which time there were not lefs than sco difhes
of rice fpread each dzy. Their difhes of chiva or earthen
ware are very coftly, being valued at 40 dollars a-piece.
The terms of the joojoor, or equivalent for wives, is here the
fame nearly as with the Rejangs The father of the girl
never admits of the pootoos tallee kolo, or whole fum being
aid; and thus withholds from the hufband, in every cafe,
the right of felling his wife, who, in the event of a divorce,
returns to her relations.. ,Where the paotoos tallze is allowed,
he has a property in her little differing from that of a flave,
The value of the maiden’s golden trinkets is nicely eflimated,
and her jojoor regulated according to that, and the aa
: er

———————— ee

s LAM

her parents. ‘The fines and compenfation for murder are,
in every refpeét, the fame as in other countries of the ifland.
The Mahometan religion has made confiderable progrefs
among the Lampoons, and moft of their villages have
mofques ; neverthelefs, an attachment to the original fuper-
ftition of the country induces them to regard with particular
veneration the crammats, or burying-places of their fathers,
which they pioufly adorn, and cover in from the weather.
The Dutch have a refident here. S. lat. 5” 40’. E. long.
105° 15’. Marfden’s Sumatra.

ae Bay, a bay on the eaft coaft of the ifland of
Lucon. N. lat. 14° 46’. E. long. 122° 14!

LAMPREY, Buinp. See Einsirnper and Perro-
MyZON branchialis.

LAMPRIDIO, Benenicr, in Biography, a diftinguifhed
Latin poet, who flourifhed at the commencement of the fif-
teenth century, was born at Cremona. He went to Rome
in his youth, and was firlt domefticated with Paul Coteti.
He then beeame a teacher in the Greek college, inftituted
by John Lafcaris, in the pontificate of Leo X. After this
he went to Padua, and was employed many years as private
teacher of the learned languages, and much efteemed by
perfons of eminence. He was afterwards appointed, with
a liberal falary, to undertake the education of the fon of
the duke of Mantua. Lampridio died in the year 1540:
he is known as an author by his Greek and Latin poems,
confifting of epigrams and odes: in the latter he was an
imitator ‘of Pindar. ‘There are extant three Italian letters
written by him to cardinal Bembo, and one to cardinal Pole.
An edition of his Latin poems, together with thofe of
J. Bapt. Amaltheus, was printed at Venice in 1550.

LAMPRIDIUS ius, was a Roman hiftorian in the
fourth century under Dioclefian and Conttantine. He is
fuppofed to have been the author of the lives of Commo-
dus, Antoninus. Diadumenus, Heliogabalus, and Alexander
Severus. The ftyle and arrangement of Lampridius will
not allow him a place among hifiorians of the fuperior clafs,
but he is valuable for his faéts. His lives make a part of
the “ Hiftorie Auguftz Scriptores.’? Moreri.

LAMPRILLON, or Lampreton, a name by which
fome authors have called the particular {pecies of lamprey,
which ve, by way of diftinétion, call Jampern.

LAMPROPHORUS, an appellation anciently given to
the neophytes, during the feven days that fucceeded their
baptifm.

{In the ¢eremony of baptifm, the new Chriftian was
clothed with a white robe, which he wore for the week fol-
lowing ; and was thence called /amprophorus, which fignifies
a perfon wearing a fhining garment ; from Auprpo:, ‘Dring,
and ¢epw, J bear.

The Greeks alfo gave this name to the day of the refur-
re¢tion, becaufe their houfes were adorned and illumi-
nated on that day with a great number of torches, as a
fymbol of the light which that: myftery diffufed in the
world.

LAMPSACUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia,
on the banks of the Hellefpont, more anciently called Pity-
oufa, which was founded by the Phoceans. ‘The object of
worfhip in this place was Priapus, the god of the gardens.
This town rofe from the ruins of Pefos, whofe inhabitants
eltablifhed themfelves here. Its territory was fertile ; and
it was affigned by Artaxerxes to Themiftocles, in order to
furnith his table with wine.

LAMPSAKYI,-in Geography, a town of Natolia, cele-
brated for its wine, anciently Lamp/acus ; 40 miles W. of
Artaki. N. lat. 40° 20!. E. long. 26” 44).

LAMPSAMANDUS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall

VoL. XX.

LAM

iden of Afia, on the coaft of Caria, in the Ceramic gulf.
iny-

LAMPSANA, in Botany. See Lapsana.

LAMPUGA, in Ichthyology, a name given by fome
authors to the fifh more ufually known by the name of
Stromateus.

LAMPUGNANI, Joun Barrisr, in Biography, of
Milan, an opera compofer of great fancy and fpirit. He
was not a deep contrapuntift, but there was a certain gaiety
and fpirit in his ftyle, which amufed his hearers and.en raged
attention. He came into England in 1742, during the re-
gency of lord Middlefex, ancdwhile Monticelli was the chief
linger, for whom he compofed {ome very captivating. airs.
The Englifh, long accuftomed to a more folid, grave, and
learned ftyle, thought him inaccurate, wild, and frivolous,
and his ftyle was only tafted by fuch of our nobility and
gentry as had been in Italy, and had been initiated into the
new opera ftyle. The chara¢ter of this compofer is drawn
with fo much judgment, tafte, and diferimination in M, La-
borde’s * Effai fur la Mufique,” and fo exempt from the
national prejudices with which that work abounds, that we
fhall venture to tranflate it, and guefs at the name of the
author.

** Lampugnani was a profeffor much elteemed among the
moderns. He excelled much in his melodies, and owed
more to nature than to fludy. He applied with great per-
feverance to produce new effeéts from initruments. Confe-
quently to him has been afcribed the new manner of ufing
the opera orcheftra. Inftrumental mufic, and its per-
formers, have doubtlefs greatly increafed their importance
by this innovation. But, how has it been abuled! It
fometimes happens, that the noife of the orchettra is all that
can be heard, from the beginning of the opera to the end.
And that a beautiful paflage can only now and then pene-
trate through the inftrumental phalanx, to convince us that
a voice has any concern in the bufinefs. There are certain
compofers, who have no refource but in noife. There are
others, likewife, who have no time allowed them for any
thing elfe.”? WVoiture, in one of his letters, begs pardon of
a friend for writing him fo long a letter, as he has not time
to write a fhorter. But in Italy, an opera mutt be compofed
in a fortnight, fo that the compofer loads his inftruments as
much as he can, and leaves the voices at full liberty to do
nothing, or to do as much as they pleafe. In the operas
of Lampugnani, the voice governs the orcheftra, and upon
her all the inttruments wait, as on a fuperior. He is au-
thor of a great number of works, that have had complete
fuccefs in Italy ; but it is in vain to name them, as mulic of
more than a year old, is as difficult to be found as a coin
of the emperor Otho.

We faw Lampugnani at Milan, nearly thirty years after
he had been in England, where, as a compofer, he was laid
on the fhelf. He taught ladies to’ fing, and had gained
great credit from fome of his fcholars. He refided con-
itantly in that city, where he p!aved the firft harpfichord at
the opera, in the abfence of the compofer, and arranged the
pafticcios. He was a pleafant old man, with the {pirits and
good nature of a young one.

LAMPUGO, in Jchthyology, a name given by many to
the Aippurus, a fea fifh, caught on the coait of Spain. See
CoryPHENA.

LAMPYRIS, in Entomology, a genus of the coleoptera
order. The moift familiar f{pecies of this kind, and which
may be contidered as an inftruétive example of the genus in
general, is that known in our own language by the name of
glow-worm, and in other counties by names of fimilar ten-
dency, the female being deftitute of wings, the body elon-

Gg gated,

<7

LAMPYRIS. ‘

gated, and the pofterior part beneath emitting, during the
night time, wbrilliant ohofphoric light. The {pecies of this
genus are rather numerous ; the greater part are natives of
Africa and America; a few only inhabit Europe, and of
thefe but three kinds are found in Britain, two of which are
rare.

The females of the fpecies moft commonly known are def-
titute of wings; all the lampyrides of the latter fex fhine
during the ob{curity of the evening, orat night, and fome of
the males poffefs the fame ability, while others are in this
refpe& deficient. ‘The males throughout all the fpecies are
furnifhed with wings; the females, on the contrary, are always
apterous. [he luminous property in the lampyris tribe re-
fides in the two or three pofterior rings of the abdomen, and
is only vifible on the under furface. In the day time the lu-
minous {pace appears paler, and more inclining to yellow
than the rett of the infe&t : the light, when emitted, partakes
of various hues, being either a clear brilliant white, or white
tinged with greenifh or blueifh, and this it can vary or
heighten in brilliancy at pleafure, as it does not depend on
any external caufe: it is an inherent ability, governed only
by the will or caprice of its poffeffor, and, according to the
general perfuafion of naturalilts, is an ordinance of nature, by
means of which the males, in their excurfions through the
air, can readily difcover their apterous crawling mates among
the grafs and herbage beneath them. :

This luminous appearance of the glow-worm has at various
periods excited confiderable curiofity in the minds of {pecu-
lative men. Forfter firft announced that this extraordinary
property was fo {trong and retentive, that he could diftin@ly
read by the light emitted from glow-worms plunged into oxy-
yen gas. ‘The fame experiment was verified by Beckerhiem,
who proved befides that they live a long time. in other kinds
of gas, and continued to fhed their light vigoroufly, as in
the oxygen gas. With the acid, the nitrous, muriatic, and
fulphureous gafes, he did not however fucceed fo well; when
placed in either of thefe, the infects died in a few minutes.
A variety of other experiments have been made on the lam-
pyrides by Spallanzani, Carradori, and others, the refult of
which proves, among other curious circumitances, that this
luminous property is inherent. Thefe infects were obferved
to poflefs the power of moving various portions of the vifcera,
independently of the others; and it was likewife afcertained
that a portion of the luminous rings of the abdomen, when
cut out of the infe&, retained its brilliant appearance for
fome feconds afterwards. Thefe experiments were made
chiefly on the L. italica, the luminous properties of which
are more con{picuoully brilliant even than that of our common
glow-worm.

The lampyrides are found moft commonly about the
months of June and July, appearing among the bufhes, the
grafs and herbage on the fkirts of lanes leading through
meadows, and woody fituations. The males of fome kinds,
as before intimated, are luminous ; and thefe, when on the
wing during the night time, exhibit a moft lively and {plendid
afpect, like fo many fparks of fire darting through the air.
‘The females nearly refemble the larve, being of a tena
form, divided into a number of diltin& fegments, the head
fcaly, and the anterior part of the body furnifhed with fix
fealy feet. ‘The larve feed on leaves. The eggs, which
are numerous, are ufually depotited near the roots of grafs.

Among the ancients, the names lampyris, notiluca, cicin-
dela, &c. were beftowed, without difcrimination, on almoft
every creature of the infe& tribe, poffeffing the luminous
property of the glow-worm. Geoffroy endeavoured to
unite the lampyrides together, but with thefe he confounded
fome other genera. Linnzus alfo blended them with the

5

lycus and pyrochrou; and Scheffer followed Geoffroy.
Fabricius has adopted the lampyris genus, with fome mate-
rial deviations from either, and his authority is, in this
refpe&t, rather generally approved. Linnzxus, fo lately as
the roth edition of Syit. Nat. confounds the lampyrides
under the genus cantharis; it isin a fubfequent edition ap?
appear under the name of lampyris, with the following ef-
fential chara&ter. Antenne filiform ; wing-cafes weak and
flexible ; thorax flat, femi-orbicular, furrounding and con-
cealing the head; fegments of the abdomen terminating in
folded papille ; females in general detftitute of wings. This
is the character admitted by Gmelin, who, befides the true
lampyrides, by this means includes the genera omalyffus of
Geoilroy, coffyphus of Olivier, pyrochroa of Geoffroy and
Fabricius, and the lycus of Olivier and moft other modern
authors. The Fabrician charaéter of the lampyris genus
confifts in having four fub-clavated feelers ; jaw bifid; lip
horny and entire ; antenne filiform.

Species.

Noctituca. Oblong, brown, fhield cinereous.
Cantharis nofiluca, Fn. Suec.
Inf. &c.

Frequent in meadows, and near woods in Europe : the fee
male is rather larger than the male.

SPLENDIDULA. Oblong, brown; fhield hyaline at thé
tip above the eyes. Marfh. Ent. Brit. Lampyris fplendi-
dula, Linn, Donov. Br. Inf. Cantharis noétiluca, Scop.
Le ver luifant a femelle fans ailes, Geoftr.

«An European fpecies, very rarely found in Britain ;. the
fpecimens recorded (in Brit. Inf.) were received by Mr.
Drury from Yorkfhire, and are preferved in his cabinet now
in our poffeffion. It refembles the common glow-worm in
fize and appearance, but is diitinguifhed from that infeé&
principally by the hyaline fpot at the anterior apex of the
fhield above the eyes.’’ This kind is obferved by Fabricius
to be moft refplendent in fhowery weather.

Cornusca. Dullblack ; fhield with a rofy crefcent each
fide. Linn.

Inhabits North America.
twice the ordinary fize.

Osscura. Black; fhield with a rufous fpot each fide,
Fabr.

Defcribed from a fpecimen in the Bankfian cabinet, a na-
tive of Terradel Fuego. The fhield is entire, and deprefied
at the fides ; wing-cafes brown and without {pots ; abdomen
and legs black.

Laricornis. Ovate, black ; fhield with rufous margin 5
antennz compreffed. Fabr., Olivier, &c.

A fpecies of moderate fize; the fhield rounded; wing-
cafes fomewhat ftriated ; abdomen with two er three white
pellucid dots on the left fegment.

Pyrauis. Shield rufous; in the middle black ; wing-
cafes black, the edges with the abdomen white. Linn, ”

Native of South America.

Cixota. Fufcous; thorax, edge of the wing-cafes, and
tip of the abdomen fulvous. Olivier.

Native of Pulicandor. The head brown ; abdomen black,
the laft fegment but one fulvous; legs black ; and thighs

Linn.
Glow-worm, Donov- Br.

Fabricius fpeaks of a variety

fulvous.

From the Bankfian cabinet.

Marainata. Oblong, black ; margin round the tho-
rax, wing-cafes, fcutel, and pofterior part of the abdomen
yellow. Linn.

Native of America; the antennz fufcous, with the- bafe
yellow ; the legs variegated.

PecrinaTa. Black; outer bafe of the fides of the

thield,

LAM

field, and apex of the abdomen and whig-cafes, whites an-

tenne pectinated. Fabr.

‘ An American fpecies. The anteanz nearly as long as the
ody.

Fraperticornis. ‘Black ; fhield before the margin,
with marginal line at the bafe of the wing-cafes and tip of
the abdomen, white. Olivier.

Native of the Brazils; the antenn very large, and fan-
fhaped ; wing-cafes flightly ftriated.

ESPERA. Ovate; wing-cafes brown, with a triangular
marginal yellow {pot. Olivier.

Inhabits America.

Icnita. Ovate ; wing-cafes brown, with an evate mar-
ginal yellow fpot. Linn.

Native of South America.

Lucipa. Oblong; wing-cafes brown, the outer margin
pale yellow ; abdomen yellow. Linn.

Inhabits South America, and refembles the common
glow-worm.

Nitipuia. Oblong, fufcous ; thorax yellowifh, with a
black fpot in the middle ; apex of the abdomen with two

yellow f{pots.
An African fpecies. ;
PuosrHores. Oblong, fub-teftaceous ; abdomen black,

behind fine yellow. Degeer, &c.

Native of America.

Japonica. Yellow; lait fegment but two of the abdo-
men black. Thunb. Nov. Sp.

This fpecies inhabits Japan, and, according to Thunberg,
flies about in the evening during the months of May and
June, and emits a vivid phofphorie vapour from two veficles
at the end of the tail. The antennz, eyes, wings, and lait
fegments of the tail, except the two at the apex, black.

Arra. Deep black; margin of the thorax rufous.
Fabr. Lampyris atra, Olivier,

A North American {pecies. The antennz ferrated.

Capensis. Livid ; thorax yellowifh ; pofterior part of
the abdomen fine yellow. Olivier.

Antenne fufcous ; fcutel yellowith.

AustrAuis. Yellowifh; head and wing-cafes brown ;
tip of the abdomen clear white. _Fabr.

Refembles the following fpecies; the thorax and fcutel
ferruginous ; ends of the legs black, the reft yellow. In-
habits New Holland.

IraricA. Black; thorax tranfverfe, and with the legs
‘rufous ; abdomen clear white at the tip. Linn.

Inhabits among trees in Italy ; the antenne are black ;
thorax without fpots.

Virrata. Rufous; wing-cafes black, with a yellow
margin, and abbreviated fillet in the middle. Olivier.

Found in Guadaloupe.

Mauniranica. Wing-cafes livid; body yellow. Linn.

Native of Africa. .

Hemiptera. Black ; wing-cafes very fhort. Geoffr.

A {mall fpecies found in France; the antenne are com-
_preffed ; fhield rounded, entire, black, and without {pots ;
wing-cafes ovate, very fhort, and black ; abdomen flat, and
with the legs black.

Pusitta. Deep black; tip of the antenne, with the
wing-cafes, fanguineous. Marfh. Ent. Brit. Lampyris ni-

rubra. De Geer.
~ This appertains to the lycus genus of Fabricius, in which
it occurs under the fpecific name minutus ; it is alfo pyro-
ehroa minuta of that author's Mantiffa. The {pecies is two
‘lines and a half in length,

LAMSPRINGE, in Geography, a town of Wettphalia,
~iw the bifhopric of Hildetheim, at the fource of a {mall river

from thence he went to Saumur to {tudy philofophy.

LAM

called Lame, which foon after runs into the [nner-fee; 14
miles S. of Hildefheim,

LAMUS, in Ancient Geography, a {mall river of Greece,
in Beotia, which had its fource on the fummit of mount
Helicon. Paufanias—Alfo, a town and river of Afia, in
Cilicia. Ptolemy places the mouth of the river betweet
Sebafte and Pompeiopolis, and the town in a canton, which
takes from it the name of Lamotide. This town was epif-
copal, and is placed by Leon-le-Sage and Hierocles in Ifau-
ria, under the metropolis of Seleucia.

LAMUZO, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
in Aladulia, on a river of the fame name; 24 miles W. of
Tarfus.

LAMY, Berwnarp, in Biography, who flourifhed in the
feventeenth and eighteenth centuries, was of noble defcent,
and born at Mans in the year 1640; having been carefully
initiated in the elementary parts of learning, he entered among
the religious of the congregation of the oratory at Paris;
From
1661 to 1667, he was employed in giving inftruétions in the
claffics and the belles lettres, and in the latter of thefe years
he was ordained prieft. He now taught philofophy at Sau-
mur and at Angers, till the year 1676, and while inftruéting
others, he applied himfelf with the utmoft intenfenefs to the
ftudy of every branch of literature and fcience, and made
a very confiderable proficiency. He was now direéted by
his fuperiors to go to Grenoble, where cardinal le Camus
had eltablifhed a feminary, for the education of ecclefiattics,
in which Lamy was appointed profeflor of divinity: In
every duty in which this excellent prieft engaged, he was in-
defatigable ; and as an author he publiihed a great many
valuable works; of thefe the moft valuable, and which en-
gaged his attention for thirty years, was entitled «* De Ta-
bernaculo Feederis de Sanéta Civitate Jerufalem, et de Tem-
plo ejus, Lib. feptem,” illuftrated with many plates. T'his
work, which was replete with valuable information and very
curious difcuffion, was not publifhed till the year 1720, five
years after the author’s deceafe. The death of father Lamy
was occafioned by the burfting of a blood-veffel, though he
had been in a declining ftate fome years previoufly to that
accident. He was much efteemed for the modelty of his
manners; for his unaffected piety and deep learning. Among
the numerous works which he left as memorials of his in-
duftry, may be mentioned his ‘‘ Reflections on the Art of
Poetry ;"" “A Treatife on the Equilibrium of Solids apd
Fluids ;” “ A Treatife on Magnitude in general, compre-
hending Arithmetic, Algebra, and Analyfis ; ‘* Dialogues
on the Sciences and the beft Manner of ftudying them ;”’
« Elements of Geometry ;”? and “ A Tweatife on Perfpec-
tive.””

Lamy, Francis, a French Benediétine monk, born at
Montyreau, in the diocefe of Chartres, in the year 1636,
was intended for the military profeffion, which, at the age of
twenty-three, he exchanged for the ecclefialtical. He made
a rapid progrefs in the feveral departments of literature, and
his writings fhew that he was deeply fkilled in the knowledge
of the human heart. He died in the year 1711, at the age
of feventy-five. His biographers have highly praifed him
for the benevolence which he manifefted on all occafions, and
likewife for his candour, amiablenefs, and extraordinary

iety. One of his moft popular pieces was, “ A. Treatife
on Self-knowledge,”’ in fix volumes, which paffed through
feveral editions. Many of his other works were bighly
elteemed as good defences of natural and revealed religion ;
fuch werehis treatife «« On the evident Truth of the Chnif-
tian Religion; ‘* The New Atheifm overthrown,” in an-
fwer to Spinoza; “ The Unbeliever conducted to Religion
by Reafon,’” Lamy wrote on natural as well as theological
Gg2 fubjects 5

. -gynia.

LAN

fubjeéts; fuch is his work entitled « Phyfical Conjectures on
the Effects of Thunder, and on other Subjeés in Natural
Philofophy.”” His ftyle, though not wholly free from
faults, is faid to be more correct and polifhed than that of
any writer in the French language of that clafs to which he
belonged.

LAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in Oberland ;
14 miles N.N.E. of Joldau.—Alfo, a city of China, of the
fecond rank, in the province of Pe-tcheli, on the river
Lan; 113 miles E. of Peking. N. lat. 39° 48. E. long.
118° 24'—Alfo, a city of China, of the fecond rank, in
Chen-fi, on the Hoang. It is fituated near the great wall,
and in the vicinity of the principal ports on the weftern
coalt, and it is therefore clafled among the moft important
cities of the empire, and has been made the capital of the
weftern part of the province, and the feat of government.
‘The trade of this city confifts only in fkins, which are
brought from ‘T’artary, and different kinds of woollen ftuffs.
“A coarfe kind of {tuff is made here of cow’s hair, which is
uled by the inhabitants for making great coats to defend
themfelves from the fnow. N.- lat. 36° 6. E. long. 103?
29'.— Alfo, a river of China, in Pe-tcheli, which runs into
the gulf of Leao-tong, N. lat. 39° 18 E. long. 118° 36'.

LAN Perra. See Perna.

LANAGLA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of
Fortaventura, fituated on the E. coaft. . ’

LANARIA, in Botany, fo called from Jana, wool, on
account of the woollinefs of the flower.— Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. I. vi 1. 462. v. 3. 510. ed. 2. v. 2. 289." »Schreb. 799.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 181. (Argolatia; Juff. 60. La-
marck. LIlluftr. t. 34.)—Clafs and order, Hewandria Mono-
Nat. Ord. Enjate, Linn. TJridibus affine, Jui.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none. Cor. fuperior, of one petal, fome-
what bell-fhaped, clothed externally with feathery wool ;

tube fhort; limb in fix deep, linear-lanceolate, flightly

fpreading, equal fegments, coloured within. Stam. -Fila-
ments fix, thread-fhaped, fhorter than the corolla, inferted
into the bafe of its fesments; anthers ovate, fomewhat ‘in-
cumbent. Pi. Germen inferior, turbinate, externally
woolly ; {tyle thread-fhaped, erect, the length of the fta-
mens; {tigma three-cleft. Peric. Capiule ovate, of three
cells. Seeds two or three in each cell.

Eff. Ch. Corolla fuperior, externally woolly, longer
than the filaments; its limb in fix deep {preading fegments.
Capfule of three cells.

vr. L. plumofa. Woolly Cape Hyacinth.— (Hyacinthus
Janatus; Linn, Sp. Pl. 455.)—Native of the Cape of Good
Hope, from whence it was fent to Kew in 1787, by the late
Mr. Maffon, and is kept there in the green-houfe, but has
not yet flowered. Its habit is that of a Dilatris; fee that
article. Root fibrous, perennial. Stem erect, angular, hairy,
moft leafy in the lower part, terminating in a denfe corym-
bofe tuft of numerous flowers. ~The /eaves are linear, keeled
and chamelled, {mooth. The whole inflorefcence is denfely
clothed with white feathery hairs. -

Lananta has formerly been applied as a name to feveral

plants, either on account of their woollinefs, as the larger

kinds of Verbafcum; or of their ufe in dycing, or drefling,
wool, or woollen cloths. Of the former defeription is the
Dyer's-weed, Refeda Luteola; of the latter the Teafel,
Dipfacus fullonum. Perhaps Saponaria officinalis, Soapwort,

_ was called /anaria radiz from its {couring quality.

LANARIUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Sicily,

_ placed by Antonine in. his Itinerary on the route between

Agrigentum and Lilybza, between Ad aquas and Mazara.
Lanarius, in Ornithology. See Fatco.
LANARK, in Geography, a royal borough, and the
county-town of Lanarkihire, in Scotiand, is fituated. about

LAN

go miles to the W. of Edinburgh, near the left bank of the
river Clyde. It isa place of great antiquity, having received
its original charter as early as the reign of Alexander I.
The government is velted in a provott, two bailiffs, a dean
of guild, thirteen merchant-counfellors, and feven deacons
of trades. The town confitts of one principal ftreet, which
defcends towards the Clyde, and five inferior ones branching
off from it, befides lanes and clofes. ‘Many new buildings
have been added within thefe few years. The ftreets are in
general well paved with whiniftone, and exhibit, efpecially
near the centre of the town, a-confiderable degree of neatnefs.
In early times Lanark appears to have been a place of fome
note. The eminence called Caftle-hill, which lies between the
town and the river, was the {cite of a caftle, which, accordin
to tradition, was built by king David I. and was for fevera
centuries the refidence of the Scottifh monarchs. The
charter of the town of Ayr, granted by William the Lyon,
is dated from this place, and many fpots in the neighbour-
hood are diftinguifhed by names of royal origin. ‘The firft
aflembly or parliament mentioned in the hiftory of Scotland
was convened in this town by Kenneth II. in the year 978.
It is alfo rendered remarkable as the icene of the firft great
military exploit of the celebrated fir William Wallace, that
patriot having here commenced his glorious but unfortunate
career by the defeat and death of William de Hefelrig, or
Hefliope, the Englifh theriff of Lanarkfhire. It is faid that
this town was formerly fortified, but no traces of {uch works
can now be difcovered. The rifing ground, named Caitle-
hill, however, bears fome refemblance to an artificial mount,
and may probably have been fortified in the time of the Ro-
mans, as a fine filver coin of Fauftina was found on it feveral
yearsago. The old parifh church lies in ruins about a quar-
ter of a mile to the fouth-eait of the town, and retains confi-
derable marks of former elegance. The hofpital of St.
Leonard’s, which {tood to the eaftward of the town, was
founded by king Robert I. Upon digging up its ruins fome
time fince, to prepare the ground for the plough, an urn,
together with a variety of carved ftones and other curiofities,
were difcovered underthem. ‘The fame monarch was alfo
the founder of a monattery of Francifcan, or Grey friars,
fituated to the welt of the prefent church, where a general
chapter of all the Grey friars in the kingdom was held on
the 1th July, 1400. This town unites with Linlithgow,
Selkirk, and Peebles in fending one member to parliament.
The population of the town and parifh, as afcertained in the
parliamentary cenfus of 1Sco, was 4692 perfons, who occupied
643 houfes. Sinclair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland.

Lanark, New, is deftribed in the courfe of the following
article.

LANARKSHIRE, an inland county in the fouth of

Scotland, is frequently denominated C/ydefdale, from the-

river Clyde, which flows through it longitudinally ina wind-
ing courfe of more than fixty miles. ‘The fituation of this

county is between 55° 22! and 55° 58! north latitude, and-

between 3° 15' and 4° 19' welt longitude. It is bounded:

by Dumfries-thire on’ the fouth, by the fhires of Ayr and:

Renfrew on the weft, by the counties of Dumbarton and

- Stirling on the north, and by thofe of Linlithgow, Edin-
burgh, and Peebles on the eaft. Its length from north to fouth;
is about forty-feven miles, and its breadth nearly thirty-two...

The parifhes it contains are forty-eight in number, inhabited,
according to the parliamentary returns in 1800, by a popu-
lation ef 150,690 perfons. The furface contents are 927
{quare miles, or 593,290 flatute acres. Lanarkfhire an-

ciently formed a great pertion of one of the principalities .

into which Scotland was divided at the time of the Roman
invafion. The name given to this kingdom was Strathclyde,
which comprehended, befides the cousty of Lanark, me

i ii

LANARKStQUIRE.

of Stirling, Dumbarton, and Renfrew. | This fhire is divided

into three diftriéts, or wards, formerly known by the appel-

lations of Clydefdale, Douglafdale, and Avondale, but thefe

are now more frequently termed the upper, middle, and

fewer wards. Each of thefe diftriéts is fubjeét to the parti-

cular jurifdition of a fubftitute appointed by the fheriff-de-
ute of the county.

With refpe& to the foil and appearance of this county,
the upper parts of it, except in the vicinity of the Clyde,
are fo hilly and moorifh, as {carcely to be fufceptible of any
amprovement from agriculture. The elevation of the hills
is in oe very great ; fome of them rife to the height of
600 feet above the level of the fea. Notwith{tanding this,

they exhibit but little grandeur, the perception of their fize
and altitude being much modified by the clofenefs with which
they are crowded together. he chief part of the arable
lands in the upper diftriét, lies in the parifhes adjoining to
the hill of Tintoe, round which the Clyde flows with a flow
and gentle current, wafhing, in its courfe to Lanark, twelve
miles of the fineft meadow-tields in Scotland. In the neigh-
-bourhood of Biggar, one of the towns in this diftrict, the
‘foil is unconimonly rich and fertile. This fertility is in
. many places principally owing to the inundations of the
"Clyde, which are likewife often the fource of irreparable da-
mage, by carrying off, not only the crops, but even the
very foil it had formerly enriched. Proceeding down the river,
the foil’is found to be dry, light, and friable, but lefs pro-
-duCtive than in the vicinity of Tintoe. Carlicke parifh is of
a clayey foil, but excellent in quality. This parifh, and in-
deed all the parifhes fituated along the river, are particularly
diltinguifhed for the richnefs and variety of their fcenery.
Within this diftriét are the falls of the Clyde, celebrated both
“by the poet and the painter. Above, as well as below thefe
falls, the banks of the river are adorned with numerous
country feats, and villages filled with induftrious inhabitants.
The middle ward, or diftri& of this county, isnot nearly
‘fo elevated as that above mentioned. When. viewed from
any confiderable height, indeed, it has the appearance of a
level country, though in fa¢t it.is much divertified with hill
and dale, the former being much lefs abundant than the latter.
The foil of this ward is in general of aclayey texture, and
within fix miles of the river extremely fertile. The {cenery
here is no leis beautiful than that of the upper ward, the
banks of the Clyde being covered with hamlets, orchards,
and plantations of various kinds: beyond the range of fix
tiles, however, the country is of a very different defcrip-

tien, It is fuppofed that there are not lefs than 40,000

zeres of mofs-land within this diftri@, and fuch fpots as are
free from that covering, difplay a foft clayey foil, formed
from a fort of hard clay, lamellated in a horizontal dire&ion,
~ which is called by the farmers 7i//, and is known to mineralu-
. gifs by the name of fchittus.
The lower ward is extremely limited in extent, but may rank
_ as the moit important o/ the three, on account of its containing
the city of Glafgow, which is juftly denominated the Man-
- chefter of Scotland, and is perhaps fcarcely. inferior to
. Liverpool in point of commercial importance. The lands
in this diftri& are naturally barren and unproductive, but in
« the neighbourhood of Glafgow, the overflowings of a very
profperous commerce have added greatly both to its fcenery
and fertility. See Guascow.
The chief tewns in Lanarkfhire are Glafgow, Lanark,
" Rutherglen, Hamilton, Douglas, Biggar, and Carnwarth.
~ Of thefe the three firft are royal boroughs, and will be found
defcribed under their refpeGtive names. Many confiderable
~ villages are likewife fcattered throughout the county. The
moft worthy of notice among thefe are thofe of Leadhills and

Wilfon-town, which are indebted for their profperity to the
mineral produétions of the county. Wea Lanark, which
owes its origin to the cotton works eftablifhed there by David
Dale, efq. of Glafgow, is alfo a thriving and populous
place. Thefe works were firt erected in the year 1785, and
are perhaps the moit extenfive of their kindin Scotland. They
afford employment to upwards of 1500 perfons, many of
whomare children. Great attention is paid to their morals
and education. ‘The fituation of the mills is extremely fin-
gular and romantic, being nearly furrounded by high
grounds of very fteep afcent. They were built on this
{pot chiefly on account of the great command of water
that could be obtained. Yor this purpofe a fubterraneous
aqueduét has been cut, through the foiid rocks, for the fpace
ot feveral hundred yards. Both the works and the fcenery
around are objects of peculiar intereft and curiofity. One
of the mills contains no lefs than 6080 fpindles.

Befides the Clyde, already fo often mentioned, there is
a number of other {treams in this county, al! of which, how-
ever, difcharge themfelves into that river. The chief of
thofe on the northern fide are, the Elwin, Glengonan, the:
Little-Clyde, the waters: of Duneaten and Coutten, and
the two Calders. None of them are remarkable, except. that
the two latter are well fhaded with wood, and adorned with
a number of neat villas) The ftreams on the fouthern fide
of the river are rather more deferving of attention.. The
Moufs-water is particularly remarkable for that part. of its
banks called Cartlane-Craigs. Thefe form a curious and
romantic den, or dell, fomewhat more than a quarter of a
mile in length. The rocks on either fide rife to the height
of four hundred feet,, exhibiting a terrific and vies ap-
pearance in one f{pot, while, in another, the eye is relieved
by a pendent covering of coppice wood. At the bottom
runs the river Moufs, fo clofely confined as {carcely- to al-
low room for the lonely: traveller to traverfe the den... At all
the windings of this river the fcenery: varies, and whenever a
rock is found to projeét on one bank,.a correfponding, re-
cefs may be feen on the other. One of thefe caverns is itll
called ‘* Wallace’s Cave,’’ from a tradition of its having been
for fome time the place of that hero’s concealment. Lo-
gan-water, which rifes inthe mountain feparating the parifh of
Lefmahago, from that of Muirkirk.in Ayrfhire, isa beautiful
pattoral river. The Avon, which likewife takes its rife on
the confines of Ayrfhire, after being joined by feveral minor
itreams, empties itfelf into the Clyde near the town of Ha-
milton. In its courfe it pafles through the inclofures of
the duke of Hamilton, where its bold and lofty banks,
covered wich a variety of fhrubs and trees, afford many ex-
tremely fine and picturefque views.

No county in Great Britain is more interefting to the geo--
logift, or abounds with a greater variety of mineral produc-
tions, than Lanarkfhire. The furface of the upper divifion
of the county generally refts_ upon whinftone,. itanding in
perpendicular columns, The middle and lower diftricts, for
the moft part, exhibit fome kind of freeftone for their bafe,
but are interfeGted, at different points, by ridges of whin{tone
running off from the rocky mountains, downwards, through-
out the whole extent of the county... Under the ftrata of
freeftone immenfe ftrata,. or beds of. coa/;.are difcovered,
extending over all the plain country, and branching out,
more or lefs, along the courfe of the principal waters. The
feams of this ufeful. mineral are not entirely of one kind.
Where the whole ftrata remain untouched,.a yariety-of.thin
and lefs valuable feams, or ftrata, prefent.themfelyes in dig-
ging down to what is commonly. called the upper coal, be-
caufe it is the firft that is found to be worth mming for to
any extent. This ftratum is compofed of the rough coal,

8 i except.

LANARKSHIRE.

except a {mall portion in the middle of it, which is of the
kind called fplint. After this, comes the ell coal, which is
much efteemed for the black{mith’s forge. At from ten to
feventeen feet beneath this ftratum, the feam called the main
coal is found. It is fo named becaufe it pofleffes all the

ood qualities of the other ftrata, and is preferred, by con-
} Neen in’ general, to every other fpecies of this mineral.
Below the main coal are four more feams. The higheft of
thefe is compofed of the bumph coal, the fecond of the hard
coal, the third of the /oft coa/, and the fourth and lait feam
of the ean or four-milk coal. Beneath all are found feveral {trata
of excellent limeftone, probably as extenfive and inexhauft-
ible asthe valuable mineral which covers it. Independently
of thefe ftrata of coal in the plain, there are others in the
higher grounds, but of a diffimilar nature and arrangement.
The hills in the parith of Shotts, like the tracts of the fame
elevation in the upper ward, are found to confift of an enor-
mous bed of whinftone, but in defcending along their fides,
the freeftone rock fhows itfelf lying in a horizontal pofition
beneath the whinftone. Below the free-coal, ironftone and
limeftone are difcovered in fuch vaft profufion, as feemingly
to defy the utmoft efforts of human induftry to exhauft them.
Near the Douglas river alfo, extenfive collieries, fimilar in
quality to thofe of Shotts, are wrought, which fupply the
higher diftrits of this county and Tweedale, where no coal
hhas yet been difcovered. ‘To the vaft {upplies of this valua-
‘ble mineral, and its confequent cheapnefs, the manufacturing
profperity of the weft of Scotland is to be principally at-
tributed, as, without abundance of fuel, {carcely any manu-
fa@ture can be carried on.

Yead and Ivon.—Another great fource of induftry and
opulence beftowed on this county by nature, is derived from
its mines‘of lead and iron. The former of thefe metals is
chiefly wrought at Lead-hills, a range of mountains in the
uppermoft part of the county, immediately adjoining to
Nithfdale. Thefe mines belong to the earl of Hopetoun,
and are carried on by two feparate companies. The number
of miners employed in them is very great. They work only
fix "hours out of the twenty-four, fo that they have much
leifure time, a great portion of which is dedicated to read-
ing. ‘To facilitate this worthy employment of their time,
a library -was eftablifhed many years ago by an overfeer
named MéSterling, who prevailed on the workmen to fub-
{cribe for that purpofe. Since that event the miners have
‘been remarkable for induftry and fobriety of manners, the
ufual concomitants of a tafte for literature; and the exam-
ple has been followed with fimilar effects at the neighbouring
mines of Wanlockhead.

The iron of this county is found every where in the fame
tract with the ftrata of coal. In many places it is imbedded
between the different feams of that mineral, and is ufually
wrought at the fame time with it. Iron ore, that is, the
metal in its richeft ftate, has not yet been difcovered here
in any great quantity, but ironltone exifts in great profu-
fion, It is found either in the form of beds of rock, or
in colleftions of nodules or ironftone balls, as they are
called by the workmen, of various fhapes, fize, and quali-
ties. Among thefe balls is the curious foffil called /udus
Helmontii, feptuarium, or waxen veins. Yt is of a fpherical
fhape, more or lefs oblate or deprefled. Above and below
them are alternate ftrata of ironftone and fchiftus. They
lie on their depreffed fides, in a regular direGtion, making a
fort of interrupted ftratum, one {tone being feveral inches
and fome even a foot or two diftant from the other. The
ironftone of which they are compofed is of excellent qua-
lity, yielding fometimes fifty per cent. af iron.

The Antiquities in this county are not fo numerous, in pro-

portivun to its extent, as in fome other counties of Scotland.
The Roman road, which formerly croffed the parifhes of
Lamington and Biggar, and defcended along the fouth bank
of the Clyde, is now only vifible in a few detached {pots.
Different parts of the upper wards, in particular, abound
with excavations in the earth, or vaults which were ufed as
{trong holds by the aboriginal inhabitants, when the haughty
chiettains of Clydefdale and Annandale were engaged in
mutual hottilities and depredations. At Cold-chapel are the
remains of a Roman ftation, and in the fame neighbour-
hood is a fpot called Wallace’s Camp. It is faid that a
chair, which formerly belonged to that hero, is {till preferved
at Borrington. ‘4

Near Biggar are feveral artificlal mounds. The church of
that town is one of the molt venerable relics of monaflic archi-
tecture in Scotland. “Here is preferved an ancient vafe or urn,
fuppofed to be Roman, which was ufually appropriated to
facred purpofes by the Popih prietts. Boghall caitle, about
a mile from this church, was formerly furrounded by a
marfh, and acceflible only by a caufeway or mound of earth.
The entrance is through a large and magnificent gate-way,
which leads into a fpacious court in the centre. This caftle
is flanked with towers. It was formerly the refidence of the
Flemings, earls of Wigton, and has evidently been one of
the moft extenfive and {plendid fortreffes in Scotland. This
neighbourhood is reprefented in the popular hiftories of fir
William Wallace, as having been the fcene of a fanguinary
confli€t between his band of patriots and the army of Ed-
ward I.

Cuthally caftle, or, as it is vulgarly called, Cowdaily
caftle, the feat of the ancient family of Somerville, is fitu-
ated in the parifh of Carnwarth, and appears to have been
formerly a place of great ftrength. At the foot of Tintoe
is an artificial mount, and near it a circle of large ftones fet
up perpendicularly. On an adjacent farm is a place called
Sheriffs’ flats,, where it is fuppofed the fheriffs anciently held
their courts. Tradition reports, that a bullock’s hide, full
of gold, is buried under this {pot. Here are alfo the walls
of acaftle which belonged to the family of Lindfay. In
Pittimair parifh are the veftiges of a large encampment, the
figure of which approaches to a circular area. A {mall
fort belonging to it is ftill diftinétly vifible at a little diftance
from the walls. Several urns have been lately found here
inclofed within four large flag ftones. At Douglas are the
remains of a caftle belonging to the powerful family of that
name. The greater part of this building was unfortunately
confumed by fire about fifty years ago. In the old church
of St. Bride’s, in Douglas, are a number of monuments in
honour of the Douglafes. The patifh of Carftairs, in the
vicinity of the Clyde, contains the veftiges of a Roman
camp, the caufeway leading to which can itill be traced for
many miles. Pots and difhes of different kinds, as well as
various inftruments of war and facrifice, have been \difco-
vered here. A number of coins have alfo been dug up,
bearing the infcription of Marcus Aurelius, and Marcus
Antoninus. At Cleghorn is another Roman camp, fups
pofed by general Roy to have been the work of Agricola.
Befides thefe remains of antiquity there are a number of
others; as the priory of Lefmahago, the caftles of Cudzow
and Avondale, &c. but the limits of this article will not allow
us to particularife the whole. Many of them, however, will
be found either defcribed or noticed in our acounts of the
refpective places. Rothwell cattle, in this diftriét, is one of
the moft magnificent ruins in Scotland. The ftru¢ture itfelf
is fuperb, and all the objects around have an afpeét of gran-
deur. Vhe whole work is executed with {mooth ftone of
a red colour. It is adorned with lofty towers. at both

ends, -

LAN

ends, and has undoubtedly been a place of confiderable
firength. ; ‘

‘The principal feat in Lanarkfhire is the palace of Hamil-
ton, belonging to, and the occafional refidence of, the Hamilton
family. It is a large maffive pile, of a dull and heavy ap-
pearance, fituated in the neighbourhood of the town, from
which it derived its name, and deferves notice chiefly on ac-
count of the beauty of its fcenery, and the valuable collection
of paintings it contains. :

Lanarkfhire has long been celebrated for its horfes, which
are reckoned among the moft powerful in the world. As
containing the town of Glafgow, it muft be ranked among
the firft manufacturing and trading counties in Great Bri-
tain. Forfyth’s Beauties of Scotland, vol. iii.

LANAWEN, in Geography, one of the {maller Sooloo
iflands, in the Eaft Indian fea. N. lat. 6° 15’. E. long.
122° 3'.

LANCARIM Sprine, the name of a medicated water
of Glamorganfhire. It has its name from a village near
which it rifes, and has been very long famous in the place
for the cure of the king’s evil. The body of water is about
an ell broad, and runs between two hills covered with wood.
About twelve yards from this fpring the rill falls from a
rock of about eight or nise feet high, with a confiderable
noife. The fpring is very clear and rifes out of a pure
white marle. The cures that have been performed there
are proofs of a real power in the water; but there is fome
queition, whether the water, or its motion and coldnefs,
does the good; for the people, whe come for relief, always
drink of the fpring, and bathe the part afterwards in the
fall below. It is generally fuppofed that the lime-ftone
rocks communicate a virtue to it, by which it cures inter-
nally; but it has been often found, that the holding a limb
difordered with the evil, in the ftrong current of a mill
tail, has cured it; and there is the fame advantage in the
fall of this water. Phil. Tranf. N° 233, or Abr. vol. ii.

. 233.
: LANCASHIRE, in Geography, a county palatine in
the northern part of England, furrounded by Cumber-
land and Weftmoreland to the north, by Yorkfhire to the
eaft, Chefhire to the fouth, and the Irifh fea to the weit.
Tts area comprifes about 1,130,000 acres of land, of which
above 350,000 are in a flate of tillage, 450,000 in pafturage,
and about 400,000 in wood-lands, moors, &c. According
‘to Mr. Yates, who has publifhed an Agricultural Survey of
Lancafhire, the greatelt length, from north to fouth, is 74
miles, by about 44 in breadth: the circumference is 342
miles, and furface 1765 f{quare miles. It is divided into the
fix hundreds of Amounéernels, Blackburn, Leyland, Lonf-
‘dale, Salford, and Welt-Derby : and contains fix boroughs,
wiz. Clitheroe, Lancafter, Liverpool, Newton, Prefton, and
Wigan ; 21 market towns, viz. Blackburn, Bolton, Burn-
ley, Bury, Cartmel, Chorley, Colne, Dalton, Ecclefton,
Garitang, Haflingdon, Hawfkfhead, Hornby, Kirkham,
Manchefter, Ormfkirk, Poulton, Prefcot, Rochdale, Ul-
‘verfton, Warrington ; and 6z other parifhes. The whole
contains, according to the return to parliament in the year
" 3800, 117,664 houfes, and 672,731 inhabitants, of whom
269,259 were ftated to be employed in various trades and
manutactures, and 52,018 in agriculture.

In the ancient hiitory of this county, we find that it was
originally inhabited by the Setantii, or Segantii, who were
fucceeded by the Brigantes, who alfo had a very extended
tra& of country. (See BricAntes.) The Roinane, under
Julius Agricola, appear to have conquered this diftri& in
A.D. 79: and foon afterwards, according to Mr. Whi-
taker, that general eftablithed the following ftations within the

LAN

limits of this county: “* Ad-Alaunum and Bremetonacz in the
north; Portus-Siltuntiorum in the weft; Rerégorium and
Coccium about the centre ; Colonea in the eaft; and Vera-
tinum and Mancunium in the fouth.” The precife {cites of
all thefe {tations are not fatisfaCtorily afcertained : nor isit ge-
nerally admitted, by other antiquaries, that there were fo many
permanent ftationsin the county. Inthe ltinerary of Antoni-
nus only three are {pecified : viz. Bremetonacea, xxvii. m. p.
from Galacum in Wettmoreland ; Coccium, xx. m. p. from
the former ; and Mancunium, xvii. m. p. from the latter. Po
connect thefe towns or ftations, roads or military ways
were formed, and thefe were difpofed in the moft direét
line from one place to another, and conftruéted in the moft
{cientific and fkilful manner. Mancunium, now Manchefter,
was a ftation of large extent and importance ; and from it
roads branched off northward to Coccium, (Ribchefter, )
two north-eaftward into Yorkfhire, one fouth-weltward to
Condate, now Middlewich in Chefhire, and a fifth fouth-
ealtward to Derventio, Derby. The whole of this county
was denominated by the Romans, Maxima-Cefarienfis, or
Britannia-Superior. The Saxons included it in Northum~
bria; and, according to Mr. Whitaker, * formed it into a
feparate county about 680, and foon after the conquett of it
by Egfrid.”” At this period, the Roman Alauna was “* made
the metropolis of the fhire, and lent its own appellation to
the county.’? Soon afterwards the whole was divided into
hundreds, tythings, &c. That part called South Lanca-
fhire was firft divided into three ; but fubdivided into fix
juft before the Norman conqueft: thefe are called Black-
burn, Derby, and Salford; Newton, Warrington, and
Leyland.

The ecelefiaftical hiftory of this county commences with
the Anglo-Saxons: after the fee of York was eftablifhed,
the kingdom of Northumbria was {peedily fubdivided into.
feveral diocefes, and the whole of North Lancafhire was con-
nected with the fee of York. But foon after the confoli-
dation of the feven kingdoms into one, the fouth of Lan-
cafhire was fevered from the diocefe and province of York,
and annexed to the province of Canterbury and diocefe of
Lichfield ; and thus continued till the year 1541, when the
two parts were again combined, as they bave ever [ince con-
tinued, under one bifhop, and reunited to their ancient and
original fee of York. At the firft partition of the bifhopric
into archdeaconries, the principal towns of the latter would
naturally be conftituted the capitals of them : and the Roman
colony of Chefter was made the metropolis over the fouth of
Lancafhire, as the archdeaconry of Richmond was over the
north. The next ecclefiaftical divifion of the county was
into rural deaneries, and by the “‘ Valor Beneficiorum,’” which
was. taken in 1292 by command of pope Nicholas IV., the
whole county of Lancafter, exclufive of Furnefs, which then
belonged to Weftmoreland, was partitioned into thirty-fix pa-
rifhes only. By the fame record it appears, that thefe parifhes
were included in the four deaneries of Blackburn, Leyland,
Manchefter, and Warrington 3 all in the archdeaconry of
Chetter. The deanery of Amoundernefs and Furnefs is
in the Richmond archdeaconry.

The landed property, which the king poffeffes in this
county, as duke of Lancafter, is of great extent ; but the
revenues arifing therefrom are but fmall. The principal-part
of this property confifts in what are generally ftyled the
forefts of Myerfcough, Fulwood, Blearfdale, Wyerfdale,,
and Quern, all fituated in the moft northern parts of the
county. In thefe his majefty is intitled to the eftrays and
the game, and the right of holding courts, &c.; and mutt
be confidered as lord of the manor of all the forefts. The
townfhip of Quernmore is fituated in the hundred of —

£5

LANCASHIRE.

dale, and contains above 3000 acres ‘of inclofed and waite
land. Wyerfdale, which is fimilar in fituation, contains more
than 20,000 ftatute acres; the greater part is mountainous
land, not worth inclofing, but producing abundance of game.
Blearfdale is in the hundred of Amoundernefs, and contains
nearly 4000 acres of inclofed land, and about the fame quan-
tity not inclofed. Myerfcough is fituated about eight miles
from Prefton; and confiits of nearly 2200 acres, all in-
clofed ; of which about: 1600, belonging to the king, is
called Myerfcough Park, and is held under a leafe by Mr.
Heatly. The ancient forelt of Fulwood comprifed a large
quantity of land which is now inclofed: the uninciofed parts
are-about 908 acres. Prefton race-ground is a portion of
the foreft. Betides the duchy lands, a few. large proprietors
hold extenfive eftates in this county. But the prevalence of
trade, manufacture, and commerce has tended greatly to tub-
divide the property, in the vicinity of the large towns efpeci-
ally, and hence Lancafhire has a greater number of land-
owners than any other county in England, excepting Mid-
dlefex. Camden remarked, that Lancafhire was diitinguifhed
for the number of ancient families whofe names were the fame
as their manorial eftates. This remark flill applies, though
not to the fame extent, as many old family manfions are now
deferted. Previous to, and under the Norman dynaity,
this county was diftinguiihed as an honor, and was of the
fuperior clafs of feigniories, on which inferior lordfhips and
manors depended, by the performance of certain. cuftoms
and fervices to the lords who held them. Landed honors
originally belonged to kings exclufively, but were afterwards
granted infee.to noblemen, Thefe kept their honor courts
*¢ every year at leaf, or oftener if need be; at which court
all the freeholders of all the manors that ftand united to the
faid honor, fhaJl make their appearance, which {uitors fhall
not fit, but {tand bareheaded.’? That the honor of Lan-
cafter exifted before the conqueft, is demonftrated by an
agreement, flill preferved, between king Stephen and Henry
duke of Normandy. ¥iom this period till the reign of
Henry II]. the honor was held by feveral great perfons.
That monarch conferred it on his fecond fon Edmond, when
it became an earldom. The title of duke of Lancafter was
created by Edward III. in favour.of Henry Plantagenet,
whofe daughter and heirefs, Blanche, married John of Gaunt,
fourth fon of Edward III., for whom the privileges and
revenues were confiderably increafed : he, being created duke
of Lancalter on the death of his father-in-law, obtained a

" patent for advancing this county to the dignity of the pala-
tinate. The court belonging to this duchy has the power
of deciding every caufe relating to it: the officers are, a
chancellor, attorney-general, king’s ferjeant, king’s counfel,
receiver-general, clerk of the council and regilter, furveyor
of lands, attorney in the exchequer, attorney in chancery,
four counfellors, &c. The offices of the duchy court are
at Somerfet place, London.

The foil and furface of Lancafhire are various ; and its
features in fome parts, particularly towards the north and
along the eaftern border, are ftrongly marked. Here the
hills are bold and lofty, and the-vallies narrow and irriguous.
On the fea-coaft, and nearly the whole of the fouthern fide
of the county, following the courfe of the river Merfey,
the land is low and flat. In the diitri&t which lies between
the Ribble and the Merfey, the greater part of the furface is
a fandy loam, well adapted to the production’ of almoft every
king of vegetable, and that to a degree which renders it im-
poffible to eitimate the advantages which might be derived
from an improved cultivation. ‘The fubftratum is generaily
the red rock, or clay marle, one of the mott defirable foils
that can be found. Moor-lands which are ina flate of na-

ture, and produce heath and other wild plants, are of .variv
ous qualities ; and are much more extenfive than might have
been expe¢ted in a county fo populous, where land muft
confequently be very valuable. ;
The mineralogical hiftory of this county has never been
publicly developed; and though the internal contents are
fingularly rich, the varied peculiarities and charaGteriflics of
thefe riches have not been made known. With fingular ad-
vantages of natural and artificial navigation, the coals,
which conttitute its moft prolific and ufeful produétion, are
cheaply conveyed to the various manufa¢tories of Manchefter,
Bolton, &c. and alfo to the coalt. Coal is found in im-
menfe beds, both on the fouthern part and towards the
middle of the county, but chiefly in the hundreds of Weft
Derby and Salford, and in part of Blackburn. It is not
obtained much farther north than Chorley and Colne; but
great abundance of this ufeful foffil is again procured at
Whitehaven, and about Newcaftle-upon-Tyne. At Haigh,
near Wigan, a fpecies of coal is produced, fimilar in ap-
pearance to black marble, and of a very bituminous quality.
It is called Cannel Coal, and burns with a peculiar clearnefs
of flame, confumes very rapidly, and is apt to fly in pieces
in the fire; but if previoufly immerfed in water, it is faid to
lofe this property. It is of a dull black colour, breaks eafily~
in all dire€tions ; and if broken tranfverlely, prefents a {mooth
conchoidal furface. Towards the north and north-eaftera
parts of the county, lime-ftone is very abundant. It is
found at Halewood, near Liverpool, at various depths, but
inconfiderable in quantity. In the vicinity of Leigh, and
alfo at Ardwick, near Manchefter, is lime-ftone of fach pe-
culiar quality, as to refift the power of water: it is there-
fore applied to the conftruétion of cifterns, and to making
mortar for building under water. Stone of various deno-
minations is produced in this county. Upon the common,
near Lancaiter, is a large quarry of excellent free-flone,
which bears.a fine polifh, and of which that town, equalled
by few in the kingdom for neatnefs, is wholly built. Flags
and grey flates are found at Holland, near Wigan. The
mountains, called Coniftone and Telberthwaite fells, near
Hawkthead, afford a large quantity of blue flates, of which
there is a confiderable export: they are divided into three
claffes, called London, Country, and Tom flate, of which
the firit is elteemed the beft. Scythe-ftones are obtained at
Rainford, and are well wrought on the fpot. Iron-ore is
found in abundance between Ulverftone and Dalton, in Low
Furnefs. In the north, fome copper mines have been
worked; but they have not been productive. At Angle-
fack, near Chorley, is a lead mine belonging to fir Frank
Standifh, bart.: it confifts of feveral veins, which interfe&
the ftrata of the diftri& almoft perpendicularly, and run in
various direétions. The matrix of thefe veins is formed of
carbonat and fulphuret of barytes. The former, which isa
very rare mineral, is found in the greateft abundance near
the furface ; and as it defcends, it becomes progreffively
contaminated by the fulphuret, which, in the loweft ftrata,
feems completely to ufurp its place. The exiftence of car-
bonat of barytes, as a produ of nature, was firft diftin@ly
afcertained by Dr. Withering; but he feems to have been
miftaken as to the place where his {pecimens were obtained.
To James Watt, jun. efq. the public are indebted for a de-
{cription of the external character of this fubftance, aud its
effeéts on the animal body, when taken internally. See
Manchefter Memoirs, vol. iii. ‘
The principal rivers in this county are the Loyne or Lune,
the Wyer, the Ribble, the Calder, the Douglas, the Ir-
well, and the Merfey, Befides thefe there are feveral
{maller ftreams or rivers, all which, direGting their courfes
towards

EEE

a ee

LANCASHIRE.

towards the weft, empty their waters into the Irifh fea.
The Loyne or Lune, emanating from the fells of Weftmore-
land, enters this county near Kirkby Lonfdale. Soon af-
terwards its {tream is augmented by the waters of the Greta
and the Wenning from Yorkfhire; and the expanded river
then paffes through the much admired valley of Lonfdale.
Purfuing a fouth-wefterly courfe, it reaches the county
town, where it becomes navigable; and at the diltance of
two miles from Lancatter, is ¢alculated to bear hips of
confiderable burthen, The approach to Lancafter is inde-
feribably ftriking, where the river becoming wider, and
winding in feveral bolder fweeps, opens to the view of that
fingular town, defcending from a lofty hill, whofe fummit
is crowned by the battions of its caftle, and the lofty tower
of itschurch. The Wyer, which has its fource among the
moors on the north-ealtern part of the county, meanders
through a very romantic diltriét; and purfuing a fouth-
wetterly courfe towards the fea, receives the waters of feveral
other mountain-ftreams before it reaches Garftang-church
town. Near this place its current is greatly increafed by
the waters of the rivers Calder, &c.; and pafling near the
town of Poulton, expands into a broad bafon, called Wyer-
- water; and, again contra¢ting its banks, joins the [rifh fea
between Bernard’s-Wharf and the North Scar. The Ribble,
like the Loyne, unites to the fea by a very broad eftuary ;
and, like that alfo, has a Roman ftation on its banks,
«This river,’? Dr. Whitaker obferves, “* by the general
confent of moft antiquaries, has been underftood to be the
Beliflima of Ptolemy.’ The Ribble is one of the largeft
rivers in the north of England, and has its fource in the
high moors of Craven in Yorkfhire. Taking firft a foutherly
courfe, it pafles by the town of Clithero, and, forming the
boundary of the county for a fhort fpace, is joined by the
Hodder and the Winburne from Whalley. The. chief
courfe of this river is through a highly commercial and well
‘cultivated country ; and near the thriving town of Prefton,
its banks are bold, and adorned with hanging woods. A
little to the weft of this place, the Ribble forms a f{pacious
eftuary, which is enlarged by the mouth of the river Doug-
las, ‘The latter has {ts fource in the vicinity of Rivington-
pike, and, after pafling the town of Wigan, proceeds north-
wefterly by Newburgh, and near Rutford is joined by the
Elder-brook from Ormfkirk, After receiving the united
ftreams of the Yarrow and Loftock rivulets, it empties it-
felf into the eftuary of the Ribble, at a place called Muck-
Stool. The Irwell originates in the moors, near the York-
fhire and Lancafhire boundaries, whence it flows, fwelled
by other ftreams, through the manor of Tottington to
Bury. Hence it proceeds to Manchefter, where it unites
with the Medlock and the Irk. Pafling through Barton,
where the duke of Bridgewater’s canal is carried over it
by means of a grand aquedué, it falls into the Merfey
below Flixton. The Alt, rifing near Know‘ley, and flowing
in a north-wefterly direétion, joins the Irifh fea near Formby
Point. The Crake conneéts the lake called Thurfton-water
with the fea at Leven Sands. ‘The waters of Winandermere
lake join the fea through the channel of the Leven nearly at
the fie place.

Although canals in a commercial and manufa@turing coun-
try are of almoft incalculable utility and importance, yet
their origin in this kingdom is but recent ; and from the beft
authority it appears that the firft complete artificial canal
was planned and formed in Lancafhire. This was known
by the name of the Sankey; but long previous to the mak-
ing of this canal, different aéts of parliament had been ob-
tained, and companies formed, for rendering the rivers Irwell
and Merfey, alfo the Weaver, &c. navigable. By the affitt-

Vou. XX.

ance of the tide, which flows with rapidity up the channel
of the Merfey, velfels were enabled, without any artificial
help, to navigate nearly to the town of Warrington. To
render the higher parts of the river, through its communi-
cating branch the Irwell, acceflible for veffels as far as Man-
che{ter, was an improvement much wanted by the manu-
facturers of that town and its vicinity. To effeét this, an
a€t of parliament was obtained in 1720, whereby certain
perfons of Manchefter and Liverpool, but moftly thofe of
the former town, were empowered to make the Irwell and
Merfey navigable beyond thofe towas. Though the act
{pecified this extent of river, yet as the Merfey was already
navigable from Liverpool to Bank.key, near Warrington ;
and as all the flipulated demand for tonnage was confined to
the navigation between that place and Manchefter, it appears
that the projetors meant only to open the upper part of
the river. This has been effe€ted by means of weirs, locks,
&c.; and in places where the ftream formed confiderable
curvatures, cuts were made acrofs the necks of the princi-
pal bends, While the navigation of the Merfey was thus
an objet of commercial fpeculation, that of the Douglas
was equally attended to. ‘The country round Wigan being
particularly rich in coal, the proprietors of the mines in that
diftriG obtained an at, in1719, for rendering that river
navigable, This being completed in 1727, enabled the f{pe-
culators to convey their coals to the mouth of the Ribble,
and thence coaftwife to the northern parts of Lancafhire,
Weitmoreland, &c. The Douglas navigation has fince been
purchafed by the proprietors of the Leeds and Liverpool
canal, who have in part fubitituted an artificial cut for the
natural channel of the river. The Sankey canal originated
with a company of gentlemen and merchants, who, in 1755,
obtained an aét of parliament, authorifing them to make
Sankey brook navigable from the Merfey river, which it
joins about twa miles weft of Warrington, to near St. He-
len’s. This at empowered certain commiflioners to pur-
chafe lands and other requifites for the intended navigation.
It was, at firft, defigned to extend and deepen the bed of
the brook ; but, after due deliberation, it was ultimately
determined to cat a detached channel or canal. To effeé&
this more completely, a new ac was obtained in 1761, which
empowered the undertaker to make a canal ; to extend
from a place called Fiddler's Ferry, on the Merfey, to a
{pot about 250 yards from the loweft lock. Thus navi-
gable canals had their rife in England; and the peculiar
advantages and fuccefs of this at Sankey led to many
other fimilar undertakings : in the execution of which, the
genius of the engineer, and the f{peculating fpirit of the
nation, were fully brought into aétion. But many things
which were then imagined to be unattainable, and infur-
mountably impracticable, have been recengly effected. The
chief article conveyed by the Sankey canal is coal, of which,
in the year 1771, according to an account laid before pars
liament, were carried to Liverpool 45,568 tons, and to Wars
rington, Northwich, and other places, 44,152 tons. Some
of the firft collieries on its banks are worked out, and others
have been opened. Its bufinefs has been increafed by the
large copper-works belonging to the Anglefea companyy
erected on one of its branches; and by the plate-glafs ma-
nufaétory, and other works founded near it, in the neigh-
bourhood of the populous town of St. Helen’s. Befides
the Sankey, this county is interfected by nine other canals,
of which four communicate with Manchefter. Of all thefe
canals an account has been given under Cana, to which
we fhall here add fome further particulars and local cireum-
ftances not already detailed. The Afhton-under-Line canal,
which communicates between Manchefter and the town. of

Hh Afhten,

LANCASHIRE.

Afhton, was made in confequence of an act of parliament
pafled in 1792. The whole length of this canal is eleven
miles, with a rife of 152 feet. Bridgewater's canal origi-
nated, in 1759, with the late patriotic duke of Bridgewater,
who devoted an immenfe fortune to the effeéting his plan.
That part of the canal more immediately conneéted with this
county, commences at the Cattle-field, in the fuburbs of
Manchefter, and terminates at Pennington, near the town of
Leigh. At Worfley is a fhort cut to the entrance bafin of
the underground tunnels. Here it buries itfelf in a hill,
which it enters by an arched paflage, partly bricked, and
partly formed by the folid rock, wide enough for the ad-
miffion of long flat-bottomed boats, which are towed by
means of rings and hand-rails on each fide. The canal, or
tunnel, penetrates above three quarters of a mile before it
reaches the firlt coal-works ; where it divides into two chan-
nels, branching to the right and left. In the paffages, at
certain diftances, are funnels cut through the rock, and
iffuing perpendicularly at the top of the hill. The arch, at
the entrance, is only about fix feet wide, and five in height,
above the furface of the water. In fome places within it
widens, to accommodate two boats to pafs each other. To
this fubterraneous canal the coals are brought from the mines
in low waggons which hold about a ton each, and thefe are
eafily pulled down a gentle declivity, on an iron railway by
ene man. Lancalter canal takes its courfe through nearly
the whole county. Commencing at Kirby Kendal, in
Weftmoreland, it enters Lancafhire near Burton, having
paffed under ground about half a mile near Medway. At
Borwick, a little fouth of Burton, it finks to its mid-level,
which it preferves for feveral miles, making for this purpofe
a very winding courfe, in fome places approaching almott
clofe to the Faden, After paffing Prefton, it afcends
through a feries of locks to its higheft level, on which it
proceeds acrofs the Douglas, and arrives at its termination
at Welt Houghton. The principal objet of this canal is
to open a ready communication between the coal and lime-
dtone countries, thereby interchanging and conveying thefe
articles to different places, and to open the port of Lan-
cafter to other pepulous towns. All the country north of
Prefton is deftitute of coal, and the canal is directed through
a diftri@ abounding with this valuable mineral from Weft
Houghton to Whittle Hills. From Kendal to Lancatter,
the whole country confifts of lime-ftone ; and on Lancafter
Moor fome good freeftone is obtained. The Leeds and
Liverpool canal enters Lancafhire a little north of the town
of Colne, near which it croffes the grand ridge by means of
a firbterraneous tunnel at Foulridge, 1630 yards in length.
Near Bark Mill, not far from Wigan, it croffes the Lan-
cafter cut by means of an aqueduct bridge fixty feet above
that canal. A navigation between the eaftern and weftern
feas had been often propofed: this great defideratum has
been at length effeGted ; and a canal has now been made be-
tween the towns of Liverpool and Leeds, including a line
of 1073 miles, and communicating at the latter place with
the river Aire, and at the former with the river Merfey,
both of which are navigable to the German ocean on the
eaft, and to the Irifh fea on the weft. The fall of water
in this courfe, from the high ridge of mountains which di-
vide Lancafhire and Yorkfhire, is 527 feet weltward, and
446 eaftward. Manchefter, Bolton, and Bury canal takes
a north-wefterly direCtion from the former to the latter town.
Its northern end is confiderably elevated, and its whole courfe
comprehends a line of fifteen miles one furlong, The Roch-
dale canal opens a navigation from the Bridgewater canal at
Manchelter, to the Calder at Sowerby-bridge, near Halifax.
At the commencement of this fcheme it encountered much

“manufudturing towns.

oppofition ; and the proprietors, in obtaining their a&ts, were
obliged to bind themfelves not to ufe any of the waters of
the Irk, Calder, and Roach rivers, fo as to affect their
mills, &c. They were, therefore, obliged to make feveral
large refervoirs on the hills to fupply the waite of lockage
and leakage. At Ulverttone is a fhort cut or canal of about
one mile and a half, communicating from that town to the
Trith fea. Douglas River Navigation commences in’ the
tide-way, in the eftuary of the river Ribble, near Hefketh,
and terminates in the Leeds and Liverpool canal. Hafling-
don canal, not yet completed, is intended to communicate,
in a diflance of about thirteen miles, between Bury, where
it joins the Bolton and Bury canal, to Church, where it joins
the Leeds and Liverpool. The commercial and {peculating
{pirit of the inhabitants of this populous county, is ftrongly
exhibited in the conftruétion of thefe canals and navigable
rivers; the good effects of which are efpecially felt by the
To that of Manchelter, in parti-
cular, the canals have proved eminently beneficial, and the
thriving ports of Liverpool and Lancatter, with the central
towns of the county, have all derived from the fame fource
many important advantages. Whilft the natural produce of
the county is readily and cheaply conveyed to various marts,
and the coals fent to the devouring faétories ; the manu-
factured goods of the latter are thereby diftributed over the
kingdom, and to the fea-ports for foreign exportation.
Besivy charateriftic of this county are the bogs and
moraffes with which it abounds, and which bear the pro-
vincial name of Mofles. The principal of thefe are called,
from the chief places in their vicinity, Chat, Pilling,
Trafford, Rifley, Afhton, Road, Bickerftaff, Rainford,
Marton, St. Michael’s, and Catforth. The component
parts of thefe chiefly confilt of a fpongy foil, containing
roots of decayed vegetables, intermixed with a fort of rot-
ten mould. The origin and peculiarity of moffes have occa-
fioned much difference of opinion with the writers on agri-
culture and natural hiftory, but when their precife fituations
are accurately defined, it feems eafy to account for the
latter, and thereby to difcover fome clew for the former.
The laws of nature are immutable; and when certain na-
tural caufes are known to produce certain effects, and thefe
are invariable, it does not appear difficult to afcertain the
primary fource. Thus, mofles or bogs are always found ©
near {pring-heads, and in fuch hollows as prevent a regular
and conftant difcharge of the oozing waters. Thefe muit
confequently remain {tagnant, and from the perpetual gene-
ration and decompofition of vegetable matter, muft pro-
greflively acquire fubftance. Among the moft common
vegetables in thefe fituations, are the Erica vulgaris, the
Ornithogalum luteum, and the different fpecies of Eripho-
rum, or cotton-grafs ; alfo, bilberry, cranberry, crowberry,
Andromeda polifolia ; Lancafhire afphodel, fun-dew, and the
fragrant myrica-gale, or bog-myrtle. As thefe plants de-
cay, and depofit their fubftances, a confiderable addition is
annually made to the mofs, in cutting a feétion of which, in
fome places, the progreflive ftratification or lamina may be
diftin@ly difcovered. Thefe plants, and particularly the
mofles, feem to derive their nutriment and fru@tification from
their own ruins, and grow more luxuriant as the fubftance
increafes: at length the whole takes the appearance and
confiftency of a large fungus; and continuing to increafe,
it at length grows greatly above the level of the adjacent
lands, till the weight of the furface becoming too great to
be fupported by the fpongy fubftance below, it overflows its
original boundary, and covers the adjoining grounds. A
remarkable inftance of this occurrence, in the year 1771, is
related of Solway-mofs in Scotland; and, according to ae
on

LAN

of our ancient chronicles, a great portion of Chat-mofs was
carried into the Irwell, thence into the Merfey, and on to
the fea. (See Leland’s Itin. vol. vii. p. 46.) It may be
proper jult to mention three of the mofles in this county
which have been brought into a ftate of improvement.
Trafford-mofs, on the fouth fide of the river Irwell, con-
taining about five hundred acres, has been brought into
cultivation by Mr. Wakefield and Mr. Rofcoe of Liverpool.
They began their improvements about the year 17935; and
the whole of this hitherto ufelefs tract of land is converted
into excellent arable and pafture ground, worth four or five
pounds per acre, per annum ; but previous to that period it
was whoily unproductive. The manures ufed in the im-
‘provement have been blue marle, of a ftrong calcareous
quality, which is found under the mofs itfelf, and compoft
brought by the canal from Manchefter. Chat-mofs, which
lies on the north fide of the river, and contains fome thou-
fands of acres, has been brought into a flate of progreffive
improvement, with every profpedt of fimilar fuccefs, by
Mr. Rofcoe, who commenced the drainage in the year 1805.
Rainford-mofs, near Prefcot, has alfo been amazingly ame-
liorated under the judicious management of Mr. Chorley,
who began his operations on this apparently fterile wafte in
1780, and has rendered it capable of bearing oats, barley,
clover, potatoes, &c.

The agricultural produétions of Lancafhire are princi-
pally oats and potatoes; both which are ufed for human
fuftenance ; and many of the labouring claffes, in the north-
ern and eaitern parts of the county, are chiefly fupported
by this food. A confiderable quantity of barley, and fome
wheat, are cultivated in Low-Furnefs, the Filde, and in the
fouth-weitern parts of the county ; but it is fuppofed that
Lancafhire does not produce one quarter of the grain con-
fumed by its own inhabitants, The firft potatoes faid to be
eultivated in England were grown in this county. They
were originally introduced into Ireland from North Ame-
rica, about the year 1565 and in confequence of an Irifh
veffel being caft away on the weitern coaft, near North
Meols, in Lancafhire, fome of thofe roots were planted in
that part of the county; but it was not till many years
after that they were adopted as an article of food in Lon-
don. They are now grown in amazing quantities in this
county ; and many are annually exported hence to Ireland.
‘They are produced both from cuttings, and from the apple,
orfeed. The ox-noble and clufter potatoe are chiefly grown
for the cattle ; and the pink-eye, with various kinds of the
kidney, are ufed for the table. The produce of a crop of
potatoes in this.county is generally from two to three hun-
dred bufhels per acre. Many ufeful particulars relating to
the beft mode of planting, growing, and preferving potas
toes, are detailed in Holt’s «* General View of the Agri-
culture of Lancafhire.’’

This county boats a peculiar breed of horned cattle,
which forms a variety with thofe of Lincolnfhire. The
eows are rather fmaller than thofe of the latter county,
and are known by their wide-fpreading horns and ftraight
backs.

- The climate of Lancafhire is proverbially wet, and this
Seems a natural confequence of its peculiar fituation, be-
tween the broadeft part of the Irifh fea and the high ridge
of hills which form its eaftern border, All this fide of the
county is more fubjeé&t to rains than the fide bordering on
the coaft; for as the clouds are wafted over the Irifh fea
from the Atlantic ocean, they are firft checked and broken
by the mountainous ridge, which has a direGtion north and
fouth ; and hence the rains are almoft perpetually falling on
the weftern fide of thefe intercepting eminences. At Town-

LAN

ley, near Burnley, it has been found by experiment, that
forty-two inches of rain fall annually, at a medium; while
the annual fall at Manchefler has been only thirty-three
inches. At Liverpool the average has been confiderably
lefs, whit that at- London has’ been ftill lower.

Lancathire fends fourteen members to parliament ; two
knights for the fhire; and two reprefentatives for each of
the boroughs of Lancatter, Liverpool, Prefton, Newton,
Wigan, and Clithero : one of the members for the county
is returned through the intereft and influence of the earl of
Derby ; the other by what is termed the independent in-
tereft. The county is included in the northern circuit,
and the affizes are held at Lancatter, as are alfo the quarter-
feffions.

This county, though not abundant in antiquities, formerly
poffeffed a few caftles and monaftic buildings ; viz. caftles—
at Clithero, Gleafton, Ifolland, Hornby, Lancafler, Peele,
and Thurland. Religious houfes—at Burfcough, Cartmel,
and Coningfhead. Auguitine priory—at Cockerfand; a
Premonttratentian abbey ; Furnefs and Whalley, Ciftertian
abbies ; Holland, a Benedictine priory; Hornby, a Pre-
monttratentian priory ; Lancatter, Lathom, and Penwortham,
Benediétine priories ; Manchefter, a college.

Laneafhire contains 490 public bridges ; of which nine
are repaired by the county, and the others by the different
hundreds,

The manufaures and commerce of this populous county,
are both of great extent and importance. Many particulars
re{pecting the former have been already narrated under the
article Corroy. Further details will be given under Man-
CHESTER, and the commerce of the county will be deferibed
at Liverroot. Beauties of England, vol. ix. Aikin's
Hittory, &c. of the Country round Manchefter, gto. Whita-
ker’s iftory, &c. of Manchefter, 2 vols. 4to. Whitaker’s
Hiftory of Whalley, 4to. Holt’s Agricultural Report
relating to Lancafhire, 8yo.

LANCASTER, County Palatine of. See County.

Lancaster, Duchy Court of. See Court.

Lancasrer, in Geography, a fea-port, market, and the
county town of Lancafhire, England, is fituated on the
banks of the river Loyne, or Lune, 239 miles diftant from
London. Few of the county-towns in England have been
more neglected by the hiltorian, or more inaccurately dee
{cribed by the togographer, than this of Lancafter. ‘That
it was a Roman itation is evinced by the Saxon termination
calter, or caltre ; and the fame is confirmed by the various
remains of the domeltic economy of-the Romans that are
continually difcovered in the town and its vicinity. Camden
contends that the Roman name of this place was Longo-
vicum : and Mr. Whitaker afferts, it was the Ad-Alaunum
of Richard of Cirencefter’s Itinerary. Reynolds, in his
“ Tter-Britanniarum,’’ identifies this place as the’ Breme-
tonacis of Antoninus: but this is improbable; though we
do not hefitate in contidering it to be the fcite of one, if not
both, the other names. Dr. Leigh, in his ** Natural Hiftory
of Lancafhire, &c.”? defcribes and refers to various coins,
pieces of pottery, burnt bones, &c. that have been found
in this town. In 1772, an altar-{tone, with an infcription,
was dug up here. In the Archologia, vol. v. is a dif-
fertation, by the Rev. Mr. Leigh, on certain Roman vettigia
belonging to Lancafter. This place was a fortrefs of con-
fiderable confequence alfo under the Anglo-Saxon dynatty.
Indeed .it appears to have been the chief obftacle-and barrier
to the Picts, or Scots, in the progrefs of their conquefts
in England. Having being demolifhed by thefe marauders
after the retreat of the Romans, it lay a confiderable time
in ruins, but was at laf rebuilt by the Saxons, who, foo

Hha2 after

: LANCASTER.

after their fettlement in Britain, perceived the importarice of
this poft, and the facility of defence afforded by its com-
manding fcite. ‘That it was conftituted the chief and defig-
nating town of the county, is a fufficient indication of its
confequence. This event is flated by Mr. Whitaker to
have occurred in the feventh century, when he obferves,
the “* Roman Alauna received the honour which it retains
at prefent, and was made the metropolis of the fhire.’’
During the Saxon heptarchy we have no records whatever
of this town, but foon after the Norman conqueft it afumes
fome hiftorical confequence. In Domefday-book, however,
Lancafter and Cherca-Longcattre appear fimply as two vills,
or Berwic, among the twenty-two which then compofed the
manor of Halton. At this time there was no church at
Loncafter, but the name Cherca-Longcattre, affixed to one
of the villages, renders it probable that it had a church
during the time of the Saxons, which had probably been
deftroyed during the ravages of the Danes, Lancafter,
it is likely, was granted either by the Conqueror or his
{ucceflor, William Rufus, to Roger de Poitou, for the pur-
pofe of erecting a cattle upon its hill. This perfon al
founded the church of St. Mary, and granted it as a cell
to the abbey of Sees, in Normandy. ‘To this monattery
it continued annexed till the abolition of alien-priories, in
the reign of Henry V. when it was given to the Carthufian
abbey of Sion, in Middlefex, and remained attached to that
inftitution till the general diffolution of monaftic eftablith-
ments by Henry VIII. The great tower of the cattle,
which is ftill ftanding, is an excellent {pecimen of the maf-
five ftyle of architecture adopted in that age. The walls
are of uncommon thicknefs, and the buttrefles have narrow
projeGtions, whilft the lower windows have fhort rounded
arches, with fingle fhaft columns on their fides. This caftle
was befieged by Ilubert, archbifhop of Canterbury, in the
i 1199, at which time it was held by the brother of

ing John, in truft for that monarch when he came to the
throne. In the feventh year of the reign of the fame prince,
it was in pofleffion of Ranulph Blundevil, earl of Chefter,
and in the early years of the reign of Henry III. was held
by William de Ferrars, earl of Derby.

Lancafter, however important it may have been as a
roilitary ftation, owes its chief celebrity to Edward III.,
who, upon the completion of the fiftieth year of his reign,
folemnly, and_in full parliament, created his third fon,
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancafter. By the charter granted
at this period, the duchy of Lancafter was conttituted a
fort of petty kingdom, and all the privileges of royalty
conferred upon the duke within the county. During the
civil wars between the houfes of York and Lancalter, this
town fuffered fo much by its adherence to the Lancattrian
line, that it was nearly depopulated, and even in the time
ef Camden was only the refidence of a few hufbandmen.,
Charles IT. having confirmed its ancient charter with addi-
tional privileges, it hegan again to revive, and has ever fince
been increafing in trade, extent, and population.

The caftle, which has fucceffively been the fafeguard,
terror, and glory of the town, is now fitted up as the
county-gaol, with its neceflary appendages of a gaoler’s
houfe, prifoners’ rooms, cells, work-fhops, courts of jut.
tice, &c. From the appearance of its prefent remains, and
the commanding fituation on which it ftands, it muft, doubt-
lefs, have been a grand and magnificent obje& in former
times. Much as it has fuffered from the changes it has
more recently undergone, its architectural features are ftill
entitled to general admiration. The encircling walls em-
brace an area of 380 feet from eaft to weft, by 350 from
worth to fouth, Within this fpace is a large court-yard,

with feveral of fmaller dimenfions, and a number of towers
of various fhapes. ‘The chief entrance is towards the eatt,
and communicates with the town, It is a ftrongly fortified
tower gateway, confilting of two femi-octangular projec-
tions, which are perforated, near the bottom, with apertures
for the difcharge of arrows, and on the fummit are feveral
bold machicolations with embrafures, &c. Within this
entrance is the large court-yard already mentioned, fur-
rounded with towers and fortified walls, and on the oppofite
fide is a large {quare keep, the walls of which are of amazing
thicknefs, and its apartments of grand dimentions. One
of the rooms is nearly fixty feet long, by about thirty in
width, The floers are arched, and covered with compo-
fition, forming flat furfaces, From the fummit of this
tower, the views are very grand and impreffive. To the
north of the keep are the fhire-hall and county-courts,
with feveral apartments and offices conneéted with them.
Thefe have been recently erected at the expence of the

entlemen of the county, and from the defigns of Mr.
Harrifon of Chefter, an architeét, who has difplayed fo
much claffical tafte and {cientific knowledge in the conftrue-
tion of a county-gaol in that city. The finifhing of thefe
works has been from the defigns of Mr. Jofeph Gandy, of
London, an artift of eminent talents. The grand jury room
here, and fhire-hall, are peculiarly elegant and novel: the:
firft being of circular form, and the fecond being femi-
circular; but both finifhed with cluftered columns, panel-
ling, tracery, &c. partly in imitation of the elegant eccle-
fiaitical architecture of the fifteenth century. Over the
judges’ feats are two full-length portraits of the county
members, by Mr. Allen; and a full-length of George III.
on horfeback, by Northcote. This grand and fpacious pile
of buildings, whether viewed as an ancient baronial for-
trefs, asa picturefque objeé, or as a fuite of public ftrudtures.
for the gaol and courts of the county, mult demand our
admiration. An engraved ground plan of this caftle is pub-
lifhed in a {mall Hiftory of Lancatter, 8vo. 1807. On an:
eminence near it is the parifh-church, a fpacious building,’
with a lofty tower, which ferves as a land-mark for veffels
coming up the river. At the eaft end of the church ic a
wooden fereen moft elegantly carved. Among the monu-'
ments, is one by Roubiliac, for William Stratford, L. L. D.
In the church-yard is the fhaft of a ftone crofs, with carv-
ing, and an infcription in Runic letters.

The other public edifices of this town, are a town-hall,
a chapel of eafe to the parifh church, a theatre, an aflembly-
room, a range of fhambles, a Quakers’ meeting-houfe, and
chapels to the following claffes of diffenters,; Prefbyterians,
Quakers, Independents, and Methodifts. Anancient bridge,
now in ruins, connected the oppofite fhores of the Lune,
near St. George’s Quay, but the increafing opulence and
population of the town rendered a new and more commo~
dious one neceflary. This was erected from the extremity
of Cable ftreet to Skerton, at an expence of nearly 12,000/.
paid by the county. The length of this fuperb {tru€ture is
549 feet; the arches, five in number, are equal and ellip-
tical; the defign was by Mr. Harrifon. Atmong other be-
nevolent inftitutions in this town are feveral alms-houfes for \
men and women, a free-fchool for the education of 60 boys,
and two charity fchools for 50 boys and 4o girls, The
manufaétories of the town are inconfiderdble, and chiefly’
confilt of cabinet-making, {pinning of twine, cotton-printing,’
and weaving of fail-cloth. Ship-building has been greatly
encouraged, and many large veflels con{tructed, particularly
by Mr. Broockbank, who has fent fhips, launched at his
dock-yard, to London, of 450 tons burthen. Laneatter
trades to America with hard-ware and woollen manufac-’
tures g

LAN

(ures; and a confiderable quantity of candles is exported
to the Welt Indies: 40 or 50 fhips trade alfo to Norway.
It appears from the Cuftom-houfe entries, that in the year
1799, 52 veffels cleared out for the Weft Indies, with
cargoes to the value of two millions and half pounds
fierling. ‘The Cuftom-houfe is a {mall neat building, with a
portico fupported by four Ionic columns, fifteen feet in
height, each a fingle ftone. The ‘l'own hall is a large com-
modious edifice ; in the council room is a full-length por-
trait of lord Nelfon, painted by Mr. Lonfdale, an artift of
talents, who is a native of this town. He prefented it to
the corporation, who have alfo a fimilar portrait of Mr. Pitt.
The borough of Lancafter originated from a grant, made in
the 4th of Richard I. and members were firft fent to parlia-
ment 23 Edward I. Returns were alfo made at various
periods in the two fucceeding reigns ; after which there were
none till the reign of Edward VI., when the privilege was re-
ftored. The corporation is compofed of a mayor, recorder,
12 aldermen, two bailiffs, 12 capital burgefles, 12 common
burgeffes, a town clerk, and two ferjeants. In the vicinity
of the town is an excellent falt marth, adjoining the banks
of the Lune: this marfh is paftured and divided into what
are termed or! graffes ; that is, a privilege for the inhabitants
of turning a horfe or two cows to fummer on the common.
By the late inland navigation, Lancafter has communication
with the rivers Merfey, Ribble, Oufe, Trent, Derwent,
Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c., which navigaticns
extend above 500 miles, into the counties of Lincoln,
‘Nottingham, York, Weftmoreland, Chefter, Warsvick,
Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter, &c. About one mile
north-eaft of the town is a grand aquedu@-bridge, which
conveys the Lancafter canal over the river Lune. This
itupendous fabric was defigned and fuccefsfully executed by
Mr. John Rennie, civil engineer, who has hereby difplayed
much {kill and fcience in this and feveral other fimilar works.
The bridge confifts of five circular arches, each of 70 feet
fpan, rifing 39 feet above the furface of the river. The
peculiar difficulties which the archite& had to encounter,
in the bed of the river, made it neceflary to have a founda-
tion, a flooring of timber, which alone coft 15,000/. The
fuperftru€ture came to double that fum.

In the return to parliament in the year 1801, Lancafter
is itated to contain 1611 houfes, and go30 inhabitants.
Markets are held on Wednefday and Saturday; and here
are three annual fairs. ;

About three miles fouth of the town is Afhton Hall, the
feat of the duke of Hamilton and Brandon. Two miles
further is Thurnham Hail, the feat of John Dalton, efq. In
the vicinity of the town are alfo Wyerfide, the feat of John
Fenton Cawthorne, efg.; Quernmore Park, the feat of
Charles Gibfon, efq.; Grais-yard Hall, the property of
‘Thomas Edmondfon, efq.; Halton Hall, the feat of W. B.
Bradfhaw, efq.; and Halton Park, the feat of Thomas Bate-
man, efq. .

Five miles north of Lancafter, is a cavern, called Dunald
Mill-hole, of a peculiarly grotefque and aweful appearance,
which, probably, from its obfcure fituation, has been but
little noticed by topographers. An Hiftorical and Defcrip-
tive Account of the Town of Lancafter; with four engrav-
ings, 8vo. 1807. Beauties of England, vol. ix.

LancasTer, a populous and wealthy county of America,
in the interior part of Pennfylvania, extending S. to the
Maryland line. It is about 42 miles {quare, is divided into
25 townfhips, and contains 566,240 acres of land, and
43303 inhabitants, including 178 flaves. The lands of this
county are rich and well cultivated. The hills in the nor-
thern parts abound with iron ore; for the manufacture of

LAN

which two furnaces and eight forges have been ereéted,
Copper and lead, and abundance of limelltone, have been
found here.—Alfo, a county of Virginia, bounded E. by
Chefapeak bay, and S.W. by Rappahannock river. It is
about 40 miles long, and 15 broad, and contains 2249 free
inhabitants, and 3126 flaves. ‘The lands are generally poor.
—Alfo, a diftriét of South Carolina, containing 5012 inha-
bitants, of whom 1076 are flaves.—Alfo, a poft-town in
Gerrard county, Kentucky, 621 miles from Wathington.—
Alfo, a handfome and flourifhing poft-town, the capital of
Lancafter county, in Pennfylvania, and the largeft inland
town of the United States. It is pleafantly fituated upon
the defcent of a hill, 14 mile W. of Coneftoga creek, which
falls into Sufquehanna river, nine miles S. by W. of the
town, Its trade is already great, and mutt increafe in pro-
portion to the increafing population of the furrounding
country, It contains about goo houfes, chiefly of bricléand
ftone. The legiflature meet here till a permanent feat of
government fhall be eftablifhed. The public buildings are,
a handfome court-houfe of brick, a market-houfe of the fame
materials, and a ftrong ftone gaol. Here are fix places of
worfhip for German Lutherans, German Calvinifts, Prefby-
terians, Epifcopalians, Moravians, and Roman Catholics.
The manufactures of this town are carried on by individuals.
There are three breweries, and two or three valuable tanne-
ries. Franklin college is eftablifhed here for the Germans.
Its endowments are the fame as thofe of Dickinfon college,
at Carlifle. The truftees confift of Lutherans, Calviniits,
Prefbyterians, and Epifcopalians, of each an equal number.
The principal is a Lutheran, and the vice-prefident a Calvi-
nilt; 58 miles W. by N. from Philadelphia. _N. lat. 40° 3’.
W. long. 76° 20'!.—Alfo, a poft-town of South Carolina,
36 miles from Camden.—Alfo, a pleafant poft-town in Wor-
cefter county, Maflachufetts, fettled in 1645, and incor-
porated in 1653. It is fituated on two branches of Nafhua
river, which runs into the Merrimack: over thefe branches
are nine large bridges, and on their banks the land is ex-
cellent. Many perfons of education and fortune have been
induced, by the pleafantnefs of this town, to make it the
place of their refidence. It is famous for its abundant
{upply of good flates and of ftones for tombs and graves,
which are articles of exportation. Camberry pond -in..this
town is obferved to rife as much as two feet before a ftorm,
and Sandy pond rifes in a dry feafon.. It contains 1584 in-
habitants.—Alfo, a poft-town in. Grafton county, New
Hamphhire, on the E. bank of Connecticut river, about 41
miles above Hanover ; incorporated in 1763, and containing, .
in 1800, 440 inhabitants.—ALfo, a fine town, the capital of
Fairfield county, in the ftate of Obio; on a branch of the
Hockhocking river; about 25 miles N.E. from Chillicothé, .
—Alfo, a townthip of Upper Canada, in.Glengury county,
on the river St. Lawrence, and the loweft in the. province
adjoining Lower Canada.. Morfe.

LANCAT, a river on the N.E. coaft of Sumatra, which
runs into the Eaft Indian fea,.N. lat. 4° 5', E. long, .

8° 2's

LANCAVY, Lawscaxuy, or Pulo Lada, an ifland in
the Eaft Indian fea, near the coait of Queda; about 16
miles long, and from three.to eight broad. N. lat. 6° 19/.
E. long. g9° 40’.

LANCAYAN, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the N. coaft of Borneo.. N. lat. 6° 25'. E. long.
118° g!.

LANCE, Lanycea, a fpear, an offenfive weapon, borne
by the ancient cavaliers, in form of a half pike.

The lance confifted of three parts, the fhaft or handle, the
wings, and the dart. Pliny attributes the aka of

: ; ces-.

LAN

lances to the JEtolians. But Varro, and Aulus Gellius
fay, the word lance is Spanifh ; whence others conclude the
ufe of this weapon was borrowed by the people of Italy
from the Spaniards. Diodorus Siculus derives it from the
Gaulifh, and Feftus from the Greek »oyx2, which fignifies
the fame.
‘The lance, or {pear, is among the oldeft weapons recorded
in hiltory,. and is nearly coeval with the fword or bow ; it
probably originated in a pole or ftake, fharpened at one or
both ends, afterwards armed with a head of flint, and in
procefs of time, on the difcovery and ufe of metals, with
copper, brafs, and iron. Flint heads for both {pears and
arrows are frequently found in England, Scotland, and Ire-
land, and fo are alfo f{pear, javelin, and arrow heads of a
metal nearly refembling brafs. The fpear, lance, javelin,
darts of different-kinds, and even the more modern pikes,
are all comprehended under one common defcription of a
long ftaff, rod, or pole, armed with a pointed head of ftone
or metal at one or both ends, conftruCted for the purpofe of
piercing, or wounding with their points only, either by being
pufhed or thrown with the hand. Long {pears and lances
were ufed by the Saxons and Normans, both horfe and foot,
" but particularly by the cavalry of the latter, who, in charg-
irg, refted the butt end of the lance againft the argon or
bow of their faddle; the mail-armour not admitting of the
fixture of lance-refts, as was afterwards pra¢tifed on the
euirafs. A lance-reft was a kind of moveable iron bracket,
fixed to the right fide of the cuirafs, for the purpofe of fup-
porting the lance. It does not appear that there was any
eftablifhed ftandard for the length or thicknefs of the ancient
lances, or the fize or form of their heads; but it rather
feems, that every military man had his lance, as well as his
other arms, conftruGted of the dimenfions that beft accorded
with his ftrength and ftature, It is certain, however, that
the heads of lances and {pears were always made of the beft
tempered fteel, and their ftaves of the foundeft afh, whence
the writers of Latin verfe ufed the word fraxinus (Latin for
afh) te exprefs a lance or fpear. Although lances and
{pears were chiefly the weapons of horfemen, they were alfo
ufed by the infantry and difmounted knights, to keep off
the cavalry ; for this purpefe they fixed the butts in the
ground, their points floping towards the breafts of the
enemy’s horfes. In tournaments, the knights fometimes
fought on foot with their lances, in which cafe it was cuftom-
ary to fhorten them, by cutting off part of the ftaff. Tilting
lances differed from thofe ufed in war, both in their heads
and ftaves ; the heads of tilting being blunt, or occafionally
fitted with a contrivance to prevent penetration, called a
coronel or cronel, from its refemblanee to a crown. The
ftaves were thick at the butt end, tapering off gradually to
the point, and generally fluted ; near the butt end they had
a eavity for the reception of the hand. The front of it was
defended by an iron-plate, called a vam-plat, that is, an
avant-plate, and behind it was a broad iron ring, called a
burr. Thefe handles were not confined to the tilting lance,
but were made alfo on thofe defigned for war. Fauchet
. fays, they were not in ufe before the year 1300, Lances
were ornamented with a banderole near the point, which
gave them a handfome appearance; thefe were alfo called
pencells. Grofe on Ancient Armour, vol. ii. ,
Lance, Holy, the lance which, in legendary ftory, is faid
to have pierced the fide of our Redeemer. In the time of
the Crufades, when Antioch was befieged, a prieft of the
diocefe of Marfeilles, called Peter Bartholemy, pretended
te have received from St. Andrew, during his fleep, the
following inftru@tion. « At Antioch,” faid the apoftle, « in
the church of my brother St. Peter, near the high altar, is

LAN

concealed the fteel-head of the lance that pierced the fide
of our Redeemer. In three days that inftrument of eternal,
and now of temporal falvation, will be manifefted to his
difciples. Search, and ye fhall find; bear it aloft in battle ;
and that myftic weapon fhall penetrate the fouls of the mif-
creants.’" This revelation was refpeétfully received by
count Raymond, whom his faithful fubjeét, in the name of
the apoftie, had chofen for the guardian of the holy lance.
After fome previous ceremonies, the ground was opened at
the appointed place; and fearch was unfuccefsfully made
for the lance. After the count and his companions had
withdrawn, the artful prieft defcended into the pit; and,
availing himfelf of darknefs and folitude, contrived to fecrete
and depofit the head of a Saracen lance; and the firft gleam
of the fteel was faluted with a devout rapture. The holy
lance was drawn from its recefs, and expofed to the venera-
tion of the crufaders, and we may well imagine that the
defponding troops would again be inflamed with the enthu-
fialm of valour. Preparation was made for a confliét, and
it may be fuppofed that the potent energy of this relic or
trophy, aided by another miraculous delufion, would enfure
viétory. In the feafon of danger and triumph, the revela-
tion of Bartholemy of Marfeilles was unanimoufly afferted;
but as foon as the temporary fervice was accomplifhed, the
perfonal dignity and liberal alms which the count of The-
loufe derived from the cuftody of the holy lance, provoked
the envy, and awakened the reafon of his rivals. Incredu-
lity, with regard to the truth of the legend, fucceeded fufpi-
cion and examination, and the author was obliged to fubmit
his life and veracity to the judgment of God. A pile of
dry faggots, 4 feet high and 14 long, was ereéted in the
midft of the camp ; the flames burnt fiercely to the height
of 30 cubits, and a narrow path of 12 inches was left for
the perilous trial. The unfortunate prieft of Marfeilles
traverfed the fire with dexterity and fpeed; but his thighs
and belly were fcorched by the intenfe heat; he expired the
next day, protefting his truth and innocence. Such were
the origin, influence, and termination of the legend of the
holy lance. Gibbon’s Hit. vol. xi.

Lance Ja Grace, in Geography, a town of Louifiana;
75 miles S.S.W. of New Madrid. N. lat. 35° 25. W.
long go° 27!

Lancr’s Bay, a bay on the N.W. coaft of Jamaica.
N. lat. 18° 27!. W. long. 78° 14'.

LANCEA Curust1, in Botany, a name given by fome
authors to the ophioglofiim, or adder’s tongue, a {mall herb
found in moift places, with a fingle ftem of feeds.

LANCEARI], in Middle Age Writers, Soldiers whofe
ut weapon was the lance. They were in great elteem for-
merly.

LANCEBEARERS, Jfland of, or Ifle des Lanciers, in
Geography, a {mall ifland in the S. Pacific ocean, fo named
by M. Bougainville, in 1768. S. lat. 18° 28/. W. long.
138° 10'.

LANCELLOTTI, Granraoto, in Biography, an emi-
nent jurift, was born at Perugia about the year 1510. He
was firft noticed as a teacher of the law at his native place,
and was engaged by pope Paul IV. to draw up an inititute
of canon law, in imitation of Juftinian’s Inftitutes of civil
law. This was publifhed in 1563, and went very quickly
through feveral editions. It was annexed to the body of
canon law, and {till retains its place in the modern editions
of that compilation. He was author of other treatifes on
legal fubjects, and of a life of Bartolus. He died at Peru-
gia in 1591. Moreri.

LANCELOT, Cxravnr, was born at Paris in 1615 ;
at a-fit age he was perfuaded to join the devout folitaries of

$12 the

LAN

the Port-Royal, by whom he was employed in teaching ma-
thematics, and the languages in their fchools, till govern-
ment thought proper to fupprefs them. He was afterwards
appointed tutor to the young princes of Conti, but upon the
death of their mother, he took the habit of St. Benedié,
in the abbey of St. Cyran. In 1680, he was exiled to
Quimperlé, in Lower Brittany, where he continued the fame
afcetic courfe which he had been ufed to in the feminary.
He diedin 1695. He was author of many excellent works,
among which may be noticed * Nouvelle Methode pour ap-
prendre la Langue Latine ;” ‘ Nouvelle Methode pour ap-
prendre la Langue Grecque.” Thefe have been frequently
reprinted, and abridgments have been made of both. His
«¢ Grammaire generale et raifonnée,’’ is faid to be a very
excellent work, and has been tranflated into feveral lan-
guages.

LANCEOLA, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to that {pecies of plantain called rib-qwort, or plantago quin-
guenervia, by mott authors.

LANCEOLATED Lear. See Lear.

LANCEROTTA, in Geography, one of the Canary
iflands, about 30 miles in length, and eight in its greateit
breadth, containing 800> inhabitants. It is divided by a
ridge of mountains, which afford nothing but pafture for
cattle, though the vallies are fruitful, but fandy and thin in
foil. A principal article of trade is goat’s flefh, which the
inhabitants fell to the neighbouring iflands, under the name
of Tuffinetta. In 1730, a volcano broke out in this ifland.
Cayas, called alfo Rubicon, and Lancerotta, the principal
town, contains about 200 houfes. The ifland has feveral
havens or roads; and at the N.E. extremity is one, where
fhips may come in from the northward, and hie land-locked
from all winds in 10, 15, and 20 fathoms. The E. point
of the ifland is in N. lat. 29° 8'. W. long. 13° 26'.

LANCET, a well known furgical inftrument, the com-
mon form of which is reprefented in the plates of this work.
See the Surgical Plates.

Lancer Arch, in ArchiteGure, the fame as the pointed
arch,

Lancer Windows, thofe with lancet arches; but the
term is more generally applied to windows which are long
and narrow, than to thofe which are wide and low.

LANCETI, a name given by the ancient laws of Eng-
land to a kind of vaffals, who were obliged to work for the
lord one day in a week, from Michaelmas to autumn, either
with fork, fpade, or flail, at the option of the lord.

LANCH is a fort of long boat belonging to fhips; it
is not built upon failing principles, it being flat-bottomed
and broader, and is more ufeful for weighing {mall anchors
than the long boat, and watering and carrying the fhip-
ftores.

Lancu of a Ship. See Lavuncu.

LANCHE, in Geography, a town of Anterior Pomerania ;
11 miles S. of Bergen.

LANCIANO, a town of Naples, in Abruzzo Citra, of
which it is the capital; the fee of an archbifhop; $4 miles
N. of Naples. N. lat. 42° 12!. E. long. 14° 20’.

LANCIEGO, a town of Spain, in the province of
Alava; 18 miles S.S.E. of Vittoria.

LANCISI, Jonun-Manria, in Biography, a celebrated
phyfician, was born at Rome in October 1654. His pa-
rents were rather low in rank, but cherifhed the difpofition
for learning which he early difplayed ; and having finifhed
his claffical ftudies, he went through the courfe of philofo-
phy in the Roman college, and then commenced the ftudy
of divinity. He had always evinced a great talte for natural
hiltory, which was fo ftrongly awakened during his theolo-

LAN

gical refearches, that it induced*him to abandon the ftudy,
and apply himfelf entirely to that of medicine. He pur-
fued the fundamental branches, anatomy, chemiftry, and
botany with great ardour, as well as the more important
object, the obfervation of difeafes ; and was created doétor
in philofuphy and medicine in 1672. In 1675, he was ap~
pointed phyfician to the hofpital of the Holy Ghoft, in Saffia,
where he purfued his clinical enquiries with great accuracy
and acutenefs : but he quitted this fituation in 1678, when he
was received a member of the college of St. Saviour, in
Lauro, where he read with zeal all the beft authors from
Hippocrates downwards. His talents and acquirements were
now known and ackowledged, and he was appointed profef-
for of anatomy in the college de la Sapienza, in 1684, and
continued his duties as a teacher for thirteen years with great
reputation. In 1688, pope Innocent XI. chofe Lancifi for
his phyfician and private chamberlain ; and fome time after-
wards gave him a canon’s ftall in the church of St. Law-
rence: but on the death of the pope, in 1689, he refigned
it. He was now in high public eftimation, and when Inno-
cent XII. fell fick in 1699, Lancifi was called apon, and
was never abfent from him during his whole illnefs. He was
eleGted phyfician to the conclave, and was immediately ap-
pointed firit phyfician and private chancellor to the perfon of
the fucceeding pope Clement XI. He was indefatigable in
the difcharge of all his duties, as well as in the purfuit of
his ftudies, reading and writing at every interval of leifure,
and in his attendance on the learned focietics of the time.
He died in January, 1720, at the age of 65. He wasa
man of {mall ftature, with a lively countenance, and cheerful
difpofition ; his manners were extremely engaging ; and he
was poffeffed of much knowledge of mankind. His ardour
for the advancement of his art was extreme and uncealing.
He collected a library of more than twenty thoufand vo-
lumes, which he prefented in his life-time to the hofpital
of the Holy Gholt, for the ufe of the public, particularly
the young phyficians and furgeons who attended the patients
in that hofpital. This noble benefaction was opened in 1716,
in the prefence cf the pope, and a great number of cardi-
nals.

Lancifi left a confiderable number of works, many of which
have been printed, but feveral in MS., which he bequeathed
to the hefpital, and which are depofited in its library.
Among his leffer produétions, were a fynopfis of anatomy ;
an epiitle to Fantoni on the fame fubjeét; an epiitle to
Bianchi on the fecretion of the bile; an effay on the atmo-
fphere and climate of Rome; on phyfiognomy and the feat
of the foul; on the proper method of ftudying in medicine ;
on the origin and ftruéture of fungi, in a letter to count
Marfigh ; and fome others, in the Latin language ; and alfo

_ an addrefs to the academy of Sienna, ‘* Del modo di filofo-

far nell? Arte Medica.’? His more important works are his
treatife “ De fubitaneis mortibus, Libri duo,’”” Rome 1707.
— Tabule Anatomice Clarif. viri Bartholomei Euftachii,
quas a tenebris tandem vindicatas, et fan&ifl. Dom. Cle-
mentis XI. Pontif. Max. munificentid dono acceptas, prefa-
tione notifque illuftravit,”’ ibid. 1714, folio.— Differtatio
Hiftorica de Bovyilla Pefte ex Campiniz finibus, anno 1713,
Latio importata. Accedit Confilium de Equorum Epide-
mia,” ibid. 1715.— De noxiis Paludum Effuviis, Libri
duo,” ibid. 1717.—He likewife edited, in the fame year,
under the patronage of the pope, a pofthumous work of
Michael Mercati, entitled Metallotheca, with plates; and
afterwards. publifhed, «* Appendix ad Metallothecam Vati-
canam Michaélis Mercati,’”? 1719. After his death, a trea-
tife, “ De motu cordis et aneuryfmatibus,’’ was printed in
folio at Rome, 1728:—anda colleftion of cafes ae

S.

LAN
MSS. in the library of the hofpital, entitled « Confilia
XLIX pofthuma,’’ Venice, 1747. All his works, with
the exception of the two laft, were colleéted in his life-time,
and printed at Geneva, with the title of «* Joannis Maria
Lancifi Opera que hactenus prodierunt omnia, Differtationi-
bus nonnullis adhucdum ineditis locupletata,”” 1718 ; which,
as well as moft of the feparate treatifes, have paffed through
feveral editions. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

LANCISIA, in Botany, fo named by Pontedera, in
honour of John Maria Lancifi, phyfician to pope Clement
XI. Ponted. Diff. 203. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. zot. See
Linseckia.

LANCKAW, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm; 10 miles E.N.E. of Thorn.

LANCKE, atown of Pruffia, in Pomerelia, on the bor-
ders of Pomerania; 32 miles N.N.W. of Fredeland.

LANCPOU, alake of Thibet, about 30 miles long and
nine wide. N. lat. 32° 36’. E. long. 84° 32'. —Alfo, a moun-
tainof Thibet. N. lat. 32° 55’. E. long. 84° 34!

LANCTAN, a mountain of Thibet. N. lat. 31° 52’.
E. long. 85° 54.

LAND, ina general fenfe. See Earru, Soir, &c.

Dr. Davenant, from a fcheme of Mr. King, {tates the
quantity of land in England and Wales to be thirty-nine
millions of acres; which, reckoning the number of inha-
bitants, as he does, to be 5,500,000, will at an average be 7
acres per head. Davenant’s Works, vol. vi. § 3. See AcRE,
and Expectation of Lift.

Lanp, ina legal fenfe, includes not only the face of the
earth, but every thing under or over it; fo that if a man
grants all his lands, he grants thereby all his mines of metal
and other foffils, his woods, his waters, and his houfes, as
well as his fields and meadows.

Lanp, in Agriculture, the earth or foil in which plants fix
themfelves and grow, or which produces crops of different
kinds.

It is ftated in an able work on the landed property of
England, that “land, viewed in the light of agriculture, is
the foundation on which it refts, the materials on which it
operates, and the vilible fource of its produétions. And
that it may generally be confidered as being compofed of three
diflin& parts ; the foil, the fub-foil, and the bafe, or fub-
ftructure, oa which they reit.’’* It is added, that «the foil,
or plant-feeding itratum, is not more various in quality than
itisin depth. The foils of cultivated lands, however, have
their limits as todepth. Thefe limits may, it is conceived,
be fixed at three and fifteen inches, For although, in many
initances, the component parts of land are pretty uniform,
to a greater depth than fifteen inches, a uniformity of colour
and vegetative quality feldom reaches to that depth. The
influence of the atmofphere, the fibres of vegetables living
and decayed, the operations of animalculg, and larger ani-
mals, that inhabit foils, and, above all, the powerful effe&ts of
manures, tend to furnifh the furface mould with qualities
which the fubftrata have not the means of acquiring. The
medium depth of cultivated foils, in England, may, it is ima-
gined, be fet down, with fufficient accuracy for this purpofe,
at nine inches. For although a majority of the cultivated
foils of the kingdom may not reach that depth, the writer is
ef opinion that the major part of them might, under proper
management, be funk to nine inches deep, with advantage
in many refpeéts."” See Sot,

And it is further ftated, that “ the fub{cil, or intervening
flratum of land, is ftill lefs definite with regard to depth. In
fome initances, as where the cultivated foil refts upon rock,
it may be faid to be wanting ; though, in moft cafes of this
kind, a ftratum of a gravelly nature, compofed of broken

13

LAN

rock and earth, is found between them. And in many cafes,
a regular bed of gravel, fand, or other earth, intervenes be-
tween the foil and the fubftru€ture. While in others, an
uniform mafs of earthy materials reaches to a great depth.
If, therefore, a definite thicknefs, or depth, may be affigned
to the fubfoil, it mutt he, ina degree, arbitrary,’’ or with«
out any degree of accuracy or correétnefs.

It feems evident, that “ the foil affords nourifhment and
ftability to agricultural plants, and that the fubfoil affigns
them temperature, with refpe€t to moifture and internal
warmth. If the fubfoil is of fuch a nature, or is fo fituated
as to receive and retain more moifture than is requifite for
the natural growth of plants, their health is injured. If it
not only holds water in its own pores, but freely communi-
cates it to thofe of the foil, the more valuable plants in agri-
culture give place to ranker -herbage, let the furface foil be
what it may. Onthe contrary, if an open ftratum of fuffi-
cient depth intervenes between the cultivated foil and the
bafe, to permit the fuperfluous moifture which filters through
the foil, or which is communicated fubterraneoufly, to pafs
off, the plants in cultivatien will be relieved from colleéted
moifture, in the immediate region of their feeding fibres ;
though the fubftruéture may be charged to the fill with
water. Hence, where nature has sot furnifhed land with
this valuable interitratum, it is the bufinefs of art to remedy
the defeét,’’ in fome way or other, and which in general
*¢ is to be done by draining off the fuperfluons moilture to
a fufficient depth to prevent its evil effeéts on the foil, and
thereby fupplying the required {tratum.” It is however
well obferved, that ‘* in doing this, the artift muft be led
by the given properties of the bafe, and can feldom lower it
to any determinate or arbitrary depth. Neverthelefs, it
will be right, before he proceeds further, to endeavour to
form an adequate idea of the medium depth required ;"*
in doing which, much, he fays, depends on the fpecific
quality of the fubfoil, Sand will hold up water that is
lodged at its bafe to a much greater height than gravel.
A ftratum of gravel of one foot in depth forms a drier
fubfoil, than a bed of fand of twice or three times that
thicknefs. But clean fand or gravel is rarely found in
land; fand and gravelly loams being the more ordinary
materials of abforbent fubfoils; and thefe are capable
of raifing and holding up water to a confiderable height.
“« Let us, therefore, admit that effeCtive fubfoils may vary
from one to two feet, and fix the medium depth at eighteen
inches."’ And ‘ by thus fixing the mean depth of foils at
nine inches, and that of fubfoils at eighteen-inches, place
the bafe or fubftructure of the land at twenty-feven inches
beneath its furface; which is a depth of land that is
equally conformable with theory and with praétice. To
this depth drains may be funk, at a moderate expence: and
covered {tone drains of this depth may be rendered effe&tual,
yet free from injury by the operations of tillage. In the
practice of fkilful workmen, the depth of ordinary fubfoil-
drains varies from eighteen inches to three feet, according
to the circumftances of the given cafe, and the method of
draining employed.”

After this general view of the component parts of land,
and of their due arrangement, the common varieties of it, as
they are given by foil, fubfoil, and bafe, may be enumerated
and confidered, In the execution of which it may be
proper to divide lands into claffes, and mark the varieties of
each.

Firft Clafs.—This comprehends, according to the above
writer, fuch lands as are liable to furface water only with
their abforbent ftrata (if any) open, fo as freely to difcharge

the fuperfluous water they receive upon them: the a
©

LAND...

ef which are firft, where “ the foil, the fubfoil, and the
bafe are repellent, or ina flate of moiftnefs, impenetrable by
water, as clay and flrong deep clayey loam.'' The fecond,
where ‘the foilis repellent, the fubfoil abforbent, the bafe
repellent.”? The third, where ‘ the foil is repellent, the fub-
foil and bafe abforbent, or in a ftate of moiltnefs, condudt-
ing water ; as {and, gravel, open rock, and the lighter more
open loams.’? The fourth, where “ the foil, the fubfoil,
and the bafe are abforbent.”’ The fifth, where ‘ the foil and
the fubfoil are abforbent, but the bafe repellent.’’ And the
fixth, where “ the foil is abforbent, the fubfoil repellent,
and the bafe abforbent or repellent.”

2d Clafs.—This includes fuch lands as are liable to fur-
face-water only, with their abforbent {trata clofed, or per-
mitting an imperfect eae either for want of fufh-
ecient defcent, or by reafon of impervious itrata, or beds of
Smpenetrable materials. The varieties of which are, firlt,
where “ the foil is repellent, the fub-foil abforbent, and the
bafe repellent or abforbent."” The fecond, where * the
foil and the fub-foil are abforbent, but the bafe repellent, or
abforbent.”” The third where ‘ the abforbent and repel-
Jent ftrata, or mafles, are thrown together irregularly ; or
not difpofed in regular ftrata, which correfpond with the
furface,’’ or upper part.

3d Cla/s.—This comprifes fuch lands as are liable, not

only to furface-waters, but to thofe which are fubterrene,
and which either defcend from higher grounds in their
refpective neighbourhoods, or rife beneath them from fub-
jacent refervoirs; the abforbent ftrata of this clafs being
‘clofed, and thereby rendered retentive, as in the fecond
clafs, or kind of land.’ The varieties of which are, firlt,
‘where “the foil is abforbent or repellent; the fub-ftrata
abforbent and clofed, and uniformly charged with defcend-
ing waters, by an even ftratum of gravel, free-fand,’”’
or fome other fimilar material The fecond, where
«*the fame foil and fub-ftrata are partially charged with
defcending waters, through veins of fand or gravel, or fif-
fures of rock, &c.”’ The third, where ‘the foil is repellent
er abforbent, the fub-foil abforbent and clofed, and uni-
formly charged with defcending waters; the bafe repel-
lent, with a fub-bafe freely abforbent and open.’’ The
fourth, where ‘ the foil is abforbent or repellent, the fub-
ftrata uniformly abforbent and clofed, and charged with
rifing waters.” And the fifth, where “ the foil is repellent
or abforbent, the fub-ftrata complex and clofed, and charged
with rifing and defcending waters.’

It may be obferved, that the nature of thefe different
kinds, or claffes of lands and their varieties, with that of
their different conftruétions, the effets to which they are
each particularly expofed from a fuperabundance of water,
the methods of removing fuch wetnefs, both with the view
of ameliorating the lands for the purpofes of cultivation, and
that of providing fupplies of water for economical ufes, as the
working of light machinery, the confumption of pafturing-
ftock, and in particular cafes, where a {ufficient quantity can
be procured, for the watering of land, will be fully confidered
in their proper places; and many ufeful obfervations may be
found in the work here alluded to, efpecially in what relates
todraining. The two objects of applying water to the ufe
of live-ftock, and that of irrigation, fhould conitantly be
kept in the mind of the improver of the foil. See Sort,
Warenrine of Land, and Dratnine of Land.

It is fufficiently evident, from various circumftances in the
management of lands, that fome forts are much better calcu-
lated for the produétion of grain crops than thofe of the
ab kind ; while, on the contrary, others are much more

uitable and better adapted to the raifing of grafs than thofe
sof the corn kiad; and that there are itill others that may

VoL. XX,

be cultivated under a convertible fyftem of corn and grafs,
with more fuccefs than either of the methods feparately.

It may be remarked, that all thofe lands which poffefs a
fufficient degree of drynefs, whether they have much depth
of mould or not, and which, in their natural ftate, have but
little tendency to produce good herbage, fuch as thofe cover-
ed with different forts of coarfe plants and vegetable pro~
duGtions, whether in an open or inclofed {tate, are proper
for tillage. And it has been well obferved by Mr. Davis,
that grounds of this nature are of confiderably more value
when in a ftate of tillage than in paiture; as they are parti-
cularly adapted to the improved methods of cultivation, and
in addition to the quantity of grain to be produced from
them, will afford a greater quantity of vegetable food for
animal itock, when in a tillage itate, than they did when
kept entirely in that of pafture or fward. The fame writer
likewife ftates, that there are various other de{criptions of
light lands that may be kept in a ftate of tillage with more
advantage than in that of grafs, as they are peculiarly fuited
to thofe improved modes of cultivation that are neceflary
for railing large fupplies of green-food for the fupport of
live-ftock of different kinds. That the poorer forts of fand-
lands, where marle, clay, chalk, or other fimilar fubftances,
can be readily procured, are much more proper for the pur-
pofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, is fufficiently fhewn by
the improvements that have been made in many of the more
fouthern diftriéts of the kingdom. And that lands of the
chalky kind, whether of the more fuperficial or deep de-
{criptions, are, in moft cafes, better fuited for tillage than
gra{s, is proved from their wetnefs in the winter feafon, and
their opennefs and friability in the fummer, rendering it
almoft impoffible to eftablifh good herbage uponthem. Be-
fide thefe, there is another fort of land that is better for the
purpofes of tillage than thofe of grafs, which is that which,
in the ftate of grafs, is conftantly fo difpofed to the pro-
duétion of mofs, as to afford but a very fcanty fhare of
good herbage in any circumftances.

It has been ftated by the author of “ Pra&tical Agricul-
ture,’’ that « moft of the clayey and more heavy defcriptions
of land, efpecially when fituated in vallies, or other low
confined expofures, though they may be capable of affording
good crops of particular kinds when under the plough, as
thofe of the wheat and bean kind, are, on account of their
retention of moifture, the increafed expences of labour, and
the uncertainty of feafon for tilling them, as well as their
inaptitude for moft other forts of crops, and their fitnefs for
the produGtion of good herbage, much more beneficial in
the itate of grafs than im that of tillage. When there isan
opportunity of procuring fea-fand, and of applying it at an
ealy expence, they may, however, it is obferved, be con-
verted to the purpofes of tillage in a profitable manner.
Mott of thofe itrong cold grafs-lands which, in a ftate of
tillage, would be improper for the growth of turnips, and
other applications of improved cultivation, fhould alfo con-
ftantly remain in a ftate of grafs. And likewife thofe
lands that are fituated near large towns, where manure is
plentiful, and, of courfe, capable of being procured at a
reafonable rate; and where the produce of fuch lands ig ©
always in great demand, and therefore capable of being dif-
pofed of to great advantage. Such lands as are fituated on
the banks of large rivers or brooks, which are capable of
being improved by means of watering, are likewife more bene-
ficial when kept conftantly under the grafs fyftem than any
other mode of cultivation that can be praGtifed. ‘The lands
of a calcareous nature, which are diftributed in the vallies of
the more mountainous diftriéts, where old grafs-land is
{carce, and of much importance, and moft part of that in the
{tate of tillage incapable of being converted to the condition

Ds ef

LAN

of good crafs, may alfo, it is believed, be the moft advanta-
eous when continued in a permanent {tate of herbage.”’

But that the forts of lands that are the moft adapted to
the prastice of convertible hufbandry are thofe of the leamy
kinds, which are not too ftrong for the growth of turnips.
Thefe, in-all their different varieties, are capable of beng
changed from the ftate of eae to that of grafs, and the
contrary, not only without fuitaining any injury, but fre-
quently with the moft evident advantage, asthe practice of
fome of the weltern and midland diftri@ts has fully proved.”
And “the richer kinds of fandy lands are, in moft cafes,
alfo well fuited to this fort of hufbandry ; efpecially where
marle is at hand, to be applied at the time of laying them
down to grafs. Grounds of the peaty fort may likewife, in
many cafes, be the molt beneficially employed in this mode
of culture, 2s, from their producing little elfe than plants of
the aquatic kind, it is obvious that they muit be completely
dettroyed, and thofe of the proper grafs kind be introduced,
before any ufeful herbage can be produced. And this is
capable of being accomplifhed in by much the moft perfect
manner under the ftate of tillage. But as they are, in moft
inftances, much too tender and moift for the purpofe of re-
mainipg long in the ftate of tillage, as foon as the above in-
tention has been fully’ effe€ted, they fhould be reftored to
‘the ftate of permanent grafs,”’ either as meadows or patture-
lands. See Grounp and Sort. -

Lanp Carriage, in Rural Economy, that fort of conveyance
which is performed on land, which, in many cafes, is highly
inconvenient, and always greatly expenfive and troublefome
to the farmer. It fhould, of courfe, be leffened as much as
poffible, in fituations that will admit of it, by the fubftituting
of water-conveyance, by the forming of fmall narrow canals,
which may, in many initances, be done at a trifling expence,
and thus much leffen the extent or diftance of land-carriage.
Much has been done in this way, with confiderable effect,
within the laft twenty-five years, in different parts of the
country. See Cana and InLanp Navigation.

Lanp-Guard, a fort of fence or embankment conftructed of
ftones, wood, or other materials, on the borders of rivers and
brooks, in orderto prevent theiroverflowing and carryingaway
the land. The cafes in which they become more particularly
neceflary, are where they are confined in the parts where
they are required to bend, by rocks or other means, to an
unaltered channel; it often takes place in hilly fituations,
and where deep poois occur in fuch parts at low water,
fo as to render it difficult or impoflible to provide a good
foundation for a pier. The mode of applying and forming
theie forts of guards, will be explained in confidering the
nature and manner of guarding river-banks, and confining
ftreams of other kinds. See EMBANKMENT, and River-
Banks, Guarding of.

Lanp Maré, in Agriculture, any thing placed as the divi-
fion of land. Thefe marks were formerly chiefly ufed for
fhewing the different lots or divifions in common field-lands,
and other forts of commonable land.

Lanp-Reeve, in Rural Economy, a perfon whofe bufinefs
it is to overlook certain parts of a farm or eftate; to attend,
not only to the woods and hedge-timber, but alfo to the
flate of the fences, gates, buildings, private roads, drift-ways,
and water-courfes: and likewife to the ftocking of commons
(where there are any), and encroachments of every kind ; as
wellasto prevent, or dete& wafte and fpoil in general, whether
by the tenants of the eftate, or others; and to report the
fame to the manager or land-lteward. It has been obferved,
that “the utility accruing from thefe inferior officers of an
eftate occurred to the writer in the Highlands of Scotland ;
where they ha.e been commonly appointed on every eftate,
it is believed, from time immemorial, under the name of

LAN

ground-officers.?? And he has * fince experienced't their uti
lity fo fully in England, as to induce him to recommend
their appointment on every large eftate ; not merely as help-
mates to the a¢cting-manager, but as authentic evidences in
matters of difpute, and as intelligent informants to a pro=
prietor in going over, or inquiring after, the affairs of his
eftate. Active intelligent tenants, of known integrity, are
generally the moft fuitable perfons for having the manages
ment of this fort of truit confided in them.”

Lanp Springs, {uch as rife, or are produced in lands, at
fome confiderable depth, from the water being obftrnéted
in its defcent by fome fort of impenetrable material, fuch as
clay, &c., and thus forced up to the furfacey where it breaks
or oozes out, having different appearances, according to the
nature of the foil and fituation in which it occurs. See
Sprine, and Drarnine of Land.

Lanp Steward, the common name of a perfon who over-
looks, or has the management of a farm or eftate. The
number, defcription, and qualities of-land ftewards muft be

regulated according to the nature and extent of the pro-.
perty, and the particular circumftances of the proprietor. .
In order to be fully qualified, according to the author of

‘© The Modern Land Steward,”’ for the proper management
of large eftates, the ftewards fhould have attained that tho-
rough and corret knowledge of the bufinefs of life, that

full-tried experience in men and things, which ought not to —

be expeéted earlier than the middle age. ~No material part
of their time or attention fhould be ‘engroffed by their own
private concerns, as, in fuch cafes, they mutt evidently
neglet their own, or the bufinefs of their employers ; and it
would be paying human nature too great a compliment to
fuppofe the former. To an ample fhare of agricultural
cpg they ought to have a thorough infight into the
nature of every improvement of which eftates may be ca-
pable, whether upon or beneath the furface; or from its
local fituation, whether inland or upon the fea-coaft. Their
attention fhould be alfo direéted to the ufeful fctences of po-
litical economy and political arithmetic, as there is a itrict
and happy coincidence between public and private wealth.
They fhould be well verfed in, and qualified to fuperintend,
the culture of wafte lands, the difpofal of timber, the eradi-
cation or planting of woods, irrigation and warping, drain-

age, embankment, and the recovery of land from the fea,

the cutting of canals, the laying out and repairing of roads,
the conftruction of bridges, mills, and engines ; and be pof-
feffed of a confiderable fkill in rural architeGture of every
kind. Nor is it lefs neceflary that they thoroughly com-
prehend the nature of all the various methods in which
money bufinefs is tranfaéted ; together with the advantage of
bargaining in the purchafe or fales of eftates. Their intelli-
gence ought alfo to extend to the valuable inventions and
improvements of other countries, as well as thofe of their
own; which, whether in the mechanic or agricultural rela-
tion, they fhould ufe their beft means to introduce, and
fairly experiment upon the eftates under their care, with the
honourable and patriotic views both of private and national
benefit. In fhort, with fufficient honefty, a mind amply re-
plenifhed, a cool, deliberate, and calculating head, a quick
difcernment, they fhould Jay hold of every occafion, as it
fprings, to enhance the worth, the reputation, and the em-
bellifment of the property committed to their charge. -

For thefe qualifications and endowments they fhould have
full and adequate allowances, in the way of falaries or wages,
according to the fervice to be performed. Their praé cal
fill in agriculture fhould particularly extend to the manage-
ment of cattle, and the common outlines, at leait, of rural
architeGiure, as far as regards repairs, or ordinary new erec-
tions ; and they fhould be thoroughly maiters of common

2 accounts,

ncientdg

LAN

accounts, and able to defcribe or correfpond by letter intel-
figibly, and with propriety. When thus qualified, they
may make very capable and refpeCtable {tewards ; but they
would not be the lefs eligible for a fufficient portion of
mathematical and mechanical knowledge, and the pra¢tical
habits of menfuration both of timber and land: though a
defect of thefe branches of fcience ought not to operate to
the rejection of thofe otherwife well qualified ; fince they
are acquired by a very moderate application and practice}
and fince there are always at hand profeffional men in thefe
{ciences, whofe fervices are perhaps, after all, the moft eligi-
ble and proper. Land ftewards fhould have the care and ma-
nagement of every thing that relates to the farm or eltate, of
which they have the fuperintendence. It is alfo"further ad-
vifed, that ‘¢ every eltate fhould be accurately furveyed, and
correctly defcribed in a map, of which the tenant alfo fhould
have one. It is {uppofed particularly neceffary, both to ftew-
ard and tenant, to keep an exact terrier of all common field-
lands; and where the bounds and abutments of any fingle
parcel of land are dubious, to have them defined and afcer-
tained with durable land-marks, by a jury purpofely impan-
nelled at the manor-court: and in order to preferve the
bounds and precinéts of a parifh, with the particular pro-
perty of the lord, entire, and free from encroachment, and
to preclude the neceflity of quarrels and fuits at law, it is
good to keep the ancient cuftom of annual perambulation.’’
And it is confidered as “¢ the duty of itewards to ride over,
and make actual perfonal furveys of the eftates in their truit,
fufficiently often to offer timely advice, to obviate any dan-
gers, and nip any irregularities or encroachments in the bud:
to have in their poffeffion duplicates of all leafes, covenants,
deeds, &c.’? And that, « where the cafe of default or
danger does not admit of immediate remedy through their
own means,’? to exonerate themfelves by initant application
to their employers.
_ And it is likewife their bufinefs « to infpeé all repairs,
that they be duly and fubftantially performed; fencing re-
ularly kept up, according to covenant; ditches caft and
ody water-courfes free, and common rights fairly en-
joyed, according to the cuftom of the manor ; the larger
tenants not overftocking, to the prejudice of the inferior:
jn which cafe, the ftewards are bound to interfere.—To ob-
‘ferve that the cutting of underwood be at the regular, cuf-
tomary, or covenanted periods ; that the lopping of pollards
be fair, and no damage-done, in any wife, to the proprietor’s
timber or woods; to mark the {pots where new plantations
may be neceflary or advifable ; woodwards to be admonifhed
of their duty,—that they report all perfons who trefpafs,
either with their cattle, under colour of cutting up hand-
fticks, faggot-bands, or fimilar pretences.”? And to dif-
courage poaching and deftruétion of the game, rather by
rational and moderate indulgences, than either by the threat
or exertion of the exceflive rigour of the law, which, ac-
cording to the complexion of the prefent times, can have no
other poffible effect than to detract from the popular cha-
racter of the proprietor, and from the fafety of that which
jtuch meafures are intended toenfure.’’ Further: ‘ to cau-
tion the tenants that they do not fuffer the land to be over-
un and rooted up by moles, or the commons or woodlands
‘by unrung fwine.’”? And that ‘the ftriGeft caution be ob-
ferved, that all materials produced by the farm or eftate, in
any refpect fit for manure, or other ufeful purpofe, fuch as
marle, lime-{tone, coal, or kelp-afhes, weeds, fhells, fand,
clay, virgin-earth, &c. be difpofed of and ufed among the
tenants of the eftate only, and by no means alienated from it ;
fince fuch praétice would be to rob the {oil of a natural and
moft valuable mean of improvement.”

~

LAN

It is, on the whole, concluded, that ‘ there is great
convenience in land {tewards being furveyors of the highways
for the parifhes in which they refide; in which cafe, it lies
in their own power to preferve them in a condition eredit-
able to the county and the proprietors for whom they aé.
Nor ought they ever to be inattentive to the concuct of the
furveyors of other parifhes. in wltich they are concerned ;
never permitting the leaft neglect, nuifance, decayed bridge,
or dangerous way ; but occafionally, and aceording to the
neceflity of the cafe, making a few examples in a genteel
and temperate, but firm tone, always pleading for their
punilioufnefs, the ftriét and peremptory orders of their
employers, which they dare not difobey.’? And ‘the like
{triétnefs is, it is fuppofed, neceflary with refpe& to tref-
pafles from neighbouring cattle; for fome farmers are fo
exceflively dilatory in this refpect, that they will take no
kind of pains either for the fecurity of their own or their
neighbour’s crops.”

It is remarked by the writer of the work on ‘ Landed
Property,” that on a large eltate a refident manager is ge-
nerally found,—‘ a land fteward, a man who has fome
knowledge ot what is termed country bufinefs, and who acts
under the controul of his employer, or of a confidential
friend who is more converfant.in rural concerns, or perhaps
of a law-agent who knows lefs of them:’’ and that fuch
refidiag fteward, efpecially of a detached eftate, which lies
at feme diftance from the refidence of its proprietor, acts
without controul. In this cafe, if he is a man of judgment
and integrity, he becomes, at leaft in the eyes of the te-
nantry, a fuperior. being ; frequently, in their minds, a more
exalted charaéter than their landlord,—than the proprietor
himfelf, who, perhaps, never deigned to glance his eye upon
them or their Jands.’’ But that, ‘“ on the contrary, if fuch
poffeflory manager wants thofe requifite qualifications, the
confequence becomes mifchievous to the lands, their oc-
cupiers, their proprietor, and the community. If this un-
principled agent has an intereft in the derangement of the
eltate, and the ruin’ which will follow, and is fuffered to
make ufe of it,—the crime of neglect, on the part of the
proprietor, might well be cognizable as a crime againft the
public.”’ And further, that ‘ fimilar evils are liable to
befal an eftate which lies round the refidence of its pro-
prietor, if he is equally inattentive’’ to its proper manage-
ment and regulation.

Agriculture is confidered as the only firm foundation on
which the other acquired attainments can be fecurely re-
pofed. It is not more effentially valuable in the fuperin-
tendence, than in the improvement of an eftate. ‘ It is
difficult to become an accurate judge of the value of lands,
without a practical knowledge of their ufes: nor can any
man, withaut it, properly appreciate the management of
occupiers ; much lefs affift them in correGting their errors,
and improving their pra¢tice.’’ And that “ land furveying
is another requifite qualification: not fo much, however, for
the purpofe of mapping and meafuring an eftate at large, as
for checking and corre¢ting the works of profeffional men ;
as well as to affitt in laying out its lands to the moft adyan-
tage,’? and with the greateft propricty. Further: that
«¢ fome knowledge of mechanics, and the other f{ciences that
are requifite to the bufinefs of an engineer, may be highly
ufeful in profecuting the improvements incidental to landed
property, in various ways; as well as a competent know-
ledge of rural architeCture, and the fuperintendence of arti-
ficers, as-they may be faid to be of daily ufe. The nature
of planting, and the management of woodlands, are acquire-
ments that cannot be difpenfed with. Nor fhould his
knowledge and attention be confined to the furface of the

liz eflate

LAN

pafturage by confequence. The ordinance was, that all
houfes of hufbandry, with twenty acres of ground to them,
fhould be kept up for’ ever, together with a competent
proportion of land to be occupied with them, and in no
wife to be fevered from them. By thefe means, the
houfes being kept up, did, of neceflity, enforce a dweil-
ler; and the proportion of land for occupation being
alfo kept up, did, of neceffity, enforce that dweller not to
be a‘beggar. This flatute was renewed in king Henry the
Kighth’s time ; and every perfon who converted tillage into
palture fubjeéted to a forfeiture of half the land, ull the
‘offence was removed. Ina law of the 25th of the fame
reign, it is fet forth, that many farms, and great plenty of
cattle, particularly fheep, had been gathered into few hands,
whereby the rents of lands had been increafed, and tillage
very much decayed ; churches and towns pulled down ; the
price of provifions greatly enhanced, and a marvellous num-
ber of people rendered incapable of maintaining themfelves
and families; and, therefore, it was enacted, that no perfon
Should keep above two thoufand fheep, nor hold more than
two farms. In the third of Edw. VI. a bill was brought in
for the benefit of the poor, for re-building decayed farm-
houfes, and maintaining tillage againft too much inclofing.
In the year 1638, there was a fpecial commiffion from
Charles I. for enforcing the flatute of the 3oth of Elizabeth,
by which no cottage was allowed in any country place, without
at leaft four acres of land to it, to prevent the increafe of the
poor, by fecuring to them a maintenance; nor were any
inmates allowed in any cottage, to fecure the full cultivation
of the land, by diffufing the people more over it. And by
an act in Cromwell’s time, no new houfe was to be built with-
$n ten mules of London, unlefs there were four acres of land
occupied by the tenant. Thus did the policy of our an-
ceftors difcourage inclofing and engrofling, upon the fame
general view of their depopulating tendency ; and though
the increafe of trade and manufatures in more modern times
has produced a confiderable alteration in the ftate of our
country, and may require fome change in our internal policy,
yet it is eafy to forefee, becaufe facts juftify the apprehen-
fion, that inclofing and engroffling, to the degree in which
they have lately prevailed, will annihilate the fmall occupiers
of land, and reduce the inhabitants of the kingdom to two
clafles, viz. gentry and beggars, or grandeesand flaves. See
this fubje&t more amply difcuffed, and the arguments for
.and againft inclofnres and large farms, ftated under Farm,
and Incrosine of Land.

As in former times the number of the occupiers of land
was greater, and all had more opportunities of working for
themfelves, it is reafonable to conclude, that the number of
people willing to work for others muft have been fmaller, and
the price of day-labour higher. ‘The nominal price of day-
labour, fays an author who wrote a few years ago, 1s at pre-
fent no more than about four times, or at moft five times,
higher than it was.in the year 1514. But the price of corn
is feven times, and of flefh-meat and raiment about fifteen
times higher ; therefore the price of labonr has been fo far
from advancing in proportion to the increafe in the expences
of living, that it does not appear to bear now half the pro-
portion to thefe expences that it did formerly. What alter-
ation has taken place fince thefe obfervations were made, we
leave others to determine. See on this fubject Price’s Ob-
fervations on Reverfionary Payments, Supplement, p. 383,
&c. Appeal to the Public on the Subje& of the National
Debt, p. 93, &c. See Lazour, and Lasourers.

For the different kinds of inclofure, fee Eartu-banks,
Fence, Hepes, and Watt.

* Lawn, drable. . See ARABLE, .

LAN

“Lanp, Bog. See Bos.

Lanp, Burning of. See Burn-beating, Bunninc, Lanny
Burning of, and Paria.

Lanp, Catch. See Catcu-land.

Lanp, Chalk. See Sor.

Lanps, Champion. See CuAmpion,

Lanp, Charter. See Cuarrer-land.

Lanp, Chifély. See Cusery.

Lanp, Clay. See Sort.

Lanps, Court. See Court-lands.

Lanps, Fabric. See Fasric-lands.

Lanny, Fardel of. See Farner.

Lanp, Folé. See Foux-/and.

Lanp, Fore. See Fonre-land.

Lanp, Ghbe. See Grree-land.

Lanp, Gravelly. See Sor.

Lanp, Head. See Hran-land.

Lanp in peerage, Holding. See Prrracr.

Lanp, in. See In-land.

Lanp, Jnclofing of. See Lann, Inclofing of, and Ixctos-
ine of Land. 5

Lanp, Lay. See Lay.

Lanp, Leafe of. See Lease.

Lanp, Marfh. See Marsuy lands.

Lanp, Meadow. See Meanow.

Lanps, Overflowing of. See Flooding of Lanp, Innica-
TION, OVERFLOWING and Warerine of Land. ‘

Lanp, Oxgang of. See OxGanc.

Lann, Plough. See Carrucate.

Lawn, Rent of, See Rent.

Lanp, Road. See Roan.

Lanp, Sandy. See Sot.
Lanp-Tele/cope. See TEL¥ScoPE.

Lanps, Tenementary. See ‘TENEMENTARY.

Lanops, Thane. See THane-lands.

Lanp, Up. See Ur-land.

Lanp, Waffee See Waster.

Lanp, Watering of. See Waterine of Land; Innigae
TION, &c.

Lanps, Wood. See Woon-lands.

Lanp, Yard. See Yarn-land.

Lanp, Yoak. See Yoax of Land.

Lanp, Laying the, in Sea Language, denotes that motion
of a fhip which increafes its diftance from the coatt, fo as to
make it appear lower and fmaller, a circumftance arifing
from the intermediate convexity of the fea. ‘This is ufed
in contradiftinction to raifing the land, which is produced by
the oppofite motion of approach towards it. When a fhip
is got out of fight of land, they fay the /and is /aid.

Lanp, Jo make the. See Make.

Lanp-Maré, at Sea, is any mountain, rock, fteeple, wind-
mill, tree, or the like, near the fea-fide, which ferve to dire&
fhips pafling by how to fteer, fo as to avoid certain dangers,
be they rocks, fhoals, whirlpools, &c. ‘

Lanp, Setting the, is obferying by the compafs how it bears.

Lanp, Shut in. When another point of land hinders the
fight of that which a fhip came from, then they fay the Jand
1s _fout in. i

J To When a fhip lies fo far from the fhore, that
fhe can but juft ken Jand, then fhe is faid to lie Jand-to.

Lawnp-Turn, is a wind that blows from the fhore in the
night, at certain times, in moft hot countries.

Lanp, Head, or Point of land, in the Sea Language, is that
which lies farther out into the fea than the reft. See Port,
Carr, &c. : ;

LANDA, in Geography, a kingdom of Borneo, ceded,

"in 1778, to the Dutch company, together with Sucqa-

-danay

LAN

dana, by the king of Bantam, to whofe crown they were
appendages.

LANDAFF. See Lianparr.

Lanparr, a townfhip of America, in Grafton county,
New Hampbhire ; incorporated in 1774, and containing 461
inhabitants.

LANDAU, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Wiffembourg, fituated on the river Queich, which runs into
the Rhine; containing four churches; formerly imperial.
The place contains 5123, and the canton 15,246 inhabitants,
on a territory of 4874 kiliometres, in 18 communes. N.
lat. 49° 13/. E. long. 8° 10'.—Alfo, a town of the county
of Waldeck; 12 miles N, of Waldeck.—Alfo, a town of
Bavaria, on the Ifer; 32 miles W. of Paffau. N. lat. 48°
36'. E. long. 12° 37/.

LAND-CHEAP, an ancient cuftomary fine, paid either
in cattle or money, upon the alienating or felling of land
in certain manors, or within the liberty of certain bo-
roughs.,

At Malden in Effex, a payment is ftill made of 13d. in
every mark of the purchafe-money for lands and houfes fold
in that town; which is called land-cheap.

LANDE, in Geography, a town of Norway; 36 miles
N. of Chriftiania.

LANDECK, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 48 miles
N. of Gnefna.—Alfo, a town of the county of Tyrol, on
the Inn; 39 miles W.S.W. of Infpruck.—Alfo, a town of
Pruffian Pomerelia ; 64 miles S.W. of Dantzic.—Alfo, a
town of Silefia, in the county of Glatz, on the Biela ; 8 miles
S.E. of Glatz. N. lat. 50° 15’. E. long. 16° 40!.

LANDED Interest, a term oppofed to monied in-
tereft, in political confiderations; though there is a near
conneétion between them: for the landed intereit is affected
by foreign trade. See Monten Jntereft.

The foreign trade of every country muft decline, that,
1. Lays unequal taxes in general on its people. 2. That
cramps its commerce, the fountain of riches, by high duties,
and impolitic prohibitions. 3. That fuffers many mono-
polies. 4. That opprefles its people by prohibiting the im-
portation of victuals, under the pretence of raifing the value
of its lands.
lating to its poor. 6. That tempts foreigners to carry
away its coin for lefs than its intrinfic value. 7. That
makes the obtaining juftice chargeable. §. That fuffers a
heavy national debt, contracted in time of war, to continue
unpaid in time of peace.

The reafon why the decline of foreign trade finks the
yalue of land is, 1. Becaufe it finks the markets at home.
For, the produce of land being rendered exceffively dear
from the caufes above enumerated, foreigners will not take
its fuperfluities ; and labour being by the fame caufes ren-
dered exceffively dear, we cannot manufacture or improve
that produce, becaufe nations which can afford cheaper fup-
ply the markets abroad; fo that the produce of the lands,
not being carried off as ufual, muft become a dead ftock on
the farmer's hands, and caufe great quantities to be crowded
into markets, where, being encouragement but for few
buyers, the price naturally falls; as, for infance, the de-
clining demand of our woollen goods abroad falls the price
of wool at home.

2. Becaufe it increafes the number of poor, to burden
the land. ;

3- Becaufe it diminifhes the number of people: for, as
employment leffens, the moft induitrious, rather than ftarve
bere, will fly to other countries, where trade can maintain

5- That encourages idlenefs; by bad laws re-*

LAN

them. So the confumption of thefe being taken away, the
demand at market mutt grow lefs, and of courfe rents mutt
fall, yet the farmer's charges muft grow greater; for the
fewer the hands, the higher wages are: this muft break him
in the end, and produce all the confequences following that
misfortune. Befides, men who trade bring in money ;
therefore the fewer they are, the lefs money will be
ae ; and the lefs money, the lefs rent can be given for
and.

4. Becaufe the decline of trade diminifhes our riches.
This is a confequence of the above remarks; for having
fewer goods capable of being exported by reafon of their
dear price, and our manufactures declining, muift in time
be loit: therefore the importation of foreign goods muft na-
turally increafe, and more money go out to pay for them.

Nations that have no mines of gold and filver, have no
means to get them but by foreign trade ; and according to
the quantity of thefe metals they poffefs, the price of their
commodities, and therewith the value of their lands, rife and
fall in proportion, which fhall now be proved.

According to Dr. Davenant, the whole rental of Eng-
land, in 1600, did not exceed fix millions per annum, and
the price of land was twelve years purchafe ; in 1688, the
rental was fourteen millions, and the price of Jand was
eighteen years purchafe: fo that, within this period, the
landed intereft rofe from feventy-two to two hundred and
fifty-two millions; and this advance was owing to an in-
creafe of trade.

The Britannia Languens, page 12, fays, if there were
but five hitndred pounds in England, an ox could hardly be
worth a penny ; therefore the rent mutt bear its proportion
to the riches. This appears by Maitland’s Hiftory of Lon-
don; for he fays that, in the year 961, land fold at one
fhilling per acre. The reafon that land then bore fo low a
price, was the low price the produce fold at; for he fays,
that, in the year 1000, an ox fold for 2s. 6d., a cow for
2s, a fheep for 1s., and a fwine for 8d. In 1445, wheat
was at 4s. 6d. per quarter; in 1447, at Ss.; in 1448, at
6s. 8d.; in 1449, at 5s. A bullock, in 1445, was 55.3 a
fheep 2s. 5td.; a hog 1s. 113d.; clothing for a year, at
the fame period, of a common fervant of hufbandry, 3s. 4d. ;
of a chief carter and fhepherd, 4s.; of a bailiff of hufbandry,
gs. In 1512, the mean price of wheat in Yorkfhire was
6s. 2d.; the price of malt was 4s., and of oats 2s.; fo that
the nominal price of grain at this time was about a feventh
of its nominal price for the laft twenty years ; reckoning from
the time when the author below cited wrote. The price of
a fat ox, at the fame time and in the fame county, w4s 13s.
4d.; of a lean ox, Ss.; of a wether, 15. Sd.3 of a calf, 1s.
§d.; of a hog, 25,3; fo that the nominal price of meat was
no more than about a fifteenth of its prefent price, and bore
the fame proportion to the price of corn that it would now
bear, were it at half its prefent price. In an aé& of parlia-
ment of the 25th of Henry VIII. beef, veai, pork, and
mutton, are mentioned as the food of the pocr, and their
price limited to about ahalfpenny a pound. Beef and pork
in particular were fold in London at 23 1b. and 3 |b. fora
penny ; at the fame time that wheat was at 7s. and Ss. a
quarter, and bore the fame proportion to the price of fleth -
as it would bear now, were it.about 4/.a quarter. In 1549,
wheat was in London 12s. per quarter, malt 1os., bariey
Qs-» Tye 6s 6d., oats 4s., a middling ox 1% 18s., a wether
3s. butter 3d. and a penny a pound, and cheefe a halfpenny
a pound. See the citations in the Supplement to Price’s
Obf. on. Reverfionary Payments, &c. p. 385, &c. This
could be only owing to the little foreign trade the nation

: had

LAWN

had at thefe refpective periods, and confequently, to the
little quantity of gold and filver which trade had then
brought in.

But if it fhould be afked, What is the reafon that, at
prefent, all things are naturally fo much advanced in price,
to what they were in thofe days? the anfwer is, that the
quantities of gold and filver brought to Europe fince the
prone made by the Spaniards and Portuguefe in America,
rave made thofe metals more common, and of lefs value than
formerly ; fo that 20s. will hardly purchafe what 1s. would
before the difcovery of the Weft Indies. On this fubjeé,
fee the article Inreryst. To which may be added, the
great increafe of our national debt and taxes, together with
the circulation of the intereft of the principal money of the
‘public funds; and likewife that great circulation of paper
redit in trade occafioned by notes and bills, which, by
promoting an artificial circulation of property, raife the
price of commodities, and give the appearance of wealth to
the nation ; though they are really the charateriftics of a de-
<clining ftate. Poft. Di&. Com, “a

The dearnefs of commodities and the cheapnefs of money
are the fame things.

LANDEGODE, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
North fea, near the coaft of Norway. N. lat. 67° 25!.

LANDEN, Jonn, in Biography, a celebrated mathe-
matician, was born at Peakirk, near Peterborough, in
Northamptonfhire, in January 1719. He became an early
proficient in mathematical fcience, was a contributor to the
Ladies Diary inthe year 1744, and was one of the moit ar-
dent friends to that very ufeful publication. He contri-
‘buted to this annual work till within a few years of his death.
‘The life of Mr. Landen was far from an eventful one. He
paffed the earlier part of his life, as a farmer, at Walton,
near Peterborough, at the fame time he gave mathematical
inftrugtions to feveral young perfons in the neighbourhood.
From Walton, Mr. Landen, in 1762, removed to Milton,
the feat of earl Fitzwilliam, to undertake the bufinefs of
Jand fteward to his lordfhip: and in this fituation he re-
mained till within a year or two of his death. To return to
the mathematical labours of our author.— He publifhed, in
the Philofophical Tranfactions for the year 1754, “* An In-
veltigation of fome Theorems, which fuggett feveral very
remarkable Properties of the Circle, &c. ;’? and in the fol-
lowing year he publifhed a volume, intitled «“ Mathematical
Lucubrations.”? This title was intended to inform his
friends and the public, that the ftudy of mathematics was at
that time rather the purfuit of his leifure hours, than his
principal employment. They contain a variety of traéts
relating to the rectification of curve lines, the fummation of
feries, the finding of fluents, and many other points in the
higher parts of mathematics. From this time to the year
3766 he gave the world feveral valuable works ; and on the
16th of January of this year, he was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society: foon after which he inferted in the Philo-
fophical Tranfaétions, “* A Specimen of anew Method of
comparing curvilineal Areas ;’? by means of which, many
areas are compared, that did not appear to admit of com-
parifon by any other method ; a circumftance of confiderable
importance in that part of natural philofophy which relates
to the doétrine of motion. Thefe are but a {mall part of
the works which he produced, and which have given cele-
brity to his name. In the years 1781, 1782, 1783, he
publifhed three fmall traéts “* On the Summation of con-
verging Series,” in which he explained and fhewed the ex-
tent ot fome theorems which had been given for that pur-
pofe by De Moivre, Sterling, and Thomas Simpfon, in

LAN

anfwer to what he conceived to have been written in dift
paragement of thofe excellent mathematicians. Mr. Landen
was author of a work publifhed in two volumes, and at dif-
ferent times, intitled «* Memoirs.?? The fecond volume
contains his lait labours on the folution of the general pro-
blem concerning rotatory motion. It comprifes alfo a re-
folution of the problem relating to the motion of a top;
with an inveftigation of the motion of the equinoxes, in
which Mr. Landen has, firft of any one, pointed out the
caufe of fir Ifaac Newton’s miftake in his folution of this
celebrated problem. He lived to fee the volume completed,
and received a copy of it the day before his death, which
happened January 15, 1790, at Milton, in the 71ft year of
his age. Mr. Landen was not only diftinguifhed by his
eminent talents as a mathematician, but by the excellence of
his moral character. His temper, however, was not a good
one; and he was too apt to look with contempt on’ thofe
whom he deemed his inferiors. His MSS. were fold for
waite paper ; a circumftance that did not refle& much credit
on thoie perfons who came in pofleffion of them.

Lanven, in Geography,.a town of France, in the de-

artment of the Ourte, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Huy, feated on'the river Becke ; 17 miles
W.S.W. of Liege. The place contains 642, and the can-
ton 9265 inhabitants, on a territory of 824 kiliometres, in
25 communes.

LANDERNEAU, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Finilterre, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri& of Breft. The place contains 3577, and the canton
13,804 inhabitants, on a territory of 180 kiliometres, in g
communes. N. lat, 48° 27’. W. long. 4° 10’. }

LANDERON, a town of Switzerland, in the princi-
pality of Neufchatel, fituated at the S.W. extremity of the
lake of Bienne, and inhabited by Roman Catholics; 7
miles N.E. of Neufchatel.

LANDES, Les, a department of the S.W. region of
France, formed of Landes and Chalofle, diftri@s of Gaf
cogne, in N. lat. 44°, a maritime termtory between Lower
Pyrenées and Gironde; bounded on the N, by the depart-
ment of the Gironde, on the E. by that of Lot and Ga-
ronne, and Gers, onthe S. by the Lower Pyrenées, anden
the W. by the fea, containing 468 fquare leagues, and 228,889 .
inhabitants, and divided into three circles or diltriéts, viz.
Mont-de-Marfan, which has 72,968 inhabitants, St. Sever,
including 78,125, and Dax, with 77,796 inhabitants, 28
cantons, and 368 communes. Its contributions amount to
145,376 fr. and its expences charged on the departments are
203,769 fr. 62 cents. The foil of this department is for the
motft part fandy and unfruitful, the N. and W. parts confilting
of heath and marfhes, and poorly cultivated. Some parts,
however, towards the S.E. are more fertile ; and this de-
partment yields fome grain, fruits, and excellent pattures.
It has alfo forefts of pines, quarries, and mineral {prings.
Its chief town is Mont-de-Marfan.

LANDESHUT, a town of Silefia, in the principality
of Schweidnitz, on the Bober. The town was founded
in 1292, and it has a Latin fchool, a Roman Catholic church,
and by permiffion and purchafe a Lutheran church. Its
linen trade is flourifhing ; 18 miles W.S.W. of Schweidnitz. |
N. lat. g0° 30'. E. long. 15° 55’. . ,

LAND-FALL, is afea-term, fignifying to fall in with
the land, or the firft land difcovered after a fea-voyage.

Lanp-FALi, Good, is when a fhip makes or foes the
land, as fhe expetted, according to her reckoning. The
contrary is called a dad /and-fall.

LAND-GABLE, ap ancient term for a tax or rent,

iffuing

LAWN

ifuing out of «land ; anfwering to what we now call ground-
rent.

LANDCRAVE, formed of the German /and, earth,
and graff, om xrave, judge, or count, a name formerly given to
thofe who ecuted juitice on behalf of the emperors, with
regard to the internal policy of the country. The title does
not feem to have been uled before the eleventh century.
Thefe jud, -s were firft appointed within a certain diftriét of
Germany; 4 procefs of time the title became hereditary,
and thefe judges aflumed the fovereignty of the feveral dif-
tri€ts or coriatries over which they prefided. Landgrave is
how applice, by way of eminence, to thofe fovereign princes
of the emp® » who poffefs by inheritance certain eftates, called
fandgravate: and of which they receive the inveRtiture of the
émperor. ‘Chere are four princes who have this title, viz.
thofe of Touringia, Heffia, Alface, and Leuchtenberg.
‘There are «lfo other landgraves who are not princes, but
éounts of the empire. See Count.

LANDCUARD Fort, in Geography, an Englith fort,
fituated on <« point of land at the S.E. extremity of the coun-
ty of Suffs'k, atthe mouth of the rivers’ Orwell and Stour,
eppofite to Harwich ; furnifhed witha garrifon, under the
command of a governor, and a platform of guns to defend
the coatt.

» Lanpcuarp, a point on lake Erie, in Upper Canada ;
formerly called Point aux Pins, fituated in N. lat. 42°7! 15".
To this place there is a great refort of Indians in the {pring,
on account of the abundance of fifh and fowl, which may be
then taken. This point is about twenty miles E. of the
South Foreland, and bears the only pine-timber on this
‘coat.
~ LANDI, Ortewsio, in Biography, was born at Milan
about the middle of the fixteenth century: he was educated
at his native place, and at Bologna. Being in neceflitous cir-
eumftances, he attempted to gain a maintenance by the
practice of phyfic, which he exchanged, in avery fhort time,
for theology, and entered into the order of St. Auguttine.
It has been faid by fome writers that he apoitatized from the
church, but others fay that {a this particular he has been mif-
taken for a different perfon. While at Milan, he publithed
two dialogues, entitled * Cicero relegatus,’’ and “ Cicero
revocatus,’’ which he feigns to have been held by acom-
pany of learned men in 1533, His next work was entitled
« Yorciane Quettiones,’’ in which, under the feigned name
of Philalethes, he treats, in an entertaining manner, on the
cultoms, drefs, diverfions, and inhabitants of the different
cities of Italy. It was publifhed at Naples in 1536. He
now travelled into France, and contraéted a clofe friendfhip
with Stephen Dolet, who was afterwards burnt as an atheift.
Upon his return to Italy, he entered fucceffively into the
fervice of the bifhops of Trent and Catania. In 1540, he
publifhed a dialogue againft Erafmus, who had been dead
four years, and on account of which he was feverely han-
dled by an able antagonift. While he was at the court of
_ Francis I. in 1543, he publifhed his two books of « Para-
doxes:’”? thefe he foon fotnd had been written with too
great freedom, and as they began to excite contiderable at-
tention, he thought proper to anfwer them himfelf anony-
moufly, and inhis reply he is faid to have treated himfelf
_Avith as little ceremony as any real opponént would have
done. In 1544, he travelled through Germany, and after-

wards through the different provinces of Italy, which he
defcribed in a work entitled * Commentario delli piu noti-
bili et moftruofe cofe d’Italia’ et altri luoghi.” He is fup-

pofed to have died foon after the year 1560, leaving behind
him many other works befides thofe which have been enume-
wated. He lived in friendfhip with feveral of the learned

= aor. XX.

LAN

men of that age, by whom he has been much praifed. Gen.
Biog.

LANDINGS, in Architecture, the firlt part of the floor
at the head of a pair of ftairs.

LANDINO,Cunisrorner, in Biography,an Italian fcho-
lar, was bornat Florence in 1434. He itudied firft at Volter-
ra, under Angiola da Todi, by whom he was fo much beloveds
that he not only maintained him a long time at his own ex-
pence, butat his death bound his heirs to fupport him three
years longer. He was intended by his father for the law,
and was by him obliged to purfue it till he obtained the libe-
ral patronage of Cofmo and Peter de Medici, by which he
was enabled to return to his favourite purfuits, and indulge
himfelf in the fludy of the Platonic philofophy. He be
came one of the chief ornaments of the Platonic academy at
Florence, and lived in ftri& friendfhip with Poliziano, ;Ficino,
and others ofits members. In 1457, he gave public leétures
in polite literature at Florence, which contributed to the
progrefs of learning in that period. At an advanced age he
cbtained an office in the ftate, and was prefented with a pa~
lace for his refidence. He died in 1504, at Prato Vecchio.
His ‘ Latin Poems”’ will bear a comparifon with the mot!
able compofitions of that age. He wrote commentaries on
Virgil and Horace, and Dante, which went through feveral
editions. He tranflated Pliny’s ‘“ Natural Hiftory” into
Italian, and was author of « Dialogues on the, Nobility of
the Mind,” and other pieces conneéted with moral philofo-
phy. Hecompofed fome Latin and Italian orations, which
were printed.

LANDIVISIAN, in Geography, a town of France,,
in the department of Finifterre, and chief place of a canton,.
in the diftri€&t of Morlaix ; ro miles W.S.W of Morlaix.
The place contains 2124, and the canton 11,460, ona ter-
ritory of 150 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

LANDIVY, atown of France, in the department of the
Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié&t of
Mayenne ; 18 miles N.W. of Mayenne. The place con-
tains 1872, and the canton 11,223 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 1874 kiliometres, in § communes.

LAND-LOCKED: a fhip is faid to ride Jand-locked,
when fhe is furrounded with land, that is, is at anchor in a
place where there is no point open to the fea, fo that the is
fafe from the violence of winds and tides.

LANDO, pope, in Biography, a Sabine by birth, fuc-
ceeded to the pontifical throne on the death of Anattafius III.
in the year 913. He was indebted for his elevation to Theo-
dora, and her daughters Marozia and Theodora, all of them
no lefs famous for their beauty, their wit, and addrefs, than
infamous for the feandalous lives which they led. Lando
died within about fix months of the time that he was ele-
vated to the papal fee, and during that fhort reign he did
nothing worthy of note, or that need be recorded in this
work. Moreri. Bower.

LANDRECIES, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of chalNorth- and ‘chief place of a canton,
in the diftriGt of Avefnes, feated on the Sambre. It was
taken from the Spaniards by the French in 1655, and conti-
nued in their poffeffion by the peace of the Pyrenées, when
they enlarged its fortifications. and made it one of the ftrongeft
places in the country. It has only two gates, one towards
the eaft, called the «* Gate of France,’ and the other to-
wards the weft, called the Gate of Quefnay.” It fuffered
feverely by the fiege of 1794, and furrendered to the allies ;
but in the fame year the garrifon, confilting of 20,000'men,
furrendered to the French. ‘The place contains 2867, and
the canton 8865 mag ce on a territory of go kiliome-
treg,in 9 communes. N. lat. 50° 7’. IE. Jong. 3” 45’.

ying eee 7 8:3 a LAN

LAWN

ar RAO: a town of Italy; 11 miles S.S.E, of
ilan.

LANDROAL, a town of Portugal, in Alanteijo; 13
miles N. of Mourao. N. lat. 38? 35’. E. long. 7° 12’.

LANDSBERG, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Natangen ; 26 miles S. of Konigfberg. N. lat. 54° 14’
E. long. 20° 30/.—Alfo, a town of the duchy of Stiria ; 24
miles S.W. of Gratz.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the
county of Hoya, on the Wefer; 6 miles S.S.W. of Nieu-
burg.—Alfo, a town of Silefia, otherwife called Gorzow,
in the circle of Oppeln, on the borders of Poland ; 30 miles
N .E. of Oppeln. N. lat. 51° 3!. E. long. 18° 29'.—Alfo,
a town of Bavaria, on the Lech; 18 miles S. of Augfburg.
N. lat. 48°. E. long. 10° 51'..—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in
the circle of Leipzig ; 14 miles N.W. of Leipzig. N. lat.
51° 34’, E. long. 12? 11'.—Alfo, atown of Brandenburg, in
the New Mark, on the Warta; containing three churches,
a royal magazine, and feveral manufactures of ftuff and cloth,
with a confiderable trade in wool; 20 miles E.N.E. of Cuf-
trin, N, lat. 52° 48 E. long. 15° 20'.—Alfo, a town of
Brandenburg, in the Middle Mark; 14 miles E.N.E. of
Berlin. N. lat. 52°35’. E.long. 13°48).

LANDSCAPE, or Lanpsxip, the view or profpe&t of
a country, extended as far as the eye will reach.

Lanpscare Painting, is that peculiar application of the
art of painting, which reprefents extended views of what-
ever is attached to the furface of the earth; as mountains,
rocks, woods, buildings, &c. It is even applied to views
of the fea, particularly when any portion of the land is feen:
and, in the general divifion of the practice of the art into four
principal bratiches, landf{eape-painting includes all repre-
fentations of the fea alone; although, in common difcourfe,
they are generally termed according to their charater: asa
ealm at fea, a ftorm, a fea-fight, &c. &c.

The great points which the artift ought to aim at, who»

practifes landfcape-painting, are, to mark jut proportion
and true perfpective; to obtaina free and varying touch,
which may fully charaerize the yarious obje&s he mu't of
neceffity be called upon to imitate; and to produce the effect
of f{pace, or what is technically termed diftance.

There are two kinds of preportion which require attention
in order to produce a pleafing landfcape. One is, between
the quantum of the furface of the picture appropriated to
the fy, and that allotted to the earth or the figures intended
to be introduced, be they mountains, houfes, rocks, or trees :
and the other is that of the various parts of the picture, reci-
procally, according to their various diftances in the f{cene.
Of the latter, after the fize of the objects on the fore-ground
is determined, perfpeCtive is the fole regulator: therefore a
knowledge of the principal rules of that feience is here abfo-
lutely requifite.

With regard to the former of thefe proportions, the fub-
ject of the piéture will undoubtedly furnifh the belt means
ef deciding juftly. If the fcene be mountainous, viewed
from below, and at a fhort diftance, the {pace allotted to
the iky muft be fmalland near the top of the picture. If,
onthe contrary, the view be of an open champaign country,
the reverfe will be the juft charatteriftic of the picture ; and
the fky will occupy by far the larger part. It is by no means
alerted that this will always be the cafe, as for inftance, if
the view of a plain be taken froma great height, then of
courfe the horizon will rife very high; but this would have
more the character of a plan, than a pi€turefque or natural
view. Commen fenfe poiuts out the rule in the two prefup-
pofed cafes ; but it is not eafy to regulate this matter in or-
«inary compofitions, whereas, to make the work captivating,
at is of much more.importance than is generally imagined,

5

LAN

and a large demand is made upon tafte to regulate it. In
general, much more grandeur is acquired by a low horizon,
and an ample fpace of fy, than by any other proportion ;
and next in effect to that, is the direét reverfe. In both, it is
the quantity doubtlefs that produces the impreflion; and this
principle holds good, not only in landfeape, but in all other
fubjeéts on which the art is employed, In fact, the general
principles of the art of painting are alike applicable in all its
different branches. ‘lhe fame feleétion in ttyle of defign, or
rather choice of nature; the fame aims in compofition ; the
fame contrafts in arrangements of colour, except that they
can never, or very rarely, be fo powerful in landfcape, as
where the picture reprefents animated or artificial objets. In
land{cape not only are the objects fit to be introduced, of a,
clafs which are not fraught with ftrong colours, particularly
of red or blue, but being furrounded by open Air, and re-
ceiving reflections of light and colour in every direétion, their
natural vividnefs is diminifhed ; and as they recede from the
eye, the denlity of the atmofphere intervening between
them.and the fpectator, envelopes them in a mit, and renders
them indiftinG in various degrees ; till in the extreme. dif-
tance it reduces all colours to one hue of a light greyifh blue,
almoft intermingling them with the, fky.

It is by the intervention of this grey hue in the atmo-
fphere, which arifes from refleCtions of light thrown off by
particles floating in the vapours which hover upon the furface
of the earth, (aided by diminution of form,) that the effeét
of diftance is. produced ; and to imitate this with truth, and
in a tone correfpondent to the kind of day or feafon which.
is feleCted for reprefentation, is one of the principal difficul-
ties of landfcape painting. ie

It is vain to attempt to give rules for overcoming this dif-
ficulty. Different malters have proceeded by different ways.
to gain poffeflion of this defideratum. Claude in oze ftyle,.
and Wilfon in another, have both admirably effeGted it. One,
by fcumbling a grey, or air-teint, over the diltant parts ;
the other by working tke teint in the body of colours. Ob-
fervation of their pictures, with tafte cultivated by a long
continued obfervance of nature, is the only means of acquit
ing a juft feeling of the fimplicity and purity exhibited in
her works, and the confequent power of reprefenting them
in all the varied effects fhe exhibits; either in her more gay,.
or fombrous moments ; when the face -of the earth is illu-
mined with funfhine, and fparkling with luftre ; or when
clouds bedim and envelope its beauties in fhade, and the forms
of diftant objets are lott in the whirlwind and the ftorm.

Though land{cape-painting has not the fame powerfal’
meas to work with as hiftoric painting, which enjoys the
great advantage of animation and expreffion in its fubjects,
and likewife prefents the greateft difficulty to overcome ;. yet’
no true and enthufiaflic lover and obferver of nature, can
avoid acknowledging, that it poffeffes the power of exciting
great intereft in the mind. A ftorm reprefented by the pen-
cil of Gafpar Pouffin, or a calm by that of Claude, will not
fail to imprefs the obferver with.ideas of terror, or gentle-
nefs. ‘The one, who fkilfully traced the paths of the wind in
its ravages, and the deformity produced by the falling fhower 5.
and the other, who loved to dwell upon the beauties of the
earth, in moments of undifturbed tranquillity, equally inte-
reft our feelings, and excite thofe emotions which fuch
varied circum{tances in nature are calculated to infpire.
Compared with fuch views of. the higher objects and airs of
art, the pra¢titioner in land{cape- portrait painting, onr.one

who paints views of particular fpots, finks into about the

fame ratio, as the portrait painter of mankind holds to him
who engages his talents in the reprefentations of hiftory. ,
Yet Mill his tafk is not devoid either of pleafure. or ne

e_

LAN

‘The fame principles are required for practice, but they are
unfortunately shes obliged to yield to peculiarities which
deftroy their fimplicity and prevent their effeét; unlefs the
artift has obtained that extraordinary talent of introducing
eafual circumf{tances, fuch as ideal fhadows, accidental re-
flections, and agreeable figures, in {uch a manner as to unite
or improve imperfe&t forms, and guide or attra the eye
from difagreeable parts. As isthe aim of the improver of
Bends, or, as he is now termed, the landfcape gardener,

uch ought to be that of the landfcape painter. Wherever
blemifhes in form occur, they fhould be hidden, and where
natural beauties are beftowed, they fhould be exhibited to
view ; and adorned with proper adjunéts of trees, water,
clouds, or figures. A perfon not converfant with the
powers of combination and contraft in defigna, can have no
conception of their extraordinary power to heighten the
effe&t of the,dulleft fcenes, and the meaneft objects. It
fhould therefore be the principal taf of the artiit to ob-
ferve thofe which are conftantly occurring among natural
objects, their efleCis, and the different fentiments they ex-
ete; fo that he may poffefs a ftore to recur to, in time of
need.

The beauty of land{cape-painting depends very much
upor fimplicity of feleétion, and clearnefs and frefhnefs of
colour. The former fhould not only govern the choice of
objeéts or fcenery, but alfo the manner of reprefenting them,
i.e. the artift muft not attempt to delineate all the forms he
fees in atreeor arock ; that would not only be an almoft
endlefs labour, but.an imperfe& one, even when the greatett
fkill was exhibited ; his duty israther to fele& thofe forms
which more immediately charaéterize the objet, and mark
them only ; taking care to avoid heavinels.

Of this kind was the practice of Titian, Claude, Domeni-
chino, Pouffin, Mola, and all the beft landfcape-painters of
the Italian fchool, and Rubens and Rembrandt adopted it ;
whilft Hobbima, Ruyfdael, Both, Wynants, and almolt all
the Flemifh fchool, by attempting too minute an imitation in
fmaller matters, loft dignity and even intereft.

Among thofe who have prattifed with fuccefs this delight-
ful branch of the art of painting, the name of Claude Gelee,
ufually known by that of Claude de Lorraine, defervedly
ftands pre-eminent. He may have been furpaffed by
Titian in wild and romantic fcenery, and grandeur of ftyle
in detign, but neither he nor any other has ever equalled
Claude’s truth and purity of colour and effe@. Hitherto
the perfeGtion with which he has reprefented the effect of the
atmofphere is unrivalled. Even Cuyp andour own Wilfon,
who have arrived the neareft to him, {tilllack his completion
of effect. Their artis more apparent than his in his beft
works; and great chaflity and fweetnefs of tafte appear
generally to have governed his choice of fcene and of parts.
Nicolo Pouffin has left a great number of highly interefting
Jandfcapes, in a ftyle peculiarly his own. He appears to
have delighted in the hues cf the earth and trees after wet,
and without fun; and in the tones of twilight; which
admirably coincides with his choice of fcenery and the claffic
objets he introduced into it. His nephew Gafpar pro-
ceeded in another track, and made pi€tures from the fcenes
which the Apennine mountains afforded him; which, while
they are wrought with great freedom, ftill bear too much
the air of portraiture, and too often lack atmofphere. The
fame may be faid in a greater degree of the works of Salvator
Rofa, who delighted to reprefent the moft wild and defert
fcenes of nature; which he executed with a touch in perfect
confonance with their chara¢ter. It was with Wilfon, as we
have above mentioned, that the tafte and talent of Claude for
producing the air-teint, (as that which produces the effe& of

LAN

the atmofpliere is technically termed,) was moft powerfully
revived ; and of him it may truly be faid, that had his pa-
tience in completing his pictures been equal to his tafte in
colour, compofition, and effect, the ancient maifter might
have fallen under the modern one ; and we fhould have had
to boaft, that the greateft painter of land{capes the world
ever produced, was an Englifhman.

LANDSCRON, in Geography, atown of Bohemia, ia
the circle of Chrudim ; 27 miles E. of Chrudim. N. lat.
49° 50'. E. long. 16° 23’.

Lanpscron, atown of Pruffia, in Natangen; 18 miles
N.E. of Heilfperg.

LANDSCRONA, a fortified fea-port town of Sweden,
on the W. coaft of the province of Skone, on an ifland near
the Sound: a ftaple town, witha good harbour. The har-
bour lies between the continent and a {mall ifland, and is
20 feet deep; 12 miles S. of Helfingborg. N. lat. 55° 52’.
E. long. 12 36’.

LANDSELE, a {mall iflandin the Eaft Indian fea, near
the N. coaft of the great Andaman. N, lat, 13° 38. E.
long. 93° 7!.

LAND’S-END. See Cornwatt.

Lanp’s-ENp, a cape on the N. coait of the ifland of Shep-
pey ; 4 miles N. of Sheernefs.

LANDSER, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Altkirch. The place contains 651, and the can-
ton 10,629 inhabitants, on a territory of 150 kiliometres, in
22 communes.

LANDSHAAG, a town of Auftria, on the Danube;
19 miles S.W. of Freuftadt.

LAND’S-HEIGHT, or the high ground, in North
America, that which lies on the chain of lakes between lake
La Pluie and lake Superior, where is a portage of 7 miles;
80 miles E. of the grand portage from the W. end of lake
Superior.

LANDSHUT, or Lanpzwit, a town of Moravia, i
the circle of Brunn; 16 miles 5.E. of Aufpitz.

LawnpsHut, a town of Bavaria, on the river Ifer; aa
open well-built town, and the capital of a government ;
containing two palaces and a college with achorch in it, the
fteeple of which is reckoned the higheft in Germany; 32
miles N?E.of Munich. N. lat. 48 29'. E. long. 12° 5'.—
Alfo, atown of Auftrian Poland, in Galicia; 72 miles W.
of Lemberg.

LANDSKIP. See Lannscare.

LANDSORT, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Baltic, near the coaft of Sweden. N. lat. 58° 52’. E. long.
E710!

LANDSTHUL, a town of France, in the department
of Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
triGtof Deux Ponts. The place contains 705, and the can-
ton 7910 inhabitants, in 32 communes.

LANDSTRASS, or Lanpstrost, a town of Carniola,
fituated on an ifland in the river Gurek, with a cathedra!;
18 miles S. of Cilley. —

LAND-TAX, is one of the ufual annual taxes, which has
fuperfeded all the former methods of rating either property,
or perfons in cefpe&t of their property, whether by tenths,
fifteenths, fubfidies on land, hydage or hidage, fcutage or
efcuage, or talliage. Tenths and fifteenths were temporary
aids iffluing out of perfonal property, and granted to the
king by parliament, being the real tenth or fifteenth part of
a'l the moveables belonging to the fubject. We meét with
the payment of fifteenths as far back as the ftatute of Magna
Charta ; in the conclufion of which, the parliament grants
to the king, for the conceffions made by him, a filicenth part

. Kke ~ of

LAND-TAX

of all their moveable goods. This taxation was originally
charged upon the feveral individuals, but in the eighth year
of Edward ITI. a certain fum was rated in every town, &c.
In procefs of time this fifteenth being infufficient for the
public exigence, the number of fifteenths was augmenred
to two or three fifteenths. Whenever, in later years, the
commons granted the king a fifteenth, every parifh in Eng-
land knew their proportion of it ; ie. the fame identical fam
that was affeffed by the fame aid in the cighth of Edward III.,
and then raifed it by a rate among themfelves, and returned
it into the royal exchequer. (See Firreentu. See alfo
Tenxtu,) ‘The other ancient levies were in the nature of a
modern land-tax ; for we may trace the original of that
charge as high as to the introduGtion of our military tenures;
when every tenant of a knight’s fee was bound, if called
upon, to attend the king in his army for forty days in every
vear. In lieu of this perfonal attendance, a pecuniary fatis-
fa&ion came to be leviedsby affeflments, at fo much for
every knight’s fee, under the name of fcutages. - (See
Escuace.) Of the fame nature with thefe were the affefl-
ments of hydage or hidage upon all other lands, and of tal-
liage upon cities and boroughs. But they all gradually fell
into difufe, upon the introdu€tion of fubfidies, about the
time of king Richard II. and king Henry 1V. (See
Sugsipy.) In lieu of fubfidies, which were ufually raifed
by commiffioners appointed by the crown, or the great
officers of ftate, the parliament, in the beginning of the
civil wars, introduced the practice of laying weekly and
monthly affeffments of a {pecific {um upon the feveral coun-
ties of the kingdom, to be levied by a pound rate on lands
and perfonal eftates; which were occafionally continued
during the whole ufurpation, fometimes at the rate of
120,000/, a month, fometimes at inferior rates. After the
reltoration the ancient method of granting fubfidies, inftead
of thefe monthly affeffments, was twice, and twice only
renewed, viz. in 1663, when four fubfidies were granted by
the laity aud four by the clergy; and in 1670, when
800,000/. was raifed by way of fubfidy, which was the lait
time of raifing fupplies inthis manner. The monthly affefi-
ments being eltablifhed by cuftom, raifed by commiffioners
named by parliament, and producing a more certain revenue,
fubfidies were difcontinued, and occafional affefiments granted
as emergencies required. ‘Thefe periodical affeflments, the
fubfidies which preceded them, and the more ancient fcutage,
hydage;, and talliage, fays judge Blackftone, were to all
intents and purpofes a land-tax ; and the affeflments were
fometimes expre{sly called fo. However, in the year 1692,
a new affeffment or valuation of eftates was made throughout
the kingdom, which, though by no means a. perfeé one,
had this effeG, that a fupply of 500.000/. was equal to rs.
in the pound of the value of the eftates given in. And,
according to this enhanced valuation, from the year 1693 to
the prefeat, the land-tax has continued an annual charge
upon the fuhjeét; above half the time at 4s. in the pound,
fometimes at 3s., fometimes at 25., twice, vz. in 1732 and
1733) at Is. but without any total intermiffion. The me-
dium '-:s been 3s. 3d. in the pound, being equivalent to
twenty-three ancient fubfidies, and amounting annually to
more than a million and a half of money. The method of
ratfing it is by charging a particular fum upon each county,
according to the valuation of 1692; and this fum is aflefled
and raifed upon the perfonal as well as the real eltates of in-
dividuals by commiffioners appointed in the a, being the
principal landholders of the county, and their officers.

It is obferved by Dr. Smith, in his ** Nature and Caufes of
the Wealth of Nations,’* (vol. iti.) that a land-tax, like
that of Great Britain, affefled upon each diftri& according

6

-perfectly agreeable to the other three.

to a certain invariable canon, though it fhould be equal 4
its firft eftablifhment, neceffarily becomes unequal in procefS
of time, according to the unequal degrees of improvements
or negleé& in the cultivation of the different parts of the,
country. In England, the valuation according to which
the different counties and parifhes were affeffed to the land-
tax by the 4th of William and Mary, was very unequal even
at firft eftablifhment. ‘This tax, therefore, offends againft
the firlt of thofe four maxims which this ingenious writer
propofes, with regard to taxes in general. (See Tax.)
This maxim is, that the fubjects of every ftate ought to
contribute towards the fupport of the government, as nearly
as poflible, in proportion to their refpective abilities ; that
is, In proportion to the revenue which they refpeétively
enjoy under the protection of the ilate. However, it ‘is
It is perfe&tly cer-
tain, and not arbitrary. The time of paymesti for the tax,
being the fame as that for the rent, is as convenient as it
can be to the contributor. Although the landlord is in alk
cafes the real contributor, the tax is commonly advanced by
the tenant, to whom the landlord is obliged to allow it in
the payment of the rent. Moreover, this tax is levied by a
much fmaller number of officers than any other which
affords nearly the fame revenue. As the tax upon each
diftri€t does not rife with the nfe of the rent, the fove-
reign does not fhare in the profits of the landlord’s improve-
ments. It does not therefore obitruét the induftry of the
people ; nor fubjet the landlord to any other inconveniency
beides the unavoidable one of paying the tax. The advan-
tage, however, which the landlord has derived from the
invariable conftancy of the valuation by which all the lands
of Great Britain are rated to the Jand-tax, has been prin=
cipally owing to fome circumftances altogether extraneous
to the nature of the tax. It has been owing in part to thé
great profperity of almoft every part of the country: the
rents of almoft all the eftates of Great Britain, having, fince
the time when this valuation was firft eftablifhed, been con-
tinually rifing, and fearcely any of them having fallen. The
landlords, therefore, have almoft all gained the difference
between the tax which they would have paid, according to
the prefent rent of their eftates, and that which they actually
pay according to the ancient valuation. ~ But if the flate of
the country had been different, and rents had been gradually
falling in confequence of the declenfion of cultivation, the
landlords would almoft all have loft this difference. As the
tax is made payable in money, fo the valuation of land is
expreffed in money. Since the eftablifhment of this valua-
tion, the valve of filver has been pretty uniform, and there
has been no alteration in the ftandard of the coin, either as
to weight or finenefs. - But if filver had rifen confiderably
in its value, the conftancy of the valuation right have
proved very oppreffive to the landlord. In circumftances,.
fomewhat different from thofe which have a€tually taken
place, this conftancy of valuation might have been a great
inconveniency, either to the contributors, or to the com--
monwealth. A tax upon the rent of land which varies with
every variation of the rent, or which rifes’ and falls accord
ing to the improvement or neglect of cultivation, has beem
recommended by thofe philofophers called economifts in:
France, as the moft equitable of all taxes. In the Vene-
tian territory, all the arable lands leafed to farmers are taxed’
at a tenth of the rent. The leafes are recorded in a publi¢-
regifter, kept by the officers of the revenue in each province
or diftrié. A proprietor cultivating his own lands is al-
lowed a deduGtion of one-fifth of the tax, and pays on'y”
8 inftead of 10: per cent. of the fuppofed rent. A land-
tax. of this kind, fays Dr. Smith, is certainly more sg

LAND-TAX.

than ‘the land-tax of England, but it mbght not, perhaps,
be altogether fo certain, aud the affeflment of the tax might
frequently occafion more trouble to the landlord, and the
levying of it might be more expenfive. In the ancient do-
minions of the king of Pruffia, the land-tax is affefled ac-
cording to an actual furvey and valuation, which is reviewed
and altered from time to time. According to that valua-
tion, the lay proprietors pay from 20 to 25 fer cent. of their
revenue. Ecclefiaftics from 40 to 45 per cent. In fome
other countries the fame method is purfued. A land-tax
affeffed according to a general furvey dnd valuation, how
equal foever it may be at firft, mutt, in the courfe of a very
moderate period of time, become unequal; and to prevent
its becoming fo would require the continual and painful at-
fention of government to all the variations in the ftate and
produce of every different farm in the country.

» The fum fixed by 38 Geo. III. c. 5. f. 1. to be paid for
fhe land-tax in Great Britain is 2,037,627/. gs. 4d., which
is now made perpetual. ‘To this time the land-tax acts had
been annual; but by 35 Geo. III. c. 60. after reciting,
that it may materially conduce to ftrengthen public credit,
that the duty now payable for one year on land fhould be
thade perpetual, fubject to redemption by purchafe on con-
ditions herein fet forth; it was enaéted, that the feveral
fums charged by virtue of an aé&t (38 Geo, III. c. 5.)
granting an aid for the fervice of the year 1798, on the re-
{pective counties, &c. in refpe& of the manors, mefluages,
&c. tobe raifed and paid within one year, from the 25th of
March, 1798, fhall, after the expiration of the faid term
(allowing for certain {pecified exceptions) continue, and
be raifed and paid after the 25th of March in every year
for ever. And all powers and provifions contained in
the faid aé fhall be in full force, and be duly executed ;
fubje& to the regulations and conditions of redemption
or pifrchafe mentioned in it.’ Provided always, that none
ot the provifions herein contained fhall extend to any
fums charged by the faid at upon perfonal eftates and
perquifites of office ; which fums fhall, after the 25th of
March, 1799, be afcertained, raifed, colleted, and paid, ac-
cording to the dire€tions of an aét to be paffed for that pur-
pofe. (39 Geo. III. c. 3.) It is alfo ena&ted, that the
land-tax not purchafed by proprietors fhall be fold to other
perfons, fubjeét to redemption by the perfon ia poffeffion,
er having any beneficial or future intereft in the lands: pro-
_ vided’ that in fuch cafes, all fuch lands wheron the land-tax
fo purchafed fhall be charged, fhall, until fuch redemption
take place, be fubje& toa new affeffrffent of the faid land-tax
from year to year, by an equal rate, according to the value
thereof, in common with each other, without any power in
fuch purchafer to exonerate the fame from fuch land-tax, or
to fix the rate of land-tax to be charged thereon. Alfo,
where the whole tax in any place fhall not be fold, fuch
Tands as are not exonerated by this act from fuch land-tax,
fhall continue fubje& to a new affeflment yearly, and from
year to year, by an equal rate, according to the value there-
of, not exceeding in any year 4s. in the pound on fuch an-
nual value. It is alfo enacted, that in cafe perfons enter-
ing into any contraét for the redemption or purchafe of any
Tand-tax, fhall neglect to complete their contraét, fuch con-
tra& fhall be void, and the tax be revived, and again afleffed
and collected ; and the perfons thus making default fhall
forfeit not exceeding one-fixteenth part of the confideration.
Where land-tax, remaining unfold, fhall exceed 4s. ia the
pound on the annual value, the fame fhall be fubje@ to an
abatement in the manner directed by the faid a&t. (38.
Geo. III. c. 60. f.. 103. 42 Geo. LIT. c_ 116. f. 181.)
By this laft a€t, the proyifions of the feveral acts for the

redemption of the land-tax are repealed from the z4th of June,
1802, from which date all contra¢ts are to be entered into and
made according to that aét, and the 43 Geo. III. c. 51. to
render, the fame more effeétual. As the land-tax not pur-
chafed «will remain to be collected as before, it may not
be improper or unufeful to detail the following particulars
relating to it. By 38 Geo. III. c. 5. the general qualifi-
cation of commilflioners in counties, with fome few excep-
tions, is 100/. a-year of landed, property: thefe commif-
fioners, before they can act, are required to take the oaths
of allegiance, fupremacy, and abjuration, under a penalty of
2oo/. to the king: and-by, 28 Geo. III. c. 2. f. 49. an
oath, if required, {pecifying in writing the parifh, fituation,
quantity of land, whether freehold or copyhold, of the pre-
mifes which entitle them to aét as commiffioners. When
they firft meet, they direét the return and appointment of
proper affeffors: and by 20 Geo, Til. c. 17. they fhall
caufe to be delivered to each affeffor a printed form of affeff-
ment, according to which they fhall make their affefiments,
At their fecond meeting they direé the affeffers how to pro-
ceed in fettling the feveral rates and charges. By 39
Geo. III. c. 3. the feveral fums charged upon eftates in
ready money, debts, goods, wares, merchandifes, chattels, or
other perfonal eitate, by the aét of. 38 Geo. III. c. 5. and
which were not authorized to be fold by the faid a& of
35 Geo. III. c. 60; and alfo the feveral fums hereby
charged in refpe& of any public office or employment, or
any annuity, penfion, flipend, or other annual payment,
fhali be affeffed and paid in the following manner. ‘That is
to fay, the-feveral fums ‘charged by virtue of the faid a& on
perfona® eftates as aforefaid, fhall be, and are hereby
fet and impofed on the refpetive parifhes, ‘conttablewicks,
divifions, allotments, and places, wherein the fame have been,
or fhall be fo charged by virtue of the faid a&, and towards
raifing the feveral fums hereby charged on the fame refpec-
tively, all perfons, bodies politic and corporate, guilds and
fraternities within fuch places refpectively, having any eftate
in ready money, or in debts owing to them, or having any
eltate in goods, wares, merchandize, chattels, or other per-
fonal eftate belonging to, or in trutt for them, (except fuch
fums as they may bond fide owe, and fuch debts owing to
them as fhall be by the commiffioners adjudged defperate,
and alfo except flock upon lands, and fuch goods as are ufed
for houfhold ftuff; and alfo except fuch loans and debts:
as are owing from his majetty,) fhall be charged with as
much equality and indifference as is poflible by a pound rate,
viz. for every 100/. of fuch ready money and debts, and for
every 100/. worth of fuch goods, wares, and merchandize, or
other perfonal eftate, and fo in proportion for more or lefs,.
towards the faid refpeétive fums by this act impofed upon
every fuch parifh or place charged therewith as aforefaid,
fo that by the faid rates fo to be affeffed as aforefaid,
upon fuch perfonal eftates as aforefaid, the full fum hereby
fet upon the fame, fhall be completely afleffed, collected,
and paid. f. 2.

And towards raifing the fums charged on perfons in:
ref{peét of public offices, or employments of profit, all per— .
fons, having, ufing, or exercifing the fame, which are affefled:
by virtue of the faid a&t of 38 Geo. III. c. 5.5 and all clerks,.
agents, fecondaries, fubilitutes, and other inferior minifters-
whatfoever, (fuch military officers as are muttered by the
mufter-malter general of the army, or in. pay of the army or
navy in refpett of fuch offices, only excepted,): fhall pay
any fum not exceeding what fuch office or employment {hall
be affeffed in the year commencing 25th March, 1798, by
virtue of the faid act of 38 Geo. Il]. c. 5. And all perfons,.
guilds, fraternities, bodies politic and corporate, having any

annuity»,

LAN

anauity, penfion, or other yearly payment, either out of the
exchequer, or any branch of the revenue, or payable, or fe-
cured to be paid by any perfon whatfoever, (not iffuing out
of any lands, tenements, or hereditaments, or charged upon
the fame, nor included in any affeffment made thereon by the
faid aét of 38 Geo. IIT. c. 5. and not being annuties or yearly
payments which by any aé& of parliament fhall be exempted
from the payment of taxes,) fhall pay 4s. for every 205. by
the year for the fame, to be levied and colleéted in like
manner, and by the fame perfons as the land-tax. f. 3, 4.

It is provided that nothing in this a€& fhall extend to the
queen or royal family; nor to charge the penfions of
fuperannuated fea-officers or their widows, poor knights of
Windfor, or poor clergy of the Ifle of Man, or tolls on turn-
pike roads. By 38 Geo. III. c. 5. the charge upon real
eftates fhall be as follows: That the entire {um may be
raifed, all manors, meffuages, lands, and tenements; all
quarries, mines of coal, tin and lead, copper, mundick, iron,
and other mines, iron-mills, furnaces, and other iron-works ;
falt-{prings, and falt-works ;‘ all alum mines and works ; all
parks, chafes, warrens, woods, underwoods, coppices ; all
fifhings, tithes, tolls, annuities, and all other yearly profits ;
and all hereditaments whatfoever—fhall be charged with as
much equality and indifference as poffible, by a pound rate,
to make up the feveral fums charged by the act on each
county or place.

A parfon who lets to each parifhioner his own tithes is
properly the occupier, and ought to be rated. 16 Viner,

27.
? But if a parfon makes a leafe of his tithes to one perfon,
and that perfon afterwards lets to each parifhioner his own
tithes, in that cafe the leffee is the occupier, and ought to
be rated. 8 Mod. 61.

Colleges and hofpitals are exempted, together with the
buildings that are within the walls or limits of the fame.
The a@ 38 Geo. III. c. 5. f. 25., alfo exempts any
matter, fellow, or fcholar, or exhibitioner of any fuch col-
lege, or hall, or any reader, officer, or matter of the faid
tmiverfities, colleges, or hal!s, or any mafters or ufhers of
any {chools ; for or in refpe& of any itipends, wages, rents,
profits, or exhibitions whatfoever, arifing, or growing due to
them in tefpe to the faid feveral places or employments: or
any of the lands which before March 25, 1693, did belong
to the {cites of any college or hall, or to Chriit’s hofpital,
St. Bartholomew, Bridewell, St. Thomas and Bethlehem
hofpitals in London and Southwark ; or any other hofpitals
or alms-houfes, in refpect of any rents, or revenues, which,
before March 25th, 1693, were payable to them, being to
be received and difburfed for the immediate ufe and relief of
the poor of the faid hofpitals and alms-houfes only. Id.
device

But this fhall not difcharge any tenants of any houfes or
lands belonging to the faid calleges, halls or hofpitals, alms-
houfes, or {chools, who, by their leafes, or other contracts,
are obliged to pay and difcharge all rates, taxes, and impoti-
tions. Id. f. 26. ;

All fuch lands, revenues, or rents belonging to any hof-
pital or alms-houfe, or fettled to any charitable or pious ufe
as were affeffed in 4 W. & M. fhall be liable ; and no other
lands, revenues, or rents, then belonging to any hofpital, or
alms-houfe, or fettled to any charitable or pious ufe, fhall
be charged or affeffed: but lands given to charities fince
the 4 W. & M. fhall not be exempted. No poor perfon
fhall be charged, whole lands, &c. are not of the full yearly
value of 20s. in the whole. The affeffors themfelves are
affeffed by the commiffioners. The land-tax fhall be paid
by the tenant, who fhall deduét it out of his rent. Papitts

LAN

and reputed papifts, being 18 years of age, who fhall not
have taken the oaths of allegiance and fupremacy, fhall pay
double land-tax. By 10 Geo. III. c. 6. f. 113. eftates
doubly taxed, coming to Proteftants, are to be diicharged.
At the third meeting of the commiffioners, the affeffors thall
deliver duplicates of the afleffment in writing, figned by
them, to the commiffioners, with the names of proper col-
le&tors, for whom the parifh or place fhall be anfwerable.
One of the duplicates, figned by three or more commiffioners,
fhall be delivered to the colletors, with warrant for collect.
ing ; and the time and place of appeals fhall then be ap-
pointed. The fourth meeting is that of appeal, notice of
which fhall be given in the church; and every perfon in-
tending to appeal fhall give a written notice to one or more
affeffors, that they may attend to juitify the affeffment. The
commiffioners are empowered to give relief in cafe of over-
charge, and caufe the fum abated to be re-affefled: and
when the appeal is determined, it is abfolutely final. If any
perfon refufe or negleét to pay to the colleétor on demand,
he may levy the fum affeffed by diftrefs and fale of the goods
of the perfon negle&ting or refuling to pay ; and for want
of diftrefs he may be committed by warrant of two commif-
fioners to the commor gaol, until payment of the money
affeffed and of the charges. The colleCtor is required to pay
the money received to the receiver-general, or his deputy,
quarterly, on or before June 24th, Sept. 29th, Dec. 25th,
and March 25th; who fhall give a receipt gratis: the col-
leCtors are allowed 3d. in the pound, which they may detain
out of the‘laft payment ; but if any colletor detains the
money longer than the time appointed, or pays it otherwife
than direéted, he fhall forfeit net exceeding 4o/. nor lefs than
5/. to be levied by diftrefs ; and if he refule to pay it, two
commiffioners may imprifon him, feize his eftates real and
perfonal, and fe!l them fer payment. ' The receiver-general
is appointed by the king, or in purfuance of his directions,
and has a falary allowed him by the lords of the treafury, not
exceeding 2d. a pound : notice of his appointment is to be
given to the commiffioners, before the time of the firft quar-
terly payment, The receiver, within twenty days after the re-
ceipt, fhall pay the money into the exchequer, or forfeit 500/..
to him who (hall fue. The clerks of the commifficners are
allowed 13d. in the pound for writing the affeffments, dupli-
cates, &c. to be paid by the receiver-general, according to
the warrant of two commiffioners. Affeffors, culleGtors,
&c. not doing their duty may be fined by three or more
commiflioners, in any fum not exceeding 40/. 38 Geo. III.
c. 5. Blackft. Com.*vol. i, Burn's Juttice, art. Lanp-
Tax.

LANDVELLER, in Geography, a town of Sweden,
in Weft Gothland ; 9 miles E. of Gothenborg.

LAND-WAITER, an officer of the cuftom-houle,
whofe duty is, upon landing any merchandize, to examine,
tafte, weigh, meafure them, &c. and to take an account
thereof. In fome ports they alfo execute the office of
a coalt-waiter. They are likewife occafionally flyled
fearchers, and are to attend and join with the patent fearcher,
in the execution of all cockets for the fhipping of goods to
be exported to foreign parts ; and in cafes where drawbacks
or bounties are to be paid to the merchant on the exporta-
tion of any goods, they, as well as the patent fearchers, are
to certify the fhipping thereof on the debentures.

LANE, in the Military Art, 1s ufed when men are drawn
up in two ranks facing one another. This is called making
a lane, and is generally done in the ftreets through which a
great perfon is to pafs, as a mark of honour. Bu: fol-
diers are often drawn up-in this manner, when an offender is
to runthe gantlope. See Military Execution,

Lane;

LAN

Lane, in Geography, an ifland in the Atlantic, near the
coat of America, a little to the ealt of Scuttock Point.
N. lat. 44° 18/. W. long. 67° 56’.

Lang, a river of Tiskend, in the county of Kerry, which
rifes in Magillicuddy’s reeks, and receiving feveral {treams
from Mangerton, and other adjoining mountains, and the
river Vlefk from the weftward, flows north-weftward to
Caftlemain harbour. The expanfe of the waters of this river,
confined by a great ledge of rocks, forms the two lakes, fo
well known and fo juftly celebrated as the upper and lower
lakes of Killarney, from the town of that name being near
them. See Kirtarney.

LANEL, a town of Africa, and capital of the king-
dom of Galam, on the S. fide of the Senegal.

LANERK. See Lanark.

LANES, atown of Sweden, in the province of An-

ermannland ; 30 miles N.of Hernofand.

LANESBOROUGH, a poft-town of America, in
Berkfhire county, Maflachufetts, N. of Pittsfield fix
miles. It has two quarries of mart, and contains 1448
inhabitants. ; ‘

Lawyeszorcucn, a {mall town of Ireland, in the county
of Longford, on the bank of the Shannon, over which there
is a bridge into the county of Rofcommon, in which it has a
fuburb. This is a borough town, which was disfranchifed
hy the Union, and is 62} miles W.N.W. from Dublin.

LANFRANCGC, in Biography, archbifhop of Canterbury
in the eleventh century, was a native of Italy, and born at
Payia, at which place his father was keeper of the public
archives ; he purfued his academical ftudies at Bologna, paid
particular attention to rhetoric and civil law, and on his re-
turn to his native city, he commenced advocate in the courts.
He removed to France, under the reign of Henry I., taught
publicly in the fchool of Avranches, and was attended by a
erowd of ftudents of high rank. In a journey from that
place to Rouen he was befet by robbers, who plundered
him, and left him bound in a foreft near the abbey of Bec.
Here he remained, in a mott deplorable ftate, till next day,
when he was releafed, carried to the abbey, and foon after he
took the monk’s habit. While he refided in this place, his
literary fame and excellent charaéter recommended him to
the efteem of William I., duke of Normandy, who made
him one of the counfellors of ftate. Under the pontificate
of Leo IX. he went twice to Rome ; theprincipal obje@ of
his fecond journey was to folicit a difpenfation for the mar-
riage of William withthe daughter of the earl of Flanders,
his firft coufin, which was granted upon the condition that
the duke and his lady fhould build a monattery. They ac-
cordingly gave direétions for the building of that named St.
Stephen, at Caen, of which Lanfranc was appointed abbot
in the year 1063. Soon after William was feated on the
throne of England, he fent Lanfranc to Rome, to nego-
ciate with Alexander IJ. about the miffion of legates to
England, to crown him, and to regulate the affairs of the
church. After the coronation of Wii'liam, he formed the
defign of depriving many of the Englifh clergy of their
dignities, in order that he might beftow them on his coun-
trymen, or on others, on whofe attachment he could depend :
in conformity with this principle, Stigand, archbifhop of
Cauterbury, was depofed, and Lanfranc raifed to the high
vffice in his ftead : he would gladly have declined the ho-
nour, but an exprefs order from pope Alexander II. obliged
him to accept it. He was accordingly confecrated arch-
bifhop of Canterbury in 1070, and in the following year he
went to Rome, in company with the archbifhop of York,
and was received with uncommon refpeét by his holinefs,

who had formerly been his pupil at the abbey of Bec. Lan-

LAN

franc defended before the pope the claims of his fee to
fuperiority over that of York, Alexander, however, un-
willing to offend either of thefe prelates, or to difoblige the
king of England, refufed to give judgment in the matter,
and declared that it ought to be determined by an Englifh
fynod. Two councils were held for this purpofe in 1072, in
which the queftion was debated with much warmth, in the
prefence of the king, queen, and the whole court, and at
length determined in favour of Canterbury. After this,
Lanfranc prefided at different councils, in which feveral ec-
clafiaftical canons were made, by fome of which ‘a change
was produced in the condition of the clergy, as well as in
the creed of the church of England. By one, the fecular
clergy who had wives were allowed to keep them ; but thofe
who had not wives were forbidden to marry, and bifhops
were prohibited in future to ordain any man who had a wife.
By another, the doétrine of tranfubltantiation was promul-
gated, which before this period was but little known in our
Mand: Lanfrane was, however, one of its moft zealous cham-
pions, and employed the weapons of dialeétics, with great
ingenuity and addrefs, in defence of it, both before and after
hiselevation to the fee of Canterbury. Having prefided over
the diocefe nineteen years, he died in 1089, leaving behind
him a high charaéter for wifdom, learning, munificence, and
other virtues. His munificence in the way of alms-giving
has been very highly extolled ; he is faidto have given away
upwards of five hundred pounds a year, a {um which mult have
been equal to eight or nine thoufand pounds at prefent. Asan
author, the archbifhop maintained a high rank for the age in
which he lived, and his works are written in good Latin;
thefe are ‘* Commentaries upon the Epittles of St. Paul :”?
«© A Commentary on the Pfalms :’”? “ A Treatife on Con-
feffion :”? « A Differtation concerning the Body and Blood
of Chrift in the Euchariit :”’ and a colleétion of letters to
pope Alexander II.; to Hildebrand, while archdeacon of
Rome, and to feveral bifhops in England and Normandy.
They were colle&ted, and publifhed in 1648, in a folio vo-
lume. Moreri. Mofheim. Henry’s Hift.

Laxrranc, a phyfician and furgeon of Milan in the -
thirteeiith century. He left his native country, in con--
fequence of fome perfecutions that he had fuffered during
the troubles of the times, and went to France ;,and in the
year 1295, having already obtained confiderable reputation,
he was invited to Paris by many members of the faculty.
His dexterity as an operator, his candour, and the. energy»
with which he communicated his knowledge to others in his
leGtures, gained him the refpe& and efteem of his profef- -
fional brethren ; and he certainly contributed to the advance- -
ment of furgery,. which was at that time at-a very low ebb
in France. Neverthelefs he held fome opinions adverfe to
the progrefs of the art; he condemned the ufe of the trepan,
and abfolutely forbade the operation of lithotomy, alleging
that the extraction of a.calculus rendered the patient im--
potent. He pointed out in. ftrong terms the impropriety.
and danger of tents, which. were- generally employed at
that time ; the practice, however, continued to .be, reforted
to long after his animadverfions were made.

He left two works in MS., which were depofited in the -
king’s library at Paris ; the.one entitled, “ Chirurgia parva,’’
the other, ‘¢ Ars. completa totius Chirurgiz, five Praética ..
major.’ They. were printed at Venice in 1490, with the
title of “ Chirurgia. magna et parva,” in folio; and have -
undergone feveral fubfequent editions, and have been tran«
flated into.the French and German languages. Eloy. Dié.
Hilt.—Hutchinfon Biog. Med.

LANFRANCO, Giov. Maria pa TERENTIO, in 1538:
publifhed his Scintille di Mufica, or ‘ Sparks of Mufic.’?

: a, work.

LAN

x work which, notwithtanding its quaint title, is often
<quoted with great praife by fubfequent writers. It is now
fo fearce, that it would be difficult to firid a copy of it
throughout Italy. Q

Lanrranco GIeVANNI, a painter of hiftory, whofe
principal merit was the freedom and eafe with which he ma-
naged large compofitions in their colour and execution, but
to the great lofs of character and expreflion. He was born
at Parma in 1581, and was at firft a difciple of Agoflino
Caracci, but alterwards {tudied under Annibale, and having
obtained a great proficiency of handling, was employed by
that matter in his great work in the Farnefe palace at Rome,
part of which he executed fo well, that the difference be-
tween his painting and that done by Annibale himfelf is
fcarcely to be difcerned. :

Endowed by nature with a lively imagination, and having,
after he left the Caracci, (under whom he had learnt the
art of compolition,) paid great attention to the artificial
ftyle of Corregio, particularly in the Duomo at Parma, and
an the cupola there, he obtained a fondnefs for fore-fhorten-
ing, lofing fight of the fimplicity of nature, and indulging
his fancy in ideal forms and groups, which, while they exhibit
his flill, deprive him of a reputation for judgment or true
taite. He was, as M. Fufeli has obferved, “* a machinift in
art of the firft order, and taught his fucceffors the means
of filling the eye at a great diftance, by partly painting and
partly leaving it to the air to paint.”’ ; :

His colour -was powerful and rich, but not pure. He
moit frequently employed very dark fhadows, which give
shis pictures a heavy and fombrous appearance; and not being
well verfed in chiaro-feuro, the lights in them are not un-
frequently all conneGed, or rather lack conneétion, and are
too much in detached fpots. With thofe who prefer fpirit
and dafh to more ftudied perfections, Lanfranco will, not-
withftanding his deficiencies, be always a favourite.

- He was engaged by Urban VIII. to paint the miracle of
st. Peter walking on the water for the grand cathedral, de-
dicated to that faint in Rome, and he afforded his patron fo
rouch pleafure by his labour, that his holinefs conterged the
honour of knighthood upon him. j

His pencil being exceedingly rapid, and his life prolonged
to the age of 66, his works are by no means fearce, but are
to be met with in moft collections. He died in 1647.

LANG, Joun Micuaez, a German Proteftant divine,
was born at Ezelwangen, in the duchy of Sulzbach, in
the year 1664. Having received a gond claffical education,
he was fent to the univerlity of Altdorf, in 1682, and there
applied himfelf with great ardour to thofe ftudies which
were to fit him for his future profeffion. He excelled par-
ticularly as an oriental fcholar, and was admitted to the de-
gree of M.A. in 1657, and then went to the univerfity of
Jena, where he delivered public leGures on ethics and natu-
ral theology. He officiated’ feveral years as paftor to a
country church in the palatinate, but becoming diffatisfied
with a country life he removed to Aitdorf, where he was
created dogtor, and admitted into the academical fenate in
1697- Here he was ele&ted to the profefforfhip of divinity,
and appointed pattor of one of the churches. After fome
years he was involved in theological difputes, which ended in
this quitting Altdorf, and. removing to Prentzlow, in the
year 1710, where he obtained an appointment, in which he
zemained till 1737, whenhe died, at the age of fixty-feven.
He was author of the following among other works then held
in high eftimation : “ Differtationes Botanico-Theologice ;”
<¢ Philologia Barbaro-Greca ;” De Fabulis Mohammedi-
eis.” Moreri.

'. Lane, in Geography, a narrow ifland ef Denmark, fome-

LAN

what more than two miles in length, fituated in the Bultic,
near the S. coaft of Laaland. .N, lat. 54° 42/. IS. longy
11? 20/, Sit

LANGANICO, or Sunni, anciently Olympia, a town
of the Morea, ona fmall river called Carbon, the ancient
Alpheus, once a city of great note, near which were cele+
lebrated the “Olympian games,’”? which fee.
OtymriA. It is now an inconfiderable place; 60 miles
5.W. of Corinth. |

LANGAROOD, a town of Perfia, in the province of
Ghilan, near the S. coaft of the Cafpian fea, which gives
name to a road for fhips. The cove has 10 feet water, but
the entrance is narrow. The filk manufacture is here ia
high eftimation; 20 miles S.E. of Refhd. N. lat. 27%
E. long. 50° ‘

5 15's r
- LANGASCHANTZ, a town of. Sweden, in the pro=:

vince of Harjedalen; 110 miles S.W. of ‘Sundfwall. “

LANGBAINE, Gerarp, in Biography, was born at
Barton-kirk, in Weftmoreland, about the year 1608. In
1626, he was admiti*d a fervitor of Queen’s college, Ox-
ford, of which he became a fcholar and afterwards a fellow.
He took his degree of M!A. in 1633, and of D.D, in
1646. He had, however, fome years previoufly to his
taking the laft degree, made himfelf known as a man of
erudition, by an edition of Longinus, Greek and. Latin,
with notes, printed at Oxford in 1636. This work was
‘followed by others of an hiftorical and critical kind, difplay-
ing much found learning, and an ardent attachment to the
exifting order of things in church and ftate. He was in
habits of correfpondence with the learned Usher and Selden,
and is referred to by bifhop Nicholfon as a perfon admirably
fkilled in the antiquities and laws of England. In 16445
the univerfity, of which he was a member, appointed him
keeper of its archives, and in the following year he was
made provoit of his college. He readily fubmitted to the
changes which took place at this period, and was accordingly
allowed to remain in peace, employing his time and talents
in the promotion of Jearning, and the maintenance of aca-
demical difcipline. He died in the enjoyment of both his
offices, inthe year 1658. He hada fon of the fame name,
who is known by his ** Appendix to a Catalogue of Oxford
Graduates ;"’ and « A New Catalogue of Englith Plays.”

LANGDON, in Geography, a towfhip of America, in
Chefhire county, New Hampfhire, incorporated in 1787,
and containing 484 inhabitants.

LANGE, or Lanatus, Jown, in Biography, a phyfi-

cian of reputation, was born at Loewenburg, in Silefia,
in the year 1485. He purfued his ftudies with fingular
zeal at Leipfic, Bologna, and Pifa, in the latter of which
univerfities he was honoured with the degree of M.D. He
then fettled in the practice of his profeffion at Heidelberg,
where he foon acquired the elteem of the public, and was
nominated firft phyfician to four fucceffive electors palatine 5
one of whom, Frederic II., he accompanied in his travels
through the greater part of Europe. He attained the age
of eighty, notwithftanding his exceffive ufe of cheefe, which
made a part of all his meals, afferting that phyficians were
miltaken in decrying, as indigeftible, this his favourite nu-
triment. He died at Heidelberg in June, 1565.

The moft efteemed of his works is entitled « Medicina-
lium Epiftolarum Mifcellanea,’’ firft publifhed at Bafle, in
1554, 4to. ‘This edition contains but eighty-three epiilles;
but thele were greatly multiplied in the {ubfequent editions.
The work was full of the various learning of the times; end
he in a great meafure anticipated Sydenham in recommend-
ing the cool regimen in inflammatory difeafes. He hkewife
publithed the following works :.«¢ De Syrmaifmo et ratione

: purgandi

See alfo ~

Aa

LAN

purgandi per vomitum, ex Egyptiorum invento et forntu-

la,” 1572, 8vo— De Scorbuto Epiftole duz,” 1624;

together with the treatife of Sennertus on the fame fubjeét.

—‘‘ Confilia quedam et experimenta,’’ 1676, 4to. together

with the Confilia Medicinalia of Velfchius, Eloy. Dict.

Hitt. :

LANGEAG, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Loire, and chief place of a can-
ton, in the diftriét of Brioude; 12 miles S. of Brioude.
The place contains 1807, and the canton 9753 inhabitants,
on a territory of 2324 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

LANGEAIS, a town of France, in the department of
the Indre and Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Chinon, feated on the Loire; 12 miles W. of
Tours. The place contains 2229, and the canton 9465 in-
habitants, on a territory of 3224 kiliometres, in 12 com-
munes. N. lat. 47° 18/. W. long. 0° 1’,

LANGEDORF, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Worzburg; 7 miles $.W.-of Kiffingen.

LANGEFIORD, a {mall ifland near the coaft of Lap-
land. N. lat. 69° 38’.

LANGELAND, a fertile ifland of Denmark, fituated
in the fouth part of the Great Belt, between the iflands of
Laaland and Funen, about 30 miles in length, and from
three to five in breadth. It was formerly a principality,
but is now only a county, the beft in the kingdom, and
under the fame government as Funen. The chief town is
Rudkioping. N. lat. 55°. E.long. 10°50"

LANGELMAKY, a town of Sweden, in the province
of Tavaftland; 42 miles N. of Tavafthus.

LANGELSHEIM, a town of Weltphalia, and princi-
pal place of a bailiwick, in the principality of Wolfenbuttle ;
6 miles N.W. of Goflar.

LANGENAU, a town of Prvffia, in the province of
Oberland, the church of which is celebrated for beautiful
paintings; 8 miles N. of Bifchofswerder.—Alfo, a town of
Pruffia, in the province of Ermeland; 25 miles N.W. of
Heilfberg.—Alfo, a town af Bavaria, fituated on a {mall
river, which runs into the Danube; 11 miles N.E. of
Ulm.

LANGENBERG, a town of the duchy of Berg; 15
miles N.E. of Dufleldorf.

. LANGENBURG, a town of Germany, in the princi-
pality of Hohenloe, on the Jaxt ; 32 miles W. of Anfpach,

LANGENES, an ifland in the North fea, near the coaft
of Norway, about 24 miles in circumference. N. lat. 59°
20'.

LANGENFELD, a town of Saxony, in the Vogtland;
zo miles $.S.W. of Zwickau.

LANGEN-SALZA, a town of Saxony, the capital of
Thuringia, on the Salza. Its environs are pleafant and
manufactures flourifhing. It contains about goo houfes,
two churches, a college, and a caftle; 14 miles W. of Er-
furt. N. lat. 51° 4!.. E. long 10° 42!.

LANGENSCHWALBACH, a town of Weltphalia,

in the county of Catzenelnbogen, celebrated for its mineral
waters; g miles N.W. of Mentz.

. LANGEN-SEE. See Lake.

_LANGENTHAL, a town of Switzerland, in Berne,
advantageoufly fituated for commerce with France and Ger-
many; for the convenience of which it has three fairs, at
which are annually fold from 10,000 to 11,000 pieces of
linen, 8000 of which are whitened ; thefe are exported to
Spain, Portugal, America, &c. Cheefe is likewife fold
here in great quantities, befides horfes, cattle, grain, and
many other articles, both of agriculture and manufacture,
. Vor. XX.

LAN

fn its vicinity are mineral {prings; 18 miles N.E. of Berne.
N. lat.47° 12! E. long. 7° 33’.

LANGENZENN, anciently called Cinna, or Ceara,
a town of Germany, on the river Zenn; 12 miles W. of
Nuremberg,

. LANGEROGE, a fimall Mand in the German fea,
near the coalt-of Eaft Friefland, witha f{malltown. Nat.

°42', HE. long. 7° 24’,

LANGESCHEED, a town of Weltphalia; 25 miles
W. of Brilon.

LANGESUND, a fea-port town of Norway, in the
diocefe of Chriftiania ; 50 miles S.S.W. of Chrifliania.

LANGEWANG, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 16
miles N.E. of Pruck.

LANGFORD, a town of America, in the fate of
Kentucky ; 25 miles E.S.E. of Stamford.

Lanerorp Bay, a bay of the ifland of Antigua, on the
N. coaft, W. of Peyerfon’s Point.

LANGHOLM, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the
gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 60° 45’. E. long. 21° go.

Lancuoim, a market-town and burgh of barony under
the duke of Buccleugh, is fituated in a parifh of the fame
name, in the diftri& of Efkdale and county of Dumfries,
Scotland. The population of this town is ftated, in the
parliamentary reports of 1801, at 2039 perfons, but it is
prefumed, this number includes the whole parifh. A market
is held here every week, and four fairs annually ; that held
on the 26th of July is confidered as the greatelt in Scotland
for lambs. At a fhort diftance from the town is the village
of New Langholm, which has been ereéted by the duke of
Buccleugh for the eftablifhment of an extenfive cotton ma-
nufaétory. The country along the banks of the Effc is
generally flat, well fheltered with woods, and yield luxuriant
crops, particularly of oats and barley. The other parts of
the parifh confilt chiefly of {mail hills, covered with verdure,
and affords excellent pafture for fheep. The duke of Buc-
cleugh has built in this neighbourhood a very handfome
mantion called Langholm-lodge, which ftands in a delight-
ful valley.

LANGHORNE, Joun, in Biography, an excellent
Englifh poet, was born at Kirkby-Stephen, in Weftmore-
land, in 1735. By the death of his father, the education of
John and three other children devolved upon his mother, wha
fulfilled the taflk with great affiduity and affeGtion. He re-~
ceived his fchool-learning at Appleby under Mr. Yates, who
joined elegance of tafte to the acquirements of a claffical
{cholar. Langhorne continued under his tuition till the age
of eighteen; when the narrownefs of his circumftances
obliged him to engage himfelf as demeltic tutor in a family,
near Ripon. He made himfelf knownas a poet, by apoem
entitled “* Audley-park,” defcriptive, as its title imports, of
the beauties of that place. He foon after became an affift-
ant at the free-{chool of Wakefield, and taking orders, ac-
quired popularity as a preacher. In 1759, he undertook the
tuition of the fons of Robert Cracroft, efq , of Hackthorn,.
near Lincoln, and while in this fituation he made a colleG@ion
of fuch mifcellaneous poems as he had written, and pub-
lifhed them in a volume for the benefit of a friend in diftrefs.
In the year 1760, he entered himfelf at Clare hall, Cam-
bridge, for the purpofe of taking a degree, and dated from
that place a poem on the king’s acceffion, printed in the
Univerfity colle&tion of verfes on that occafion, In 1761,
he officiated as curate to the clergyman of Dagenham, in
Effex, and at the fame period he publifhed feveral poems,
which made him generally known among the votaries to the
Mufes, and in 1762, he appeared as a profe writer by his.
s¢ Letters on religious Retirement, Melancholy, and Enthu-

; Lil fiafia,’?

. LAN

fiafm,"’ and by his eaftern tale of ** Solyman and Alme-
na.’ He was, at this time, likewife a writer in the
Monthly Review. His next work, publifhed in 1763, en-
titled « Letters fuppofed to have pafled between ‘lheodo-
fius and Conftantia,’? founded on a ftory in the Speétator,
became popular, and obtained for the author much applaute.
Mr. Langhorne, in the following year, removed to the me-
tropolis, where he was appointed curate and lecturer of St.
John’s, Clerkenwell, and in the fame year he publifhed two
volumes of fermons, which he entitled «* Traéts of religi-
ous Philofophy.”? Dr. Hurd now appointed him affiftant
preacher at Lincoln’s-Inn, and Ma eenaticiue foon after
gave the public his ‘ Letters on the Eloquence of the Pul-
pit:” and “ Letters to and from feleét Friends, or Effufions
of Friendfhip and Fancy.”? He is faid to have publifhed a de-
fence of lord Bute; but a paltoral poem, entitled “¢ Genius
and Valour,’’ he avowed, the obje@ of which was to vindi-
cate the natives of Scotland from the rancorous abufe
thrown upon them by Churchill. ‘This obtained -for the
author a complimentary letter from the univerfity of Edin-
burgh, with a diploma of doctor of divinity... He had, in
the year 1760 or 1761, quitted the family of Hackthorn,
on account of being refufed the hand of one of Mr. Cra-
croft’s daughters ; in 1767, when he had obtained a {tation
of much greater refpe€tability, and when he was looked up
to as an author and clergyman, he renewed his fuite, and was
fuccefsful. The living of Blagdon, in Somerfetthire, was
purchafed, which afforded the newly-married couple a de-
firable refidence, but this happy union was fatally diffolved
by the death of Mrs. Langhorne in child-bed, in the enfu-
ing year. Life now feemed to have loft its charms on the
furvivor, he quitted a place which ferved only to remind
him of his heavy affliGtion, and retired to the houfe of his
brother William, a clergyman at Folkeitone, in Kent. In
this retreat, inftead of giving himfelf up to melancholy, he
very wifely eccupied his mind with a literary tafk of fome
labour and extent, and the two brothers jointly produced a
new verfion of Plutarch’s Lives, with notes critical and ex-
planatory, and a life of the author, which was publifhed in
1971, and met with a favourable reception. He had pub-
lithed, previoufly to this, “« Letters fuppofed to have pafled
between St. Evremond ard Waller,’* two vols. ; and “ Fre-
deric and Pharamond, or the Confolations of Human Life,”’
a philofophical difeourfe. His * Fables of Flora’ were
publifhed in 1771, as was-another poem, entitled «* The Ori-
gin of the Veil.?” In 1772, he paid a vit to his native
country, which produced a fecond matrimonial conneGtion,
and having induiged himfelf and his lady with a continental
tour, he fat down again at his living of Blagdon. ‘To the
duties of the church he added thofe of a magiftrate, and at
the defire of his friend Dr. Burn, he gave the world accurate
ideas of this important office ina poem, entitled ‘The Coun-
try Juftice.” The firft part appeared in 1774, and was
greatly admired for the manly {train of sits fentiments, and
the beauty of its defcriptions. ‘The two other parts were
of inferior merit, and publifhed at different periods. In
1776, he loft his fecond wife in child-bed, which muit, to a
man of feeling, have been an unufually fevere calamity, and
from- the effeéts of which he probably never wholly re-
covered. His affiGion was in a degree alleviated by the
connexions that he had acquired in the great world, one of
the fruits of which was, the prefentation to a prebend in the
eathedral of Wells, in 1777, by the bifhop of that fee.
His health was, however, declining, yet he continued to
amufe himfelf and the public with writings of different
kinds, the laft of thefe was a roniantic tale, entitled “ Owen

of Carron”? He died at Blagdon, in April 1779, in the
8

LAN

forty-fifth year of his age. He was amiable in his manners,
but is faid to have been rather too much addicted to convivial
indulgences: if this habit was incurred by domettic misfor-
tunes, thorgh not to be juitified, it may, in a meafure, be
palliated, and the fubje& of it is to be truly pitied. « His
poetry,’ fays an able critic, ‘ is generally harmonious,
abounding in plealing imagery, but over-loaded with ornae
ment, and not free from ob{curity and affe@ation. His profe
writings are rather light and flowery than folid and natural,

His fermons have been cenfured for the loofe foft texture of

their ftyle, and the felfe pathos of their fentiment- In
religion he was inclined to enthufiafm, but the morality
of all his works is pure and rational ”
LANGIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Mont Blanc; 6 miles N. of Bonne.
LANGINES, a {mall ifland of Denmark, in the North
fea, near the weft coaft of South Jutland; 2 miles N.W.

“from the ifland of Nordttrand.

LANGIONE, a town of the kingdom of Laos, con-
fidered by fome as the capital. N. lat. 22° 30'.

LANGLE’S Bay, a bay on the welt coaft of the
ifland of Saghalien, fo calied by M. La Peroufe. N. lat.
47° 49'. E. long. 142° 49'.

Lanctr’s Peak, a mountain on the north coaft of the
ifland of Jeffo, faid to be more than 1200 toifes above the
level of the fea. N. lat. 45° 25’. E. long. 142° 20!

LANGLEY Isranp, a {mall ifland, near the fouth coat
of Newfoundland, about 3 miles S. from the ifland of Mi-
quelon. N. lat. 46° 42!. W. long. 56° 5’. : ?

LANGOE, a {mall ifland of Denmark, near the north
coait of the ifland of Funen. N. lat. 55° 35’. E. long. 10?
11’.— Alfo, an ifland in the North fea, about 80 miles in
circumference, and 40 from the coaft of Norway, celebrated
for its marble quarries. N. lat. 68° 16’. }

LANGOGNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Lozére, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Mende; 21 miles N.E. of Mende. The place contains
2923, and the canton 7450 inhabitants, on a territory of 250
kiliometres, in § communes. N. lat. 44° 44'. E. long. 3° 54".

LANGON, a town of France, in the department of the
Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Bazas; 9 miles N. of Bazas. ‘The place contains 3208,
and the canton 10,602 inhabitants, on a territory of 130
kiliometres, in 13 communes.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in the
north part of the gulf of Bothnia. N. lat. 65° 32. E.
long. 22° 26'. Ee

LANGORAN, a {mall ifland on the eatt fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 32. E. long. 22°18’.

LANGPORT, a market-town and parifh in the hundred
of Pitney, and county of Somerfet, England, is fituated
upon the banks of the river Parrot, near its confluence with
the Irvell. It was formerly a royal borough; and the in-
habitants, by immemorial cultom, {till claim feveral borough-
privileges. This town confilts chiefly of two ftreets, and is
divided into two parts, called Langport-Eaftover and Lang-
port-Weiftover. The government is vefted in a portreve, a
recorder, two capital bailiffs, and nine common-council
men. The river Parrot being navigable by lighters, a con-
fiderable trade is carried on, between this place and Bridge-
water, in timber, ftone, coal, iron, and falt. The church,
dedicated to All-Saints, is adorned with a very fine tower,
which has feveral niches on the weit fide, formerly orna-
mented with handfome ftatues. Adjoining to the town are
two large commons, called Common- Moor and Ragg-Common ;
the former confifting of 150, and the latter of 70 acres of
good meadow ground, upon which all the inhabitants not
only affume the right of feeding cattle, but even of building

as

LAN

as they deem moft convenient for themfelves. The houfes

in Langport, according to the parliamentary returns of

1800, amounted to 126 in number, and were occupied by

454 inhabitants. Here are a weekly market and three an-

nual fairs. Collinfon’s Hiftory, &c. of Somerfetthire,
vols. 4to.

LANGRAVA, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Beira, having a medicinal fpring; 12 miles N.W. of
Pinhel.

LANGREL-SHOT, is a fort of thot fometimes ufed
at fea, made of two bars of iron, with a joint, or fhackle,
in the middle; by which means it can be fhortened, and fo
put the better into the gun; and at each end there is a half
bullet, either of lead or iron.

This fhot, when difcharged, flies out expanded, and fo
does more execu.ion among the enemies rigging, &c. It is
never ufed in royal fhips, but very often by privateers and
merchantmen.

LANGRES, in Geography, a town of France, and chief
place 6f a diltriG, in the department of the Upper Marne.
in the time of Julius Cxfar, this was the capital of the Lin-
gones. Ontheirruption of Attila, it was taken and burnt ;
and after having been rebuilt, the. Vandals deftroyed it. It
was, at an early period, erected into a bifhopric ; and from
the reign of Philip Augultus to the revolution, the prelates
were peers of France. It afterwards belonged to Bur-
gundy, and fell with the reit of that kingdom to France.
N. lat. 47° 52’. Ee. long. 4° 25’.

LANGRISH, Browne, in Biography, a phyfician of
the lait century, who diflinguifhed himfeif as an advocate
for the mechanical theories of phyfiology and medicine, and
by the numerous experiments with which he fupported thofe
doétrines. A moe accurate inveftigation of the nature of
the animal economy has exploded them; but Dr. Langrifh
had the merit of afcertaining {everal interefling facts in re-
fpe& to the nature of the circulating powers. He died in
London, on the 29th of November 1759, and left the fol-
lowing works: “ A new Effay on Mufcular Motion,
founded on Experiments, &c.”? 1933, Svo.; ‘* Modern
Theory of Phylic,” 1738, Svo.; ‘ Phyfical Experiments
upon Brutes,”” 1745, 8vo.; “ Croonian Leéiures on Muf-
cular Motion,’ 1747. Eloy. Did. Hitt.

LANGSELE, in Geography a town of Sweden, in An-
germannland, on a river of the fame name; 45 miles N.N.W.
of Hernoiand. N. lat. 63° 14'. E. long. 16° 49’.

LANGSKAR, afmail ifland on the eaft fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63°. E. long. 21° 9’.

LANGTON, SrepHen, in Biography, archbifhop of
Caiterbury in the 13th century, was a native of England,
but was educated at the univerlity of Paris, where he after-
wards taught divinity, and explained the Scriptures with
much reputation. His chara¢ter flood fo high, that he was
chofen. chancellor of that univerfity, canon of Paris, and
dean of Rheims.. He was afterwards fent for to Rome by
pope Innocent III., where he was created a cardinal.» In
the year 1207, the monks of Canterbury having,.upon a,
vacancy taking place in that fee, made a double return, both
parties appealed .to the pope, and fent agents to Rome to
fupport their refpeCtive claims. His holinefs not only de-
termined again{t both the contending candidates, but ordered
the monks of Canterbury, then at. Rome, immediately to
proceed to the election of an archbifhop, and, at the fame

time, commanded them to choofe cardinal Stephen Lang-.

ton. After various excufes, which the pope knew how to
get over, by abfolving the agents in the bufinefs from all
forts of promifes, oaths, &c. and by threatening them with
the higheft penalties of the church, they complied, .and

r

bay

Langton was confecrated by the pope at Viterbo. As foon
as the news arrived in England, king John was incenfed in
the higheft degree both againft the pope and monks of Can-
terbury. The laft, being within the reach of his power,
experienced the effecis of his indignation. We fent two
officers with a company of armed men to Canterbury, took
poflefion of the monatlery, banifhed the monks out of the
kingdom, and feized alitheir property. He wrote a {pirited
letter to. the pope, whom he accufed of injuftice and pre-
fumption, in railing a firanger to the higheit dignity in his
kingdom, without even his knowledge; and he added, that
if his holinefs did not inftantly repair the injury, he would
break off all communication with Rome, ~ John, unfor-
tunately for himfelf and his kingdom, was unfit for fo ar-
duous a conteft; and he, in the end, fubmitted to the moft ,
difgraceful terms. (See Joun, and Innocenr III.) In
1213, cardinal Langton arrived in England, and took pof-
feflion of the fee; and though he owed all his advancement
to the pope, yet the moment he became an Englifh baron,

he was infpired with a zealous attachment to the liberties

and independence of his country. In the very year in which
he came over, he and fix other bifhops joined the party of
the barons, who affociated to refift the tyranny of the king ;
and at length they were fuccefsful in procuring the great
charter. Langton was equally zealous in oppofing the
claims of the papal agents, particularly of the pope’s legate,
who aflumed the right of regulating all ecclefiallical affairs
in the moft arbitrary manner. In the grand conteft which
took place between king John and the barons about the
charter, the archbifhop’s patriotic conduct gave fuch offence
to the pope, that, in 1215, he laid him under a fentence of
fufpenfion. Neverthelefs, in the following year, we find
Langton affiting at a general council held at Rome; and
during his abfence from England at this time, king John
died. In 1222, he held a fynod at Oxtord, in which a re-
markable canon was made, prohibiting clergymen from
keeping concubines publicly in their houses, or from going
to them in other places fo openly as to oceafion feandal. In
thé following year, he, at the head of the principal nobility,
demanded an audience of king Henry I1]., and demanded
of him a confirmation of the charter of their liberties. Their
determined manner convinced the king that their demand
was not to be refufed, and he initantly gave orders for the
affembling of parliament. ‘The archbifhop fhewed, in feveral
inftances, that he was friendly to the iegal prerogatives of
the crown; and by a firm and impreffive condua, in a cafe
of great difficulty, he prevented the calamity of a civil war.
He died in the year 1228, leaving behind him many works,
which prove that he was deferving the character of being as
learned and polite an author as any of the age in which he
flourifhed. He wrote ‘Commentaries’? upon the greateft
part of the books of the Old and New Teftament. He was
deeply {killed in Ariftotelian dialectics, and the application
of them to the dodtrines of Scripture. ‘The firft divifion of
the books of the Bible into chapters is aferibed to this pre-
late. The hiitory of the tranflation of the body of Thomas
a Becket was printed at the end of that archbifhop’s letters,
at Bruffels, 1682. His letter to king John, with the king’s
anfwer, may be feen in d’Archery’s Spicilegium. Mo-
fheim’s Ecel. Hift. Henry's Hiit. of Eng.
. Laneron, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in the
county of Berwick; 2 miles S.W. of Greenlaw.
LANGUAGE, a fet of words which amy people have
agreed upon, whereby to communicate their thoughts to
each other. Or, language, in general, fignifies the expref-
fion of our ideas by certain articulate founds, which are
ufed as. the figns of thefe ideas. See ARTICULATION.
1 Whatever

LANGUAGE.

Whatever be our opinion refpe€tingthe progreffive ameli-
oration of brutes, if the capacity of language were communi-
cated to them, there can be no hefitation in admitting the
progreflive deterioration of the human fpecies, if they were
deprived of it. If man had not poffefled this, or fome other
extenfive power of communication, that aftonifhing fy{tem,
which we call the human mind, would have remained in in-
aGtivity, its faculties torpid, its energies unexcited, and that
capacity of progreflive improvement, which forms fo im-
portant a part of the mental conftitution of man, would have
been given in vain, would have been unknown, except to
him who gaveit. But in every part of the creation we dif-
cern a unity of defign, which equally proves the wifdom and
benevolence of the great Firit Caufe. The means of
bringing his powers into activity are beftowed upon man, as
well as the powers themfelves; and it is a pofition which
will bear a vigorous examination, that the accuracy of hu-
man thought and the extent of human intellect generally
proceed in equal fteps with the accuracy and extent.of lan-
guage. This ineitimable prerogative,” fays Smellie, « is
perhaps one of the greatelt fecondary bonds of fociety, and
the greate{t improvement to the human intelle&. Without
artificial language, though nature has beftowed upon every
animal a mode of exprefling its wants and defires, its plea-
fures and its pains,—what a humiliating figure would the
human fpecies exhibit, even upon the fuppofition that they
did affociate. But when language and fociety are conjoined,
the human intelle&, in the progrefs of time, arrives at a
high degree of perfection. Society gives rife to virtue,
honour, government, fubordination, arts, {ciences, order,
happinefs. All the individuals of a community condué&
themfelves upon a regulated fyftem. Under the influence
of eftablifhed laws, kings and magiftrates, by the exercife
of legal authority, encourage virtue, reprefs vice, and dif-
fufe through the extent of their jurifdiGtion the happy effects
of their adminiftrations. In fociety, as in a fertile climate,
human talents germinate and are expanded ; the mechanical
and liberal arts flourifh; poets, orators, hittorians, philo-
fophers, lawyers, phyficians, and theologians, are produced.
Thefe truths are pleafant, and it were to be wifhed that no
evils accompanied them: but through the whole extent of
nature it appears to our limited views, that good and evil,
pleafure and pain, are neceffary and perpetual concomitants.”
Tt will not appear too much to affirm, when we confider the
influence of language on the intelleé&, that if that genius,
which has dazzled the world with its fplendour and extent,
had been originally deftitute of the power of communication,
he would not have rifen above the level of the leaft cultivated
of his fellow-mortals. Conceive him (to ufe the ideas of
Condillac) bereft of the ufe of vifible figns, how much
knowledge would be concealed from him, attainable even by
an ordinary capacity! Take away from him the ufe of
fpeech,—the lot of the dumb teaches you in what narrow
bounds you enclofe him. Finally, deprive him of the ufe
of all kinds of figns ; let him not know how to make with
propriety any gefture;—you would have in him a mere
ideot.

We are far, however, from believing, with lord Mon-
boddo, that the human race have aétually rifen from the
very lowett ftage,—that of mere brutality. His lordfhip’s
pinion is too fingular to be omitted here. He fuppofes,
on the authority of feveral travellers whom he quotes, (and
ef whofe paflion for the marvellous his quotations leave no
room to doubt,) that there are nations without laws, or any
of the arts of civilized life, without even language ; and that
Yome of them, to complete their relationfhip to the monkey
tribe, ‘had actually tails, This, with other opinions, which

difplay rather the credulity of the man of fyftem than the
fober and cool judgment of the philofopher, has been ex-
pofed to the lively ridicule of Horne Tooke : and though we
wilh never to countenance the idea, that ridicule is a proper
teft of truth,—we are willing to admit, that there are fome
opinions which it is below the dignity of reafon to refute.
We fee in language a complicated whole, which we have
been accuftomed to confider as it is, without attempting to
afcertain what it has been. We fee all regularity and
beauty ; and we do not afk ourfelves the queftion, has lan-
guage always been thus regular and beautiful? When we
look back into the earlier periods of human nature, we find
that that which now wears the appearance of art was early
the invention of neceflity, gradually perfected and brought
to a fyitematic form, by caufes which have operated gene-
rally, but have received modification from the influence of
local or temporary circumftances. A complete fyftem of
the origin and progrefs of language would be a hiltory of
the progrefs of human intelle&t. ‘This we fhall not attempt: ~
perhaps our refources of knowledge are not fuflicient to ren-
der the attempt in any degree fuccefsful ; but a fhort out-
line of the early hiftory of language, particularly of written
tauguaer> will be neither yuinterefting nor ufelefs.
ur direct evidence is not extenfive, and we are too much
obliged to have recourfe to hypothefis, in tracing the pro-
grefs of improvement in any department of fcience. We
are unable always to afcertain (as Mr. Stewart obferves) how
men have actually conduéted themfelves on particular occa-
fions; and we are then led to inquire in what manner they
are likely to have proceeded from the principles of their na-
ture, and the circumftances of their external fituation. In
fuch inquiries, the detached fais which the remains of an-
tiquity, or the narration of travellers, afford us, or the
actual appearances of language at prefent, ferve as land-
marks for our {peculations. ‘* In examining the hiftory of
the human mind, as well as in examining the phenomena of
the natural world, we cannot always trace the progrefs by
which an event has been produced ; and it is frequently of
importance to difcover how it may have been produced, by
caufes known to exilt. ‘The fteps in the formation of lan-
guage cannot probably be determined with certainty ; yet
if we can fhew the known principles of human nature, how
the various parts may naturally have arifen, the mind is not
only to a certain degree fatistied, but a check is given to
that indolent philofophy which refers to a miracle whatever’
appearances, either in the natural or moral world, it is un-
able to explain.” ‘
Diodorus Siculus (lib. i.) and Vitruvius (Archit. lib. ii,
c. 21.) fuppofed that the firft men lived for fome time in the’
woods and caves, like the beats, uttering only confufed and
inarticulate founds ; till affociating for mutual affiitance, they
came by degrees to ufe articulate founds, mutually agreed
upon for the arbitrary figns or marks of thofe ideas in the
mind of the fpeaker, which he wanted to communicate to’
the hearer. By what degrees they proceeded from imarti-
culate to articulate founds, thefe writers do not attempt to
point out; and unlefs we admit that thefe articulate founds
were connected with certain feelings, in the fame manner as
what are called the natural figns, or that they were ealily
produced, which will not be allowed by thofe who have at-
tended to the ftruCture of the organs of {peech, the account
we have received from a better informed hittorian will not
lofe ground. i
Plato, in Cratyl. p. 383. p. 425. ed. Serrani, feems to
maintain, that the firft language was of divine formation ;
for he fuppofes that the names of things had-originally fome
natural connection or congruity with the things them{elves,
and

=

LANGUAGE.

~ and that the firf names muft have been juftly impofed, be-

caufe they were impofed by the gods.

Mofes, however, on whofe authority we may more con-
fidently depend, gives us to underftand that the rudiments of
language were begun by man, under the fuperintendence of
his Maker. The Supreme Being caufed all the animal crea-
tion to pafs before their lord, to receive from him their
names. If we confider that the numerous varieties which
we obferve in the fubordinate claffes of the brute creation
probably originated in a comparatively fall number of in-
dividuals, as the -almoft equally numerous varicties of men
{prang from our great progenitor, this almoit endlefs tafk,
asit at firft fight appears, is very much reduced in its mag-
nitude. Here is the firft ftep. Miracles are never ufed ex-
cept when they are neceffary, that is, when the fame effect
cannot be produced by the common laws of nature: and
hence we feel inclined to believe, that here the divine com-
munication ceafed; and that what man had been inftructed
to begin, he was left to complete for himfelf. Indeed, if
we fuppofe that more than the application of names to na-
tural objeéts had been divinely taught, yet we muft admit
that thefe communications would be bounded by the wants
of the being to whom they were made. It is not probable
that the divine initru¢tor would lead man to fix upon words,
to denote things then unknown, -or to denote ideas which
were not then acquired. ‘ It is not neceflary to fuppofe,”’

- fays Kett, “that the Creator infpired the firft pareats of

mankind with any particular original or primitive language;
but that he made them fally fenfible of the power with
which they were endued of forming articulate founds, gave
them an impulfe to exert it, and left the arbitrary impofition
of words to their own choice.’’ . This"feems to be intimated
Gen. ii. 19. See Shuckford’s Conneétion, vol. i. book ii.
. III. ‘

: Let us then fuppofe the ufe of articulation given, and its
application in fome initances pointed out, in the invention of
the names of animals ; which, we may obferve, is, in faét,
the firft ftep that would probably have been taken, prefup-
pofing the power of articulation, if no divine direétion had
been given. Words would originally be fimply the figns of
things, and farther of individuals. Every new objedt,
for which neceflity required a name, would receive a dif-
ferent name from others: but if there were a ftriking fimi-
larity between this new obje@ and one which had already
received a name, the old one would be transferred., One of
the principles of affociation is fimilarity ; and this new im-
preffion would recal the idea of the former object which it
refembled, and confequently the word with which it was
connected : and thus what originally was a name only for an
individual, would gradually become the name of a multi-
tude. ‘Thus Lee. Boo, who had been taught by his fellow-
voyagers to calla great Newfoundland dog by the name of
Sailor, ufed to callevery dog he faw Sailor. There is little
or no difficulty attending the application and claflification of
fenfible objects: it feems to be an operation fimple and eafy,
if. we prefeppofe (as we have done) that fome articulate
founds were known.

When feveral objects had received the fame name, it wou!d
be fometimes necefiary to diftinguifh them. Our procedure

-in fuch cafes is to conne& with the name of the object, the

name ofa diftinguifhing quality, or to fpecify fome relation

_it has with other obje<ts ; but this fuppofes that to be already

done, which we mult confider as yet to be done. Now we
muft beay is mind that fimilazity, (fenfible external fimi-
larity,) and local conneétion, are thole principles of affocia-
tion, which are known ta be moft aétive at prefent in the

- suinds of the illiterate and uncultivated ; they muit alfo have

been moft active in the minds of all men in the rude flates of
fociety. A peculiar colour, (which would furnith one prin
ciple of diilinétion,) would naturally be denoted by the
name of an object remarkable for that colour, and this name,
joined with the general term, would confine it to the parti-
cular object it was meant to fpecify. This is a procedure
fo fimple, that one may expeét ta find fome traces of it fill
remaining, and it is what we aétually do in common Jan-
guage. An orange ribbon will precifely explain our meanin?.
We with to diftinguifh a ribbon from cthers by its colour ;
in this inflance we are able, agreeably to the cuitom of our
language, to employ the name of an object remarkable for
that colour, to denote the colour itfelf; and it is to be cb-
ferved, that fenfible qualities were thofe, and thofe only,
which would be firlt noticed, and moft requilite to be no-
ticed,

Local fituation, or vicinity to fome objet, would furnith
another ground for diftinétion ; the fountain near the cave, for
inftance. Now in order to exprefs this, the procedure wou!d
be fimple and intelligible, if immediately preceding or fol-
lowing the term employed to denote fountain, the term de-
noting cave were added. As we fhould at prefent ufe the
exprefiion, the darn-yard, for the yard near to, or adjoining
the barn; the Aermitage-qwalk, for the walk leading to the
hermitage. ‘his juxtapofition of the figns, to fignify the
congruity or fimilarity of the objeG&s they denote, is the
molt natural, and in a language little extended, fufficient!y
adequate for all the purpofes of common life ; but it is ob-
vious that it would allow very great latitude of interpreta-
tion ; and hence, as language became more copious, contri-
vances were ufed to denote the nature of the conne@iodn which
{ubfifted between the objeéts denoted by the figns employed.
The chief of thefe is the employment of prepolitions, at fir(t
feparately, and afterwards, in fome cafes, coalefcing with,
and forming a part of the word ; and the origin of thefe fur-
nifhes additional proof that the procedures we have fpoken
of were in reality thofe of the early framers of language ({ee
GRaAmMaR) ; but thefe were contrivances of a later date
than thofe of which we here fpeak.

By degrees it was found convenient, at leaft by fome
tribes, to defignate thofe names which were employed, in
conneGion with other names witha view to,point fome quae.
lity or reitri¢ting circumftance of the thing fignified, by fome
note that they were fo employed. The [peaker might cer-
tainly have left the inference to fimple juxtapofition ;. but
this appears to have been done in few languages, after.
improvements began to take place ; and to effect fuch defig-
nation words (in fome cafes denoting, add, join, like, &e.)
were fubjoined to the particularizing names, and they then
were ufed only as adjectives, (or, to ufe a more generale
term, as adnouns.) ,The Chinefe, however, ftill make no-
diftinétion in form, between words when employed as nouns
and as adnouns ; the fame word when placed firft being an
adjective, and when placed laft a fubflantive; thus Aao gin-
is a good man; and gin te hao is the goodnefs or a man.
We ufe the fame word in many inftances both as a noun and,
an adnoun,; but a large propertion of our fimple adjeGtives
are formed as above, and are never employed as fubftantives ;
the Chinefe, on the other hand, when a fubftantive is not to
be ufed as an adjective, add the defignating fyllable oa:
to it.

As far as the procefles we have defcribed regard fenfible
objects and their conneétions, .all feems very plain; and we
find fo many traces of fimilar modes of proceeding in
languages at prefent in ufe, that we ¢an fearcely doubt that
at leaft it [trongly refemble3 the a&tual procedure in the early
ftages of language. And we may remark, as we go on,,

_ thas.

LANGUAGE.

that every procedure, in order to be probable, fhould be
fimple, and fuch as might eafily be adopted. It would not
be long before art was applied to perfe& and correét that
which neceflity began; but even this mutt have had the fea-
tures of fimplicity, mutt have been directed by circumftances
which would not he under the controul of man. It is not
probable that any variations would be formed by regular
analogies, except fuch as really exifted in the fituation or
connection of the objeét ; nor that they would form any
combinations of words, excepting when the objects they fig-
nified had fome real or apprehended conneétion.

In order to exprefs objects which were not fenfible, fo
as to convey to others notions or feelings which exiited in the
‘mind of the fpeaker, words would be ufed which had. pre-
vioufly been appropriated to objets to which thofe obje&ts
of the mind’s cye appeared to have fome refemblance, or
other connection. This refemblance or connection was fre-
quently forced, and to thofe whofe fituation was different
would not be at all ftriking ; in other cafes it was correét,
and the jultnefs of application is proved by a fimilar proce-
dure of unconnected inventors.
here from the hieroglyphics; for there cannot be a doubt
that where the vilible fign which originally reprefented only
a fenfible obje&, was applied to denote fome quality difco-
vered by reafoning and obfervation, or fome internal feeling,
the audible fign or word was applied in a fimilar man-
ner. The writing would, of courfe, as Warburton very
july obferves, be that very picture which was before
painted by the fancy, and thence delineated in words. Some
inttances will be adduced, when we come to confider the
hieroglyphical mode of communication ; at prefent we will
add one or two as illuftrations of the principles we have
jaid down. The term ufed to denote the mouth, denoted
alfo /peech ; this, connected with the dog, fignified the dog’s
woicee ‘They proceeded further, and ufed this compound,
at leaft the hieroglyphic denoting it, to fignify /amentation
and the forrow which produced it. At firlt view this proce-
dure appears extraordinary ; to enter fully into the refem-
‘blance, we muft remember that in uncultivated minds grief is
loud and clamorous ; and it is to a fimilar refemblance, that
the fame cerm has, in our own language, been applied to the
cry of a dog in pain, and to the expreffion of lamentation
among the lower claffes of the Irifh. It was a procedure
much more naturai when the term dog joined with the word
denoting a field was made to fignify Av:ting. Our readers
will be able, even in the prefent refined period of our lan-
guage, to trace numerous inftances, in which the names of
intelleual things have been obvioufly transferred from fen-
ible things ; and to thofe who have attended much to the
fubje&, it will not appear too much to affirm, that in every
inftance where a word is not the name of a fenfible object, it
has acquired its prefent force by a gradual tranfition from
its primary application to fenfible objets. Mungo Park
has furnifhed us with fome good fpecimens of the commence-
ment of this tranfition in the Mandingo language ; thus ¢elin-
gabalid, literally /traight-bodied, figiiles proud ; jufu bota, li-
terally the heart c mes out, fignifies angry ; a beagee, literally
is here, figniies alive ; &c. In every known language the
tranfition has been begun ; but it is only among the more re-
fined that it has been complete. In our own, we find abun-
dance of inftances in almoit every intermediate ftage of the
progrefs, as well asin its termination.

Language would préceed but awkwardly without thofe
wheels which have been gradually made for it ; but all which
can be thought neceflary for communication are the noun and
the verb; and even of the latter, asa diftinG clafs of words,
the neceflity may jultly be doubted. We regard it as next to

We may derive great light’

certain that the whole of what is now (by affociation) im-

plied or denoted by the verb, beyond what is denoted by ,

the acknowledged noun, was originally mere inference from
the juxtapofition of the verb-noun with another noun. We

cannot indeed acvance one ftep in oral communication, with- *

out leading our hearers to the inference that certain ideas are
eonnectedin our minds, or that we believe certain objects,
properties, or events, to be conneéted. The connecting
link, however, need not always be flated; in the firft flage
of language it would not exiit, becaule the fir? words sould
only be names without the idea of affirmation being appro-
priated to any of them; and in the language of childhood it
does not exift. Words are placed together ; and it is eafily
underflood that the correfponding ideas are connected in the
mind. “Mamma, milk—good,’’ would furely be under-
ftood by any one; and depending upon the eafe of inference,
the ancient writers (long after words had been appropriated
to exprefs affirmation) continually left their readers to make
it for themfelves. But.how flowly, and how ambiguoufly,

communication would, in many.cafes, proceed, without -

fome appropriated link of conneétion, any one may be con-
vinced by attempting to exprefs a train of thoughts without
thofe words which have the idea of affirmation allociated with
them, inthe forms fo expreffing affirmation.

The chief difficulty oppefing the admiftion of the opinion
that verbs were originally nouns, arifes from the peculiarities
exilting in the external character of verbs, the notion of
time and of modes of exiftence and aétion having become
affociated with them, and the fubject in numerous intlances,
and occafionally the obje&, having coalefced with the verb ;
but thefe are all accidental circumftances ; and the mere
Enzlifh fcholar has here advantages which the learned do not
poflefs, becaufe he continually meets with verbs in his own

language the fame in every external character as the noun, ,

and frequently ufed as nouns. The point, however, to be

‘carefully: kept in view, and what muft gradually remove :

every difficulty, is, that the only effential difference between
the noun and the verb is, that the latter (of*courfe by aflo-
ciation) exprefles affirmation; all the fuperadded circum-
{tances may be convenient for communication, but are in no
way neceffary ; and in our own language, thofe fuperadded

circumftances are in moft cafes exprefled by adjunés and ©

not by the verb itfelf. If, in any form, a word employed
to exprefs affirmation, does not exprefs it, it ceafes to, be

a verb. For grammatical convenience we may arrange fuch -
forms with thofe which exprefs affirmation, but it is merely _

for convenience: yex?s, yoxPe, Jeribe, feribere, are no more
verbs than yexQor, fcribens, fcribendi, &c. It would pre-
vent much miftake as to the nature of the verb, if the infini-
tive and imperative moods were always arranged together
under the clafs of the noun-/rate of the verbs. ‘The inlinitive
is the verd-noun with a termination (originally, without a
doubt, eapreffive by itfelf, as all terminations mutt have been,)
denoting that it is to be employed as a verb ; thus in the

Anglo-Saxon verb tean, Ge is the verb-noun, and an is the -

verbalizing adjeGtion ; fo surre, ama, &c. are the verb-nouns,

and qumrreusvas (gradually reduced to sumrevou, tumstpeery -

surrey, &c.) and amare, have the refpedtive verbalizing ad-
jeGtions joined to them. — i ‘
perative is the verb-noun itfelf ; and the notion of command,
entreaty, &c. conveyed by it, is merely the inference of
cuftom ; whether we fay to a fervant bread, or," bring fome
bread, we merely {pecify, in the latter cafe, the aGtion and
the obje& of the action, and, in the former, the objeé& alone¥
the relt is inferred from tone, manner, &c. The fa jndif-
putably is, that in every department of language, fully as

much is done by inference as by a€iual expreflion; and even .

as

In fhort, in our opinion, the im-

at

LANGUAGE.

as it is, thought is by far too quick for words. Though
We are now encroaching on the department of grammar, we
muft add as fome confirmation of our ideas, that the Hebrew
imperative is the fame with what is called the radical form of
the verb, in its feveral conjugations, except in niphal, where
it is the fame as the infinitive. But to proceed ;

Men, fight, are names, and are {till acknowledged as fuch ;
when they are placed together, efpecially if accompanied by
diftinguifhing tones of voice, it would be naturally inferred
that the fpeaker intended to raife in his hearer’s mind that
belief which exifts in his own; or at leait, to inform his
hearer of a conneétion which circumftances had formed in
his mind. By degrees, at leait in moit nations, fome of
thofe names which were frequently thus employed with the
inference of affirmation, became appropriated to convey this
inference, and it would then be made whenever the word was
‘employed; but in the more fimple languages, a large pro-
portion of thofe verbs which are employed as verbs, (#. e. con-
veying the inference of affirmation, ) are {till immediately re-
cognized as nouns. Inthe Chinefe, very few names are ap-
pcopriated as verbs, but are ufed indifcriminately, and with-
out any variation of form, either as nouns or verbs; in the
Hebrew, the root, yoo does not, like every part of the
indicative in the Greek and Latin verbs, include a pronoun, )
isafimple name, and is ufed, in many cafes, asa noun; and
in our own language, many names are ufed either as nouns
or as verbs. When we have advanced to the frequent ufe,
and gradual appropriation of fome names to convey the in-
ference of affirmation, the reft is eafy and almoft certain.

. With refpe& to the fimple affirmation, the fubjeGt of it
would, in the cafe of the firft and fecond perfons, always
be a pronoun, and, in the fame diltri@, the fame pronoun.
This, where /poken language made material progrefs, would
gradually coalefce with the verb ; and the word fo formed
would be completely inveited with the verbal charaGer, and
never be employed but with the inference of affirmation.
The Hebrew prefents us with this coalefcence in its incipient
and obvious ftate; the Greek and Latin fhew it in a much
more complete itate, and the component parts cannot always
be dete&ted ; no reafonable doubt can however exift but that.
the procedure has been the fame in all. The fame might
alfo be the cafe refpeCting the third perfon, but the coalef-
cence would, in this inftance, be more flowly formed ; and
in fome languages where the coalefcence took plaee in the
other perfons it did not in this; it muft, however, be ad-
mitted that, in others, the contrary is the fa@.

Refpesting the changes of the verb, to make it exprefs
other cireumftances befides thofe of affirmation, we muft
refer to GramMAR and the conneéted articles, and {hall
content ourfelves with the following general remarks. There
appears to us to be little or no reafon to doubt, but, that
all the common changes, which have taken place in the
verbs of all languages, to denote the time or mode of ex-
iftence and aétior, (as well as thofe of number and perfon,)
have been formed in confequence of the coalefcence of words
of appropriate fignification ; and though the gradual refine-
ment of language may have greatly varied the aflociations
of words, from what they originally pofleffed, yet that thofe
changes were originally found fufficient to an{wer their re-
{pective purpofes. ~In fome cafes the contrivances adopted
can be {till traced ; and from the new turn which has lately
been given to philological fpeculation, we may expect
other difcoveries refpetiing the caufes or origin of parti-
tular flexions. We shall only mention two initances, which
will ferve to thew how fimple thofe contrivances originally
were. The future of the French verb is nothing more than
the infinitive of the verb, with the prefent tenfe of. avoir ;

thus aimerai is ai aimer; and j’aimerai, means, [ have te
love, which mode of expreffion is, in our own language,
ufed with a future force. This leading diftinétion between
the paft and the future tenfe of the Hebrew verb is, that ing
the paft tenfe the verb is placed before the fragment of the
pronoun forming the perfon, and in the future after it; to
intimate (as may be reafonably fuppofed) that the aétion:
has paffed the fubje& in the firlt cafe ; in the fecond, that it
is yet to come.

The force of the pronouns (the legitimate fubftantive
pronouns) is very clear. / means the perfon /peaking ; thou,
the perfon /poken to; he, fhe, it, the faid perion or thing,
the perfon or thing *defore mentioned.or referred to ; and’ fo
on in the plural. When this fimple view of the fubject is
taken, no one can feel any myttery in the origin of pronouns..
The firft plan would undoubtedly be, to ufe the names
themfelves ; and fuch is the firft..procedure in childhood :
«¢ Mamma loves Mary, and hopes Mary will be a good girl?
Children ufe pronouns by degrees only ; and thofe of the firit
and fecond perfons much later than thofe of the third, for
the obvious reafon that thefe latter are the moft convenient in
their limited intercourfe. The pronouns of the third perfon
identify the obje&t now{poken of, with that before fpoken of,
and fave much circumlocution, and {till more ambiguity ; the
pronouns of the firft perfon are of great convenience, in cafes
where the name of the fpeaker or hearer is unknown, where
there are others of the fame name, and in the plural efpe-
cially where feveral names muft otherwife be often repeated.
—The pronoun is then a very valuable, but not a-neceflary
part of fpeech. How it might be formed, the very. pro-
bable procedure in a few inflances will fufficiently fhew.
Horne Tooke fhews that i#, formerly written Ait, is the paft
participle of the verb »Aic\n, to name, and therefore means
the perfon or perfons, thing or things named or aforefaid ;
and accordingly it was applied by all our .old writers indif-
ferently to plural and to fingular nouns. We do-not know
whether a fimilar opinion. as to the origin of pronouns had
been previoutly laid before the public, but the philofophical-
Greek profeflor of Glafgow (who in his very interefting
and important inveftigations, has often anticipated Horne-
Tooke) long ago delivered it as his opinion, that fome, at
leaft, of the pronouns, are participles, and, if we miftake
not, traced the origin of «yw and ipfe as follows: Eye, in
one of its earlier forms, was «ye», which is an obvious ‘abbre--
viation or corruption of Aeyw, fo that eye (whence the
Latin and other languages have their firft pronoun) fignifies
the perfon /peaking. Jp/e is the Latin paft participle from
ex»; and though this verb is not to be found in Latin
writers, thofe who know how much the Latin is a dialeét of
the Greek, will not feel this to be a material difficulty: on
this derivation ip/e fignifies the faid perfon, &c. Whatever
be the origin of i//e, it is obvious that it is in itfelf merely
an adnoun, (exaétly correfponding to our fhat,) employed:
to point out, and probably accompanied in the firit inftance-
by the afion of pointing out: now from this demonttrative
adnoun, (a pronoun only by a-fubauditur,) the French have
taken not only their demonttrative /, but alfo their legi-
timate pronoun i/.* Ji/e is never employed without a fub=-
ftantive exprefled or underitood ; é will.not admit of a fub-
ftantive ; and this faé, among many others which meet us
at every ftep of our inveftigations, fhould prevent us from
imagining that a procedure cannot have been, becaufe we
can now find no traces of it: the origin of iJ was an adnoun 3:
it is itfelf a pronoun. We fhall add one more example of
the probable origin of pronouns. Jw is found in the form
tute ; tute is the vocative of tuitus or tutus, from tueor, to fees.

to obferve, and fignifies a /egn perfon :. we look at the perfon
we

>

LANGUAGE.

wwe {peak to, and, by direé inference, tute denotes the perfon
Spokento. It may be objected that ¢z is from zv, a form of
cy; it appears to us in no way unreafonable to fuppofe that
the Latin has preferved a verb from the early Greek dialect
which the common forms of the Greek have loft.
We do not think it neceflary to enter any farther into the
fubject of the origin of oral language. It can fcarcely be
doubted, by thofe who have ftudied the nature of the other
parts of fpeech, by means of the light which the refearches
of Horne ‘Tooke and others have afforded, that all have
been derived from the noun and the verb ; and, admitting this,
all that is incumbent upon thofe who profefs to thew the ori-
ginal caufes of language, is to prefent a probable otigin of
thofe claffes of words. In thofe procedures which have been
here {tated, there is nothing which fuppofes metaphyfical re-
fearch, or much obfervation ; and to render any procedure
probable, it mult wear the marks of fimplicity. In the pre-
fent period of the language, we fee the grammarian pointing
out the analogies which are found to exit in language, and
thence proceeding to the formation of new words upon
thefe analogies: this is art; but the early formers of lan-
guage, in their inventions, followed only the dictates of cir-
cumttances ; and whatever regularity we may perceive in their
inventions, mutt be attributed to the fimilarity of thofe cir-
cumftances. We fee the philofopher inventing a new term,
agreeably to prevailing analogies, to exprefs fome power of
the mind, or fome emotion which had not received any deno-
mination; but thofe who originally gave names to.mental
feelings, derived them fimply from fome analogy, fancied or
real, between the internal and an external object, and thofe
names which now fuggeft to us ideas the moft iubtle and re-
fined, were originally only the names of objeéts obvious to
the fenfes. Thereafoner, when he ufes a word whofe mean-
ing has not been accurately afcertained, defines the ideas
which he intends to attach to it, and ufes it accordingly ; in
the early and even in the more refined periods of language,
the ideas conneéted with words have been the refult of cafual
aflociations, produced by local circumftances, by the cuftoms
of the age, or the appearances of nature in particular fitu-
ations. :
In languages in which the coalef{cence between the verb and
its adjuncts has taken place, and alfo the coalefcence between
nouns and their connective words, much greater liberty. of

-.anverfion is practicable than in thofe in which fuch coalef-

cence has not at all occurred, ‘or but incompletely. In
other words, where the noun, adnoun, and verb, admit of
flexion, there the arrangement depends, in many inftances,
more upon the found than upon the fenfe ; and nearly in all
cafes may be made fubfervient to the former. This gives
fuch languages confiderable advantage over thofe which ad-
mit of but few changes, fo far as refpeéts their modulation ;
and farther, the coalefcence renders them much more for-
.cible, where emphafis or any of the fractional parts is not
required. Whenever flexion increafes perfpicuity, the ad-
vantage is decifive and obvious; with refpeét to modulation,
though an objeét of fome confequence (fince we may fome-
times find the way to the head and heart by pleating the
ar), yet all cultivated languages will -be found to poffefs
{uflicient power of pleafing the native ear ; and among thofe
who made found fo much an obje&, fenfe was often facri-
ficed to it: with refpet to force it may fairly be doubted
whether the advantage of greater precifion by means of
more accurate emphatis, does not counterbalance it. We
are willing to admit, on the whole, that the advantage 1s
fomewhat in favour of thofe languages in which flexion is
extenfively adopted; but we. can by no means admit the

opinions of thofe, who think it neceffary to a perfect lan-

guage. That langtiage is not’ the moft perfect, which eft
ables us to exprefs our thoughts in a great variety of ways,
but that which enables us to exprefs any thought with pre-
cifion and perfpicuity ; and contemptible as our own unin-
flected language may appear to thofe, who can think nothing
sood, but what accords with the objects of their early tate,
we are difpofed to believe that in its real powers, it rifes be-
yond all the ancient languages and moft of the modern.

Before we leave the fubject of oral language, we mult
pay fome attention ta the following inquiries; whether
words are originally imitative; whether they were long;
and of what kind of articulations they were compofed.
The latter are of importance in tracing the gradation from
hieroglyphics to alphabetical writing.

Words in their prefent {tate are fimply arbitrary marks,
ufed to denote ideas, or combinations of other words
the found of fome appears to-be “an echo of the fenfe,”’
but in the greater number -of inftances in which there
is fuppefed to be this refemblance, very much may be
attributed to the fancy of the obferver. It is obvious,
however, that there are fome words which are formed
upon found, and are truly imitative; fuch, for inftance, as
denote the various founds of animals. When we carry our
enquiries further back, we are led to fuppofe that this
might be the cafe in the earlier ftages of language ; that the
original words would be formed from fome refemblance, real
or imagined, between the found and the thing fignified. What
elfe, at firlt, could induce them to fix upon one found rather
than another? We have already feen that fenfible objects were
the firft which obtained names ; and of fenfible objeéts, the
number is confiderable which either emit fome imitable

found, or perform fuch motions as have generally fome con-

nection with found. Of thefe latter the number is evidently
fmall ; waving and regular, rapid and flow motion, violent
and {mooth motion, appear to be all the varieties which
found would denote. With refpe& to founds, whether pro-
duced by animate or by the motion of inanimate objeéts,
thefe might and probably would be imitated ; and the names
of thofe objects which were conneéted with the founds
would be derived from thofe imitative founds. The Otahei-
tans give to the gun the appellation of tick-tick-bow, evidently
imitative of the cocking and report of the gun; and the
Kamtfchatkans denominated the Ruffian clergyman éog-
bog, becaufe he often repeated the found dag, which in the
Ruffian Janguage fignifies God. With refpet to qualities
totally unconneted with found, particularly mental quali-
ties, this principle of imitation is not directly applicable. We
immediately fee the incongruity of colour and found, when,
for example, we call to mind the idea of the blind man, that
a fcarlet colour was very much like the found of a trumpet.
A circumttance which appears to have mifled feyeral inge-
nious writers on this fubje€t, is, that obferving certain let-
ters applied to denote a clafs of ideas which have, among
others, fome common features of refemblance, they have
fuppofed that thofe letters were fignificant of that common
feature; for example, that c denotes cavity or hollownefs.
Now fuppofing that there is that general idea, varioufly modi-
fied, in every word in which the c formsa principal part, does
it follow from this that the c fignified by its /aund cavity or
hollownefs ? We can difcover no fuch fimilarity. We ap-
prehend that the coincidence may be better accounted for in
a different way, that the original word denoting hollownefs,
which has entered, varioufly modified, into the words in quef-
tion, was c with fome vocal found. That is the extent of the in-
ference which may be juftly drawn from the coincidence ; that
it was fo applied, but not that it was‘fignificant of the quality.
We have been accuftomed to ufe foundsin given sia
wit

LANGUAGE,

with fuch regularity and conftancy, that they appear to us to
have a conneétion of real fignification inftead of merely arbi-
trary in{titution. Frequently, from our acquaintance with the
fenfe, we read a combination of words as the fenfe dictates, and
fuppofe that imitation in the words, which in reality exifts
only in our mode of enunciation ; but it is only with words
feparately, confidered from their conneétion with other words,
that we are here concerned ; and with refpeét to them we
cannot but confine the refemblance of their found to their
fenfe, te cafes in which they denote either found, or motion,
ufually accompanied with found.

In tracing the tranfition from-hierogly phics to alphabetical
writing, the probability of the theory advanced will much
depend upon the fhortnefs of the words of that language in
which the tranfition was made. It is generally fuppofed
that this was the Egyptian; but of the ancient Egyptian
we have no remains, excepting fome words which the mo-
dern Egyptian or Coptic has preferved, many of which,
however, are monofyllabic. It will be worth while, there-
fore, to {tate it as a general enquiry, whether the original
words of original languages were. long or fhort. Lord
Monboddo fuppofes that all human founds were originally
inarticulate cries; and that the firft articulate founds were
imitations of the cries of animals, and confequently were of
greatlength. ‘ For fuch cries of almoft all animals have a
certain traét and extenfion (as his lordfhip expreffes himfelf)
fuch as the lowing of an ox, the neighing of a horfe, the
braying of an afs, the roar of a lion, &c. And that we may
not think them an exception to this ruie, we need only attend
to the dumb perfons among us who utter inarticulate cries,
fometimes very loud, but alwaysof a confiderable length.”’
There are few loofer reafoners than his lordfhip, at lea‘t
among thofe’ who poffefs fuch a fund of information as_his
lerdihip certainly did. To adduce dumb perfons as an ex-
ample of what men poffeffed of the powers of articulation
would do when they firft began to ufe thofe powers, feems
a very incorrect mode of argument. We mult, however,
remember that lord Monboddo fuppofes men to have arifen
from the ftate of mere brutality. We fuppofe, and on far
better authority than that on which he refts his faith, that
man was never.a brute, and that the firft man was led by
divine interpofition to ufe his powers of articulation. We
have already feen that it is probable that the founds to denote
obje&s emitting founds, would be fignificant ; and the cries
of different animals would therefore furnifh names for thofe
animals. If we confine imitation to this, great length of
words is unneceflary and improbable: unneceffary becatife
one or two diitinct articulations would generaily be fufficiert
for diftinétion ; thus, bow-avow would anfwer the purpofe
to denote a dog, as well asa continuation of the found to
a hundred fyllables. It is improbable, becaufe articulation
is at firft very difficult, and it is therefore fcarcely fuppofe-
able that more articulations would be ufed, than were necef-
fary to exprefs diftinctly what obje& they were intended to
denote. If we extend the principle of imitation further, and
fuppofe that man imitated thofe cries in order to exprefs his
feelings merely, his cries would have no claim to the higher
title of words, and at any rate would throw no light onour
inquiries.

At firtt fight, the hypothefis that the original words of
language were long, appears to draw confiderable confirma-
tion from the vocabularies of the North American In-
dians. Of three that are given us by Mackenzie, two ap-
pear to be compofed of words, of from two to feven fylla-
bles; with fcarcely any of one. - The third, onthe other
hand, is compofed folely of words of one or two fyllables.

Vou, XX.

With refpe& to the former, even where words actually de-
note objects of fenfe, our inferences that they are uncom-
pounded fhould be carefully drawn. The moon is exprefied
by two words, Tilifca-pefim, fignifying the night-/ua; and
feveral others appear clearly to be circumlocutions, In
like manner the favages on the river St. Laurence, near
Montreal (who are Catholics) give the French priefts the ap-
pellation of the matter of life’s man; and it is by far the
molt probable fuppofition, that, in uncultivated nations,
names of new objecis would, when poffible, be formed ra-
ther by fignilicant combination of words in ufe, than by the
formation of new words. Thus, as we learn from Mr.
Park, the Mandingo nation ufe the following (among
many) circumlocutions : fruit is eree-ding, child of the trees ;
noon, teeleckoniata, the fun over head ; finger, boullakonding,
child of the hand or arm ; brother, ba-ding-kea, mother’s male
child; jfifler, ba-ding-moofa, mother’s female child. Some
others we have already noticed.

Lord Monbeddo is very unfortunate in the choice of ex-
amples of his theory ; for not one is of that clafs of names,
which, in all probability; were the original ones, names of
fenfible objeGs. They are the following: wonnaweucktuck-
luit, fignifies much, and mikkeuawkrook, little, in the Efqui-
maux language; and poellarrarorincourac, 23 thename for three
among fome South American Indians. With refpect to -
the two former, the examples above adduced, authorize us to
conclude that they are circumlocutions, defcriptive of the
fignification. With refpeét to the lait we may obferve, that
the names of numbers were, probably, originally fignificant
in alllanguages; and that the length of thofe names would
depend upon the length of the original words, and the
manner adopted in combining them. Thus fix is, by the
Kamtfchatkans, denoted by innen-milchin, .e. one and five.
Numbers are fo familiar to us, and fo diftinéily arranged in
groups, that perhaps in no inftance are our ideas more clear.
Yet this clearnefs entirely depends upon the diftin@inefs of the
figns we ufe to denote them. We {peak of ten and twenty,
&c. and all feems very clear; but it is evident that if we at-
tempt to form a conception of ten, twenty, &c. we mult
pa{fs over every one fingly, and endeavour to combine them
together by proceffes which will be varied by the habits of
the individual. If we give a frefh name to every group of
objeéts, and then confider thofe groupsas units, and fo on,
we are capable of extending our ideas of number indefinitely,
and of {peaking and thinking of them with accuracy ; but
if the {mall extent of our intelleG, or the circumitances of
our fituation, prevents this grouping, and we confine our
attention to individuals, our arithmetic muft be very con-
fined... Thofe nations which reckon only by a computation
with their fingers, carry their ideas of numbers no farther
than ten; thofe who with the Kamtichatkans take in the
toes, go as far as twenty; theie people can reckon no
farther, and when they have advanced te this limit, they
fay “where fhall we go now?” It is difficult to conceive
what circumftances could bound the arithmetic of lord Mon.
boddo’s Indians to three, or rather what fhould induce them
to choofe fo troublefome a mode of procedure ; but it appears
probable that.they joined the names of three different men or
other animals ; and if they had proceeded further, would
have joined four together, &c. Why they did not ufe
fhorter words to form the combination, we cannot conjecture,
unlefs it were that their tribe was originally very {mall, and
that they mentioned the names of one, two, or three in or-
det to denote thofe one, two, or three; and that thele
names, being proper names of perfons, would be fomewhat
long. But this is entirely hypothetical. It feems a more

Mm natural

LANGUAGE.

natural procedure to repeat the word as often as there were
numbers to be denoted, but the ear would not readily follow
this repetition.

If lord Monboddo had looked into the vocabulary of the
Mexicans, he would have thought that his theory derived
great confirmation from their words. Clavigero informs us,
that they had words of fifteen or fixteen fyllables ; but he
exprefsly fays that they are compounds. He gives us one
{pecimen of their mode of combination. It is a title of
addrefs, Notlazomabuitzteopixcatalzin, and fignifies my very
-avorthy father, or, révered pric. It is compounded of five
words (taking away eight confonants and four vowels), pre-
fixing zo, which correfponds to my, and adding tzin, which is
a particle expreflive of reverence ; fo that there are no fewer

than feven words compounded together. Their language

is very copious ; and one caufe of the length of their words
is probably the deficiency of confonants, which would ren-
der a combination of founds neceflary for diftinétion. It is
entirely deftitute of the 4, d, f, g, r,s, but abounds with
1, x, t, x, tl, tz.

' We have before remarked, that the importance of the en-
quiry to us refults principally from its conneétion with the
origin of alphabetical writing. Now we may admit that the
languages of thefe North American Indians fayours the

hypothefis of long words without any injury, for among

them alphabetical writing never exifted; and we fhould have
enlarged lefs on this point, if it had not led us to notice
fome curious procedures of language. Yet it feems rea-
fonable to admit, as au inference, that the original, or rather
fecondary words of language, would have been long (though
not to the degree lord Monboddo fuppofes), if the cireum-
{tances of man had not required a varied vocabulary ; for
the more confined the number of articulations, the more ex-
tent muit be given to fome words to diftinguifh them from
others. » But when we advance further, and inquire of what
kind the original words of man really were, we fhall fee
fufficient reafon to conclude them to be fhort. Language
was firit ufed in the Eaft, and there, too, writing was firit
invented. Wehave already mentioned, that of the ancient
Egyptian words which are preferved in the Coptic, a con-
fiderable number are monofyllabic. ‘The Chinefe, which, as
far as original language is confidered, appears to have under-
zone little alteration, or combination, and is probably nearly
an original language, is compofed entirely of monofyllables.
Probably, indeed, this was the very caufe that the Chinefe
never advanced into the alphabetical mode of writing. They
had no compounds,of founds; and they varied their words
by infleGtion of voice initead of additions of articulation,
The original words of the Hebrew, Greek, &c., that is,
thofe which are not varied by the addition of other words,
are fhort, frequently only of one fyllable, feldom of more
than two. And of the vocabularies which we have had an
opportunity of confulting, of the uncivilized nations of the
Eaft, the words are generally monofyllabic or diffyllabic.
Having now attended to the two former of the inquiries
with which we propofed to finifh the fubje& of oral lan-
guage, we fhall proceed to the laft—Of what kind of arti-
eulations the early languages were compofed. It appears
that in the early languages confonant founds were at leait
generally accompanied by vowel founds; but though this
3s a material point in tracing the tranfition from hierogly-
phic to alphabetical writing, it will not be neceflary to enlarge
much uponit. We think this pofition proved, by the follow-
ing, in fome meafure unconneed, confiderations. 1. Vowel
founds are by far the moft eafy ; and confequently they con-
ftitute the earlieft vocal founds of children, and a large pro-

portion of the vocal founds of uncivilized nations, ‘Several
words among the South Sea iflanders are compofed entirely

of vowel founds ; and fo great is the difficulty which thefe

people find in pronouncing confonants together, that they

called fir Jofeph Banks, Opano. From this confideration

we may fairly infer, that vowel founds would be frequent

in the original words of the early languages, which were

formed before articulation was become eafy. 2. Yet as the
fhades of diftin@tion between them, when employed alone

or together, are too nice to furnifh, at leaft to. the unprac-

tifed ear, many obvioufly different words ; and as man was.

not at firft in that low ftate of intelle& in which he has.
fometimes appeared, a vocabulary formed of fuch founds
would be very inadequate to his wants; and, therefore, we

mutt fuppofe that in the early languagesthere would be very

few words without confonant founds. 3. Some of the firft

articulations of man were without doubt employed in naming.
thofe of the inferior animals with which he was concerned.

Now their names would almott certainly be given from their:
diftinguifhing cries, and the cries of fuch animals confift of
confonant founds, each followed by a vowelfound. 4. Its

articulation would at firft be nearly as difficult as we nove

perceive it to be in children, the firft words would be com~
pofed of fimple articulations, that is, of confonant founds,
each followed by a vowel; and new words would be

formed by the combination of fuch ; fo that in the early

languages al] compounds would be formed by the combi-

nation of fimple articulations. 5. The greater part of con-

fonant founds, cannot be founded fingly without vowels, nor

together without vowels intervening. In many cafes this is

evident to the ear; and when it is not perceived, it often is

the fa@t, though the acquired rapidity of utterance may

render it very little perceptible. 6. Some languages donot

admit of any two confonant founds together. The Tartar

language always requires a vowel between two confonants.

The Ruffians, we believe, does the fame. The Chinefe never

join two confonants, unlefs we muit except ag; but this.
appears to be only a fimple found, though reprefented by two.
of our letters, With ref{peét to the Chinefe the point is of
confequence, becaufe there is great reafon to believe: that

they came from the -ftock of the Egyptians, before there

had been any contiderable addition to their vocabulary by

combinations of founds, and before the tranfition had been.

made from hieroglyphical to alphabetical writing. It is

true many of the Chinefe words end in confonants, which

feems to render improbable the pofition advanced; but it

is to be obferved, that in fuch cafes the words fhould be

coniidered as of two fyllables ; for it is impoffible, in con-

tinued fpeaking, to utter a complete confonant found at the

end of a word, without emitting a vowel found. 7. That

the Hebrew (which is to be confidered as a reprefentative -
of all the cognate ea‘tern languages) never founded a cor=
fonant without a vowel, may be inferred from this circum-
ftance, that thofe who invented the denotements of vowel
founds, while at leaft the leading features of the pronun-
ciation remained, thought it neceffary to add or fuppofe
underftood a vowel found after every confonant.

Having gone over the principal tepics relative to
oral language, we -proceed to written language. Writing
has been juttly confidered as one of the moft noble and
beneficial inventions which human ingenuity can boaft. We
fhall not expatiate upon its advantages in embodying and per=
petuating our thoughts, but fhall proceed to give a hiftory
lefs enveloped in ob{curity in mot of its ftages than that
of orallanguage. Difficulties indeed attend it, as muft occur
in every inveltigation into antiquity ; but we have here data

on

LANGUAGE,

‘en which to found our conclufions, which the fleeting nature
of oral language would not permit.

Vifible language firlt ufed marks as the figns of ¢hings ;
and we can trace it through its various ftages from the lim-
ple picture to the arbitrary mark. The rudett {pecies of
vifible communication with which we are acquainted, is that
of the Peruvians; it was by means of knotted cords of
various colours. We have reafon to believe, however, that
this was not the only {pecies of vifible communication among
them; and it was evidently very defective. The Quipos,
as they are called, have been celebrated by authors fond of
the marvellous, as if they had poffefled regular annals of
the empire ; but it feems reafonable to hefitate here. They
might have fome fignificancy by agreement, but without oral
interpretation they could denote little more than that fome-
thing was to be remembered, in the fame manner as perfons
of weak memories fometimes adopt the contrivance of tying
apiece of itring round their finger to remind them that
recolleétion is neceflary. According to the opinion of the
beit informed judges, they feem to have been a device for
rendering calculation more expeditious and accurate. By
various colours, different objects were denoted, and by each
knot a diftin@ number: fo that they might ferve as a kind
of regilter of the number of inhabitants in each province,
or of the quota they furnifhed to the general treafury of the
nation. As they had picture-writing, though to no great
extent, and numbers mult be denoted by arbitrary figns to
render calculation at all extenfive, this account is by far
more probable than that of thofe who fuppofe them de-
figned for hiftorical purpofes. In this view they could
anfwer no farther purpofe than the twelve ftones which
Jofhua fet up after the paflage of the Lfraelites over the
Jordan.

The Mexican picture-writing was the firft ftep in the
progrefs towards alphabetical writing. The effential dif-
ference which it will be defirable to keep in mind between
the latter and all the intermediate fleps, is, that in alpha-
betical writing we ufe figns for founds only ; except with
the deaf, they are in the firft inftance fignificant of things or
ideas. only by an intermediate ftep: picture-writing, in all
its various ftages, prefents figns for things or ideas diredtly,
and only for founds as being the denotement of them.

_ The fimpleft fpecies of picturé-writing was that in which
a mere delineation of the thing to be denoted was employed ;
thus, to exprefs man or dog, &c. a drawing of the animal
wouldbe given. This we learn from fir William Johnfon is
the procedure of the North American Indians: when they
go to war they paint fome trees with the figures of warriors,
often the exact number of the party, and if they go by
water they delineate a canoe. When they gain a victory,
they mark the handle of their tomahawks with human figures,
to fignify prifoners; and draw the bodies without heads to
exprefs the f{ealps they have taken. To thefe fimple annals
the warrior trults for renown; and pleafes himfelf with the
belief, that by their means he fhall receive praife from the
warriors of other times. Thus, too, the Mexicans, when
the Spanifh invaders firft arrived on their coafts, fent large
paintings on cloth as exprefles to their emperor Montezuma.
But the Mexicans had made much greater advances than
their favage countrymen ; except in fome few inftances they
did not indeed go further than fimple delineation, but by a
proper difpofition of their figures they could exhibit a more
complex feries of events in hiftorical order. They could
defcribe, for inftance, the occurrences of a king’s reign from
his acceffion to his death ; the progrefs of an infant’s edu-
cation from its birth to the years of maturity ; the different
recompences and marks of diftin¢étion conferred upon war-

x

riors, in proportion to the exploits they had performed,
Some very curious f{pecimens of this piéture-writing are
preferved ; the molt valuable one has been publifhed, and
may be found in Purchas’s Pilgrim. It is dividedinto three
parts, The firft contains a hiftory of the Mexican empire
under its ten monarchs ; the fecond is a tribute roll, repre-
fenting what each conquered town paid into .the royal trea-
fury ; the third is a code of their inltitutions, domeitic,
political, and literary.

The defeéts of this mode of painting muft have been carly
felt. It was, where applicable, a tedious operation; and
no objects but thofe of fenfe could be denoted by it. The
human intelleét, ftimulated by the neceflity of improvement,
would probably have gone through the fame courfe in the
new world as it had done in the old, and have proceeded
from the piéture to the fimple hieroglyshic, then to allegro~
rical fymbols, and laftly, to arbitrary charaéters ; but a ltop
was early put to the progrefs of their improvement by the
deftruétion of their molt cultivated empires. In the fimple
hieroglyphic, a principal part or circumiftance of the fubjeét
is made to ftand for the whole; and to this the Mexicans had
made approach. Inthe hiftorical painting before mentioned,
the conquered towns are unifermly denoted by the rude
delineation of a houfe, to which is added fome diftinguifhing
emblem. The kings themfelves, or the leaders of their
armies, are in like manner denoted by heads of men with
fome emblematic mark conjoined. Thefe emblematic marks
were denotements, not of their qualities, but of their names,
as we learn from Clavigero, who farther informs us, that
the names of places were formerly fignificant compounds.
They advanced {till further, and made ufe of the mere figura-
tive hieroglyphic. When they withed to exprefs a monarch
who had enlarged his dominion by force of arms, they placed
the reprefentation of a target, ornamented with darts be-
tween the figure of the king and that of the towns which
he had fubdued. To denote numbers, arbitrary figns were
ufed. It will be feen from this account, that the Mexicans
had atually in fome initances paffed through all the inter-
mediate ftages of writing, though the fhort duration of their
empire prevented them from extending thofe rudiments to a
regular fyltem. Indeed Clavigero juftly complains, that
injuftice is done his countrymen. They evidently made con-
fiderable ufe of the fimple hieroglyphic; their marks for
months and other portions of time, for the air, the earth,
&c. were fymbolical, and their cyphers were arbitrary ; yet
they are generally fuppofed to have made no advances be-
youd mere picture-writing. Their manner of denoting
numerals was as follows, They painted as many points as
there are units to twenty; this number had its proper cha-
racter ; then they doubled it, &c. for 20 times, that is, to
400, which had a new chara¢ter ; this they doubled, &c. in
like manner, that is, to S000, which again had a new cha-
racter, and which they doubled, &c. as before. So that
with thefe three characters, and the points, they expreffed
numbers as far at leaft as 20 times 8000, i.e. 160,000. At
leaft, however, it muft be acknowledged, that the annals of
a nation, conveyed in the manner we have defcribed, muft be
very fcanty and imperfect. And accordingly Clavigero
admits, that their paintings ought not to be contidered as a
regular full hiftory, but only as monuments and aids of tra-
dition. ‘The parents and malters took the greate{t pains to
inftruét the rifing generation in the hiftory of the nation.
They made them learn fpeeches and difcourfes which they :
could not exprefs by the pencil; they put the events of their
anceftors into verfe, and taught them to fing them. This
tradition difpelled the doubt and ambiguity which painting
alone would have occafioned; and by the afliftasce of thele

Mmz monuments

LANGUAGE.

monuments perpetuated the memory of their heroes, their
mythology, their laws, and their caftoms. See Robertfon’s
America, + vol, iii. p. 173—180, and Clavigero, vol. i.
-409—IT.
. Pixs ample picture-writing would foon be contracted by
neceflity ; parts of the objet, or the principal circumftances
of the action, would be delineated to denote the whole of
the object or aétion which it was intended to reprefent.
‘This would correfpond to what we fhould call in writinga
plain ftyle; but it is obvious, that language, whether written
or {poken, if confined to words denoting objects of fenfe
merely, would ke very meagre and imperfect. ‘To enlarge
the powers of vifible communication, the real or fuppofed
inftrument of a thing was placed for the thing itfelf. And
a ftill more refined {pecies of hieroglyphic is, where qualities,
&c. were reprefented*by objects which had fome real or fup-
pofed analogy to them ; this correfponds to a figurative ftyle.
We here fpeak of hieroglyphics as intended for the purpofe
of communicating, not concealing knowledge. It was long
fuppofed that the latter was their firft and only purpofe ;
but bifhop Warburton has fatisfa@orily proved that this ufe
was not made of them after the other was rendered unnecef-
fary by the invention of alphabetical writing. Itis for the
purpofe of communication that we wifh to confider them.
Warburton feems to confider thefe three kinds of hierogly-
phics as in reality three diltin€t {pecies of communication ;
but as De Guignes juftly obferves, this difference regards the
ftyle alone. And though probably the moft fimple hiero-
gilyphics were thofe firit ufed, yet as language muft have
made fome progrefs by the ufe of permament vilible commu-
nication, it was found neceflary, and confequently mult have
given metaphorical meanings to the names of many fenfible
objects, it is not to be fuppofed that the hieroglyphics would
be confined thus even in their very earlieft tages. We mutt
remember, too, that even the rudeft kind is an improvement
upon the picture-writing ; fo that we are not to confider
them as the firft attempts of men to embody their thoughts.
The moft fimple fpecies of hieroglyphics was when
the delineation of part of the objeG or action reprefented the
whole ; thus the ancient Egyptians painted a man’s two feet
in water to reprefent a fuller ; fmoke afcending, to denote
fire; two hands, one of which held a buckler, the other a
bow, to denote a battle, &c. Now if we direé our atten-

tion to oral language, we fhall perceive that it ftill re-.

tains many of thefe contrations, particularly in poetry.
The fail, for inftance, to denote the whole fhip ; the hand, to
denote the whole man, &c.; where, however, it mutt be re-
marked, that thefe contra¢tions are for the purpofe of de-
noting the part of the obje€&t, &c. which is moft to be at-
tended to in the given circumftances, and therefore come un-
der the fecend kind of hieroglyphics, where the real or fup-
pofed inftrument is ufed to denote the performer or the thing
performed. And indeed fe long as oral language denotes
tenfible obje&ts, there is no advantage with refpe& to brevity
in placing the name of a part to denote the whole, fince,
except in peculiar cafes, the name of the whole may be pro-
nounced with as great facility as of the part. Examples of
this fecond clafs of hieroglyphics, are the eye and the {ceptre
to denote a king; a {word to denote a bloody tyrant; the
mouth for fpeech and voice; an eye placed in an eminent
pofition, to denote the prefence of God; and the fun and
moon in like manner were ufed to denote the fucceflion of
time. Inftances of fimilar metaphors in common language
are very numerous; to take the laft two inftances, we fay
the eye of God is upon us, meaning that the omnifcience of
the Supreme Being extends to us; and though perhaps it
would be too bold even for our poetry to ufe the expreflion

-gods hate impudence.’?

of fun for the time of his apparent revolution s yet we might
employ moon to denote the time of a lunation. The Tait
kind we mentioned, was that which employed, to reprefent
one thing, another which had fome refemblance or analogy
to it. Hence was the laft procefs in the invention of oral as
well as pictured language, and it is perfectly fimilar to what
at prefent we confider as an ornament, figurative language.
For it mutt be obferved, that what we confider as a beauty,
was originally the invention of neceflity. For inftance,
among the Egyptians the dog’s head, (as among the Chinefe
the dog’s ve was the fymbol for forrow ; fcience was
denoted by dew falling from heaven. ‘This very metaphor
is exprefled in the form of a fimile, in Deut. xxx. 2. “ M
doétrine fhall drop as the rain, my f{peech fhall diitil as the
dew, as the fmall rain upon the tender herb, as the fhowers
on the grafs.’’ Thefe fymbolical hieroglyphics would be
very frequently derived from very fanciful analogies, founded
frequently on the popular prejudices of the umes.. As am
inftance, may be mentioned the figure of an hyena, which was
ufed to denote a man who fupported his misfortunes with
courage, and rofe fuperior to them. ‘This took its rife im
the opinion that the {kin of the hyzna rendered the wearer
fearlefs and invincible. The lait we fhall mention, is the
famous infcription at the temple of Minerva at Sais, where
we find the figures of an infant, an old man, a hawk, a fifh,
and a river horfe. The hawk and fifth were one charaéter ;-
this kind deftroys fifh, and is therefore the fymbol for hatred.
The river horfe was the fymbol for impudence, and the
infant and the old man were intended to denote all men.
The hieroglyphic therefore means ‘¢ young and old hate im-
pudence ;”’ or, more literally, «old man, infant, hatred, im-
pudence.”? It has been more diffufely rendered; ‘ all ye who
enter into the world, and who go out of it, know that the
We may remark, as we proceed,
that this-tends to confirm the hypothefis, that originally all
words, even verbs, were nouns. ‘This hieroglyphic was a
plain admonition, defigned for the initruétion of the people;
for it was engraved on the veltibule of a public temple; and
is therefore juttly confidered by Warburton, as one proof
that the original hieroglyphics were for the purpofe of com.
munication, not of concealment. If the Scythian king hady
been able to delineate objects, he would perhaps have fentas
painting to Darius inftead of the real objets. The pifture
of a moufe, a frog, a bird, a dart, and a plough would have-
anfwered the fame purpofe as the things themfelves, and have:
been lefs inconvenient. They would then have been reals
hierogly phics.

The firft objet of thofe who invented: hieroglyphics,. was»
to preferve the memory of events, and to make known laws;
and reculations for the conduct of the-citizen and the man..
Such fymbols therefore would frit be employed as were of:
obvious interpretations. Figures founded on their language:
(which, as we have already obferved, muft have made con-,
fiderable advances towards improvement, ) would be readily
underitood, even if the analogies which gave birth to the:
words were forgotten. By degrees they were employed:for~
the more refined purpofes of philofophy ; and analogies and:
refemblances were the foundation of hiereglyphics, which;
would be intelligible only to thofe who. were acquainted.
with the fciences from which thofe analogies: were deduced.:
This progrefs, as we fhall afterwards fee, is the fame with:
that of the Chinefe language, which in all its {tages is an:
object worthy of our curiofity. Still, however, there was-
nothing done for concealment. The purpofe of communica-
tion was {till kept in view, and knowledge of the theories of.
the times alone was fufficient for their interpretation. But»
by degrees fuperitition appropriated them for the purpofe of;

Bo ist : concealmenty.

LANGUAGE,

eoncealment, and thofe whofe dominion over the vulgar con-
fifted in the pofleflion of myiteries, after the invention of
alphabetical writing, which would otherwife have annihilated
the ufe of hiereglyphics, {till employed them to keep the
fecrets of the priethood from the eyes of the profane vulgar.
Their fymbols, which for the purpofes of communication
fhould have had an obvious analogy, were introduced from
far-fetched refemblances. A cat was ufed to denote the
moon, becaufe they perceived a difference in the fize of its
pupil at the full moon, and in different periods of its appa-
rent magnitude. Egypt (which in the common hierogly-
phic was denoted by a crocodile,) was in the facred hiere-
glyphic denoted by a burning cenfer with a heart upon it.
In the natural progrefs of hicroglyphics, qualities would be
denoted by the objects which would be confidered as pof-
fefling them in a great degree; as we have feen in the infcrip-
tion at Sais. But to make the hieroglyphic a real myftery,
one animal or fenfible object was made to denote a variety of
contrary qualities; thus the hawk denoted fublimity, humi-
lity, victory, excellence, &c. Andon the other hand, the
fame idea was denoted by various hieroglyphics. It was
this ufe, which was probably pofterior to the invention of
alphabetical writing, that has attached to the hicroglyphical
fyitem the character of myitery.

It is obvious that the exact manner of delineation would
be tedious, as well as voluminous. The more ufe was made
of vifible communication, the more we may expect to find
the written characters depart from the fimple picture, and
become arbitrary marks. Not, indeed, arbitrary in their
original invention, but perfeétly arbitrary to thofe who after-
wards ufed them. We fee, from the remains of the Egyp-
tian hieroglyphics in their early ftages, that they paid con-
fiderable attention to the delineation of their figures: they
filled up the outline of their pictures ; in procefs of time thyy
ufed only the outline ; and thefe, again, they changed, as the
convenience of the writer dictated, till at lalt it loft every
refemblance to the object which it originai'y reprefented.
‘Fhe changes that our written characters have undergone,
and are continually undergoing, might be adduced as an
exemplification of this procedure, from delineation to the
curfive hieroglyphic. The mark for and, for example, was
originally fignificant ; it did not, indeed, reprefent an obje@,
but it was a correct picture of a word. Some of the forms
yet thew its derivation; © is obvioufly e¢; but continual
changes have been made upon it, till the & of the writer no
Jonger bears marks of its origin. We ceafe now to con-
fider the letters of which it is compofed ; it is the reprefen-
tative of an idea, and, confequently, of the word denuting it
in the refpective nations that ufe it. We ufe it tor and
without confidering at all the meaning it originally had.
The ufe of the curlive hieroglyphics would, in like manner,
take off the attention from the fymbol, and fix it upon the
thing fignified ; a progrefs which we equally obferve in oral
language, where the words employed to denote mental affec-
tions were originally denotements of fenfible objeéts; then
of mental affections bearing fome refemblance to them; and,
laftly, in many inftances, of thofe mental objects, without
any reference to the original meaning.

We have now advanced to the verge of alphabetical
writing. So far has generally been regarded as fimple,
and as the a¢tual procedure; but itis imagined that {tll
there is a great gulf, whofe depth is unfathomable. Many
of the preceding obfervations have been made with a view
to this difcuflion; and by their means it does not appear
difficult to afcertain the exaCt procedure. Perhaps we {hall
not be able to trace all the minute fteps of the mind’s march;
but the general tract we fhall find wo difficulty in purfuing.

Truth, Horne Tooke obferves, has generally been fuppofed
to be at the bottom ofa well; he thinks it lies much rearer
the furface. More has been fuppofed neceflary than could
have been done, at leait than is probable, at the periods of
which we {peak ; and this has deterred thofe who faw the
neceffity of fimplicity from attempting any thing. Wee thall
fee that much was not neceflary ; certainly not fo much as
to render requifite the exertions of genius, aided by the light
of philofophical refearch. Signs, we have feen, become at laft
arbitrary marks for ideas or words. From this ftage we
may confider written Janguage as taking two different
ceurfes; in one the fign became merely the fign of the
Jound, and its combinations the figns of thofe of found; in
the other the fign was confidered as the fign of the idea, and
its combinations did not correfpond with any combinations
in oral language, but were reprefentative of combinations of
ideas. ‘The Ptaet we may expeét to occur where oral
language was cepious, the latter where it was feanty ; the
former where learning was confiderably diffufed, the latter
where it was confined to a fmall proportion of the perfons
uling the language. Where the vifible figns became merely
figns for founds, alphabetical writing, as we fhall hereafter
fee, eafily followed ; where they were arbitrary figns for
ideas, every new combination not attended by a correfpondent
combination in oral language, placed the introduétion of
alphabetical writing at a greater diftance than ever. This
latter we fhall find to be the cafe with the Chinefe language,
to which, as far as ref{pe€ts the objects of the prefent dif.
cuffion, we with now to call the attention of our readers; as
prefenting fome moft important features in the hiftory of
language.

We have feen that written language originally confifted
of pictures of the things to be denoted ; then of abbreviated
forms of the fame; that thefe pictures and abbreviations
were employed to denote, not only the obje¢ts they repre-
fented, but others which had fome real or fuppofed refem-
blance to them ; and finally, that through gradial changes
and abbreviations of the written charaGter, it became at laft,
inftead of a picture, a mere arbitrary character. Through
all thefe itages has the written language of China paffed :
from caufes, fome of which we can trace, they here ftopped.
Other nations proceeded further, and ufed thefe marks as
the figns of founds and of ideas through their intervention ;
the Chinefe employ them as the figns of ideas, without the
intervention of founds, ard their combinations and changes
have no correfponding combinations and changes in their
{poken language.

Before the time of Fohi, the firft Chinefe emperor,.
the Chinefe ufed knotted cords, fimilar to thofe of the
Peruvians. Fohi, in the place of thefe knots, employed
two horizontal lines, the oye whole, the other divided,
and by their various combinations in threes, formed the
text of the moft ancient work among the Chinefe,.known.
under the name of Ye King, or the book of produétion..
The Chinefe regard this work as a precious monument of.
the moit ancient philofophy ; but, notwithftanding the nu--
merous commentaries which have been publifhed upon it,,
fome fo early as 1100 years before Chriit, it is fill unintel-
ligible. They are, however, fuppofed to contain, ina few
lines, the moft fublime truths, and are ftill employed for the
purpofes of divination. Subfequent to the trigrams of
Fohi, Xin-nang, the next in fucceflion, is faid to have invented .
fixty-four hexagrams, which are fuppofed to exprefs the:
whole circle of human knowledge,. and, together with. the-
trigrams, are to be confidered as the moft ancient written:
characters of the Chinefe. It is fuppofed that thefe cha--

racters were taken from the knotted cords; and it appears;
tOo

LANGUAGE,

to us highly probable that they expreffed no more. It does
not appear at all hkely that thefe marks fhould be intended
to denote the myfteries of philofophy, whether we confider
the time of their invention, which is carried back to the
age of Noah, or their inadequacy to exprefs any thing but
numbers. It is allowed that the earlieft writing of the
Chinefe was the refult of the rotation of numbers by the
knotted cords. In fact, the prefent numerals of the Chinefe
appear to have an equal right to be confidered as the mytfteri-
ous denotements of mylteries. The prefent Chinefe characters
are not to be deduced from thefe combinations of lines, but
from pictures and fyntbols. ‘Their prefent form @oes not
prefent any objection to this fuppofition.’ Many of them,
indeed mott of them, bear little or no refemblance to their
original form ; but the progrefs can be traced in very many
cafes, and hence it is a fair inference that they were deduced
from pictures and fymbols, even where the conneGting fteps
care loft. Several examples of this are given in the Philofo-
phical TranfaQions for 1769, wol. lix. y

Before we proceed further in the confideration of the
written character of the Chinéfe, we fhall find it expedient
briefly to confider the fingular ftru€ture of their oral lan-

uage. ‘This, as we have'before obferved, is entirely mono-
fyllabic ; and.every word may be exprefled by an European
-confonant and a vowel, and about one-third of the words
end with 7, or the nafal found of n, We muft not expe&
to find a monofyllabic language very copious in founds; and
we fhall expeét a ftill {maller variety of words when we
find that their confonant founds are lefs numerous than our’s,
as they are deftitute of the 4, d, r, and x ; in fact, the
number of their words is not more than 330. This number
is fo fmall, that we fhould fuppofe it inadequate to the pur-
pofes of life, much more ‘fo to thofe of fcience. The capa-
bilities of their oral language are, however, very much in-
-creafed ‘by the variation their words undergo by means of
tones, or other inflections of ‘the voice. For inftance, the
word Fu, differeatly pronounced, denotes a hufband, to help,
a town, a father, and to-conceal. There are other modifica-
tions of found which the fame word undergoes, which en-
ables them to extend its meaning without .confufion, and
‘this to things very oppofite, or at leaft very different in
their nature. Thefe nice diftin@tions certainly require a
very difcriminating eye to perceive them, and very flexible
organs to exprefs them ; but we know the power of habit.
We have in our own language inftances of words approach-
ing fo nearly in found, that many never pronounce them
ccorreétly, yet feldom leave any room for ambiguity ; for
inttance, hair, air, heir, are, hare, are all different founds,
‘but their fimilarity is fo great, that many confound them in
pronunciation. Staunton ebferves, that fynonymous words
are very much ufed in converfation ; and this muft materially
leffen the anibiguity. This, however, mut be only for the
fake of thofe who have any difficulty; for it feems to be
the genius of tthe Chinefe language to exprefs the ideas of
the Ipeaker in as few words as poffible. “ The Chinefe,’?
fays a writer in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, voi. lix.
p. 495. ‘ {peak as falt as we do, fay more things in fewer
words, and underftand each other.’’ The laft refort to
‘diminifh the occafional difficulty in conveying their ideas by
oral language is to trace the written fign in the air, or ina
More permanent manner.

& language in which we find not more than 1500 diftin@®
founds cannot be confidered as copious. It is probably
fufficient for all the purpofes of life, but for the purpofes
of {cierce very inadequate. Moft nations have improved
their oral language; the Chinefe have direé&ted all their at-
t¢ntion to’ the improvement of their written: language.

They have refrained from combinations of words to expres
combinations of ideas.; and what appears itill more fingular,,
the combinations which have been formed in their vifible,.
have not been carried into their oral language. In faét, the
Chinefe writing may be confidered as totally dillin& from
their oral language. One might have fuppofed, as Freret
fays, that it was invented for thofe who do not paffefs the
capacity of fpeech. The written not having been founded.
on the {poken language, the improvements and changes of
each are independent of the other. Their characters were
originally figns of ideas; and as it is much more eafy to
introduce changes in the language of fcience, than of the
vulgar, the philofophers combined, and combined their com-.
binations of chara€ters, but did not, perhaps could not, carry:
their combinations into oral language. ‘hus, for inftance,,
the chara&er for houfe named mien, and that for fire named
bo, when combined denote calamity, expreffed in oral lan-
guage not by mien-bo, but by ¢/ai. On the other hand, as
our writing is adenotement of found, every combination of
written words will have a correfpondent combination of
found: and no combinations will be formed except fuch as.
can be fpoken. "We may compare the Chinefe characters to.
the arithmetical cypher, or to algebraic or aftronomieal cha+
racters, which may be underftood by thofe who are unac-,
quainted with the words we exprefs to denote them. Prefent
an arithmetical calculation, or algebraic denioni{tration, to
ten mathematicians of ten different countries, every one un-.
derftands it immediately. In the fame manner the Chinefe
characters are intelligible not only in all the provinces of
this vaft empire, but farther in Japan and Cochinchina,
whofe {poken languages are totally different from that of
the Chinefe. If thefe nations converfe they employ an inter-
preter, but the obftacles to communication vanifh, as foon
as ¢hey trace their written charaGter. There appears, how-.
ever, a confiderable difference between the common ufe of the
arithmetical cypher, and the ufe the Chinefe philofophers
make of their charaGters. We always think of one, tao,
&c. if we ule 1, 2, &c.; at leaft this muft be the cafe with
all who are not in the habit of calculation; and the vifible
fign is fo flrongly affociated with the audible, that we appre-
hend few perfons read to themfelves without the intervention
of found, real or conceived. When we think in words
{as we always do when we reafon, and frequently when we
feel), it is tothe audible and not to the vifible fign that we
attend: and we apprehend that it is generally the cafe where
the habit of folitary ftudy and feclufion from the world has-
not been formed. Our written words are more or lefs exaét
reprefentatives of the found, and it is therefore difficult to.
feparate them even in imagination: but the Chinefe cha-
raéters have no conneétion with found, except by their com-
mon connection with ideas, And as they have no vifible
reprefentation of the found, its intermediate affociation can-
not be fufficiently {trong in the minds of their literati to ren-
der it neceffary in the train of reafoning to ufe the found at
all.

All the Chinefe charaGters are compofed of 214. clefs,
keys, ox tribunols {as the Chinefe themfelves call them),
Thefe reprefent the moft fimple ideas, and by their combi-
nations are produced, expreflions for the more complex
ideas. In fact, thefe keys exprefs fire, water, earth, airy
avood (which are the fier elements of the Chinefe), the funy
the moon, bird, man, different kinds of animals, mountains,
wallies, &c. father, mother, fon, life, death, the body, and
different parts of it, and fome veffels and inftruments, and many
other things fimilarly fimple. All thefe can be traced to,
fimple paintings or fymbols; and hence the whole written,
language may be juitly conlidered as deducible from the

more

LANGUAGE.

more fimple writing of the Mexicans and the Egyptians.
Indeed, the refemblance between the ancient Chinefe cha-
racter and the Ezyptian hieroglyphics is fo ftriking, and
this in cafes where the analogy on which both are founded
is not an obvious one, that De Guignes confiders them as
derived from the fame fource. The aétual number of the
keys at prefent is 214; anciently they were more or lefs
numerous, but this has been owing rather to the different

inions of the philologers of the time, than to any real
change in their number. Thefe keys are formed at prefent
from fix fimple ftrokes, a horizontal line, two perpendicular
Hines, the one pointed at the bottom, the other blunt, a
point, a line curved to the right, and another to the left.
We are not, however, to fuppofe, that the inventors of the
Chinefe charaéters fixed upon thefe fix elements, and com-
poled all the characters from them methodically : thisis the
procedure of art. But as writing gradually paffed from
painting, it loft its correétnefs of delineation, and then the
ebje& was to facilitate, as much as poflible, the labour of
writing. It reduced all the characters by degrees ; the
more compounded, to others lefs fo; and thefe again to
fimple ftrokes, fuch as have been mentioned. Thefe 214
keys are each employed alone, as a charaéter ferving to ex-
prefs an idea, or differently combined one with another when
they are confidered only as parts of a group. The feveral
parts of this group, or combination, form a kind of phrafe
expreflive of the idea it isintended to communicate. Thus,
the Chinefe character for night, is compofed of three cha-
raters, fiznifying darkne/s, the aéfion of covering, and man,
which rendered literally, fignifies darkne/t covering man ; a
phrafe which perfeétly expreffes the idea of night, and which
' 38 fimilar to the language of poetry. Both, in fact, iffue
from “the cradle of the humanrace.’’ This figurative kind
of language (the offspring of neceffity) is what we admire
fo ek in the facred writings ; it comes home to our feel-
ings and our bofom; it points to our minds, and calls up
their conception forcibly and correctly. Hence it is juftly
» deemed a beauty, and whenever the language of feeling is
neceffary to excite the mind to aétivity, will generally be
found a prevailing trait.

We might fuppofe that all the Chinefe characters, being
compofed of fimple charaéters, might be eafily underftood,
when the meaning of the keys compofing them is known;
as is the cafe in the two examples which have been given.
Hf it were aGtually fo, the Chinefe would be the mott eafy
ef all languages, and might be adopted as a general or
philofophical language; but the analogies and metaphors on
which the compofition is founded, are often forced and
often erroneous. Their principles of philofophy furnifhed
a wide field for combination ; but frequently thefe are ab-
folutely faife: their aacient cuftoms and their popular fuper-
ftitions all afforded feape for the invention of new charaéters ;
and to underftand the compound charatters of the Chinefe,
without the aid of eral inftru@ion, we muft underftand their
ancient phyfical and religious dogmata, and join to this an
acquaintance with the fleeting cuftoms and opinions of the
times in which they were formed. This is not peculiar to
the Chinefe language ;. in order to trace the origin of words,
the fame references are often neceflary, but we have more
frequently the data requifite to enter into them. For in-
flance, candidus in Latin fignifies white, candidatus, a candi-
date (a perfon who. offers himfelf to fill a lucrative or ho-
nourable fituation), a per/on drefed in white. We thould
have been unable to foliow this analogy if we had not been
informed by hiftury, that among the Romans all candidates
for places wore white robes. In a fimilar manner the Chi-
nefe character, pao, to run, is compofed of two, that of

awrapping, and that ‘of feet; this is not an obvious proce.
dure, and the Chinefe do not retain any explanation of it;
but we know that the favages of Louifiana, when about to
undertake a long march, wrap up their fect in cloth to pre-
vent their being torn; and it is highly probable that the
combination of pao mutt refer to a fimilar cultom.

We have now traced the various procedures which have
been adopted to perpetuate the remembrance of actions or
Opinions. We have feen the artlefs contrivances of men in
early ftages of cultivation; we have obferved the progrefs
of the art of vifible communication from the rude quipos
of. the Peruvians to the curfive hieroglyphic of the philo-
fophic Egyptians. We have found that when the vifible
marks loit their original correétnefs of delineation, they
became mere arbitrary chara¢ters. From this flage two
procedures have been purfued ; fome nations have ceafed
to confider them as figns for things, and have retained them
as figns for founds; others have continued to ufe them as
figns for things without any immediate connection with
found. The latter have combined, and combined thefe com-
binations to form expreffions for ideas without any regard to
analogous combinations of found ; the former have combined
them to exprefs combinations of found, and of ideas only
by their intervention. In the one the written language is a
picture of the fpoken, in the other it is a pi¢ture of thought.
We now proceed to the objeét we have all along had in
view—the inveltigation of the other procedure, where vi-
fible marks became figns for elementary founds.

In tracing the origin of oral language, we derive fome
affiftance from the Mofaic records ; we afcertain the degree
of divine inteference. In tracing the origin of alphabetical:
writing we muft expeé no fuch alliftance ; the art of writing
is no where referred to a divine original, and while revela-
tion is thus filent it becomes us to be filent too. Upon the
principle that we ought not to fuppofe miraculous inter-
pofition merely from the difficulty of accounting for a phe-
nomenon, we fhould argue @ priori, that no miraculous
interpofition took place in the prefent inftance. This would>
not weigh in the lealt if we were affured by the fcriptures
of the reality of that interpofition; but it weighs very
much againi{t all prefumptive arguments for it. However,
though revelation is filent on this head, yet there are fome
arguments in favour of the theory of the divine origin of
alphabetical writing, which it will be defirable to confider.
After {tating thefe and the anfwers which occur to obviate
or leflen the difficulties they prefent, we fhall point out what
appears the moit probable account of the-traniition of hiero~
glyphics to letters.

rit. Alphahetical writing may be traced to one fource.
Now if it were an invention of man, elpecially if it be a:
fimple invention (as it maft be fhewn to have been, in order
to give any plaufibility to the hypothefis), there is no reafon
why it fhould not have been an independent invention.

Two anfwers may be given to this argument.. 1. If we
examine the alphabets of Afia, we hall find it difficult to
admit that they may be traced to one fource; there is fo»
great a degree of diflimlarity among them, that it requires
itrenger evidence than any we have yet feen to prove it.-
When, however, we confider the changes that we know
have aGtually taken place in the fame chara¢ter, we-may
admit the poffibility of the original identity,,and perhaps
other circumttances may induce us to admit its probability ;
but this probability cannot, we apprehend, become fo great
as to give any force to the argument in-quetftion. But even.
admitting its certainty, we obferve, (2) that this can only
prove the high antiquity of the invention, ‘That it ort-

ginated. before mankind were much feparated from each -
other 5:

UANGUAGE.

ether; and that the ground-work being laid by thofe who
had made the greatett advances in cultivation, was built upon
by thofe people who afterwards penetrated to a diftant part
of the continent,

But it is urged, in the cond place, that we have not only
no initance of independent difcovery, but have even an ex-
ample of a nation, which had no communication with the
original inventors, remaining in total ignorance of it, and
employing a procedure which now incapacitates them for
the reception of alphabetical writing: and the force of this
objection is materially increafed by the circumftance, that
their writing, equally with the alphabetical, originated in
hieroglyphics, and actually went through the fame ftages,
viz. from the fimple pifture to the arbitrary mark.

This fingular procedure of the Chinefe, which certainly
prefents a difficulty againit the theory of the human origin
of alphabetical writing, may probably be obviated by the
four following confiderations: (1) The written language
of China was cultivated more for the purpofes of philofophy
than of common life. ‘Their combinations were founded on
their philofophy ; and it probably would not have been in
their power to have carried thefe combinations into the oral
language of the vulgar. A complete nomenclature of che-
miitry has been introduced, founded on the prevailing theory
of chemiftry. This is univerfally received, wherever the
new fyitem is embraced; but it would have been impoffible
for the philofophers, who invented this beautiful {pecimen
of philofophical language, to have induced the illiterate of
a whole nation to change their language, or adopt a new
one, however expreffive and correct. The philofophers of
China might indeed have formed an oral language upon
their characters; but the genius of the Chinefe feems rather
to dire them to ftudy than to converfation, and abitract
philofophy is better taught to the ftudious by written than
by oral communication. Befides, (2) the {fpoken language
of China did not favour the plan of making their writing re-
prefentatives of found; for their words being all monofyl-
labic, and not very numerous, there would not be the fame
neceffity for attention to elementary founds: and what is
more important, they did not vary the articulation, but the
fone, in order to exprefs a variation of meaning. It appears
to us, that alphabetical writing could not, from the very ra-
ture of their fpoken language, have originated among the
Chinefe: and to thefe confiderations we may add, (3) that
the empire of China, with its dependencies, was fo extenfive,
that there muft be a very great variety in the Chinefe dia-
le&ts ; and this would contribute to increafe the attention of
their literati to the written language, fince this (as we have
feen it a€tually is) might be underftood independently of
their fpoken words. (4) If we admit the very probable
hypothefis of De Guignes, that the Chinefe characters were
brought from Egypt, and that they had originally no con-
nection whatever with the fpoken language of the country
ato which they were introduced,—that, in faét, they were
applied to denote names different from thofe with which they
had before been conneéted,—we fhall perceive at once the
reafon why, originally, the combinations of the characters
were not attended. with fimilar combinations of found. Af-
ter this, there is no difficulty in admitting that the written
mult continue independent of the fpoken language, efpecially
among people fo little addi€ted to innovation as the Chineie
appear to be.

It is urged, in the third place, that the invention of writ-
ing is, by many of the ancients, afcribed to the gods; and
that Pliny, in particular, exprefsly fays that the ufe of let-
ters was eternal.

To this it is replied, that the ancients univerfally afcribed

5

to the gods all inventions of which they knew net the origin ;
and that as for Pliny, he exprefsly fays elfewhere, that the
Pheenicians were famed for the invention of letters. The
moll that this argument can prove is the antiquity, but not
the divine origin, of this invention.

Such appear to be the principal arguments from faét, in
favour of the divine origin of alphabetical writing. There
are fome arguments @ priori, which remain to be confidered :
thefe are, fir, the difficulty of the invention in any flage of
human progrefs; and, /econdly, its antiquity, which very
much increafes the improbability of its buman origin.

Iirfi, With refpeé to the difficulty of the invention, it
is obferved, that we are to fuppofe that the inventors de-
compofed the founds of words, not only into fyllables, but
into letters ; obferving the component parts of fyllables, and
denoting thefe parts by appropriate marks; and ufing- marks
for thefe elementary founds in the vifible reprefentation of
other words, into which thofe founds were found to enter.
This diftinGion of the articulate founds of man, tracing
them through all their various combinations, and exprefling
them by a few fimple marks, whofe combinations may ex-
prefs every poflible combination of found, appears to fup-
pofe a habit of patient experiment, of difcriminating exa-
mination, and of generalization, which ill accords with the
uncultivated ftate of the human intelle& in the early periods
of fociety. ut, /econdly, when we confider the antiquit
of the invention, when we are forced to carry it fo far bac
as to have been in a {tate of perfection as early as the time of
Mofes, this difficulty appears infuperable. We muft admit,
it is urged, that men, in the earlieit ages, flepped at once
from a tedious and awkward, frequently unintelligible,
method of communication, to a method which anfwers every
purpofe of communication, in the fhorteft way; and that,
unlike all other inventions, it was brought at once to fuch a
{late of perfection, that no fucceeding alphabet has any real
fuperiority over the ancient Hebrew.

This objection againit the human origin of letters is more
weighty in appearance than in reality. With refpeé& to the
difficulty of the invention, the objection lofes all its force, as
foon as a fimple and eafy procedure, fuch as might be
adopted in the circumftances of the cafe, can be pointed
out. To obviate the difficulty arifing from the apparent per-
fedion of the original invention, we may obferve, (1) that
if the perfeGion of an alphabet confifts in its capability of
exprefling all the founds of {pcken language, there is no
known alphabet which is perfeét. Every letter fhould ex-
prefs only one definite found, and every known found fhould
have a correfponding letter. We do not mean that it is ne-
ceflary that the alphabet of one language fhould be capable
of exprefling all the founds of another, but of its own.
Now we have no inftance of this among living languages ;
and we cannot, therefore, fuppofe that it was the cafe in any
former language. But even admitting this, we may ob-
ferve, (2) that no known alphabet, however ancient, is in
the ftate of its original invention. Cadmus, who was born
in the Eaft, carried with him into Greece only fixteen let-
ters; the leaft copious alphabets we are acquainted with
have twenty-two. It is not in the leaft probable that Cad-
mus would introduce fewer than he pofleffed: it is more
probable that he introduced more, to exprefs founds of
which he had no reprefentation, but which were found among
the Aborigines of Greece. ’

We have faid, that if a procedure can be pointed out,
fimple as the intellect of the inventors of language, and ca-
pable of eafy introduétion in the early periods of mental cul-
ture, all arguments @ priori fall to the ground. It has gene-
rally been fuppofed of late that alphabetical writing was

formed

LANGUAGE.

formed from hieroglyphics: it appears nearly certain that it
was fo; but the tranfition was never, we apprehend, ex-
plained with probability before the time of De Guignes.
His hypothefis appears to have been unobferved by fubfe-
quent writers, who have attempted to trace the tranfition ;
and the only fatisfaStory flatement which we have noticed in
our own language is ina paper in the Irifh Philofophical
Tranfaftions, by Dr. Hearney, who advances one im-
portant ftep, by fuppofing that letters originally reprefentec
fyllables. Dr. Hearney, however, {peaks of the human mind
as accuflomed to analylis, when the tranfition took place ;
and fupports his hypothefis on the fubject with arguments
which appear little conclufive.

* Perhaps,” fays De Guignes, ‘ we have done too much
honour to the inventor of letters (whoever he was), in fup-
pofing that he difle€ted the voice into two parts, and in-
vented marks of two kinds, fome to exprefs confonants, the
others vowels. It is more natural to f{uppofe that the hiero-
glyphical writing was abridged by little and little, by fup-
prefling a great number of figures; and that thofe which
they adopted preferved always the founds which they had
before; that they read them as they had read hieroglyphics ;
that they were always words, but very fimple, and words
whofe bafe was a finele confonant ; that finally reduced into
a regular order, (which we call the alphabetical,) they were
regarded as confonants, capable of being differently modified
by a fimple vowel found.”

Our ideas on the tranfition from hieroglyphics to letters,

derived in a great degree from De Guignes,) may be thus
{tated :—The hieroglyphics, with their exactnels of de-
lineation, loft their original fignificancy, independent of
{poken language. This muft firft be the cafe with werds of
‘the moft frequent recurrence, and which entered moft into
combination with other words. Having become fimple de-
notements of found, they were employed to exprefs their
refpective founds in combination of other monofyllabic
words, which in like manner had loft their original figni-
ficancy. Hence, by degrees, they would become repre-
fentative of the component parts of all words into which their
refpeGtive founds entered. ‘They were always words, but
‘very fimple, confifling only of a confonant and a vowel.
- Variation in the pronunciation of the vowel would occur in
“different dialeéts: and hence thefe marks would gradually
be regarded as confonants, capable of being differently mo-
dified by fimple vocal founds. Letters, ai firlt monofyllabic
_words, then became marks for the component parts, or
fyllables of diffyllabic or polyfyllabic words; and then for
“the unchangeable part of thofe fyllables, that is, for con-
fonants. In the moft ancient ttate of the oriental languages,
vowel founds had no diftin& marks; in the latter, marks
were joined to the confonants, to exprefs the different founds
with which the radical confonant was invelted. Among the
weftern nations, a different procedure was adopted. In
‘fome cafes, they ufed the marks which they had received
from the oriental nations, for an a/pirate and vowel, to de-
‘note the vowel itfe/f; and having once commenced the ufe of
diftin& marks for vowels, the procedure was continued, and
new marks adapted to exprefs noticed variations of vocal
- founds. ;

In fupport of this hypothefis, may be adduced the fol-
lowing obfervations :

rft. We have feen that hieroglyphics did become fignifi-
cant of founds ; and that words originally fignificant of one
clafs of ideas being applied to a fecond, loft their connection

se the former, and became directly fignificant of the
* fatter. . Dar, Stat
2. We have reafon to believe that words were originally
VoL. XX. : ;

monofyllabic in thofe nations where alphabetical writing was
invented, and that the combination of old founds, or the ufe
of them uncompounded, to exprefs new ideas, was the mode
employed to extend the capabilities of their language. Hence
the fame word would frequently occur in combination, and
though its different fignilications muft originally have~ been
reprefented by different hieroglyphics, yet as thefe loft their
figuificancy, they would eafily become as extenfive in their
meaning as the founds themfelves. And it is obvious that
the mott fimple of thofe hieroglyphics which were ufed for
the fame found, would be employed to reprefent the found.

3. It has been fhewn to be highly probable that originally
every confonant had its vowel found. lence all fyllablee
might be reprefented by two, or at moft, three European
letters. This circumfiance would materially diminifh the
varieties of fyllabic founds.

4. The probability of the theory advanced depends greatly
upon the hypothefis that originally letters were fyllabic. The
following faéts appear to prove this. The ancient oriental
alphabets had no denotements for vowels; and even if this
be difputed, it muft be admitted that they had many words
into which none of the fuppofed vowel marks entered. The
Ethiopian alphabet is entirely fyllabic. The fimple letters
denote a confonant anda fhort a, and marks were added to
them to denote other vowels, where ufed. What is doubly
fingular and important, they have in many cafes added marks
to thefe fyllabic chara@ers, to denote that they have no vowel
belonging to them. In the Coptic and Arabic, there are
fyllabic charaGters. The alphabets of the eaftern A fiatics
are principally fyllabic, fome with a, others with ¢ joined to
aconfonant.. Thefe circumftances render very probable the
account here given of the tranfition from hieroglyphics to
letters. ,The following obfervations more dire€ily tend to
afcertain its high probability.

5. The letters of fome of the ancient alphabets have fo
great a refemblance to the hieroglyphical characters, indeed
are fuch exact tranfcriptsof them, thata fimple infpeétion is
fufficient to convince us that hieroglyphics were the origin
of letters, and this point is almoft univerfally admitted. This
however proves little as to the nature of the invention of al-
phabetical writing, except that it was fubfequent to the ufe
of hieroglyphics.. But,

6. Thefe charaters in many inflances retained their origi-
nal fignificancy, which proves them to have been, as De
Guignes fuppofes, denotements for words. We mutt not
expect to find this fignificancy in all words of which they
form component parts ; but in fuch only in whole vifible re-
prefentation the original hieroglyphic formed a component
part. Now we muft obferve,, firft, that the names of
feveral of the oriental Jetters- are {ill by them {elves figni-
ficant, and that fome of thefe letters are fimilar to the Chi-
nefe clefs which have the fame fignification. Thus the
Hebrew 4, yod, fignifies the hand. Its form in fome alpha-
bets refembles the Chinefe chara€ter for hand. The ,
daleth, of the Hebrews, Pheenicians, and Ethiopians, fignifies
agate, and the adfion of opening. The hieroglyphic which
among the ancient Chinefe reprefented a gate, is exactly fimi-
lax to this letter. The 5, phi, of the Hebrews, and cf the
Ethiopians, signifies the mouth. The Chinefe charaéters for
the mouth all refemble it. The y, ain, lignifies the eye. The
Pheenicians and Chinefe employed the outline of the eye asa
denotement of the objet. The yi, /hin, in Hebrew fignifies
the teeth, and its figure is ftill found among the Chinefe, with
the fame fignification. The {, mem, fignifies water. The
correfponding Samaritan and Ethiopian characters have a
clear refemblance to the Chinefe hieroglyphic for water.
Lafily, the g, a/epd, (originally perhaps fignifying ox) figni-

n es

LANGUAGE.

fies unity, the a@ion of condu@ing, pre-eminense. The Phee-
nician form of this letter exactly reprefents the Chinefe cha-
ra¢ter for one, and every adtion Ly which we are at the head of
others. But thefe letters are not only fignificant by them-
felves, but fecondly in combinations. ‘Thus » was expreffed
by the monofyllable ya, ye, or yo; to this another monofyl-
lable, which had equally a fignification relative to the figure
being acded, formeda word of two fyllables. For inftance,
inftead of the prefent denomination of 4, daleth, we may rea-
fonably fuppofe its. original found to have been de. The
word "}), yada, hieroglyphically reprefented by a gate anda
hand, is found in the Hebrew with a fignification derived
from that of the letters compofing it ; to ca/? owt, (as we
might fay, hand him to the door,) to exiend. Add to this
the word 37, ain, (originally, probably, founded /o,) which
fignifies the eye, and we have yadaho, which fhould fignify to
open the eyes, to extend the view, &c. and metaphorically, to knew,
to underfland ; and in.fact this is the fignification of y™y? in
Hebrew. But this is not all, for exa€tly the fame pro-
cedure has been adopted by the .Chinefe. 7, which figni-
fies fo examine, is compofed of three radical-charaGters, of
which the firft fignifies the hand, the fecond a gate, the third
the eye. So alfo Kia is compofed of three chara@ers, one
figmfying the teeth, the other two, gate or opening, which fig-
unifies to break through, to make agreat opening. In Hebrew,
“171 is fimilarly compofed, and fignifies fo plunder, to
lay wafle—Tchi is a large colledion of water. It was
compofed of the characters for fand and water. The
fame compound was formed among the Hebrews, and
°; yam, fignifies a great colledion of cvater, or vthe fea. In
s\rabic the letters het, 1. e. earth, and mim, i. e. water,
form the word them, and fignify a flood. The Hebrew
then is compofed of the thet or earth, and the nun, which
fignifies man, i. €. man of the earth, and further, to form, to
sreate. In both thefe inftances the Chinefe correipond in
their combinations with the alphabetical writing —Many
other inftances might be brought. We will adduce one,
to which there is no correfponding combination in the
Chinefe language. 4b or Haba fignities father ; the compo-
nent parts of it fignify principal of the houf>.

The papers of De Guignes, to which we are very greatly
indebted on this fubje&@, are to be found in Memoires de
Tl’ Academie des Infcriptions et des Belles Lettres, vol. 34,
&c. See ALPHABET, HiEROGLYFuIcs, Lerrers, Worps,
and Wrirtinc.

LancuaGe, Stru&ure of, comprehends the nature and ar-
rangement of the different parts of fpeech. See each under
its proper head. (SeealfoGrammar.) No grammatical
rules, however, have fufficient authority to controul the firm
and eltablifhed ufage of language. Eftablifhed cuftom,
fays Blair (Lectures, vol. i.), both in {peaking and writing,
is the flandard to which we muft at laft refort, for deter-
mining every controverted point in language and ityle. But
it will not follow from this, that grammatical rules are fuper-
feded as ufelefs. Inevery language, which has been in any
degree cultivated, there prevailsa certain ftru€ture and ana-
logy of parts which is under{tood to give foundation to the
moit reputable ufage of {peech ; and which, in ail cafes,
where ufageis loofe or dubious, poflefles confiderable autho-
rity. In every language, there are rules of fyntax which
mutt be iaviolably obferved by all who would either write or
{peak with any propriety. For fyntax is no other than that
arrangement of words in a fentence, which renders the mean-
ing of each word, and the relation of all the words 10 one
another, moft clear and intelligible. See SynTax.

Ufage and cuftom, fays F. Buffier, are the rule of a lan-
guage; and thefe hold their empire independent of reafon,

or any other caufe: nor has reafon any thing to do in Jan-
guage, unlefs to ftudy or teaeh it, fuch as it is.
commences grammar ; a juft plan of which fuppofes a lan-
guage already introduced by ufe, and, without pretending
to alter or amend a tittle, only furnifhes refle@tions, called
rules, to which the manners of fpeaking ufed in that lan-
guage may be reduced ; which affemblage of reflections is
what we call the grammar of that language. This remark may

ever crying out, “ Ufage is, in this point, oppofite to gram-
mar; or the language here frees itfelf from the rules of
grammar, &c.”’

It is chance then to which we owe ufage, and ufage that
makes the rules and meafures of language. Ufage, indeed,
is fomewhat dubious, and may be divided into good and bad.
If it be afked, wherein the difference between thefe lies ?
it is in this: that the one is better eftablifhed, or authorized,
than the other ; and if it be afked, wherein that difference
of authority confits? it is anfwered, that in dead languages,
that which makes the good ufage is the writings of the bet
authors in that language: and if it be farther queitioned,
which are the beft? thofe are allowed fuch, who wrote when
the ftate was in its greateit glory. Thus the age of Au-
gultus, being the moft diftinguifhed by great men, who then
flourifhed, we call that good Latin which is conformable to
the manners of fpeaking ufed by authors, who wrote within
fifty years before, and fifty after, the reign of that emperor.

As to living languagés ; the good ufage, or mode, is that .

which obtains among the moft eminent perfons, whether as
to quality and authority, oras to learning and the reputation

.of writing well.

With this view itis, that M. Vaugelas defines ufage of
a language, the manner of {peaking ufed by the foundeit or
beft part of the court, conformable to the manner of writing
among the beft part of the authors of the time. But this
definition, how judicious foever, may occafion infinite doubt ;
for which isto be deemed the beft part of the court, and of
the writers? Each party, doubtlefs, thinks itfelf the beft.

Here then |

‘obviate an abufe introduced among grammarians, who are |

F. Buffer, therefore, very jultly, inflead of the belt part, :

fubftitutes the greateft part, which brings the matter nearer
toa certainty: the moft numerous part being fomething
fixed and palpable ; whereas the moft found part may be in-
fenfible or arbitrary. There is founda conitant refemblance
between che genius or natural complexion of each people,
and the language they fpeak. Thus the Greeks, a polite,
but voluptuous nation, had a language perfeétly fuitable,
full of delicacy and fweetuefs. The Romans, who feemed
only born to command, had a language noble, nervous, and
auguit: and their defcendants, the Italians, are funk into
foftnefs and effeminacy, which is as vifible in their language.
asin their manners. ‘The language of the Spaniards is full
of that gravity and haughtinefs of air which make the dif-
tinguifhing charaGter of that people.

The French, who have great vivacity, have a langua
that runs extremely brifk andlively. And the Englifh, who
are naturally thovghtful, and ufe few words, havea language
more concife and fententious, though far from being defi-
cient in refpeét of copioufnefs.

Laneuaces, the Diverfity of, is generally allowed to.
have taken its rife from the confufion at the building of the
tower of Babel. See Conrusion of Tongues, and Dispersion.
of Mankind. ;

As to the point of antiquity and priori#y among languages,
that has been extremely controverted. Heredotus tells us,
that in the difpute between the Egyptians and Phrygians
about the antiquity of their languages, Pfammetichus, king
of Egypt, ordered two children to be brought up, with

é exprefs _

LANGUAGE.

exprefs prohibition not to have one word pronounced before
them, but to leave nature to fpeak of herfelf; and the firlt
word they {poke happened to be beccos, which, in the Phry-
gian lancuage, fignifies bread. The Egyptians, however,
were not convinced with this proof. ‘The Arabs difpute
the point of antiquity with the Hebrews ; but the Jews, jea-
lous, even to excefs, of the honour of their nation, pofi-

tively infift on it, that the Hebrew tongue, fuch as it is |

found in the Holy Scriptures, is the primitive lsnguage, and
that fpoken by the firft man. Tor the arguments alleged in
favour of this opinion, fee Hesrew Language.

Of all the oriental languages, except the Hebrew, the
Syriac has had the greater number of advocates, efpecially
among the eaftern authors. ‘They have alleged, that a dia-
le of this language was fpoken in Mefopotamia, Chaldza,
and Affyria, where mankind firit fettled after the flood, and
where, it is prefumed, the language of Noah and his fons
remained: to which argument they add, that the names of

perfons and places mentioned by Mofes are eafily: derived -

from that language. Befides thofe kindred languages,
which are commonly called the oriental tongues, the Ar-
menian, the Celtic, and the Coptic, pleading the anti-
quity of their nations; and the Armenians, that the ark
firit refted in their country: the Greek, on account of its
great extent and copioufnefs, the Teutonic, from which
fome have pretended to derive even the Hebrew itfelf, and
the Chinefe, have afpired to preference, in point of an-
tiquity.

The pretenfions of the Chinefe, in particular, have been
fupported not only from the great antiquity of that nation,
their early acquaintance with arts and {ciences, and their
having preferved themfelves fo many ages from any confi-
derable mixture or intercourfe with other nations ; but alfo
from the fingularity of the tongue itfelf, which confilts of
few words, all monofyllables, and is moft fimple in its con-
ftruétion, having no variety of declenfions, conjugations, or
grammatical rules.
are the pofterity of Noah, and that Fohi, the firft king of
China, was Noah.

Mr. Webb, an ingenious writer in the reign of Charles
IL., ftrenuoufly maintains that this is the only original lan-

guage, and that they now talk in China the language of
Paradife.

‘Others maintain, that the language fpoken by Adam is
loft; and that the Hebrew, Chaldee, and Arabic, are
only diale&ts of the original tongue. So far are they from
giving the priority to the Hebrew, that they maintain
Abraham fpoke Chaldee before he paffed the Euphrates ;
and that he firft learned the Hebrew in the land of Ca-
naan 3 fo that this was not a {pecial language confecrated to
the people of God, but was originally the language of the
Canaanites.

_M. Le Clere is of opinion, the Hebrew is far inferior
+6 the Greek, both in copioufnefs, elegance, and perfpi-
cuity ; it is dry, and dettitute of ornaments, infomuch
‘that, wanting expreffions to vary the phrafe, the fame pe-
ziods are perpetually returning. The rabbins, converting
its poverty into an excellence, fay, it is fo pure and chatte,
that it has no proper names for the parts of generation, nor
for thofe by which the excrements are difcharged. See
Hegrew.

The Arabic is held the moft copious of all languages.

- See the Preliminary Difcourfe to Sale’s Koran.
Lancuace, Euphony of, for Singing. It feems as if the
vocal mulic of every country depended on the purity of tlie
vowels, neat articulation of the confonants, and eafy utter-

Befides, it is urged, that the Chinefe .

ance of the words of which a language is compofed; and
there can be doubt but that the dialect which has the greateft
number of open vowels mixed with its confonants, is the
moft favourable for vocal purpofes. ‘The tones of voice can
only be heard with purity and clearnefs by the affiftance of
vowels : as the words, voaels and voice, are equally derived
from vocalis, which implies a found, a mufical tone, vocal me-
lody, or modulation. And itis not only from the general
facility with which the fyllables of a language can be ut-
tered with neatnefs and articulation that it is rendered fa-
vourable to the finger, but from the number of wvocal ter-
minations, or words ending with vowels, which allow the
voice to expand, and finifh a mufical phrafe with eafe aud
purity. ;

It is generally allowed that the French language is na/al,
the German guttural, and the Englith /ililating, and loaded
with confonants, nafal fyllables ending with ng, and other
harfh and mute terminations. We have, indeed, filed off
the Saxon roughnefs in words where gh occur: as cough,
trough, laugh, plough, through, eight, freight, enough, &c.
which ufed to be pronounced in the Teutonic manner, and
which are ftill guttural wordsin Scotland, and fome parts of
England. ;

But befides the obf{tru€tions which the voice meets with
in its paflage, from clafhing confonants in the middle of
words, we shave a greater number of terms that end with
abfolute mute and abrupt confonants, than either the French
or Germans: fuch are thofe which terminate in 3, d, g, /;
or hard c, f, and ¢. And it is not eafy to defend our lan-
guage from the Aiffing of which it is accufed by foreigners,
on account of the frequent ufe of the letter s at the end of
words, and the great number of words which terminate
with a double s. For though the plural number of French
nouns is diltinguifhed in writing by an s, as well as the
Englifh, yet the final s is never pronounced. The German
plurals too are terminated by the letter 2: as haus, haufen ;
ftrafs, ftraffin ; pferd, pferden ; &c. in the fame manner as
houfe uled to be haufen in the'plaral, hofe, hofen ; and as the
fubitantive oa {till has oven in the plural. And the letter #
being a liquid, renders the words which it terminates lefs
difficult to utter, as well as lefs offenfive to the ear, than the
letter s, with which we have more words begin and end than
with any other letter in the alphabet. Indeed, modern re-
finements or corruptions in pronouncing our language have
greatly augmented the fibilation with which we are’ jufly
charged, by changing the ef/ and ath of verbs into es and
as; and faying gives for giveth, has for hath, &c.

The learned Dr. Wallis, a profound mufician, in his trea-
tife « De Loquela,” prefixed to his Grammar of the Englith
Tongue, has confidered with great exaéinefs the accurate
formation of all founds in /peaking, to which few have at-
tended before; but with refpect to finging, the work is ftill
to be done.

Dr. Holder, who was a very learned mufician and 2 com-
pofer, though he has admirably analyfed the principles of
pronunciation, and defcribed the organs of utterance, with
refpect to colloquial language (Elements of Speech; an
Effay of Inquiry into the natural ProduGtion of Letters,
1669), has not pointed out the means by which the mu-
fical voice in articulating words is aflilted or impeded in its
formation and delivery, or the caufes of its arriving at the
ear with more or lefs clearnefs and purity. It was a fub-
je&t that did not immediately concern the purport of this
excellent effay, which was written with the benevolent in-
tention of affifting perfons born deaf and dumb to compre-
hend the fpeech of others by the eye, from its effeét on the
external organs; and, therefore, the omiffion of fuch en-

Nn 2 quiries

LANGUAGE.

quiries as feem neceffary in this place cannot be termed a
defect. 4

Rouffeau, in his ingenious and fpirited « Lettre fur la
Mutique Francoife,”” has confined his remarks chiefly to the
vices of the French language; but to all, except the na-
tives of France, a lefs eloquent and forcible writer might
eafily have proved it unfit for every kind of vocal mufie,
fupericr to a * Vaudeville,” or “* Chanfon 4 table :"’ for the
words of thefe compofitions being their principal merit, the
hearer is the lefs inclined to judge feverely of the mufic, or
the finger, provided he lofes none of the wit or ingenuity
of the poem. And, indeed, it is at the ferious French
opera, and by the performance of flow mujfic, and airs
tendres, that thofe accuftomed to good finging are moft
offended. However, in the parallel which Rouffeau has
drawn between the languages of France and Italy, after
defcribing all the inconveniences arifing to a finger from the
compound, mute, nafal, and dead fyllables, of the French
language ; he afferts, that the paucity of fonorons vowels,
and abundance of confonants and articulations, force the
lyric poet to exclude many words, and allow the mufical
compofer to give only elementary, or fhort and fingle founds,
to the others. ‘There is no language in which a// the words
of its vocabulary are equally fit for mufic, or lyric poetry ;
according to Salvini, out of forty thoufand words in the
Italian language, only fix or feven thoufand can be adopted
by the writers of ferious mufical dramas. Indeed, fome of
thefe rejected words, by their want of dignity, as well as
foftnefs, may be unfit for lyric compofitions. Hence, the
melody neceffarily becomes infipid and monotonous, and its
movement flow and tirefome ; for if the time of fuch mufic
be at all accelerated, its velocity refembles that of an angular
body rumbling on a pavement. He goes on with his ftric-
tures, and fuppofes, that ‘* fuch a language as he hath been
defcribing, has a bad profody, unmarked, without exa@itude
and precifion; that the long and fhort fyllables have no
fenfible and determinate proportion between them in dura-
tion, or numbers, by which the rhythm can be rendered
agreeable, exact, and regular; that it has both long and
fhort fyllables of an uncertain duration, with others that
are neither long nor fhort ; and that the difference between
them is wholly incommenfurable.

*: 'Thefe vices and inconveniences,’’ he adds, ** have fuch
an effect upon the time or meafure of mufic, when applied
to fuch words, as to render it wholly unmarked, irregular,
and disjointed.

His character of the Italian language, and defcription of
its beauties, and advantage over all others, for vocal pur-
pofes, are fo appofite to the prefent enquiries, that we fhail
faithfully tranflate the whole paflage.

« Tf it fhould be afked what language is the moft gram-
matical, I fhould anfwer, that of the people who reafon the
belt ; and if it fhould be afked what people are likely to
have the beft mufic, I fhould fay, thofe that have the beft
language for it. Now if there is in Europe one language
more favourable to mufie than another, it is certain!y the
Italian: for this language is foft, fonorous, melodious, and
more accentuated than any other ; four qualities peculiarly
important to vocal mufic. It is /oft from its articulations
being uncompounded ; from the intrequency of clafhing con-
fonants; and from every word in the language being ter-
minated by a vowel. It is fonorous from moft of its vowels
being open ; its diphthongs uncompounded ; from having no
nefal vowels ; and from its articulations being few and eafy,
which render the found of each neat and full. It is melo-
dious from its own native {weetnefs, which renders it vocal
even in declamation and common {peech, without the affift-

ance of mufical notes. But what renders the Italian Ian-
gnage more peculiarly mellifluous, as well as more expreffive
of fentiment, than any other, is the great compafs and va-
riety of its tones, and the choice it allows in painting the
paflions. ‘To prove this, let any one who imagines it to be
only the language of love and tendernefs, take the trouble
of comparing the two following ftanzas of Taffo.”?

“ Teneri {degn ie placide € tranquille
Repulfe e cari vezzi e liete pace,
Sorrifi, parolette, e dolce flille
Di pianto e fofpir, tronchi e molli bacci
Fufe tai cofe tutte, e pofcia unille,
Et al foce tempro di lente faci ;
E ne formo quel fi mirabil cinto
Di ch’ ella avena il bel fianco fuccinto.”?
Canto IV. Stanza xxxiii.

a
-

Chiama gl’ abitator de l'ombre eterne
Tl rauco fuon de la tartarea tromba ;
Treman le {paziofe atre caverne,
E Vaer cieco a quel romor rimbomba 5
Ne fi ftridendo mai de la fuperne
Regione del cielo il folgor piomba,
Ne fi {coffa giammai trema la terra
Quando i vapori in fen gravida ferra.”’
Canto XVI. Stanza xxv.

Tt will be found, perhaps, equally difficult to exprefs in
any other language the fweetnefs of the one or the vigour
of the other of thefe ftanzas. But the roughnefs of the laft
ftanza does not confift in hard and uncouth words ; they are
all fonorous, and, thongh rough to the ear, eafy of ut-
terance. '

Thefe ftanzas, however, which Rouffeau, and, after him,
almoft all mufical writers have inftanced as of remarkably
eafy utterance, fhould have been confined to reading and
declamation ; for better lyrical or vocal verfes may be found
in Metaftafio, and, indeed, in almoft all Italian lyric poets,
fince it has been found that the vowel a is the beft for divi-
fions, and all the other vowels have been long in difufe for
fuch purpofes, by the beft Italian compofers for the flage.
In the ftanza cited as a model of foftnefs, in vocal verfes,
there are but two words, to which, in a lively air, divifions
would be given: Cari, pace. But even thefe, in which the
vowel a occurs in the fr? /yllable, would have no long divi-
fions afligned them, if there was a final./yilabke terminated by
that letter, as in the third perfon tingular of the future tenfe
of verbs, vedra, uccidera, fara, dara, parlerd, cantaré,
figsira s in the elifion of the infinitive mood, irionfar,

ipofar, feordar, lufingar, naufragar; and in the fubltan-
tives, fedelta, pieta, felicita, liberta, erudelta, and Mar.

In fetting Metaftafio’s early operas, till about the middle
of the prefent century, we find the beft compofers giving
divifions to the vowels 9 and e; as in morird, dovrd, Sugire,
re, te, fe, freme, fpeme, vender, voler, &, merce, &c. but
never to 7 or wm

Rouffeau declined difcufling the accents of the Italian
tongue; but if, as has been imagihed, the Gréek accents
were ufed as a notation of the tone or tune of voice in
reading or {peaking ; the acute accent raifing the voice, the
grave depreffing it, and the circumflex keeping it at a mid-
dle pitch or tone, the Italian would afford a more varied

and pleafing melody than any of the other European dia-

lects.

All tuneable founds, fays Dr. Holder, of which the human
voice is one, are produced by a regular and equal vibration
of the fonorous body and undulation of the air, proportioned

; . to

LANGUAGE.

to the acutenefs or gravity of the tone. And, according
to Dr, Wallis, this gravity, or acutenefs of tones in {peech,
depends on the opennelfs of the aperture in the larynx, which
is the feat of the voice ; and roughnefs and {moothnefs of
vocal tones, he refers to the ftate of this organ.

But as thefe learned philologers have only difleéted our
alphabet, and analyfed the pronunciation of our language,
as far as concerns its articulation in fpeech, we fhall examine
it with ref{pect to lyric poetry and finging, to which our
remarks will be ftrictly confined.

If it be confidered that of the five vowels in European
alphabets, only two, a and o, are favourable to the clear
emiffion of vocal found; that of the nineteen confonants
eight are abfolutely mute, as 5, hard ¢ and g, h, &, py gs t3
feven femi-mute, that is, allowing only a murmuring noife,
but no mufical found, asf, m,n, f, v, », 2; that the foft
g and confonant 7 are likewife of this kind; and that 7,
though accounted a liquid, only admits of a {narling, canine
kind of a noife; /, indeed, is a true liquid, allowing a con-
tinuation of found after it is formed; and <y and y may be
accounted femi-vowels ; yet fo numerous are the impediments
to a neat, clean articulation, as well as {weetnefs and purity
of mufical tones, that fome care fhould at leatt be ufed by
the lyric poet. in the /ekéion of words, as well as great pre-
caution by the compofer, who gives them a melody.

If our alphabet be critically examined, in order to dif-
cover the effeét which each letter has upon the voice in
finging ; it will be found that peculiar letters, as well as
combinations of letters, have peculiar vices and tendencies
to impede or corrupt mufical founds, both in their forma-
tion and paflage: that f admits only of a whifper; for
though regarded as a femi-vowel on account of its allowing
us to breathe after it has been pronounced, without altering
the form of the mouth; yet, as Dr. Holder has well ob-
ferved, “it is one thing to dreathe, and another to vocalife
that breath.” 47, n, and ng, likewife allow us to breathe ;
but as it is only nafal breath, the found we are able to emit
is fnuffing and impure. S, and its fubftitute, foft c, are
hijfng ; v and z afford only a jarring buz, by the vibration
of the teeth and underlip, like that of a wafp or bee; th,
cannot be uttered without a #/p ; and the Saxo-Norman
fyllables dle, cle, fle, gle, kle, ple, tle, are all unmufical, and
of difficult utterance.

The vowel a, according to our manner of founding it in
the words all, ball, ca/l, &c. affords the pureft and moft
open paflage to the voice through the mouth; and long
divifions and vocal effufions fhould be appropriated as much
as poffible to this vowel, which is {till more convenient to
the finger when combined with no other letter, which alters
the form of the organ. @, alows a free paffage to found ;
yet, as it feparates the lips and teeth lefs than the letter.a,
itis in lefs favour with fingers: however, the Englifh words
blow, flow, glow, flow, woe, &c. are well calculated for
mufical divifions. Z, i, and x, partake of the narure of
confonants, by putting the organs of fpeech in motion when
they are firft founded ; and in dwelling upon thele vowels
no voce di fetto, no voice can be produced from the cheft,
as they confine it to a {mall part of the mouth, or render it
nafal. Indeed, the z, by almoft clofing the lips, allows but
a very narrow and inconvenient paflage to the voice; the é
and the e are more favourable to a falfet, a voce da tefla, or
feigned voice, than to a true portamento, or conduct of the
yoice.

Tofi, in his * Opinioni de’ cantori antichi e moderni,
© fieno offervazioni fopra il canto figurato,”’ or florid fong,
fourfcore years ago, recommended the exerciling of the
voice upon the three open vowels, which, with the Italians,

are a, ¢, 0, equivalent to ‘our aw, a, @. The Italian 4,
founded like our double e, and uw as our double o, are never
honoured with divifions or long founds by the belt com-
pofers or finging matters of Italy.

As open, vowels are the molt defirable to fingers; fo dif-
tint, determinate, and uncompounded confonants, ave the
be{t crutches for the voice to lean on; for a neat, clear, and
articulate pronunciation of confonants 1s as neceflary to the
intelligence of what is finging, as open vowels are to its
being well fung. The letters g, #, i, for inftance, are fuch
clear and diftin& articulations, that the voice, after any one
of them, is delivered with a gentle kind of explofion, which
confiderably augments its force.

The i, in Englifh, as it is founded in the word /mile, and
which is fo peculiar to Englifh mouths, feems a diphthong,
compounded of ¢ feminine, and y, or the Greek diphthong
a, or rather the German ¢i, as founded in ¢ifenac, eichner,
&c. and not a fimple, or original vowel. Indeed, moft of
the diphthongs in our language require ation in the organ,
and {pring in the mufcles, as ay, ay, eu, ou, in the words
bay, boy, Europe, our.

As accent and emphafis have great influence in varying
the found of oral language, they are rot indifferent to vocal
melody : the Italian tongue, though it is eafy to pronounce,
and foft and mellifluous to the ear, from the opennefs and
frequency of its- vowels ; yet the articulations of its con«
fonants are more firm, vigorous, and poignant, than in any
other language ; and as every dialect has peculiar inflections
of voice which form a kind of fune in its utterance, the
Italian feems to have a greater compa(s and variety of inter-
vals in this colloquial tune, or cantilena, than any other with
which we are acquainted.

Diomedes calls accent the foul of fpeech, anima vocis.
And every word of more than one fyllable in profe, mutt
have one emphatic or accented fyllable among the reft,
However, in verfe, this. rule cannot be obferved without

abfurdity.
‘© Of mfin’s firft difobédience, and the fruit
Of that forbidden trée,”? &c.
« Awake my Saint John, leave all meaner things
To low ambition, and the pride of kings*”’

In each of thefe two lalt verfes, were they fet in reci-

“tative, which is the belt mufical criterion of accenting any

language, there can only be two emphatic, accented fyl-
lables: as in Handel’s opening of ** Alexander’s Featt ;””

«Twas at the royal fea{t, for Perfia won.”
A fyllab'e in Englifh, as well as Latin, which has two

eonfonants after a vowel, is long, except one of theie con-
fonants be mute, and the other a liquid, as in régret, ré-
pléte. Indeed, the accented fyllable in our words which
have double confonants, is fhort : fo that accent and long
do not always imply the fame thing. In the cafe of dou-
ble rhymes this rule fhould be oblerved : as plea/ure, mea-
Jure, manner, Sanner ; which fhould all have fhort notes,
Here accent and quantity certainly differ. By applying Ita-
lian melody to Englifh werds, we feem to lofe in fenfe what
we gain in found. The univerfality of double rhymes im
Italian poetry muft have an influence upon vocal melody;
which our fingle rhymes but aukwardly imitate.

Dacier, in a note to his tranflation of Plutarch’s Life of
Lycurgus, fays, that ‘the progrefs of mufic, in all times,
has ever been preportioned to the genius and language of
the people.’’ The ancient. Romans, though great in arms,
agriculture, and literature, were not fuccefstul oti

)

LANGUAGE.

of the fine arts ; and nothing was achieved in them, through-
out their empire, but by Grecian artifts. For this we may,
however, account, by the f{laves only being allowed to cul-
tivate the polite arts, among the Romans ; whereas, in
Greece, on the contrary, they were wholly prohibited their
ufe.

No vilionary innovation, or fantaftical change, is here in-
tended, in a language fo excellent as our own for every
purpofe of reafon, {cience, philofophy, and we may f{urely
add, poetry; all we would recommend, is care to our lyric
poets in the feleGtion and arrangement of fyllables, as well
as unity of fubjeé (fee Italian Tour. p. 48, and our articles
Sone, Symmetry, and Unity of Afelody), and attentive
obfervance to the compofers who fet them to mufic, not to
dwell on harfh, mute, nafal, or guttural words, which either
preclude or vitiate all mufical found.

Song and fing, unfortunately, the two moft common
words in our lyric poetry, begin by a di/s, and end with a
found entirely nafal; and if we examine the fyllables which
terminate each line in Dryden’s Ode on St. Cecilia's Day,
the beft of our lyric poems, and perhaps the ‘moft noble
produGtion, to read, of modern languages, we fhall find
that the dead letter d predominates; terminating in the
courfe of the poem no lefs than two or three and thirty
lines; in more than half of which, this hard and dumb
letter is preceded by n, which, though it does not wholly
filence the voice, yet allows it no paflage, but through the
nofe. However, this junétion is not fo injurious to vocalifed
found, as ng in the words Jung, young, beginning, winning,
deftroying, enjoying ; or fand zn ears, hears, [pheres, comes,
drums, prize, fkies,.&c, which terminate each mufical phrafe
or period with a ffs. The impervious confonant #, in /aie,

fate, fate, &c. preceded by a vowel, is lefs difficult to pro-
nounce, and lefs offenfive to hear, than the fibilation in brea/f,
oppreft, &c.

Admirable and fublime as this ode is in the perufal, fome
of the lines are extremely difficult to fing, without injuring
either the poet or mufician; the firfl, by a languid and
inarticulate utterance, or the latter by a pronunciation-too
rough and violent. The recitatives may, with propriety,
admit of {trong accentuation, as only fuch a portion of
found is wanting as will render the words more audible, and
nearer finging, than mere {peech: but as recitative is the
medium between declamation and mulical air, fome attention
feems neceffary in feleGting the words, and polifhing the
verfes, even for this narrative melody ; in fhunning harfh
alliterations, fuch as in the lines, thrice he flew the flain—
the [weet enthufiaft from her facred flore, &c. where there is a
conitant and unavoidable hiffing upon all the accents ; and
in placing fuch words at the paufe, or hiatus, in the middle
as well as at the end of each line or verfe, where the punc-
tuation requires a repofe, or long note, as will neither wholly
filence the voice, nor impede its expanfion. If fuch pre-
cautions fhould be thought neceflary for words of quick
atterance in recitative, fill more folicitous fhould the lyric
poet be in the choice and arrangement when he-writes an
air, where every fyllable is lengthened and vocalifed, and
where the vowel in each is all that the compofer can tune,
or the finger {weeten and refine.

It is very natural for poets to wifh that the language, in
fetting it to mufic, fhould be more refpected than it has
generally been, particularly in our church compofitions, by
eld matters, which the late Mr. Mafon, in his “ Anthem
Book for York Cathedral,’’ has very juitly cenfured ; but

he commends Tucker, who was gentleman of Charles IId’s —

chapel, for his very accurate attention to accent and length
of fyllables ; and fums up: the excellencies and defe&ts of

our ecclefiaftical compofers brought up in the King’s
chapel, after the Reftoration, by Eocaina with exact dif-
crimination of “the pleafing melodies of Wife; pathetic
airs of Clarke; majeftic movements of Blow; and fublime
{trains of Purcell.’’ ; A

But Purcell, the pride of every Englifhman who loves
mulic, was, in general, not only accurate, but happy and
touching in the expreflion of words. Many of his me-
lodies are, however, now become wholly obfolete and un-
couth, from the temporary graces, with which he overloaded
them, for the fake of ignorant fingers; and, indeed, he
wrote for no other. But thefe being the furbelows and
flounces of a particular period, are very fhort-lived, and foon
difgrace that melody which they were intended to em-
bellith.

LaAnGuacss are in general divided into orlginal or mother-
tongues ; asthe Hebrew and Arabic, in the aft; the Teu.
tonic and Sclavonic, in the weft. ,

Laneuaces, Secondary, or derivative, which are thofe-
formed out of a mixture of feveral others, as Latin, French,
&e.

Kircher will have the Coptic a mother-tongue indepen-

ent of all others. See Coprric.

Du Jon maintains the Gothic a primitive language, and
the mother of all the ‘Teutonic tongues ; that is, of all thofe
fpoken in the north. See Goruic.

Some add the-Bafque, or Bifcayan, and Bas Briton, to
the number of ‘mother-tongues, imagining them: to have been
thofe of the ancient Celtz, or Gauls.

Laneuaces, Learned, or Dead, are thofe which only
fubfift in books, and which mutft be learned by the rules of
grammar; as the Greek, Hebrew, Syriac, and Chaldee.

Raimond Lully folicited the eftablifhment of the ftudy
of the learned languages a long time, in the thirteenth and
fourteenth centuries. At length, in the year 1312, pope
Clement, and the council of Vienne, appointed, that in the ©
court of Rome, and in the univerfities of Paris, Oxford,
Bologna, and Salamanca, there fhould be inftituted pro-
feffors of each, who fhould have falaries from the refpeétive
courts. The monks, however, vigoroufly oppofed the
{preading of thefe ftudies; and with fo much fuccefs, that
Erafmus tells us, in his time, Grace noffe fufpeGtum,
Hebraice prope hereticum.”’ ;

Laneuaces, Living, are thofe fill {poken in fome couns
try or other ; and which may be learned by converfation.
The molt popular among thefe are the Trench, Italian,
Spanifh, and Englifh.

The Spaniards feem to place the noblenefs and gravity of
their language in the number of fyllables, and the {welling
of words; and {peak lefs to be underftood, than to be
admired. Their terms are fonorous; their expreflions
haughty ; pomp and oftentation run through all they fay ;
their language cannot paint a thought to the life ; it always
magnifies it; frequently diltorts it ; and does nothing, if it
does not exceed nature.

The Italian tongue does not {well up things to that de-
gree, but it adorns and embellifhes them more; yet thefe
ornaments and embellifhments are not real beauties. The
Italian expreffions, thus rich and brilliant, are like thofe
faces covered with patch and paint, which make a fine fhow;
but the finery is all deceit.

The French language (as fome of their authors exprefs
themfelves) is fimple, without lownefs ; bold, without int
decency: elegant and florid, without affectation ; harmo-
nious, without {welling ; majeftic, without pride ; delicate,
without foftnefs ; and ftrong, without roughnefs. Though,
as to the points of ftrength and majelty, the French mutt

give

LAWN

give way to the Englifh; which in thefe, as well as in co-
pioufnefs, exceeds moft of the living languages ; as far as
it is inferior to fome of them in {moothnefs and delicacy.

Of all the modern languages, the French is generally al-
lowed to be the molt clear, and fit for philofophical and cri-
tical fubjeéts ; the chalteft and molt referved in its diction ;
the moft judicious and fevere in its ornaments.

The language of France, for vocal purpofes, may be com-
pared with that of Italy. That the Italian language is favour-
able to the pure emiffion of found, and confequently to fing-
ing, and the French the contrary, none but a native of T’rance
will difpute. Yet M. Framery, a man of tafte and know-
ledge of mufic, and who fometimes feems to feel and ac-
knowledge the defects of French muiic and its language for
vocal purpofes, fays in the Encyclopédie Methodique,
p- 235: ‘ de celébres compofiteurs, Meflrs.. Duni, Gluck,
Piccini, Sacchini, ont dit, ont ecrit, qu’ils aimoient mieux
éompofer fur la langue Francoife que fur la langue Ita-
lienne!"? credat Judeus. M.¥ramery never furprifed us
more, or convinced us lefs. .'Thefe compofers may have
faid fomething flattering to the French, in public about
their language, while at Paris; but in private, Gluck and
Sacchini, to our knowledge, fpoke of French as a mufical
language with no great refpet. The Italians have often
pretended, in Scotland, to prefer Scots tuncs, and in Ire-
land, Irifh, to Italian mufic. Geminiani and Tenducci did
this in both countries ; but in England, and among their own
countrymen, they turned to ridicule both thefe national
mufics, more than they deferved ; for though, when fung
by fine fingers, they lofe their chief merit of originality and
fimplicity, when fung by the natives, they are extremely
pleafing, and often truly touching.

Of all others, the Englith is faid to be the moft honeft, open,
and undefigning language, With all its fublimity, it is gay
and pleafant on occafion; but its gaiety is ftill moderated
and reftrained by good fenfe ; it hates exceflive ornaments ;
and, for the greater fimplicity, would almoft choofe, as
fome fay of the French, to go naked; it never drefies more
than decorum and neceflity require.

The Englifh language is derived from fo many and fuch
different fources, that, on this account, it is deficient in
regularity and analogy. Yet we have this advantage to
compenfate the defect, that what we want in elegance, we
gain in copioufnefs, in which lalt refpect few languages will
be found fuperior to our own. See Enauisu.

Ennius and Cecrops are celebrated for their knowledze
of many languages. Mithridates, king of Pontus, it is faid,
underftood twenty-two tongues, which was the number of
different people over whom he commanded ; and thofe lan-
guages he knew fo well, that he was able to harangue each
of his people in their own tongue. It was a faying of
Charles V. “ That fo many languages as a man under-
ftands, fo many times he is a man.”? Sultan Soliman’s in-
terpreter fpoke perfectly well feventeen different languages.
But among the moderns, none has been more remarkable in
this way than Poftellus; who, befides a perfect knowledge
of all the dead Ianguages, was fo well acquainted with the
living, that it is faid he could have made the tour of the
globe, without the ufe of an interpreter. See our article
Jones, Sir William. :

Bibliander has written of the analogy and proportion of
languages and letters, De Ratione Communi Linguarum,
in 1518. Gelner, of the Difference of Languages, in 1572.
Lazius publifhed an Introdu@tion to the Learning of the
politer Languages, in a common Method, in 1548. Me-
piflier, a f{cheme of forty different languages, and different
dialects, fpecimens of each whereot he gives in the Lord's

LAWN

prayer, in 1593. De Recoles, in. his Addition to .the
World of Daviti, has publifhed the Pater-nofter in all the
languages fpoken among Chrittians ; and Mr. Chamberlayne
propofed to do the fame in a hundred languages, a {pe-
cimen of whiclt has been publified. Albericus Gentilis
wrote. of the mixture of languages, in 1633. And
father Reignier'’s Difcourfe on Etymologies, is a work of
the fame kind. In 1613, Durer publifhed a treafure of the
hiltory of all the languages in the univerfe. Guichart has
a treatife of the etymolegical harmony of languages, pub-
lifhed in 1619. Brerewood has given us curious enquiries into
the diverfities of languages and religions, publifhed in. 1635.

Lanouace, Philofophical. See Cuanactrrs, Universal.

LanouaGe is alfo ufed, in the order of Malta, for nation.
The knights of Malta are divided into eight languages :
three whereof are for rance; viz. the languages of Pro-
vence, of Auvergne, and of France; two for Spain, thofe
of Caftile and Arragon ; the other three are the languages
of Italy, England, arid Germany.

Each of thefe languages has its chief, who prefides in affem-
blies of the language to which he belongs. See Marra.

Laneuace, Frank. See Fraxx.

LaneuaGe Helleniflic. See HeLienisric.

Lancuace, Law. See Law Language.

LANGUED, Lancux, in Heraldry, 1s applied to fuch
animals whofe tongues appear out of their mouths: being
of a colour different from that of the body of the animal.

LANGUEDOC, Occiranta, in Geography, a portion of
Gallia Braccata, a maritime province (as it was denominated
before the revolution,) bounded on the N. by Guienne, Au-
vergné, and Lyonnois, on the E. by the Rhone, on the S.
by Foix, Routillon, and the Mediterranean, and on che W.
by the Garonne. it lies between 42° 4o’, and 45° 20! N.
lat., and between 1° 20/, and 4° 45’ E. long. In 43° 30,
the parallel of Touloufe nearly, it extends 53 leagues from
W. to E.; but towards either extremity, it does not exceed
33- Its breadth, for the greateit part, is 33 to 38 leagues,
except towards the middle, where it fcareely amounts to 40
miles. The coatt from’ Agde eaftward is confiderably aug-
mented, the fea having retired, as appears by comparing the
fituation of the maritime places in ancient and modern times.
The furface of this province confilts of mountains and vallies,
hills and plains. In the mountains, called the Cevennes and
its branches, which are partly covered with foretfts, there are
lead and iron mines. The lower traéts are fertile, and well
watered, yielding grain, wine, and fruit; but one-half of
the province is of an ungrateful and unproduétive foil. The
principal rivers are the Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Gardon,
Villre, Erault, Orbe, Aude, Arriege, Allier, Tarn, and
Let. In this province many canals have been formed for
commercial purpofes.

Languedoc has been fometimes divided into Upper,
Lower, and the Cevennes; the Upper, including nine dio-
cefes, the Lower, containing 11 bifhoprics, and the Ce-
vennes, comprehending three. Geographers have divided
this province into Upper and Lower ; containing three arch-
bifhoprics, 23 bifhoprics, 61 abbies, 637 priories, 353 reli-
gious houfes, 60 commanderies, 20a towns and villages,
2 univerfities, 6 academies, 1000 ecclefiattics, 342,758 fami-
lies, and 1,560,000 inhabitants. The ecclefiaitical divifion
has been differently arranged fince the revolution. The
capital of Upper Languedoc was Touloufe, and of Lower
Languedoc, Montpellier. It is now divided into feven
departments, wiz. the Ardéche, Lozere, Gard, Herault,
Tarn, Upper Garonne, and Aude.

LANGUENBRUCK, a town of Switzerland, in the
canton of Soleure ;. 14 miles N.E. of Soleure.

LANGUE-

LAN

LANGUEPOUR, a town of Hindooftan,
43 miles S.S.W. of Bahar.

LANGUET, Joun Barrtist Josern, in Biography,
fon of Denis Languet, attorney-general to the parliament
of Dijon, in which city he was born inthe year 1675. He
received the elementary parts of his education in his native
place, and then went to purfue his ftudies at Paris, where
he refided at the feminary at St. Sulpice. In the year 1698,
he was admitted alicentiate of the faculty of the Sorbonne,
and was ordained, foon after, a prieft at Vienne, in Dauphiné.
He returned to Paris, took the degree of doctor in 1703,
and attached himfelf to the community of St. Sulpice,
where, by the exertions of his benevolent labours, he ren-
dered himfelf fo ufeful that he was chofen curate to M. de la
Chetardie. The duties of this appointment he difcharged
ten years, and fold his eftate, that he might have it in his
power to relieve the neceflities of the poor. In the year
1714, he fucceeded to the living of St. Sulpice, and find-
ing the church much teo fmall for the number of his pa-
rifhioners, he conceived the defign of building a place that
fhould excel every other church in the world in magnifi-
cence, and architeGtural decorations. This great work he
accomplifhed by means of donations, which poured in from
all quarters the moment his intentions were made known.
It was confecrated, in the year 1745, with fo much {plendour,
that Frederic II., king of Pruffia, was induced, from an ac-
count which he read of the proceedings on that occafion,
to fend a polite complimentary letter to M. Languet. He
e(tablifhed likewife ‘“* La Maifon del’ Infant Jefue,”’ intended
for the accommodation of 30 or 40 poor ladies of noble
defcent. Here they were boarded and educated in a manner
{uitable to them, but at the fame time were taught to be
ufeful. They were employed, by turns, in attending to do-
meftic concerns, and in other offices that would render them
ferviceable to their relations in the country. Another ob-
ject of this eftabhifhment, was to afford an afylum to more
than eight hundred poor women and girls deftitute of the
means of fupport, belonging either to the city or country.
They were provided with daily food, and were made to
earn their fupport, chiefly by fpinning cotton and linen.
Without entering into the minutiz of the regulations of the
place, it is fufficient to fay, that this eftablifhment has
proved a moft happy retreat for numerous unfortunate fe-
males, who had been abandoned, by infamous betrayers, to
difeafe and wretchednefs. Here, by good example and ex-
cellent moral inftruGtion, they have been recalled to virtue,
and habituated to induftry, and many of them have proved
ufeful and honourable members of the fociety. For their en-
couragement when they quitted the houfe, they were paid
in money the amount of what they had earned by their la-
bour. ‘Though the land attached to the houfe confifted of
only fourteen French acres, yet it fed a fufficient number
of cows to give milk for upwards of two thoufand children
in the parith: it alfo contained conveniences for pigs and
all kinds of poultry, which were fold for the benefit of the
jnititution; a bakeboufe, furnifhing more than a hundred
thoufand pounds of bread monthly, which was diftributed
among the poor of the parifh; {pinning-rooms, an excellent
and well cultivated garden, a noble difpenfary, &c. The
management and regularity with which every department in
‘this houfe was conduéted, either for the inftruétion, employ-
ment, er fupport of fuch a number of perfons, were fo ad-
mairable, and gave fo high an idea of the great direCting hand,
that cardinal Fleury propofed that Languet fhould be ap-
pointed fuperintendant of all the hofpitals in the kingdom ;
to whom he anfwered with a fmile, « I have always faid,
my lerd, that the bounty of your eminence led me to the

in Bahar ;

LAN

hofpital.”” M. Languct’s benevolent exertions were not
confined to the objects already mentioned, but extended to
the poor and wretched of every defcription. No perfon
was ever more active and fuccefsful than himfelf in obtaining
large alms and confiderable legacies, which he diftributed with
admirable prudence and difcretion. It is faid, on good au-
thority, that he difburfed about a million of livres in charity
every year. Noble families reduced to poverty, were among
the prime objeéts of his benevolent attention. At the time
of the great dearth in 1725, in order that he might relieve the
poor, he fold his houfhold furniture, his pi€tures, and curious
and rare pieces of workmanfhip, and, in fhort, fcarcely left
himfelf the bare neceffaries of life. He was among the
firft to be prefent at fires, or any other fcene of public cala-
mity, where his prudence, felf-poffeffion, and univerfally
refpected character, rendered his advice and exertions effen-
tially ferviceable. He had a wonderful talent in difcovering
the different difpofitions of mankind, and he knew how to
employ every perfon according to his capacity. This ex-
cellent man declined the offers made of feveral bifhoprics ;
his great ambition was to do good, and he had ample means
for this as a parifh prieft. He died in the year 1750 at the
age of feventy-five. His piety and application to works of
benevolence did not prevent him from being a lively and
cheerful companion. He poileffed a fine genius, and was
highly delighted with cheerful and amufing fociety. His
younger brother, named John Jofeph, born at Dijon in 1667
rofe to confiderable eminence in the church, and was cea
years archbifhop of Sens. He died in 1753. He tooka
very diftinguifhed part as a controverfialiit, in defence of
the bull «* Unigenitus,”” and difplayed much learning and
acutenefs in his polemical pieces, which were tranflated into
Latin, and printed in 1753, in two volumes folio. He was
author of « A Tranflation of the Book of Pfalms,” and of
difcourfes publithed in the colleGtions of the French academ
Moreri. z:
; Lanxcuer, Huzert, was born at Viteaux, in Burgundy,
in 1518: after a preliminary courfe of inftruGtien in his
own country, he went to Italy for the ftudy of the civil
law, and took a doéter’s degree at Pavia. Having met
with a beok of the reformer Melan@hon’s, he felt a great
defire of feeing the author, and, in 1549, procured an inter«
view with him at Wittenberg, which terminated in his con-
verfion to the Proteftant faith. After this he fpent feveral
years in travelling over different countries in the north of
Europe ; in his tour he became acquainted with Guttavus,
king of Sweden, who gave him a commiffion to invite
perfons fxilful in the arts and fciences from France to his
dominions. In 1559, he accompanied Adolphus of Naflau,
prince of Orange, into Italy; after this he was nominated
by the elector of Saxony to be his envoy to the court of
France. He was deputed by that prince to the affembly of
the ftates of Angfoburg in 1568, and was employed by him
in other important negociations. He was again fent to
France in 1570, when he pronounced a bold and eloquent
harangue in the name of the Proteftant princes of Germany
before Charles 1X. He refided at Paris during the bloody
mailacre of St. Bartholomew, and expofed his own life to
danger by his efforts in faving his hoft, Andrew Wechel,
the famous printer, and his friend, Dupleffis Mornai. After
accomplifhing various other miffions to the fatisfa¢tion of
his employers, he died at Antwerp in September, 1581, at
the age of 63, greatly regretted by all who knew him.
‘The prince of Orange, in whofe fervice he had been employed,
walked as chief mourner at his funeral. He was a man of
pure virtue in corrupt and difficult times: “ He was,” fays
one of his biographers, “ fuch as many would with to appear ;
he

LAN

he lived as good men would with to die." His works are
« Colleétions of Latin Letters to the EleGtor of Saxony, to
Camerarius, Father and Son, and to Philip Sidney :” “ A
Relation of the Expedition of the EleGtor Auguttus againft
the Revolters of Saxony ; with the Hiftory of the Proceed-
ings of the Emperor againft that Prince :’? “ Vindicia con-
tra Tyrannos,” which is a fpirited attack upon tyranny,
and a defence of the rights of the people. This appeared
foon after Languet’s death, and coming out with the name
of Stephanus Junius Brutus, was attributed to various per-
fons, but has been afcertained to have been the production
of Languet. Bayle. Moreri.

LANGUETTE, Fr. the tongue of a jack in a harp-
fichord or fpinnet ; the valve which opens and fhuts the
wind cheft in an organ to let the wind into the pipes, when
a key is preffed down.

LANGUIDO and Lancuente, /ta/. mufical terms for

a languid or languifhing air.
- - LANGUOR, a faintnefs and indifpofition to exertion,
commonly accompanied with a laffitude or wearinefs, and
arifing from a feverifh ftate, or from a general debility of
the nervous and circulating fyftems.

LANGUR, in Geography, a mountain of Thibet ; 40_

miles E. of Tankia.—Alfo, a river of Mingrelia, anciently
Affolphus, which runs into the Black fea, about two miles
from Anarghia. :

~ LANGUT, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Ober-
land ; 10 miles S.E. of Morangen. E

LANGWIESE, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Leitmeritz ; 20 miles W.N.W. of Leitmeritz.

LANJAN, Lanpsam, or Lanjang, a city of Laos, and
capital of the kingdom, or at leaft of the fouthern divifion,
to which it gives name, and the ufual refidence of the king ;
fituated on the W. fide of the river Mecon, and defended
on the land fide by ditches and high walls. The palace is
of wide extent, and appears like a city, from its fize and the
number of people who inhabit it. The houfes of the prin-
cipal perfons are high, elegant, and richly ornamented ;
thofe of the lower people are mere huts. The priefts alone
have the privilege of building their houfes of brick or ftone.
N. lat. 18° 30’. E. long. ror® 38’.

LANIARDS. See Lannizrs.

LANJARON, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the

rovince of Granada; 15 miles S. of Granada.

LANIERE, Nicoro, in Biography, was an Italian,
~ who came into England early in the laft century: there is
a fine portrait of him at the Grange, in Hampfhire, by Van-
dyke. It was the fight of this portrait that determined
Charles I. to employ that excellent painter. Laniere pro-
feffionally praétifed mufic, painting, and engraving; but
his greateft excellence was in mulic. His own portrait,
painted by himfelf, is in the muific fchool at Oxford. He
etched a confiderable number of plates for a drawing-book ;
was an able connoiffeur in pictures ; and had the art of giving
modern paintings an air of antiquity, and putting off copies
for originals. Granger's Biog. Hilt. of Engl. vol. i.
J Hoe recorded in the folio edition of Ben Jonfon's works,
printed 1640, that, in 1617, his whole mafque, which was
performed at the houfe of lord Hay, for the entertainment
of the French ambaflador, was fet to mufic after the Italian
manner, filo recitativo, by Nic. Laniere, who was not only
ordered to fet the mufic, but to paint the fcenes.

This fhort piece being «wholly in rhyme, though without
variation in the meafure, to diltinguifh airs from recitation,
as it was all in mufical declamation, may be fafely pro-

Vou. XX.

AIP AN

nounced the firft attempt at an opera in the Italian manner,
after the invention of recitative.

But in the fame year, in the mafque, by the fame author»
called ‘* The Vifion of Delight,” prefented at court during
Chriftmas, there is a manifett diftin@tion of air from re-
citative ; in both which ftyles the whole piece, in verfes of
different meafures, was performed, It is opened by De-
light, perfonified, who, /lilo recitativo, “ {pake in fong.’?
Then Night, likewife perfonified, fung, “ Break Fancy
from thy cave of cloud, &&.’? This air ends in a chorus
or quire. After which Fancy fpake, in filo recitativo.
Then Peace fung, ** Why look you fo, &c.’’ After which
an air that terminates in a quire. The fong ended, “ Wonder
{pake,’’ in recitative. ‘Then dancing, finging, and chorus.

Here we have all the charatteriltics of a genuine opera,
or mufical drama of modern times, complete: fplendid
fcenes and machinery ; poetry ; mufical recitation ; air ; cho-
rus; and dancing.

Though the mufic of this mafque is not to be found,
yet of Laniere’s “* Mufica narrativa’’ we have feveral ex-
amples, printed by Playford in the colle€tions of the time ;
particularly the “ Ayres and Dialogues,’ 1653, and the
fecond part of the «* Mufical Companion,”’ which appeared
in 1667 ; and in which his mufic to the dialogues is infinitely
fuperior to the reft: there is melody, meafure, and mean-
ing init. His recitative is more like that of his country-
men at prefent, than any cotemporary Englifhman’s. How-
ever, thefe dialogues were compofed before the laws and
phrafeology of recitative were fettled, even in Italy. His
cantata of ** Hero and Leander’? was much celebrated
during thefe times, and the recitative regarded as a model
of true Italian mufical declamation.

LANIGEROUS, any thing that bears wool. Hence,

Lanicerous, or Lanuginous Trees, among Herbalifls,
are thofe trees that bear a woolly downy fubftance ; as, the
black, white, and trembling poplars, ofiers, and willows of
all forts.

LANINA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the go-
vernment of Irkutfk, near the Baikal lake ; 80 miles N.E.
of Irkutfk.

LANINI, Bernarpino, in Biography, an_hiflorical
painter, native of Vercelli, and a pupil of Gaudenzio Fer-
rari. He imitated the ftyle of that mafter, in his firft works,
to a degree of illufion. As he advanced in praétice he cait
a bolder eye on nature, and, by equal vigour of conception
and execution, proved to the firit artifts of Milano, that,
like Ferrari, he was born for grand fubjects: fuch is that of
St. Catarini, near S. Celfo ; the face and attitude of the he-
roine anticipate the graces of Guido; the colour of the
whole approaches the’ tones of Tiziano; the glory of the
angels rivals Gaudenzio ; a,lefs neglected ftyle of drapery
would have left little to wifh for. Among his copious
works at Milano, and in its diftri€&ts, the dome of Novara
claims diftinguifhed notice. There he painted thofe Sybils,
and that femblance of the eternal Father, fo much admired
by Lomazzo, and near them certain fubje¢ts from the life
of the Virgin, which even now in a ruined {tate of colour
enchant by fpirit and evidence of defign. His verfatile
talent indulged fometimes in imitations of Leonardo da
Vinci; and at the Bafilica of St. Ambrogio, the figure of
Chrift between two angels, in form, expreffion, and effea,
fully proves with what felicity he penetrated the principles
of that genius. Fufeli’s Pilkington.

LANIS de erefcentia Wallie traduccadis ab/gue cuffuma,
‘Sc. an ancient writ that lies to the cuftomer ef a port, to

Oo permit

LAN

permit one to pafs wool without paying cuftom, he having

aid it before in Wales,

LANISCHLE, in Geography, a town of Iftria; 16
miles §.E. of Capo d’Iftria.

LANISTA, in Antiguity, is fometimes ufed to fignify
an executioner, but more frequently for a matter gladiator,
who taught the ufe of arms, and had always people under
them, ready to exhibit fhows of that kind. For which pur-
pofe they either purchafed gladiators, or educated children,
that had been expofed in ‘hat art.

LAnIsTa was alfo ufed to denote one who taught gamé-
cocks to fight.

LANIUS, in Ornithology, a genus of the rapacious tribe,
having the bill rather ftraight, with a tooth, or notch, on
each mandible near the end; the bafe naked; and the
tongue jagged at the tip. To this charaGter, affigned by
Gmelin after Linneus, may be added, that the noltrils are
generally round, and covered with ftiff briftles. Dr. La-
tham obferves ftill further, that the birds of this genus are
not furnifhed with a cere at the bafe of the. bill, and that
the middle toe is conne&ted to the next as far as the firft
joint. Lattly, according to Scopoli, the fegments of the
fins are feven in number. :

Linnzeus, in the various editions of his Syftema Naturz and
ether works, has referred this genus of birds to feveral dif-
tin& families, having fometimes placed it with the chatterers,
fometimes with the titmice, and then again, from its habits of
rapacity, with the accipitres, in which laft-mentioned order it
ftands in the Gmelinian edition of that author's publication.
Before the time of Linnzus, our countryman, Ray, had
claffed this tribe among the fhort-winged hawks: Buffon
ulfo had arranged it after the falcons; but Briffon, on the
contrary, includes them with the thrufhes and the chatterers,
two analogous genera, which obvioufly belong to the order
pafferes. Kramer introduces it unde* the pafferine order ;
Scopoli under the pies ; and Pennant, in his “ Genera of
Birds,”? with the accipitres; from which, however, the
latter writer removes it to the order pice, in a fubfequent
edition. Gmelin retains it ftill in the accipitrine order.
In Latham’s “ Synopfis,’’ and alfo in his “* Index Ornitho-
logicus,’’ the example of Scopoli is followed ; the fhrikes
are difpofed at the head of the order pice, and this arrange-
ment has obtained the fan@ion of the French ornithologiits.
We are far from wifhing to intrude a folitary fuggeition
againft eftablifhed opinions, and thofe too of acknowledged
merit ; yet, on a point in which fo much difference has pre-
vailed, a fuggeltion may be allowed. The fhrikes then ap-
pear to us, at leaftin a general. view, lefs intimately con-
nected with the pies than the falcon tribe, though confeffedly
allied to both; and in defining the precife line between, it
is not impoffible that a future era will concur in the ac-
curacy of Gmelin, who incorporates them with the acci-
pitres; or, in reverting itill farther back to the example of
Ray, our enlightened countryman, place them as the laft of
the falcon tribe.

The birds of this genus are difperfed throughout moft parts
of the globe: they are generally of a noify, reftlefs, quarrel-
fonte, and ferocious difpefition; prey, on all the fmaller
kinds of birds as well as infe&s. The manner in which
they de‘tvoy their prey is almoft, if not entirely, peculiar to
themfelves, and evinces a degree of addrefs and cruelty
that has not inaptly obtained them the name of butcher-
birds. After pouncing upon their deftined victim, which
they ufually feize upon in a defencelefs ftate, while young,
and in the neft, they bear it away to fome thorny buth, and
by the dint of dexterity force it upon. one of the ftouteft

43

LAN

and fharpelt {pines ; after which they proceed to tear the yet
living creature into pieces, feparating its mangled remains
by the affittance of their bill and talons, and difperfing on
different {pines of the buth fuch remnants of the flefh, after
being for the prefent fatisfied, as are referved for future
meals. In this manner, the fhrike tribe alfo treat the larger
kinds of infects, as well as birds.
Species.

Forricatus. Tail forked; frontal creft erect ; body
greenifh-black. Linn. Drongo, Buff. Gobe-mouche huppe
de Malabar, ibid. - Fork-tailed /hrike. ,

Length ten inches ; fize of a black-bird; tail long, and:
much furcated; creft fometimes wanting. Inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope, Madagafcar, and China. .

Czrucescens. Tail forked; body blueifh-black ; belly
white. Linn. La pie-griefche a queue fourchue de Bengaley
Brifl. Le fingah, Buft. Fork-tailed Indian butcher-bird,.
Edwards.

Inhahits Bengal, where it is called fingah: the Englith.
fettlers call it alfo the king of the crows, from the holtile-
difpofition they conftantly evince againft thofe birds, Its.
length is feven inches and a half; the tail much forked, the:
outer feather {potted with dirty white.

Matazaricus. Body blueifh-black ; quill and tail-feas
thers biack ; outer tail-feathers long, and without webs, ex-
cept on the outer fide near the tip. Lath. Ind. Orn. Gobe-.
mouche de Malabar, Son. .Drongo de Malabar, Buff. Maz-.
labar fhrike.

Length feventeen inches and a half. This {pecies inhabits:
Malabar. be

Castaneus. Tail cuneated; body above chefnut, bes
neath white ; crown, nape, and hind-head cinereous. Lath.
Lanius caffaneus, Gmel. _Chefnut-backed /hrike. r

Country unknown. The bill, wings, and legs black ;-
front black. Length ten inches. be

Lucionensis. Tail cuneated; body reddifh-grey ;: tail-
feathers banded with brown at the ends; a black fpot on:
the head, behind the eye. Lanius lucionenfis, Linn. La pie>
griefche de Luzon, Brill. Luzonian fhrike. .

Length feven inches and a half; bill and body above: ©
grey-brown ; beneath, and on the fides, reddifh, with-white-
lines ; tail rufous-grey ; the tip of each feather, except the
two middle ones, rufous white; legs and claws brown..
According to Briffon, the inhabitants of the ifland of
Luconia, which it inhabits, call this bird cabecore..

Cristatrus. Tail cuneated; head crefted; body red—
difh, beneath waved with tawny and brown. Gmel. Ben-
galenfis rufus, Brifl. Crefled red, or rouffet-coloured butcher=
bird, Edwards. Crefled red fhrike.

Canapensis. , Tail cuneated ; head crefted ; body red-
difh, beneath whitifh. Gmel. Lanius Canadenfis, Briff..
Pie-gricfche hupé de Canada, Buff. Crefted farikes

Length fix inches and a half; the bill and claws black 5:
creft reddifh; cheeks dufky, with white {pots ; throat and
brea{t yellowifh-red; belly cinereous ; wing-coverts black,.
edged with white; tail black, with white dots. This
fpecies inhabits Canada.

Lupovicianus. Tail cuneated' and cinereous; body .
above cinereous, beneath whitifhh. Gmel. Pie griefche de-
la Louifiane, Buff. Louifiane farike.

Inhabits Louifiane. Length eight inches ;. under the eyes.
a black band; fix middle tail-feathers black,, the reft white
at the bafe and tip.

Nencets. Tail cuneated, white at the tip; body ci-.
nereous, beneath whitifh. Linn. © Cotinga cinerea, Brill.

Guirars.

LANIUS.

Guiraru nheengeta, Ray. Guirarou, Buff. Grey pye of
Brafil, Edw. Grey fhrike.

Inhabits northern Europe, Brafil, Surinam, and other
parts of South America, frequenting marfhy places.
Length nine inches, In this fpecies the wings and tail are
blackifh ; wing-coverts black, with the tips dull white;
primary quill-feathers black, outer tail-feathers at the tip
white.

CURVIROSTRIS.
black ; firft five quill-feathers with a white {pot. Gmel.
Collurio Madaga/carien/is, Briffl. Ecorcheur de Madagafear,
Buff. Vanga ou becarde a ventre blanc. Built. Hook-billed

rike.

Both mandibles reflected at the tips ; hind-head greenifh-
black; greater tail-coverts obliquely {potted with white;
rail-feathers in the middle, within cinereous, withoat black,
tip white; legs lead colour, claws blackifh. A native of
Madagafcar, where the inhabitants diftinguifh it by the
name of vanga. It feeds on fruits, and is faid to whiftle
well.

Corraris. Tail cuneated; body black, beneath white ;
firt quill-feathers white at the bafe. Gmel. Pie griefche
du Cap de Bonne Efperance, Bul. Collared frike.

Native of the Cape of Good Hope. Length twelve

inches.

Excuritor. ‘Tail cuneated, white at the fides; back
hoary ; wings black, with a white fpot. Linn. Lanius
cinereus, Brifl. Lanius cinereus major, Gefn. Caftrica pa-

lombina, Olin.. Great ¢inereous fhrike, Ar&. Zool. Donov.
Brit. Birds, &c.

This fpecies inhabits many parts of North America and
Europe, and is the largeft of its tribe found in Britain,
where, however, it is extremely rare. ‘The length is ten
inches. The male differs very little from the female, except
that the parts beneath in the former are entirely white,
while thofe in the female are marked with fine femicircular
brownifh lines. The female makes her neft of heath and
mofs, lined with wool and other foft fubftances. The fpecies
chiefly inhabits woods: it feeds on infects and {mall birds,

- the latter of which it feizes by the throat, then fixes them
on a fharp thorn, and tears them to pieces. When confined
in a cage, it will often, if poffible, contrive to affix its food
again{t the wires, that in like manner it may pull it afunder
with its claws and bill. In countries where thefe birds are
abundant, the hufbandmen treat them with regard, being
efpecially ufeful in the deftru@tion of rats, mice, and other
vermin. There are fome diftinét varieties of this bird: in
one the body is white, the legs yellowifh, and the bill and
claws blackifh ; and another in which the leffer wing-coverts
and fhoulders are reddifh.

Coxturio. Tail fomewhat cuneated; back grey; four
middle tail-feathers unicolour ; bi!l lead colour. Linn. Fn.
Suec. Lanius minor rufus, Sc. Ray. Merule congener alia,
Ray. Lcorcheur, Buff. Lefer butcher bird, flufber, Se.
Will. Red-backed forike, Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

Length feven inches and a half; the head and lower parts
of the back light grey; upper part of the back, with the
wing-coverts, ferruginous; the tail black, with all the
feathers, except the two middle ones, more or Jefs white at
the bafe ; the outer web of the outer feather white; breatt,
belly, and fides bloffom-colour; legs black. In the female,
the head is dull ferruginous, mixed with grey ; breaft, belly,
and fides dirty white, with femicircular dufky lines; tail
deep brown, the outer feather only white on the outer web.
This fpecies is not’very uncommon in Britain, where it is
confidered as a bird of paflage. It lays fix white eggs,
marked with a rufous brown circle towards the large end,

Tail cuneated; body white; back:

The neft is generally placed in a hedge or low bufh, near
which, it is afferted, no fmall birds have the temerity to
build, as it not only feeds on infeéts, but alfo on the young
of other birds, which it feizes in the neft by the neck, and
kills by piercing the full with its bill, the brain and eyes
being the parts it firft devours. It is remarkably fond of
grafshoppers and beetles, which it eats by morfels; and
when fatisfied, transfixes the remains on a thorn, to be eaten
at another opportunity. This, like the grey thrike, has no
note peculiar to itfelf: it is merely an adept in the imitative
art, as its note is varied to that of any other birds it wifhes
to decoy within its power. Writers defcribe two or three
varieties of this {pecies, the moft probable of which is the
variegated fhrike, l'Ecorcheur varie of Briffon. ‘This is
grey on the upper part of the body, and rufous-white be-
neath, the whole marked with tranfverfe brown ftriations ;
the fcapulars rufous-white, bounded by a parallel black
{tripe ; the tail black, the three outer feathers rufous-white
at the bafe and tips, the outer one wholly rufous-white on
the outer edge. It is the lefler variegated butcher bird of
Willughby, and is admitted as a variety by Gmelin and
Latham, Gmelin is, however, miftaken in placing the fol-
lowing bird as another variety of the fpecies collurio.
Rwritus. Crown and nape rufous, furrounded with
fufcous; front, fcapulars, {pot on the wing, and whole fur-
face beneath whitifh. Donov. Br. Birds. Lanius rufus,

Brif! Lanius rufus (y Collurio), Gmel. Lanius rufusy
Lath. Lanius rutilus, Ind. Orn. Lanius pomeranus, Muff.
Carlfc. — Lanius minor cinerafcens, Ray. Lanius minor

rutilus, Klein.
Pie-griefehe roufz, Buff Buferola, Zinnan.
Albin, &c.

Extremely rare in Britain. Its fize is equal to that of the
common or red-backed fhrike, and its manners, fo far as we
are acquainted with the f{pecies, are nearly the fame, except
that it never frequents woods, keeping conftantly on the
elevations or among the low bufhes in the open plains; it
inhabits Africa and Southern Europe chiefly. ‘There is an
apparent error among writers in confidering the bird called
by Buffon Ja pie-griefche rouffe 4 tete noire du Senegal, as
a variety of Lanius rufus. Levaillant defcribes Buffon’s
bird under the name of Tchagra, from the peculiar found of
its note, which refembles the repeated repetition of the
words tcha-tcha—tcha-gra, and aflures us it is no other thana
variety of the following fpecies.

Senrecatus. Grey, beneath whitifh; crown, band through
the eyes, and tail-feathers black; the laft, except the two
middle feathers, white at the tips. Lanius Senegalus, Linn.
Lanius Senegalenfis cinereus, Brifl. Senegal Sorike.

Length nine inches. Very common in Senegal.

Anrticuanus. Tail long and cuneated ; body above yel-
lowifh rufous, beneath white, head, bill, wings, legs, and
tail above black. Gmel. Pie-grie/che d’ Antigue, Sonnerat.
Antiguan fhrike, Lath.

Inhabits the Philippines and Panay ifles.

Nicer. Black ; tail fomewhat cuneated. Gmel. Black

Srrike.

Native of Jamaica. Length feven inches.

Leverianus. ‘Tail long, cuneated, black at the tip;
bill, head, neck, middle of the breaft, and legs black, the
reft white. Gmel. Lanius picatus, Lath. Magpie /hrike.

Inhabits South America; length ten inches; greater
wing-coverts and fecondary quill-feathers white at the edge ;
two middle’ tail-feathers as long again as the reft, the whole
black with white tips. ‘ :

Rurvs. Rufous, beneath white; head greenifh-black.

1) Qo 2 : Linn,

Ampelis do#fo grifeo, &c. Linn, Fn. Stec.
Wood-chat,

LANIUS.

Linn. Lanius Madagafearienfis rufus, Briff, Schet-bé, Buff.
Rufous fhrike.
ength eight inches, the bill, legs, and claws lead-

colour.
Leucocepratus. Greenifh-black; head, neck, and
body beneath white. Gmel. &c. Lanius Madaga/fearienfis

majer viridis, Briff. White-headed
Sorike.

Size of the laft, and inhabits the fame country.

ArricApictus. Tail cuneated, and with the neck,
crown, fhoulders, and wings black; body above moufe-
colour, beneath blueifh-afh. Merrem.

Native of Surinam. The length five inches ; wings fhort ;
wing-coverts and fecondary quill-feathers edged with white ;
tail-feathers, except the two middle ones, tipped with
white.

Pomrranus. Body above black, beneath white, hind
head and back of the neck dark rufty, furrdunded with
black ; two {pots on each fide the wings and rump white.
Sparmann. A

Inhabits Pomerania ; bill, legs, and wings black.

Tyrannus. Body cinereous, beneath white; crown black,
with a longitudinal tawny ftreak, Gmel. Mu/cicapa tyran-
nus, Brill. Tyran, Buff. Tyrant /fbrike.

Native of America. Length eight inches. Builds in
hollow trees, is fierce and audacious, and will even attack
the eagle, fattening upon its back, and continuing to fcream
and peck with its beak tillit forces the eagle to retreat.
There are feveral varieties of this bird.

Magsor. Grey; each fide the head reddifh ; tail longer
than the body, and pointed. La grande pie-grieche, Sonnini.

Size of the black-bird, the plumage greyifh-ath ; bill
citron-yellow ; legs brownifh, claws black.

Leha-chert-bé, Buff.

Arnricanus. Body above black, beneath white, anda
band of the fame on the wings. La fie-gricche filencieu/e,
Sonnini.

Size of the common red butcher-bird of Europe, the bill
horn-colour ; iris and legs brown, and claws black. The
female is rather fmaller than the male, and the colours more
ob{cure. ‘Lhe neft, which is conftruGted with much art, is
placed among trees, and commonly contains from three to
four eggs of a pale green colour. The young in plumage
refemble the female. Inhabits Africa.

Scuacu. Body yellowifh; front and wings black.
Linn. Lanius a-feack, Ofbeck: Chinefe fhrike.

Native of Chiva, in fize refembling the {pecics tyrannus.
Head and neck on the upper part grey ; neck beneath dull
reddifh-white ; back and belly reddifh.

Pirancua. Body black, beneath yellow ; crown with
a tawny ftreak ; band over the eyes white. Gmel. Lanius
pitangua, Linn. Pitangua guaca, Ray. Tyrannus Brafilienfis,
Brifl. Bentaveo, ou Cuiriri, Buff. Brajilian fhrike.

Length nine inches ; bill thick, throat white ; wings be-
neath yellow. Native of South America.

Bargarus. Black, beneath red; crown and thighs
tawny.. Gmel. Lanius Senegalenfis ruber, Brill. Gonolak,
Buff. Pie-griefehe du Senegal, ibid. Barbary fbrike.

Length nine inches ; the bill, wings, tail, feet, and claws

Cayanus. Cinereous; head, tail, and primary eee
thers black. Linn. Lanius Cayanenfis cinereus, Brill, Pie«
griefche grife de Cayenne, Buff. Cayenne fhrike.

Size of a black-bird, the length eight inches and a half,
bill at the bafe red, at the tip black ; legs cinereous, claws
black. Buffon defcribes a fuppofed variety, about the fame
fize, that differs in having a longitudinal black ftreak down
each feather. ‘This is from Cayenne, as is hkewife another
variety of {maller fize, with the front yellowifh.

Mapacascarensis. Cinereous, beneath whitifh ; lores
black ; tail-feathers reddifh. Gmel. anius Madagafca-
rienfis major, Brill. Cali-calic et Bruja, Buff. Madagajcar
hrike.

i Length fearcely five inches, and inhabits Madagafear. In
the male, the chin and throat is black ; in the female, white
mixed with rufous.

Aurantius. Tawny yellow; chin, throat, and breaft
reddith ; head, above the eyes, and nape black ; wings and
tail brown. Lath. Ind. Orn. Orange frie.

Native of Cayenne. Length feven inches.

Noorka. ‘Tail rounded; body above black, beneath
white ; crown black ; collar white. Gmel. Nootka /brikes
Lath.

Length feven inches ; bill and legs black ; above the eyes
a white line reaching to the nape, and a black one beneath
the nape; lefler wing-coverts black, greater white ; tail-
feathers black, the four outer white at the tips.’ Native of
New Zealand.

Emerita. Grey, beneath white, temples and rump red,
Gmel. Lanius Bengalenfis fufcus, Brifl. Mufcicapa emeria,
Linn. Rouge queue, Buff. Bengal red flart, Albin. Ben-
gal fhrike. b

Length five inches and a half; the bill greyifh-brown ;
crown and hind head black ; abdomen and upper tail-coverts

red ; each fide the neck four black curved f{pots, Native of
Bengal.
Jocosus. Tail rounded ; body grey ; lower eye-lid pur-

ple; vent fanguineous red. Linn. Ameen. Acad. Merula
JSinenfis criftata minor, Brill. Jocofe fhrike.

Size of a lark; length feven inches and a half, and inha-
bits China, where it is called Kowkai-kon.

Bicotor. Blue, beneath white, frontlet black. Linn.
Mant. LLoxia Madaga/carina, Syit. Nat. Pie-griefche blue de
Madagafcar. Blue fbrike.

Length fix inches and a half ; the bill, head, margin of
the quill-feathers, two middle tail-feathers, and outer mar-
gin of the four next blue, the feathers furrounding the bill,
the quill-feathers, except at the bafe, outer tail-feathers,
legs, and claws black; female beneath dirty white; tail
flightly cuneated. Native of Madagafcar.

Levcornyncos. Body above blackifh, beneath whitith ;
bill, breaft, belly, and rump white. Gmel. Laaius Manil-
lenfis, Brifl. Pie-griefche de Madagafcar, Buff. Longraien,
ibid. White-bellied fhrike. ¢

Inhabits Manilla ; length feven inches ; wings, tail, legs,
and claws black ; tail equal.

FerruGineus. Body above black-brown ; throat and
breait dirty-white ; belly ferruginous. Gmel. Serruginous

black, head, neck, vent, and lower wing-coverts yellow. (/brike, Lath.

Inhabits Barbary.

SutpHuratus. Fufcous, beneath yellow, head black-
ifh, furrounded by a whitifh band. Gmel. “Lanius Caya-
nenfis Inteus, Brill. Pie-griefthe jaune de Cayenne, Buff.
Becarde a ventre jaune, ibid. Yellow-bellied fhrike.

Native of Cayenne, sthe Igngth nine inches; chin and
‘threat white; legs grey; bill and claws blackifh; wings
and tail brown, edged with rufous.

A native of the Cape of Good Hope; fize the fame as
the cinereous fhrike; the bill lead colour; tail dufky
brown; legs black. ;

Tasuensis. Body above olive ; chin and breaft cinereous ;
belly yellewifh-brown ; tail and legs brown. Gmel. Ta-
buan fhrike. }

Length eight inches; the bill brown; crown greenifh 5
wings black on the outer edge. Firft deferibed by a

tham,

LAN

tham, from a f{pecimen in the Leverian Mufeum,
the Friendly ifles.

Paciricus. Black; head and neck approaching to
a i ; belly and tail more dufky. Gmel, Pacific /hrike,

ath.

Defcribed from an example of the fpecies in the Bankfian
collection, found in one of the iflands of the South feas.
The bill is duflky ; feathers of the head and neck very nar-
row ; tailthree inches long, dufky and even at the end ; toes
divided to the bafe, the middle one very long.

SepTENTRIONALIS. Bill black ; legs lead colour; body
above brown; chin and breaft cinereous ; belly and vent
brownifh. Gmel.. Northern /brike, Lath.

Length eight inches ; four middle tail-feathers brown, the
reft within white at the tip, and each two inches long ; legs
fhort ;>claws ftout and brown. Native of North America.

Pineatus. Head black and crefted ; body cinereous ;
throat ana breaft black ; wing-coverts barred with white ;

It inhabits

tail black at the tip. Lath. Ind. Or. Black capped
frrike-
Native of Cayenne. Lengthfixinches. Female without

ereft ; throat and breaft ciaereous.

Viripis. Head, wings, and body above dufky green,
beneath white ; tail black. Gmel. Ycha-chert, Buff. Green

rike.

Size of the laft ; the wings long ; two middle tail-feathers
dufky-green, the reft black at the outer edge; legs and
claws black.

Varius. Body above cinereous brown; chin and breaft
yellow-buff; belly, rump, and vent dirty brownifh-white ;
interfcapulars white; tail and wings brown. Gmel. White
JSbouldered fhrike, Lath. —

Delcribed by Pennant as a native of Brafil; the legs
and bill are black ; front and cheeks with paler fpots.

LeucocerHatos. White; body above greenifh-black ;
head, neck, and under parts of the body white. Lath. &c.
Tcha-chert-bé, Buff. White-headed | forike.

Length eight inches. This {pecies inhabits Madagafcar.

Dominicanus. Black; belly and rump white. Gmel.
Pie-griefche Dominicaine, Sonnerat.

Inhabits the Philippine iflands; exceeds the fparrow in
fize ; flies fwift, is bold and troublefome to crows. Is by
fome prefumed to be a variety of the preceding fpecies.

Panayensis. Bill and legs black ; head, throat, breatt,
and belly red; crown, wings, and tail brown, Gmel. Panay

rike.
£ Seven inches in length, and inhabits the ifland Panay.

Axsus. White ; bill, tail, legs, and greater part of the
wings, black. Gmel. White /brike.

Inhabits fame place as the former.

- Navius. Body above black; beneath cinereous; an
oblong fpot of white on the wing-coverts. Gmel. Spotted
rike.

Native of Cayenne; the bill and legs black ; tail-feathers
white at the tip.

Oxscurus. Body above dufky-black, beneath white ;
over each eye a white line. Gmel. Du/ky fhrike, Lath.

Suppofed to inhabit America; in fize correfponds with
L. nevius; the bill is horn-colour ; wings and tail more
dufky than the body, and the legs brown.

Fuscus. Above brown, beneath white; lores, tips of
the fecondary quill-feathers, and edges of the primary, yel-
lowifh. Gmel. Brown fhrike, Lath.

- Bill at the tip, and legs black.

Ruzer. Red; wings and tail with ocellar fpots, black
at the tips. Gmel. Red lanius, or butcher-bird of Surinam,
Bancr. Red forike.

LAN

Netive of Surinam.

Amenicanus. Black; fpot on the firft quill-feathete,
cheeks, and chin white ; breaft and belly cinereous. Gmel.

Inhabits North America.

Minor. Cinereous; chin white; breaft and belly rofy ;
front, line over the eyes, and tail black. Gmel. Pie-griefche
a’ Italie, Buff.

Native of Italy, Spain, and Ruffia, and refembles the
grey fhrike.

Mevanoceruatus. Bill, head, and chin black; body
olive above, beneath paler; tail with a broad black band,
at the tip yellow."“Gmel. Black-headed fhrike, Lath.

Length fix inches, the legs dufly ; and inhabits the South
Sea iflands.

Bracuyurus. Head above rufty grey; eye-brows
white; a black band from between the eyes to the ears ;
body above cinereous, grey, beneath yellowifh-white ; tail
rounded. Pallas. Short-tailed /hrike.

Size of the red-backed fhrike ; wings blackifh ; tail-fea-
thers ten, brown-grey, and, except the middle ones, white
at the tip. Native of Hungary.

Bovurzout. Black; breaft and belly tinged with cinere-
ous ; wings brown, with two white bands, Lath. Ind. Orn.
Boulboul fhrike.

Size of the

field-fare ;, bill and legs yellow. Inhabits
India. ‘

Puayicurus. Body above reddifh-grey, beneath yellow-
ifh-white, tail long, rounded, and with the rump bright
red; orbits croffed by a black band. Pallas.

: ge ane rocky places on the river Onon; fize of the
aft.

Doxratus. Tail rounded; body clofely varied with
black and white lines. Linn. Pied /hrike.

Native of Cayenne; the length fix inches and a half;
bill dufky, claws and legs brown; feather on the hind head
long, and when ereéted form a creit; wings and tail with
tranfverfe white fpots.

Faustus. Grey, beneath ferruginous; a white line

between the eyes; tail rounded. Linn. Amen. Acad.

Size of the field-fare ; bill and legs pale ; wings rounded ;
quill-feathers brownifh, grey at the edges, tail brown, and
all marked with light brown decuffating lines.

LANKA, in Geography, a pofition of fome importance,
referring both to the fcience and hiltory of the Hindoos.
It is the generally received opinion, that Lanka is Ceylon ;
but in a note of the Ayin Acbaree (vol. ii. p. 36, Calcutta
ed.) it is afferted, that Lanka is not Ceylon, but a place
determined by the interfeCtion of the equator and the meri-
dian of Delhi, anfwering to the fouthern extremity of the
Maldevy iflands. « Indeed,’? the note continues, “ there
are many reafons for concluding Lanka to have been part of
the Taprobane of the ancients, and that Taprobane, or
more properly Tapobon, which in Sanfcrit means the wil-
dernefs of prayer, was a very large ifland, including the
whole, or the greater part, of the Maldevy iflands, which
have fince been deftroyed by inundations. ‘This agrees very
well with Ptolemy’s defcription, and his ifland of monkies
feems to relate to thofe of the Ramayana.’ See Rama-
yANA and TAPROBANA.

On this note it is obferved, in the Hindoo Pantheon,
p- 328, whence this article is chiefly taken, that therein is
an avowed obf{curity, and an exifting error fomewhere ; for

that many arguments, if not proofs, may be adduced in

fupport of the identity of Lanka and Ceylon, and perhaps
Taprobane. Lanka was the theatre of Rama’s exploits
againit its tyrannical king Ravana, whofe name is indifferently
pronounced Ravan, Raban, Rabon, &c. nor can there “a

much

LAN

much doubt of the iflang that we now call Ceylon haying
formed a part, at any rate, of that theatre, which mignt in
former times have been of greater extent than that ifland is
at prefent.

it is faid, that in Sanfcrit books Ceylon is called Tapa
Rawan ; ‘Tapa or Tapu, in that language, meaning an ifland,
and it may be indifferently pronounced 'Taporaban, or in-
deed, in common difcourfe, 'T'aproban, or Taprobane. Much
{trefs is not perhaps to be laid on conjectural etymology,
but it may be obferved, that many names of places and
things on Ceylon,and in its neighbourhood, correfpond with
‘the nomenclature of the Ramayan. In the fifth volume of
the Afiatic Refearches is an interefting account by the Hon.
Mr. Duncan, of that extraordinary traveller Purana-Purj
who notices on Ceylon a Jake called the “ tank of Ravan or
Raban (the 4 and wv being pronounced indifferently in various
parts of India), from whom this tapu, or ifland, may proba-
bly have received its ancient appellation of Taprobane (7. e.
theifle of Raban): here alfo is a place called Sita Koond,
or the pool of Sita, where Rama ts related to have left his
wife Sita, on the occafion of the war with the ravifher Ra-
van." (See Siva.) In the poetical hyperbole of the Hin-
doos, the tears fhed by Sita, in her lamentation for her lord’s
abfence and her own captivity, are faid to form this koon-
da, or pool, {till called by her name.

Between Ceylon and the continent is a feries of rocks,
fome of which appear above water, admitting a paflage only
in fine weather to veffels of {mall burden. This in our maps
is called Adam’s bridge, the Romifh miffionaries having
placed the garden of Eden in Ceylon, and fancied this
bridge his only mode of exit. In Hindoo writings this is
called Rama’s bridge, and in the Hindoo Pantheon a plate is
given of the building of it by-Rama’s monkey-general Ha-
numan, and his Simian affociates. The confpicuous part
aGied by thofe animals, in the wars of the Ramayan, re-
minds us ftrongly of Ptolemy's ifland of monkies, and
offers another mark of identity. On the continent of India,
Ceylon is to this day popularly believed to be inhabited prin-
cipally by monkies, lions, and monfters; one of its names,
Singala dwipa, whence Seilan diva, Selendeb, Ceylon, &c.
means the country of lions. See CEyLon.

In Hamilton’s account of the Eaft Indies (vol. i. p. 142.)
a map of the peninfula has one of the Maldevy iflands marked
Hunnamandow, evidently the fame with Hanuman devy,
as it would be more correétly pronounced, meaning the
ifland of Hanuman; and this name occurring confpicuoufly
on thofe iflands gives room for imagining a conneétion be-
tween them and the hiftory of Rama, Ravana, Lanka, &c.
that would be farther developed if we had more knowledge
of the iflands in queftion ; a knowledge that might be abun-
dantly obtained by a permitted admiffion to the records at the
India Houfe. Hamilton calls the fouthern extremity of the pe-
ninfula Ram’s point; this, in our more modern maps, is named
Cape Comorin, and it has derived this name, which is cited
by Ptolemy, from a celebrated temple of the goddefs Ifa,
or Devi, in her chara€ter of Kumari, or the Virgin. Thefe
are names of Parvati, which fee. Rami is another of her
names, and the temple, which is generally imagined to be in
‘honour of Rama, the avatara or incarnation of Vifhnu, may
perhaps originally have been dedicated to Rami, whatever
rites may now obtain there: a point that we are uninformed
on; and fhall offer no more thereon in this place than the re-
mark that the rites of the virgin goddefs Kumari, (whofe
magnificent temple under the name-of Ramifwara, or Rami-
feram, at the fouthern extremity of the promontory of India,
4s ftill a much venerated fhrine, and of great refort by pil-
grims,) have a ftriking analogy with thofe}of the Taurican

LAN

Diana, a virgin goddefs alfo, whofe temple fimilarly occu-
pied the fouthern proméntory of the Taurican Cherfonefus,
See Rami and Ramiswara,

‘Trice firlt meridian of the Hindoo aftronomers pafled
through Djayini (Qojein, which fee) and Lanka; the latter
cannot therefore be Ceylon if confined to its prefent extent,
for Oojein lies in about 76°, and the wefternmoft part of
Ceylon in 80° eaft of Greenwich. This difficulty feems re-
concileable only by allowing what is afferted in India, that
Ceylon was formerly of greater extent than at prefent, and
it is faid, that appearances between that ifland and the Mal-
devys, or Maldivas, as well as between it and the continent,
juitify the belief of their having once joined. See Af. Ref.
vol. ili. p. 44, alfo Cryzon and Maxopives in this work.

LANKAYT, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft of Ce.
lebes. S. lat. 4 E. long. 119° 12!.

LANKE’, a lake of Thibet, about 45 miles in circum-
ference ; 40 miles N. of Darmadijira.

LANMEDR, a town of France , in the department of
Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in the diitri& of
Morlaix ; 6 miles N.E. of Morlaix. The place contains
2389, and the canton 13,170 inhabitants, on a territory of
1824 kiliometres, in 8 communes. \

LANNARIUS, in Ornithology, the name of a bird of
the long-winged hawk kind; the falco lannarius of Linneus,
called in Englifh the /anner, and the male /annaret: See
Fatco /anarius.

LANNAS, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
province of Angermannland; 35 miles N.W. of Herno-
fand.

LANNIERS, or Lanrarps, in a Ship, are {mall ropes
reeved into the dead-men’s-eyes of all the shrouds and chains.
Their ufe is to flacken or fet taught the fhrouds. The ftays
alfo ef all matts are fet taught by lanniers. That rope,
which faftens tlie flopper of the halliards to them, is called
alfo a lanmier: and the term is generally applied to any
fhort piece’ of cord or line, faftened to feveral machines
in a fhip, and ferving to fecure them in a particular place,
or to manage them more conveniently; fuch are the la-
niards of the gun-ports, the laniard of the buoy, of the
cat-hook, &c.

LANNION, in Geography, a town of France, and chief
place of a diltriét, in the department of the Northern Coafts.
‘The place contains 3132, and the canton 14,988 inhabitants,
on a territory of 105-kiliometres, in g communes. N. lat.
48° 44!. W. long. 3° 22’.

LANNOY, a town of France, in the department of the
North, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Lille ;
6 miles E.N.E. of Lille. The place contains 923, and the
canton 13,033 inhabitants, ona territory of 974 kiliometres,
in 16 communes.

LANNSTROFF, a town of France, in the department
of the Mofelle, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét of
Thionville. The place contains 338, and the canton 13,615
inhabitants, on a territory of 3074 kiliometres, in 44 com-
munes.

LANO, a lake of the ifland Mindanao, from 15 to 20
miles broad, and about 60 miles round. See Minpanao.

LANOUAILLE, a town of France, in the department
of the Dordogne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Nontron. The place contains 458, and the canton 9581
inhabitants,, on a territory of 235 kiliometres, in 10 com-
munes.

LANPENCKEN, a town of Proffia, in the palatinate
of Culm; 14 miles N. of Strafburg.

LANSARD, a town of Perfia, in the province of Ma-

: zanderan,

2 aeet
.

L, A_N

zanderan, on the coaft of the Cafpian fea; ro miles W. of
Fehrabad. }

LANSINBURG, New Ciry, a town of America,
in the townfhip of Troy, county of Reuffalaer, New
York, pleafantly fitnated on the E. bank of Hudfon’s river,
oppolite to one of the mouths of the Mohawk 3 containing
about 250 houfes, a brick church for the joint ufe of the
Dutch and Prefbyteriansy a court-houfe, gaol, and an aca-
demy, incorporated in 1796. The library of this town was
incorporated in 17753; g.miles N. of Albany. N. lat. 42°
46. W. long 73° 34!.

LANS-LE-BOURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Blanc, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri& of St. Jean-de-Maurienne. The place contains 874,
and the canton 4675 inhabitants, on a territory of 7424 kilio-
metres, in 7 communes.

LANSMANS, a town of Norway; 116 miles N. of
B

ergen.
LANSPESSADE, in Military Affairs. See AnspEs-
SADE.

LANSQUENET is the name of a game at cards.

LANTA, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri@ of Villefranche ; g miles E. of Touloufe. The
place contains 1455, and the canton 5669 inhabitants, ona
territory of 1174 kiliometres, in 16 communes.

LANTAB-LEPTEN, a {mail ifland cn the coaft of
China, near the harbour of Macao.

LANTANA, in Botany, fuppofed to be derived from
kentus, flexible, was in that fenfe originally applied to the
Pliant Mealy Tree, Viburnum Lantana. It is now ufed
generically for a fet of plants, rather agreeing with that in
general afpect, than in this peculiar quality.—Linn. Gen.
316. Schreb. 413. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 315. Mart. Mill.
Dit. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 350. © Juff. 10g.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 540. Gertn.t. 56. (Camara; Plum.
Gen, 31. t. 2.)—Clafs and order, Didynamia Angiofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn. Vitices, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fhort,.
cohering, tubular, with four flight teeth. €or. of one petal,
nearly regular; tube cylindrical, flefder, longer than the
calyx, fomewhat oblique ; limb flat, unequally and bluntly
four-cleft. Stam. Filaments four, extremely minute, fituated
in the middle of the tube, flender, two of them a little above
the reft; anthers roundifh. Pi/f?. Germen fuperior, round-
ith ; ftyle thread-fhaped, fhort ; ftigma bent backward like
a hook, pointed downwards, and attached obliquely, as it
were, to the top of the ftyle. Peric. Drupa roundifh, of
oneceli. Seed. Nut roundith, fomewhat pyramidal, of three
cells, the lowermoft of which is barren; kernels folitary,
oblong.

Obf. Linnzus obferves that the effential character con-
fits in the figure of the fligma. His L. Africana is now
feparated from the reft; and called Spielmannia. In the
genuine Lantane there is-a many-leaved involucrum, accord-
ing to Linnzus, (rather to be termed a number of braéteas, )
and the common receptacle of the fructification is oblong,
bearing many crowded feffile flowers, moftly very unequal.

Eff. Ch. Calyx obfcurely four-toothed. Limb of the
corolla unequally four-cleft, flat, with an open mouth.
Stigma bent back like ahook. Drupa with a {mooth nut
of two cells.

The fpecies in Willdenow are 15, but profeffor Martyn
reckons up 19. Some uncertainty attends a few, even of
thofe defiaed by Linnzus, at leait he fufpeGted his ¢rifolia
might not be diftinét from annua, but in this he feems to
have been miftaken, Medicus, indeed, who took fome pains

LAWN

with this genus, appears to have deferibed annua for trifclia,
which Reichard correéted. ‘The L Salvifolia of Linnzus is
properly referred in Hort. Kew. to Buddiea.

Good examples of the genus are,

L. aculeata. Prickly-ftalked Lantana.—Linn. Sp. Pl.
$74. Curt. Mag. t. 96.—Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-
fhaped, downy underneath. Stem prickly. Bra¢teas lan-
ceolate, with a broad bafe.—Native of the Weit Indies,
where it is vulgularly called Wild Sage. It is one of the
moit commonly cultivated in our itoves, being readily pro-
pagated by cuttings, and flowering almott all the year. The
fem is fhrubby, more or lefs rough, with projecting prickles.
Leaves ttalked, ferrated, pointed, rouchifh, about two inches
long. Flowers bright yellow at firit, then orange, nume-
rous, in flattened heads, on fimple, folitary, axillary ftalks.

L. Camara. Various-coloured Lantana.—Linn. Sp. Pl.
874. (Camara meliff-folio, flore variabili; Dill. Elth. 65.
t. 56. f. 65.)—Leaves ovate, rough on both fides. Stem
unarmed. Braéteas ovate, {mall, downy.—Native of South
America ; an old inhabitant of our ftoves. The flowers arc
changeable in colour, being, at firft opening, yellow, then
orange, finally {carlet ; which becomes duil or brownith as
they fade, not purple, as in fome other fpecies.— Several of
this genus are defcribed under the Brafilian name of Camara,
in Pifo and Maregrave. The word is now adopted by the
Portuguefe, as it feems, in a medical fenfe, fuggefted by the
colour of the flowers, for the dyfentery.

L.anaua. Annual Lantana.—Linn. Sp. Pl. 874. Curt.
Mag. t. 1022.—-Leaves ovate, downy beneath. Stem un-
armed, hairy. Spikes oblong. Bra¢teas ovate, pointed.—
Native of the Wet India iflands, as well as of the Spanith
Main; rarely preferved long in our ftoves, to which it has
from time to time been introduced, becaufe the feeds do not
ripen well here, and the plant, though fhrubby in habit, is
properly aunual. The /eaves are broad, almoft heart-fhaped.
Flowers in oblong, ftalked, axillary fpikes, very beautiful.
When cultivated in an airy light ftove, being bright reddifh-
purple, or pink, with a white ring and yellow eye.

L. wifolia of Linnzus differs from the laft very widely in
appearance, and has the aves growing three or four toge-
ther, ovate, much more finely crenate ; the heads of flowers
rounder; éraéeas larger, and more obtufe.—Plumier’s
Icones, t. 70, quoted for this, is not at all like the Linnzan
{pecimen, but appears to be merely a three-leaved variety of
the annua.

L. nivea. Venten. Malmaif. t. 8, appears to us a white-
flowered variety of L. aculeata ;. at leait we can difcover no
fpecific diftinGtion, unlefs the flower-{talks, growing in pairs
at each leaf, fhould prove to be fuch. This is a native of the
Weft Indies, and was fent to the garden of Malmaifon by
Meflrs. Lee and Kennedy. The leaves are of a full bright
green ; flowers {now-white,. copious about the ends of the
branches.

Jacquin has a few new or doubtful fpecies-in his Hortus:
Schoenbrunenfis ; amongft others

L. lavandulacea, t. 361.. Willd. n. 11.. White f{mall-
flowered Lantana:—Leaves elliptic-lanceolate, ferrated,.
downy beneath.. Stem roundifh. Heads of fiowers cylin-
drical,. fhorter than the leaves. Bra¢teas nearly orbicular..
—Willdenow, who firft defcribed this, and Jacquin, had it
in their gardens, without knowing whenceit came. We have
a native {pecimen, gathered by Dombey, in moift fituations
at Lima, It is /brubby, with round, flender, roughifh
branches. Leaves oppotite, ftalked, an inch long or more,
rugofe ; rough above ; downy, with numerous, branching,
prominent ribs and veins beneath; the margin fharply fer-
rated. F/ower-/alks axillary, various in length, but —

much.

LAN

much fhorter than the leaves. Spikes oblong, with broad,
youndith, pointed dradeas; the flowers white, unequally
five-lobed, turning reddifh-brown in decay. The dried
Jeaves are aromatic, with fomewhat of the flavour of fage.
—This fpecies is properly placed next to L. odorata.

Lantana, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
fhrubby, exotic, green-houfe, and ftove kinds, of which the
{pecies cultivated are the various-flowered Jantana, L, mitta ;
the various-coloured lantana, L. camara ; the round-leaved
lantana, L. involucrata; baum-leaved lantana, L. meliffe-
folia ; the prickly lantana, L. aculeata; the golden-flowered
lantana, L. aurea.

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are capable of being
raifed by feeds and cuttings of the young branches.

With regard to the feeds, they fhould be fown in pots of
light mould in the early fpring, plunging them in a bark
hot-bed. When the plants have attained fome inches growth,
they fhould be removed into feparate pots of a {mall fize,
and be replunged in the bark-bed, due fhade and air being
given. The plants fhould afterwards, when they have ac-
quired ftrength, be removed into an airy glafs-cafe, or dry
ttove, where they may have a large fhare of air in warm
weather, but be protected from the cold. This is neceflary
for the young plants, which fhould not the firft year be ex-
pofed to the open air, but afterwards they may be placed
abroad in the warmeft part of the fummer, and in winter
be placed upon ftands in the dry ftove, where they will con-
tinue long in flower, and many of the forts ripen their feeds.
In winter they fhould be {paringly watered, as much moifture
xots their roots.

And the cuttings fhould be planted in pots in the fpring
and fummer months, as in May and July, and be plunged in
a moderate hot-bed, due fhade being given. They foon take
root, and fhould afterwards be removed into feparate pots

filled with light earth, and managed in the fame manner as
thofe raifed from feed.

Thefe plants afford ornament and variety among collec-
ions of ftove and green-houfe plants.

LANTARGUR, in Geography, a town of Lamjungh ;
42 miles N. of Gorkah. N. lat. 29° 5’. E. long. 84° 18’.

LANTCHANG. See Lansan.

LANTER-LOO, or Loo, is the name of a common
-game at cards.

LANTERN, or Lantuorn, a cover for a luminary,
_made of fome tranfparent matter ; ferving to tranfmit the
light, and, at the fame time, to fkreen it from the wind and
rain.

The word is derived from the French Janterne; and
that from the Latin Jaterna, of lateo, Iam hidden; eo quod
gucem habet interius claufam, becaufe the light is hidden
within, fay Ifidore and Lambin. But according to Pezron,
laterna comes from the Celtic Jatern, and according to Sal-
matfius /antern comes from lato, of fere, becaufe it bears a
lamp or a light.

Epictetus’s lantern is faid to. have been fold for three
thoufand drachmas; that of Diogencs was held in great ve-
neration among. the ancients; and that of Judas is itill pre-
ferved in the treafury of St. Denys, asa very curious piece
of antiquity.

Lanterns are made of -glafs, horn, paper, &c. Formerly
they were made of the horn of a wild bull, called urus ;
which, when cut into thin lamine, Pliny tells us, was very
tranfparent. Thofe of horn were firit introduced into Eng-
land by king Alfred, about the year 887, in order to pre-
ferve his candle time-meafurers from the wind. See Lens.
And Hitt. Com. vol. i. p. 45.

Layrern, Darf, is.a lantern with only one opening or

LAN

light, which, too, may be clofed up when the light is to be
entirely hid: and may be prefented to the perfon one would
fee without being perceived one’s felf.

The ancients had their dark lanterns, but they differed
from our's: they were covered with four flins, one on each
fide, or light, three of which were black, and only the
fourth tran{parent. Cafaubon, who gives us the defcription,
took it from a manufcript of Julius Frontinus. Thefe
were principally ufed in their armies, when they were to
march privately off from their enemies in the night-time.

Lanterns are ufed at fieges in the night-time, upon the
batteries ; but thefe muft be blind or dark lanterns. There
is always great provifion of them in all {tore-houfes.

Lanrerns for fhips are made of tin and glafs, to light
thofe parts of a fhip where naked candles would be danger-
ous, fuch as for lighting the magazine and {tore rooms. Thofe
ufed at the ftern are called poop-lanterns, and thofe aloft top-
lanterns. yi

Lanterns, Feaf? of, in China, is a celebrated feaft held
on the fifteenth day of the firft month; and is fo called
from the great number of lanterns hung out of the houfes
and in the ftreets ; infomuch that it rather appears a fit of
madnefs than of feafting. On this day are expofed lanterns
of all prices, fome of which are faid to coft two thoufand
crowns. Some of their grandees retrench fomewhat every
day out of their table, out of their drefs, equipage, &c.
to appear the more magnificent in lanterns. They are
adorned with gilding, fculpture, painting, japanning, &c.
and as to their fize, itis extravagant ; fome are from twenty-
five to thirty feet diameter; they reprefent halls and
chambers, andtwo or three fuch machines together would
make handfome houfesy fo that in China they are able to
eat, lodge, receive vifits, have balls, and att plays, in a
lantern. .

Toillumine them, they fhould have bonfires; but as that
would be inconvenient, they content themfelves with lighting
up in them a great number of torches or lamps, which at a
diftance have a beautiful effe@. In thefe they exhibit various
kinds of fhows to divert the people.

Befides thefe enormous lanterns, there is a multitude of
other {maller: thefe ufually confift of fix faces or lights,
each about four feet high and one and a half broad, framed
in woed finely gilt and adorned; over thefe they ftretch
a fine tranfparent filk, curioufly painted with flowers, trees,
and fometimes human figures: the painting ts very extra-
ordinary; and the cclours extremely bright; and when
their torches are lighted, they appear highly beautiful and
furprizing.

Lanvern, or Lanthorn, in Archite@ure, a turret raifed
above the roof with windows round the fides, in order to
light the apartment below. Lanterns are much more con-
venient than fkylights ; as the furface of the glafs ftands ver-
tical, they are not fo liable to be broken, nor fo fubje& to
the rattling noife of heavy rains and hail.

Lanvern is alfo ufed for a fquare cage of timber, with
glafs in it, placed over the ridge of a corridor, or a gallery
between two rows of fhops to illuminate them.

Lantern, Magic, in Optics, the name of a machine, -
which, in the dark, reprefents various images and fpeétres on
a wall, or other white furface, fo odd and furprizing, that
thofe who are not in the fecret think them the effe&t of
magic. See Magic.

Lanrern-Fifh, in Ichthyology, the Englifh name of a fith
of the foal-kind, but {maller and fmoother to the touch, called
in Latin amogloffus.

Lanrern-Fily, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a very
fingular kind of infe€&t produced in the Welt Indies, and

+14 carrying

LAN

carrying a flrong light withit inthe night. The ftruéture
of the trunk in this infe& is of the fame kind with that of
the cicada; and it wants the power of making the noile for
which the cicada is fo famous ; it belongs, according to M.
Reaumur’s diltinGtions, to that fpecies of infect called the
procigale, or procicada.

The glow-worm and the luminous beetles, with all the
other luminous infeéts we are acquainted with in this part of
the world, diffufe their light from a part which is near the
extremity of the body, and under the belly, but the lantern-
fly gives itfromitshead. It differs alfo greatly in the degree

of light ; for this, in all the infeéts we are acquainted with, p'

is very feeble ; whereas in this fly it is fo ftrong, that Mrs.
Merian, who is the firft that well defcribed it, fays fhe could
read a {mall print in a dark night by the light that one of
them gave. The head of this creature, ftri€tly fpeaking, is
very fhort, not exceeding the length of one of the rings of

* the body, if it be meafured from its joining with the corce-
let to its joining with the lantern, but if that part be ac-
counted a portion of the head, then the head is equal in
length to the whole body. This lantern is wider than it is
deep, or thick, and has near its origin a large protuberance,
which gives ita bunched or humped look. There are feveral
tubercles and lines on it, of a reddifh colour. The ground
colour is an olive brown, and underneath it has one large rib
running all the way along it, from end to end, and di-
viding it into two, and by the fides of that there are fome
others. Thefe are all reddifh, and thofe neareft the edges
have {mall rows of {pines running along them. Over each
of the eyes there is around granulated prominence, which
feems to have been a colleétion of fmaller eyes: and if fo,
the animal is fupplied with the organs of vifion in a different
manner from all other known creatures. But there requires
an examination of the creature on the fpot, and while alive,
in order to find out this. The upper pair of wings are not
perfe@tly tranfparent, they are dotted with white in fome
places, and are variegated near their origin with feveral
blackifh fpots, The under pair are more tranfparent than
the upper ; they are much fhorter, and are broader than the
others ; thefe haveeacha large and beautiful round {pot near
the extremity, refembling that on the wing of the peacock-
butterfly. The colours of the circles of thefe eyes are
brown and olive ; the laft colour very bright and clear, the
other very dufky andobfcure. The fpots are fo large, that
they appear very beautiful. Reaumur’s Hilt. Inf. vol. ix.
P. 247.

ANTERNISTS, a name affumed by the academicians

of Thouloufe.

LANTHONY, in Geography, a hamlet in the parifh of
Cwmyoy, and hundred of Abergavenny, county of Mon-
mouth, England, is noted for the fine and picturefque ruins of
its abbey-church. Thefe are feated in a narrow, deep valley,
called « The Vale of Euras.””? The furrounding hills, called
Hatteral, are lofty and grand, and from their iteep acclivi-
ties are almoft impaffable for travellers. In a fequeftered
dale among thefe hills or mountains, Hugh Lacy founded a
priory of canons-regular of the order of St. Auguftine,
about the year 1108. A very particular hiftory and
defcription of this abbey, and the furrounding country,
with feveral prints, are to be found in Coxe’s “ Hiftorical
Tour in Monmouthhhire,”’ gto. 1801.
ape ae NANO, a town of Etruria; 13 miles S. of

ifa.

LANTO, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, between the ifland
of Aland and the coaft of Finland, N, lat. 60° 25’. E.
long. 20° 36’.

VoL. XX.

LAN

LANTOOR, or Banpa,-the chief ifland among thofe
called Banda iflands in the Eaft Indian fea. See Banna.

LAN-TSAN, a river of Afia, which rifes in the N. part
of the Chinefe province of Yun-nan, on the borders of Thi-
bet, traverfes the province from N. to S., changing its
name to Kou-long ; enters the kingdom of Laos, affuming
the name of Mecon, and afterwards difcharges itfelf into
the Eatt Indian fea.

LANUGINOUS. See Lanicerous.

LANUGO, in Botany, down ; that foft, hairy woolly
covering, which grows on leaves, ftalks, or fruits, of divers
lants. ;

Such is that found on the leaves of the rofe-campion, and
on the fruit of the peach-tree.

LANVOLLON, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of the North Coafts, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri& of St. Brieuc; 11 miles N.W. of St.
Brieuc. The place contains 1123, and the canton 15,296
inhabitants, on a territory of 1474 kiliometres, in 12 com-
munes.

LANUVIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Latium,
in Italy, S.E. of Rome, and S.E. of Alba, fituated on the
brow of a mountain near the Appian way. Milo, who killed
Clodius, was born in this town. Here was a temple of
Juno, worfhipped under the three names of Sofpita, Moneta,
and Regina.

LANYARDS, or Lantarps, on Ship-board. See
Lanniers.

LANZA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Navarre ;
§ miles N. of Pamplona.

LANZETTI, in Biography, an eminent performer on
the violoncello, during the early part of the laft century.
He was in England about the year 1740; but returned to
Bologna, the place of his nativity, where he ended his
days.

LANZO, in Geography, a town of :France, in the de-
partment of the Po, on the Stura; 11 miles N.W. of
Turin.

LANZONI, Joseru, in Biography, a phyfician, was
born at Ferrara on the 26th of October 1663. From his
early childhood he exhibited a ftrong inclination for litera~
ture, which his parents indulged, by obtaining for him the
beft mafters. He diftinguifhed himfelf particularly in the
f{chools of philofophy and of medicine, and graduated in
both thefe fciences in the year 1683. In the following year,
at the age of 21, he was appointed ordinary profeffor, and
difplayed talents which did honour to the univerfity of Fer-
rara, during the long period in which he filled that office.
He died in February 1730, at the age of 66.

Lanzoni acquired a high reputation by the fuccefs of his
practice, and obtained the confidence and efteem of many
iluitrious perfonages. His attachment to itudy increafed
with his years; and every moment, in which he was not em-
ployed in the duties of his profeflion, was devoted to litera-
ture, philofophy, or antiquarian refearch. His character
as a phyfician and philofopher, indeed, ranked fo high, that
if any queftion upon thefe fubjeéts was agitated in Italy,
the decifion was commonly referred to him. He was diftin-
guifhed likewife by his genius in Latin and Italian poetry s
and he was the reftorer and fecretary of the academy of
Ferrara, and a member of many of the learned focieties of
his time. He left a confiderable number of works; both
publifhed and in manufcript, in the execution of which he
has been reproached with careleffnefs and incorrectnefs. It
will be fufficient to-ftate, that a colleGtion of his works, as
well of thofe publifhed by himfelf as of his manufcripts, was

Pp printed

LAO

printed at Laufanne, in 1738, in 3 vols. 4to., with an_ac-
count of his life, under the title of Jofephi Lanzoni, Phi-
lofophie et Medicine Do@toris, in Patria Univerfitate
Leétoris primarii, &c. Opera omnia Medico-phylica et
Philologiea.”” Eloy. Dig. Hitt.

LAO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 25
miles W. of Havanna.

LAOCOON, in the Hiflory of the Arts, is a celebrated
monument of Greek feulpture, executed in marble by Poly-
dorus, Athenodorus, and Agefander, the three famous
artifts of Rhodes. This remain of antiquity was found at
Rome, in the ruins of the palace of ‘Titus, in the beginning
of the fixteenth century, under the pontificate of Julius II.,
and fince depofited in the Farnefe palace. Laocoon, the
prieft of Apollo and Neptune, is here reprefented with his
two fons, with two hideous ferpents clinging round his body,
gnawing it, and injeting their poifon. Virgil has given us
the following defcription of the fact :

«¢ Serpens amplexus uterque
Implicat & miferos morfu depafcitur artus :
€orripiunt, fpirifque ligant ingentibus, & jam
Bis medium amplexit, bis collo {quamea circum
Terga dati, fuperant capite, & cervicibus altis.””

This ftatue exhibits the moft aftonifhing dignity and tran-
quillity of mind, in the midft of the moit excruciating tor-
ments. Pliny fays of it, that it is ‘¢ opus omnibus, picture
& flatuariz artis, preferendum ” Lib. xxxvi. ¢. 5.

LAODICEA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ada, in
Caria, called “ Laodicea ad Lycum,’’ not that it was near
this river, which paffed to the weft of it, and received, to
the north of Laodicea, the river Caprus, which traverfed the
town, and the Afopus, which was ealt of it. A litle to the
fouth of Laodicea was Hierapolis. This town was more
anciently called Dio/polis, and afterwards Rheas. It was
re-eftablifhed by Antiochus, who gave it the name of his
wife ; and it became one of the moit confiderable and rich
towns of Afia Minor.

Laonicea Cabiofa, a town of Atia, in Syria, fituated
eaftward neat mountains, weft of Emefa and the river Oron-
tes. It was favoured by the emperor Severus, on account
of its attachment to the interefts of the empire. By way of
diftin@tion, it was called “ Laodicea ad Libanum.”

Laopicea ad Mare, Latikea, a maritime town of Syria,
fituated on an eminence, near the fea-coaft. Strabo fays,
that its environs furnifhed abundance of wine. In its pre-
fent ruins may be feen columns of porphyry and granite, an
aqueduét, and a triumphal arch, fupported by columns of
the Corinthian order. About a ftadium weft of this town
are the ruins of a fine port, artificially conftruéted in the
form of an amphitheatre, and capable of containing a con-
fiderable fleet.

Laopicea Combufla, atown of Afia, in Lycaonia, eaft
of Philomelium; fuppofed to have derived its name from
traces of ancient volcanos.

Laopicra, a town of Afia, on the confines of Media and

Perfia Propria.—Alfo, a town of Mefopotamia, according
to Pliny; being one of the fix towns built by Seleucus under
this name.—Alfo, a town of the Peloponnefus, in the Me-
gapolitide, according to Polybius and Thucydides; the
fame with the Ladoncea of Paufanias.

LAO-KUN-TIM, in Geography, a town of Chinefe Tar-
tary ; 50 miles S.W. of Ning-yuen-tcheou.

LAON, a town of France, and chief place of a diftriét,
in the department of the Aifne; and before the revolution,
the eapital ef a fmall country called Laonnois, and the fee

(Geog. vol. ii.) has given the moft recent account.

LAO

of abifhop, who was a duke, and the fecond peer of France-
The place contains 6691, and the canton 14.958 inhabitants,
on a territory of 215 kiliometres, in 27 communes, N, lat.
49° 34!. E. long. 3° 42'.

LAOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in Lu-
cania, welt of Brutium, and near it. It was fituated on a
{mall gulf, diftant 400 ftadia from the town of Hyole. It
was founded by a colony of Sybarites.

Laos, in Geography, a country of Afia, bounded on the
north by the Chinefe province of Yun-nan, on the eaft by
Tonquin, on the fouth by Cambodia, and on the welt by
Siam and Ava. Kempfer reprefents it as a powerful ftate,
furrounded by forefts and deferts, and of difficult accefs by
water, becaufe the river is full of rocks and cataraéts. The
foil is reprefented as fertile in rice, and the merchants of
Cambodia were furnifhed from hence with the beft benjoin
and lacca. LExquifite mufk is alfo obtained from Laos,
with fome gold and rubies ; and the rivers fupply the frefh
water mya, which yields pearls. The religion and manners:
of the people refemble thofe of Siam; but in perfonal ap-
pearance they are like the fouthern Chinefe. In Kempfer’s
time, the chief towns were Landjan, or, Lantchang, and
Tfiamaja, whence the people take the name of Landjanefe,
to which, in modern maps, is added Sandepora. Duhalde
has given fome account of this country, the capital of which
is denominated Mohang-Lang by the Chinefe. (See Mo-
waNnG-Lana.) Laos, in his time, was tributary to Ava;
but its chief trade was with the Chinefe. It is faid to have
mines of gold, filver, and copper; near the capital is one
mine of rubies; and its emeralds are of large fize. ‘The ar-
ticles exported are tin and fulphur, (perhaps cinnabar or
realgar,) cotton, tea, and fapan or Brafil wood. ‘The chief
river is denominated Meinam Kong, which paffes through
Cambodia ; and its different branches bear different appel-
lations. This grand ftream, in Mr. Dalrymple’s map of
exterior India, is called the Kion-Long, or Maykaung-
Mr. Arrowfmith derives it from the Tibetian Alps, where
it is called the Satchou, and by D’Anville the Lantfan-
kiang. Of this country Turpin, cited by Pinkerton,
The
name Laos, he fays, denotes 1000 elephants, with which
animals the country abounds. ‘The climate is fo temperate,
and the air fo pure, that men are faid to retain their health
and vigour, in fome inftances, to the age of roo years.
The flat part of the country refembles Siam, but the foil
on the eaft bank of the river is more fertile than that on ‘the
welt. ‘he rice is preferred to that of other oriental coun-
tries. The ivory is beautiful, but the horn of the rhino-
ceros is particularly efteemed from a fuperititious notion,
that the poffeffor, who keeps it, infures his felicity. The
fields, abounding with flowers, afford food for numerous:
{warms of bees, which fupply excellent wax and honey. In
the mountains are found rich mines of tin, iron, and lead ;
but gold and filver are explored in the fands of the rivers.
Mufk, fays this author, is not a produét of the country.
Before the irruption of the Tartars, the Chinefe carried om
a confiderable commerce with Laos; exchanging their vel-
vets, filks, cottons, and porcelain, for ivory, opium, and
medicinal plants. In the province of Laos, whence the
kingdom derives its name, is a deep mine, which furnifhes
rubies and beautiful emeralds, one of which, in the royak
treafury, is faid to be as large as a common orange. The
inhabitants of this kingdom are celebrated for their honelty
and fidelity ; and fo anxious are they to maintain their re-
putation in this refpeét, that if a traveller be robbed, the
neareft town or village is obliged to indemnify him. At the

i fame

LAP

» #ame time, they are indolent and luxurious, and addicted to
the ftudy and practice of magic. The army of Laos is etti-
mated by Turpin at 500,000 combatants; but he adds a
eircumftance which fomewhat affeéts his credibility, that a
numerous army might be raifed of men who have lived a
century. The people of this country are not very diftin-
guifhed for their fobriety and temperance, as they eat daily
four repafts of rice, fifth, and the flefh of the buffalo; the
buffalo and venifon being common in their markets. Mar-
riages are eafily contracted, and no lefs eafily diflolyed; and
the rich entertain many concubines. A funeral refembles a
feftival; and a fum of money is depofited in the tomb, which
is circulated, after a certain period, by the priefts. The
commerce of this country was chiefly carried on in former
times with Siam; but after the irruption of the Birmas, it
paffed to Pegu; ata later period, the trade of Laos has
been transferred to Cambodia. The inhabitants of Laos
boatt that the Siamefe borrowed the art of writing on palm-
tree leaves from them. The tongue and characters are the
fame; but it is faid, that the Laofian cannot pronounce the
letters L and R.

The ancient worfhip of thefe people is faid to have been
direéted to one God, the creator of all, who was only to be
pleafed by the exercife of virtue, and not by facrifices, cere-
monies, and the obfervance of certain days. But the pu-
rity of their faith has been corrupted by their intercourfe
with the Chinefe. They believe in regular renovations of
the univerfe ; and that our earth has attained the age of
18,000 years. Polygamy is one of the promifed joys of

aradife, and the women are affured, that if they lead a vir-
tuous life, they fhall be changed into men. The priefts take
comfort, under the privations of celibacy, from a perfuafion
which they indulge, that in another world they fhall be able,
by the privilege of their order, to create females at their
pleafure. Some of their ceremonies, like thofe of Thibet,
teem to have been derived from the Neftorian Chriftians. To
the rich they fell difpenfations and pardons ; while the poor
alone are condemned to perpetual mifery.

The king of Laos is faid to be an abfolute, independent
prince, and to acknowledge no fuperior, either in temporal
or fpiritual concerns. In himis vefted the whole property
of lands, and he difpofes at pleafure the effeéts of his fub-
jects ; nor can any family in the kingdom inherit or poflefs
any thing left them by will.

LAOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in Bengal; 40 miles
N.W. of Silhet. N. lat. 25°7!. E. long. gr° 20/.

LAPA, one of the _Sooloo iflands. N. lat. 5° 25'.
E, long. 120° 42'—Alfo, a town of Circaflia, on the Cu-
ban. N. lat. 44° 50’. E. long. 58° 34!.

LAPACTICS, from rxnrafw, J evacuate, a term ufed by
the old writers in medicine to exprefs {uch things as purged
by ftool, or at leaft gently loofened the belly. It was fome-
times applied to the cathartic medicines, and fometimes to
thofe-foods which were of this tendency.

LA PALISSE, in Geography. See La Pauisse.

LAPAROCELE, (from /apara, the flanks, and xnrn,
@ tumour,) a term, in Surgery, denoting a fwelling, or
hernia, at the fide of the belly.

LAPARY, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
Allahabad ; 7 miles N. of Jionpour.

LAPATA, a chain of mountains in Africa, called the
*¢ Backbone of the World,” extending from N. to S. about
600 miles. S. lat. 12° 30'to 20°. E. long. 27° to 38%

- LAPATHIOS, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
iflandof Crete, on the northern coaft. :

LAPATHUM, in Botany, rxxx4o of the Greeks, from
Aamagiy OF aamwarw, to evacuate, alluding to its medical

LAP

qualities ; a general name for various plants, moftly of the
Dock kind, belonging to the Rumex, Rheum, Chenopodium,
or Spinachia of Linvzus.

LAPATHUS, Laprro, in Ancient Geography, a town
onthe N. coatt of the ifland of Cyprus, at the bottom of
a {mall gulf, formed to the N.W. by the promontory called
Cronmyon. It was founded by the Licedzmonians as a
place of arms, and a port.

LA PAZ, in Geography. See La Paz.

LAP-DOG, called allo meliteus, or foor, and by Dr.
Caius, in his Syftem of Britifh Dogs, the {paniel gentle or
comforter, is a fpecies of the moft generous kind of dogs.
See Doa.

Mr. Pennant obferves, that the Maltefe little dogs were
as much efteemed by the fine ladies of paft times as thofe of
Bologna are among the moderns. Old Hollingfhed is ri-
diculoufly fevere on the fair of his days for their exceffive
paffion for thefe little animals ; which is fufficient to prove
it wasin his time, viz. in the reign of queen Elizabeth, a
novelty.

LAPEYROUSIA, in Botany, received its name from
the Abbé Pourret of Narbonne, in honour of M. Picet
Lapeyroufe, author ef a f{plendid betanical book on the ge-
nus Saxifraga, and who has paid great attention to the natu-
ral hiltory of the Pyrenées. Thunberg has applied the
fame name toa Cape plant, Ofmites calycina, Linn. Suppl.
380, which he feparates in his Prodromus, p. 163, from O/-
mites, faying the receptacle is naked, and the corolla difcoid.
In this Willdenow follows him, Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2260. Onex-
amining the original Linnean {pecimen, marked as commu-
nicated by Thunberg himfelf, we find ourfelves obliged to
declare that neither of thefe charaéters holds good. The
lanceolate fcales of the receptacle are numeroufly apparent
between the florets of the difk, and the ligulate florets of
the radius are no lefs vifible within the calyx ; though indeed
the large membranous inner fcales of the latter equal them
in length. The habit of the fhrub, too, is fufficiently lke
other fpecies of O/mites. Such being the ftate of the cafe,
and the right of priority moreover in favour of Pourret, we
adopt his Lapeyroufia in preference.—Ker (Gawler) in
Curt. Mag. v. 16. 595, and v. 3. 1246. Ann. of Bot.v. 1.
237- Dryandr. in Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. y. 1. 110.—Clafs
and order, Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Enfate, Linn.
Trides, Toff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Spatha inferior, fhorter than the corolla,
of two, rarely but one, folded valves. Cor. of one petal,
fuperior, falver-fhaped, nearly or quite equal; tube long,
flender, triangular, its throat a Jittle enlarged; limb in fix
deep fegments, fhorter than the tube, either quite equal and
regular, or flightly irregular, in the former cafe horizontal,
in the latter inclining. Stam. Filaments three, inferted into
the mouth of the tube, rather fhorter than the limb, various
in direétion ; anthers oblong, incumbent. Pi/?. Germen infe-
rior, roundifh ; {tyle capillary, as long as the itamens ; ftigmas
three, linear, deeply divided, fpreading and recurved,

downy. eric. Capfule membranous, three-lobed, or with

three comprefled dilated angles, of three cells and three
valyes, with very fhort partitions. Seeds numerous, in tw@
rows, nearly globofe, or flightly angular from preffure.

Eff. Ch. Spatha of oneor two folded valves. Corolla fal-
ver-fhaped ; limb in fix deep fegments, fhorter than the tube.
Stigmas three, deeply divided. Capfule membranous,
triangular, with many globular feeds.

The moft correét enumeration of the fpecies of this genus,
previoufly, by other writers, confounded with Jxia, Gladio-
lus, or Galaxia, is given by Mr. Ker, in Curt. Mag. v. 31.

Tes.

_aboye quoted as follows,

Pp2

B.A P
1. L. corymbofa. Level-topped Lapeyroufia, Curt.
Mag. t. 595. (Ixia corymbofa; Linn. Sp. Pl. 51. Willd.

Sp. Pl. v. 1. 199. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 288. I. crifpifolia ;
Andr. Repof. t. 35.)—Flowers regular, corymbofe; tube
fearcely longer than the limb. Stamens widely fpreading.
Stem two-edged, fomewhat branched.—Native of the Cape
of Good Hope, from whence it was introduced by Mr.
Maffon, in 1791. It flowers in the green-houfe in May and
June, and requires to be kept dry when out of bloffom.
The du/b is conical, with a broad bafe. Stem about a foot
high, zig-zag, fomewhat branched, leafy, corymbofe.
Leaves vertical, clafping the {tem with their broad fheathing
bafe. Flowers numerous, not an inch wide, blue, generally
with a white {tarry central mark, bordered with darker blue,
not very unlike another beautiful Cape plant, Roella ciliata,
however different in botanical affinity. Sometimes they vary
to white.

Mr. Ker is now convinced that Ixia fafligiata, Lamarck.
Did. v. 3. 337, is not fpecifically diftinét trom the above.

2. L. falcata. Falcate Lapeyroufia. — ( Gladiolus falcatus 5
Thunb. Gladiol. n. 4. t. 1. £. 3.)—Flowers flightly irregu-
lar, racemofe ; tube twice as long as the limb. Stem com-
preffed. Leaves nearly radical, falcate, obovato-lanceolate.
From the fame country ; difcovered by Thunberg. The
fiem is but five or fix inches high. Leaves one or two,
Flowers five or fix, blue. Spatha of two valves.

3. L. fafticulata. Fafciculate Lapeyroufia.—(Ixia hetero-
phylla ; Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 57. Galaxia plicata; Jacq. Ic.
Rar., t. 292.)—Radical leaves fword-fhaped, ereét ; floral
ones crowded, recurved, undulated, obtufe, longer than the
cluftered flowers. Corolla regular; tube above twice as
long as the limb. Spatha of one valve—Native of the
Cape of Good Hope. The /fem is very fhort. The flowers
are cluftered at its fummit, white, with narrow equal feg-
ments, and remarkable for being encompafled with crowded
floral leaves, which are longer than themfelves, recurved, un-
dulated and obtufe. The foliage is glaucous. Radical leaves
few, long, ereét, {word-fhaped and acute.

Vahl and Ker appear to have adopted this fpecies from
Jacquin, and they both cite his t. 291, and inftead of 292,
apparently after Willdenow in Sp. Pl. v. 1. 199; quoted by
Ker 159. Thus erroneous references accumulate, for want
of turning to the original authorities.

4. L. fififolia. Split-leaved Lapeyroufia.—( Gladiolus
Mifolius ; Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 268. Vahl. Enum. v. 2. 107.)
—lLeaves deeply fplit, and clafping the ftem at their bafe;
with a fhort {word-fhaped point ; floral ones rounded. Spike
leafy. Corolla fomewhat wregular, drooping ; tube thrice
as long as the limb.— Received from the Cape of Good Hope
by Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy, with whom it flowered in
Sept. 1809. Mr. Maffon, however, is recorded as having fent
‘the farne to Kewin 1791. The leafy /pike is peculiar, as
well as the long deep fiffure of the flem-leaves. ‘The flowers
are purplifh, fragrant, varying in the fize and colours of
their limb.

5. L. anceps. Sword-leaved Lapeyroufia.—( Gladiolus an-
ceps; Linn. Suppl. 94. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 269.)—Leaves
{word-fhaped, cecurrent, toothed at the outer edge. Stem
corymbofe, fpreading. Corolla irregular; tube thrice as
long as the limb.—Native of the Cape. . This appears to be
the original fpecies on which Pourret founded the genus, in
the Memoirs of the Society of Thouloufe, vol. 3.
fers from the laft in its branching corymbofe /fem, winged
with the narrow, decurrent, toothed bafes of the perfectly
{word-fhaped and vertical eaves. The flowers vary with
different fhades of blue, and have a very long tube. The
floral leaves are cither large, with toothed or crifped edges,

Jt dif-

LAP

as Jacquin reprefents them ; or {mall and nearly fmooth or
even.

6. L. filenoides. Campion-flowered Lapeyroufia.—(Gla-
diolus filenoides ; Jacq. Ic. Rar.t.270. Vahl. Enum. v. 2.
106. Willd. n. 33.)—Leaves linear-fword-fhaped, entire ;
floral ones as long as the reft. Corolla irregular ; tube five
times as long as the limb, ereét.—Native of the Cape, and,
as it feems, known only to Jacquin, who has named it very
happily from the afpect of the fower, which is red, with a
{pot of yellow at the bafe of three of the fegments, all on
one fide. The /lemis about a fpan high, branched from the
bottom, and clothed with linear, glaucous, grafly Leaves,
from feveral of the uppermoft of which the flowers proceed,
and their white tube is about as long as the correfponding
leaf, ftraight and rather tumid in its upper part.

Two other fpecies are indicated as doubtful by Mr. Ker,
Gladiolus braGeatus and G. Fabriciti of Thunberg and Vahl,
which are fufpetted to be poflibly not diftiu& from L. fi/i-
folia, ov from anceps.

LAPFIORD, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in a bay
of the gulf of Bothnia; eight miles S. of Chriftianfladt.

LAPHAO, a town on the N. coaft of the ifland of Ti-
mor, inhabited by Portuguefe or their defcendants, fituated
at the bottom of a bay, and containing a church and about
60 houfes; the inhabitants are of a copper colour, with
black hair; they carry on fome trade with Batavia; and ~
this port is vifited by fome Chinefe junks and veffels from
Goa, but the port is fafe only from March till Auguit; at
other times the hurricanes render it infecure.

LAPHIATI, in Zoolocy, the name by which the people
of Lemnos call a fpecies of ferpent, fuppofed by Bellonius
to be the fame with the elaps, or elaphis, of the ancients.

LAPHYSTIUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Beeotia, 20 ftadia from Coronna. It had a certain diftrict
confecrated to Jupiter Laphyttius, in which there was a mar-
ble ftatue of this deity. Hercules Charops had alfo a tem-
ple at a little diltance from it. Paufanius, 1. ix. Beotic.
Curiae:

{1a PIDARY, Lapipanrius, an artificer, who cuts
precious ftones. See Gems.

The art of cutting precious {tones is very ancient; but,
like other arts, itsoriginal was very imperfect. The French
Have fucceeded in it the beft; and the lapidaries of Paris,
who have been a corporation fince the year 1290; have car-
ried it, efpecially in cutting of diamonds called brilliants, to
a very great perfection, but not fuperior to that of the Eng-
lith.

There are various machines ufed in the cutting of precious
ftones, according to the quality of the matter to be cut : the
diamond, which is extremely hard, is cut and formed ona
wheel of foft fteel, turned by akind of mill, with diamond
duft tempered in oil of olives ; and this fefves to polifh them
as we'l as to cut them. ;

Oriental rubies, fapphires, and topazes, are cut and
formed on a copper wheel, with oil of olives, and diamond
duft: they are afterwards polifhed on another copper wheel
with tripoli and water.

Emeralds, hyacinths, amethyfts, garnets, agates, and other
ftones lefs hard, are cut on a leaden wheel, with {malt and
water, and polifhed ona tin wheel with tripoli.

Turquois, of the old and new rock, lapis girafol, and
opal, are cut and polifhed on a wooden wheel with tri-

oli.
é Lapipary is alfo ufed for a virtuofo filled in the nature,
kinds, &c. of precious {tones ; or a merchant who dcals in
them: See Gems.
Larts

LAP
Larrpary Style, denotes the ftyle proper for monumental

or other infcriptions.
This is a kind of medium between profe and verfe; the

jejune and the brilliant are here equally to be avoided. Ci-
cero has prefcribed the rules of it : “ Accedat oportet oratio
varia, vehemens, plena fpiritus. Omnium fententiarum gra-
yitate, omnium verborum ponderibus, eft utendum.”

The lapidary ftyle, which was loft with the ancient monu-
ments, has been retrieved, at the beginning of this age, by
count Emanuel Teforo : it is now ufed various ways at the
beginning of books ; and even epiftles dedicatory are com-
pofed in it, of which we have no example among the an-

ients.
> LAPIDES Prerr, in Natural Hiffory, aterm ufed by Lan-

ius, to exprefs fuch {tones as are found with the delineations
of fithes, trees, and fhells, as well as leaves of ferns and other
plants, very perfeétly reprefenting the things themfelves, but
{carcely at all ftanding out abeve the furface of the ftone, and
having in themfelves fearcely any thicknefs. It is very evi-
dent, that the bodies reprefented are not here, in reality, but
the whole configuration is owing to the natural veins of the
ftone, and the coalefeence of the feveral {mall mailes of which
each large {tone is compofed, and to the vapours from within
the earth, getting into the natural fine cracks in tbe ftones,
and tinging their fides with blacknefs.

* LA2IDESCENT, any thing which has the faculty of
petrifying, or turning bodies toa ftony nature. ;

Naturalifts {peak of a lapidefcent principle, a lapidefcent
ipirit, alapidefcent juice, &c- {

Lapipescent Waters, or Springs, are fuch as, having
flony particles diffolved and {wimming in them, do depofit
the fame on wood, leaves, and other bodies immerged there-
in; which, being incrufted herewith, are commonly miftaken
for petrifactions. :

LAPIDIFICATION, in Chemi/iry, an operation where-
by any fubftance is converted into a fort of ftone.

Lapidification is praGtifed in metals, fixed falts, and
falts of plants. ibs

The term is alfo ufed for the making of artificial ftones.

LAPIN, in Zoology, the Rabbit. See Lepus Cuni-
eulus.

LAPIS, in the general fenfe.

Lapis Arabicus, in the Natural Hiftory
the name of a ftone of a fine white colour, refembling the
pureft ivory ; and which, though naturally of a firm, folid,
and compact texture, yet, when burnt, became light, po-
rous, and fpungy, and affumed the figure and appearance of
a pumice ; and was ufed like it in the compofitions of the
ancient phyficians for cleaning the teeth. :

Laris Erofus, in Natura! Hiflory, a name given to feveral
forts of {tones, and other foffils, which had lais in the neigh-
bourhood of copper-mines, and been impregnated with par-
ticles of copper, though not in a fufficient degree to be
thought worthy the name of copper ores. See Pyrites.

"The fame fort of ftones were alfo fometimes called chalcites,
which made fome confufion, as it gave occafion to confound
them with the true chalcitis.

Laris Afbcfos. See AspesTos.

Lapis #utes. See ALTITES.

Lapis Armenus. See ARMENTAN Stone.
> Lapis Affius, in the Natural Hiflory of the Ancients, the
name of a itone, called alfo farcophagus, from its power of
confuming flefh.

It was a fone much ufed among the Greeks in their fe-
pulchres, and is recorded to have always perfetly confumed
the fleth of human bodies, buried init, in forty days. This
property it was much famed for, and all the ancient natu-

See SToxE.

of the Ancients,

LAP

ralifts mention it. ‘There was another very fingular quality
alfo in it, but whether in all, or only in fome peculiar pieces
init, isnot known ; that is, its turning into itone any thing
that was put into veffels made of it. his is recorded only
by Mutianus and Theophraftus, except that Pliny has copied
it from thefe authors ; and {ome of the later writers on thefe
f{ubjeéts from him.

This effet might probably be a kind of incruftation,
formed on fubftances inclofed in veffels made of this ftone, by
water pafling through its pores, diflodging from the commen
mats of the ftone, and carrying with it particles of fuch {par
as it contained; and afterwarde falling in repeated drops on
whatever lay in its way, it might again depolit them in fuch
fubftances, in form of incruttations.

The place from whence the ancients tell us they had this
fone was Affos, a city in Lycia, in the neighbourheod of
which it was dug: and De Boot informs us, that in that
country, and in fome parts of the Eaft, there are alfo {tones
of this kind, which, if tied to the bodies of living perfons,
would, in the fame manner, confume their fleth.. Hul’s Notes
on Theophraitus, p. 14.

Lapis Atramentarius, the copper-/lone.

Lapis Bezaardicus. See Bezoar.

Lapis Bononienfis, the Bolonian flone, a peculiar {pecies of
ftone found in Bolonia. Se: BoNontan,/lone.

Lapis Calaminaris. See CALAMINE and ZINC.

Lapis Calearius. See Lime and Liwe-sTone.

Lapis Caude caneri, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
by Gefrer, and fome other writers, to the foffil fhells,
fince called tubuli marini concamerati, and. by fome poly-
thalamii and ortho-ceratite: See TuButi concamerait.

Lapis Ceratitis. See Unicornu foffile.

LapisColicus. . See Covic-/fone.

Lapis Corneus, horn-ftone, a name given by many of the
German authars to flint, which fome of them have alfo very
improperly called pyritess or the fire-ftone, becaufe it is ufed
to ftrike fire with. See Hornstein and PeTRosILex.

Lapis Divinus. See Nepuritic /lone.

Lapis Hematites. See Hamarvires, and Ores of IRon.

Lapis. Hepaticus, liverftone, or liberflein, a {pecies of the
barytic genus of earths or ftones, colour grey, greyifh, or
yellow-grey, or brown, or greyifh-black ; luftre, 2.1 5
tranfparency, 1; fraéture, foliated and partly ftriated ; hard-
nefs, from five to fix ;- fp. grav. 2.666 ; emitting a {mell of
liver of fulphur when rubbed or heated to rednefs ; not effer-
vefeing with acids.. According to the analyfis of Bergman,
a fpecimen from Andraran in Scania contains 0.38 of baro-
felenite, 0.33 of filex, 0.22 of alum, 0.07 of gypfum and

See PyriTEs.

0.5 of mineral oil. Kirwan.
Lapis Hibernicus. See [rifa SLATE.
Lapis Hyenius. See Hy #nrus lapis.
Lapis Jnfernalis. See Lunar Caustic.

Lapis d/lebeianus.

Lapis Judaicus. See Jupatcus.

Lapis Lazuli. See Lazuoxite.

Lapis Lucis. the fone of light, in the Materia Medica of:
the Arabs, a name given to the braffy marcafite or pyrites,
The Arabians have adopted this. Avicenna fuppofes
this fubftance to be called fo, becaufe it was ufed, after
calcination, for difeafes of the eyes. It is very probable,
that where vitriolic medicines take piace, the caput mortuum
of this foffil, which is only a colcothar of vitriol, may be of
ufe. Butits virtues in this refpe& can never be fuppofed fo
eminent, as to have intitled it to the pompous name it bears.
It feems more probable, that it was called the ffone of light,
either from its glittering appearance where frefh broken, or
from its giving large {parks of fire, when flruck againft . ,

feel.

See IsLeBEIANuS (apis:

LAP

ftccl. It was from this quality that it obtained the name of
pyrites, or fire-ftone, it giving fire on the collifion with fteel
much better than flint does.

Lapis Lydius. See Lynrus /apis.

Lapis Marmoreus, a marble ftone about twelve feet long
and three feet broad, placed at the upper end of Weftminftec-
hall; where was likewife a marble chair ere&ted on the mid-
dle thereof, in which our kings anciently fat at their coro-
nation dinner, and at other times the lord-chancellor. Over
this marble table are now ereéted the courts of chancery,
‘and king’s-bench. -Orig. Juridical. 37.

Larvis Melitites. See Mevrrires.

Lapis Morechthus, or French chalk. See Morocutuus.

Larvis Medicamentofus, or the medicinal ftone, is a com-
polition of rock alum, litharge, colcothar of vitriol, Arme-
nian bole, and vinegar, boiled to the confiitence of a hard
ftone. It was ufed to faften the teeth, preferve the gums,
heal and dry up ulcers and wounds; and alfo in injections,
and in compofitions for fore eyes. i

Lapis Mujicalis, the mujfic-fone, in Natural Hiflory, a
name given by Mr. Sivers to a {tone found.in Pruffia, carry-
ing naturally on it all the mufical charaéters found on the
fhell, commonly called the mujfic/hell. He defcribes the
ftone, which feems to have been a fingle fpecimen, and as
this author is the only one who ever met with it, it is much
to be fufpeéted that either fraud or fancy has had a great
fhare in the matter.

Lapis Nephriticus. See Nepuriric flone.

Lapis Ollaris, See Porstone.

Lapis Specularis. See SPECULARIS.

Lapis Thyites. See Tuyrres.

LAPITHA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Cyprus,
on ariver of the fame name; 24 miles W.N.W.. of Nicofia.
“Mi lat. 35°23’. E. long. 32°36’. See Lapatuus.

~“ LAPITHUM, amountain ef Laconia. Steph. Byz.
Paufanias (1..dii. c. 20.) mentions a town of this name in
the Peloponnefus, on mount Taygetus, in the fame canton.

LAPLAND, in Geography, the moft northerly country
in Europe, extending from the North-Cape, latitude 713°
N., to the White fea, under the ArGic circle, is inhabited
by the fame people though the country is fubje& to different
powers. ‘When the name Lapland was firlt given to the
country, and that of Laplanders to the people, is uncertain.
‘Saxo Grammaticus, in his commentaries; Adam of Bremen,
in his account of the Danes ; and Sturlefton of Iceland have
‘been cited on this fubje&, as having named the people in
queftion “ Scrittfianar,” << Scricfinnar,”’ or * Finnar ;’’ and
at prefent they are generally called Finns by the Norwegians.
The name of Laplanders has been fuppofed to originate
from their attachment to forcery: dapp, in their language,
fignifying a wizard.

Lapland is bounded on the north by the North fea and
Frozen ocean; on the eaft by the White fea; on the fouth
by Sweden and the gulf of Bothnia; and on the weft by
Norway. On the northernmoft fide, are what have been
denominated the Frozen Alps, or Alps of Snow, which com-
pofe that chain of mountains called Severnoi, the declivity
of which, towards the eaft and fouth, confifts of lower
“mountains, deferts, forefts, fens, and lakes. The furface
is fuppofed to contain from feventy to eighty thoufand
fquare miles, but its population cannot be afcertained with
any degree of precifion.

Lapland is divided into three parts, wiz. 1. That which is
fubject to Denmark, and is called Norwegian Lapland; this
part lies between the Northern fea, the river Pais, and the
lake Enarak. 2. Swedifh Lapland, which includes all the
country from the Baltic to the monntains that feparate

_than even the cold of winter.

LAP

Norway from Sweden. It is divided into fix diftriéts, de-
nominated marcks, or territories, which are diftinguifhed by
the ‘names of rivers, as Aungnerland, Elma, Peta, Lula,
Torna, and Kimi. 3. The eaftern part is fubjeét to the
ezar of Mufcovy, fituated between the lake Enarak and the
White fea: this part of Lapland is divided into three pre-
feclures ; namely, that of the fea-coaft to the north, called
«* Mourmankoi Leporie :’? that upon the coaft of the White
fea, denominated ‘ Jerfkoi Leporie :’’ and the inland part,
known by the name of Bellamerefkoi Leporie.”? In
Swedifh Lapland, the provinces or marcks are fubdivided
into {maller diftriéts called biars, confilling each of a number
of families, among which the land is parcelled out by
government. The whole country confilts of huge congeries
of frightful rocks and ftupendous mountains, interfperfed,
however, with many pleafant vallies, watered by an infinite
number of rivulets that fall into the rivers and Jakes, which
difcharge themfelves into the gulf of Bothnia. The chief
towns are Kola and Tornea. ‘There are many confiderable
lakes, as the Great Uma; the Great Windel; the Stor-
avan, &c. Some of them are faid to extend 60 leagues in
length, and contain a great number of iflands. Stor-avan
is computed to contain 365; and Enara contains fo many,
that it has been affirmed, that no Laplander has lived long
enough to vilit each particular ifland. For the hiftory of
this country, we muft refer to that of thofe countries to
which it is fubject, and alfo to the article Fixys. The cli-
mate is exceedingly cold during the winter months; the
lakes and rivers are at that feafon completely frozen over,
and toa great thicknefs: the whole face of the country is
covered with fnow to the depth of four or five feet. While
this continues loofe, it is impoffible to travel, but if a partial
thaw takes place, the furface of the fnow is formed by a
fucceeding froft into a hard impenetrable cruft, over which
the inhabitants, by means of their rein-deer, travel with the
utmoft celerity. While the thaw continues, the air is fur-
charged with vapours, and the climate is rainy, but fo long
as the north wind blows, the fky is beautifully ferene, and
the air is clear. The heat of fummer is almoft as intolerable
in Lapland as the cold of winter. In the more northerly
parts of the country, the fun never fets for three months in
the fummer, and in the winter there is an uninterrupted
night of the fame duration, but this is qualified by a con-
ftlant revolution of dawn and twilight, by a ferene tky,
moon-light, and aurora borealis, fo that the inhabitants are
enabled to fifh and hunt, and to proceed with their ordinary
occupations. During the fummer feafon nothing can be
more enchanting in many parts, than the vaft profpeéts of
mountains, foreits, Jakes, and rivers. At this feafon, not-
withitanding the climate, the rofes are feen in full flower on
the banks of the lekes and rivers, with all the beauties of
colour which appear in thofe cultivated in our gardens.
In the intervals between the mountains, great part of the
country is flat, covered with brown dufky forefis of fir and
pine trees, and thefe are often fkirted by wide extended
moraffes, the ftagnating waters of which in fummer produce
myriads of mifchievous infects, that are more intolerable
The foil of Lapland is very
barren, owing chiefly to the want of cultiyation. In fome
diitri€ts the land will bear large crops of rye; there are
many varieties of berries, 2s currants, Norwegian mulber-
ries, that grow on a creeping plant; rafpberries, cranberries,
juniper berries, and bilberries. There are very fine woods
of birch, pine, and fir, in feveral initances difpofed by
nature, as if they had been planted in regular rows by the
hand of art. The fervice-tree, the willow, the poplar, the
elder, and the cornel are found here. Among plants, the

angelica

LAPLAND.

angelica is moft cultivated, and highly efteemed : the forrel
is ufed as an antifcorbutic. They have likewife other kinds
of herbs, different {pecies of grafs, heath, fern and mofs,
but the vegetable which is in the greateft plenty is the lichen.
This mofs covers the whole ground ; its colour is a pale
yellow, which when dry changes to white; the regularity
of its fhape, and the uniform manner in which the furface
of the ground is decked with it, appears fingular and ftrik-
ing; it has the femblance of a beautiful carpet. Thefe
plants grow in a fhape nearly octagonal, and approaching to
a circle, and as they join each other, they forma kind of
Mofaic work, or embroidery. As this mofs is very dry,
nothing can be more pleafant to tread upon, nor can there
be any thing fofter for a bed: Acerbi, and his companions,
in their journey frequently flept upon it. In fome places it
feems to be the only herb that will grow; the neighbouring
birches and firs appear to vegetate with difficulty, as if de-
prived of their nourifhment by the mofs: in fhort, fays the
writer, “this mofs appeared to be a royal plant, which
ruled abfolute over the vegetable kingdom of the country,
and diltributed its bounty and influence among a particular
race of men and animals.’’? With refpe€t to the mineralogy
of the country ; filver and lead have been difcovered in the
provinces of Pitha and Lula; in the diflri& of Torna there
are two copper mines, and fome excellent veins of iron.
Here are found cryttals of a very large fize, and fo hard
and fine, that when polifhed they refemble real diamonds.
In fome parts amethyits and topazes are found : alfo curious
ftones too hard to be worked by the common tools of the
mafon. Ina few of their rivers they fifh for pearls, which
are generally pale; but fome of them are as bright as the
oriental pearls, though larger and more round. Lapland is
infefted with a great number of grey wolves and bears, with
which the natives are perpetually at war. The country
likewife abounds with elks, beavers, and otters, which live
here unmolefted, and find plenty of fifh for their fubfiftence.
The forefts of this country furnifh haunts to a great number
of beautiful martens and {quirrels, which change their colour
every winter from brown to grey. Here are alfo ermines,
weafels, hares, large black cats which attend the Laplanders
' in hunting, and little dogs trained to the purfuit cf game.
But the moft remarkable animal of Lapland is the rein-deer.
The woods, mountains, and rivers, are well ftocked with
wild fowl, and all forts of aquatic birds that build and breed
in northera climates. Early in every {pring the fwans go
thither in numerous flights from the German ocean :~the
lapwings follow in fuch fwarms that they darken the fky.
‘The rocks and mountains are frequented with eagles, hawks,
kites, falcons, and other birds of prey. The rivers abound
with falmon, which afcend from the gulf of Bothnia, trout,
bream, and perch of excellent flavour, and amazing magni-
tude. The infects are extremely numerous; they often
obfcure the face of day ; and are fo venomous that the rein-
deer,.to avoid them, fly to the tops of the higheft mountains
for fhelter, and the inhabitants betake themfelves to the fea-
fide, which is lefs infefted than other parts by thefe peftilent
vermin.

The commerce carried on by the Laplanders is more con-
fiderable than one would expec ina defert country, inha-
bited by a favage and ignorant people. They export large
quantities of fifh to Bothnia and White Ruffia. They trade
with the neighbouring countries of Norway, Sweden, Muf-
eovy, and Finland, by the fale of rein-deer, fine furs, bafkets,
toys of their own manufacture, and cheefe made of the rein-
deer’s milk. They receive in return rix-dollars, woollen
cloths, linen, copper, tin, flour, oil, hides, cutlery, fpirits,
and tobacco. ‘The Laplanders march in caravans to the

fairs in Finland and Norway ; thefe are compofed of a lon
{tring of 30 or 40 rein-deer tied to one another, the foremokt
being led by a Laplander who walks in front. At night,
when they have fixed upon a {pot to reft on, they form a large
circle of their rein-deer and pulkas or fledges, ready yoked,
and the animals lying down quietly on the hag are fed with
mofs by their matters. The people kindle great fires,
around which they fit and fup, and fmoke and fleep. The
revenue arifing from this country is not of much confequence ;
it is partly paid in rix-dollars, but chiefly in furs, and the
tribute fromthe poorer clafles is taken in dried fifh. Part
of the taxes is allotted for the maintenance of the clergy.
The Laplanders are fhort, few of them being five fect
high; in their drefs they ufe no kind of linen; the men
wear a fort of pantaloons reaching to their fhoes, and their
doublet is made to fit the fhape; over this is a clofe coat
with narrow fleeves, which is faftened round them with a
leathern girdle. To the girdle are attached their knives,
their pipes, and their inftruments for ftriking fire. The
drefs of the women is very much like that of the men, but
in addition to it they wear handkerchiefs, fhort aprons,
rings on their fingers, and in their ears, from which among
the rich are fufpended chains of filver, which pafs twice or
thrice round the neck. They are much addicted to finery,
and to the ufe of embroidery manufatured from brafs wire.
They change their habitations according to the feafon,,
living in houfes in the winter, and in fummer they make ufe
of tents. Their houfheld furniture confifts of iron or cop-
per kettles, wooden cups, bowls, fpoons, and fometimes tin
or even filver bafons, to which muft be added the imple-
ments of fifhing and hunting. ‘The inhabitants are chiefly
divided into fifhers and mountaineers. The former build
their habitations near fome lake, from which they derive
their fubfiftence. The ethers feel their fupport on the
mountains, poflefling herds of rein-deer more or lefs nu-
merous; thefe are very rich in comparifon of the fifhermen..
It is ufual to affign to every child at its birth a number of
thefe animals, which, with their produce and increafe are
to belong to it, fo that when he arrives at man’s eftate, he
finds himfelf mafter of feveral hundred rein-deer. The fol-
lowing defcription of a Lapland family was given from the
life by an intelligent traveller; ¢ it confifted of an old man
and his wife, with a child about two or three months old.
The infant was trufled up in a kind of cradle, refembling,
in fhape, a fiddle cafe, made of the thick bark of a tree.
fo formed that it exa€tly contained the child, which was
fixed in it with a kind of brafs-chain. It was covered with
fine and foft mofs, over which was fpread the fkin of a
young rein-deer. The cradle was fwung on a rope, which
was faftened to the top of the hut.’’ The Laplanders are
averfe from war, and will forfake their homes, to which they
are much attached, rather than engage in it. Their man-
ners and habits are finely defcribed by Thomfon, who, in:
comparing them with the martial hordes of the north, faysy.

“ Not fuch the fons of Lapland: wifely they
Defpife th’ infenfate barbarous trade of war =:
They afk no more than fimple nature gives ;
They love their mountains, and enjoy their ftorms.
No falfe defires, no pride-created wants
Difturb the peaceful current of their time ;
And through the rettlefs ever-tortured maze-
Of pleafure or ambition bid it rage.
Their rein-deer form their riches. Thefe their tents,
Their robes, their beds, and all their homely wealth
Supply : their wholefome fare and cheerful cups.’

Great pains have been taken by the Danes and Swedes a in—
orm

LAP

form the minds of the Laplanders on the fubje& of religion,
but the majority of them continue to praétife fuperttitions
and idolatries, as grofs as any that are to be met with among
the mott unin{truéted Pagans. They rely on augury and
witchcraft, and have been confidered by many of our coun-
trymen, who have vilited thofe parts, as fkilful in magic and
divination. Their magicians make ufe of what they calla
drum, an inftrument Tike the tambourine. On this, thofe
who profefs to be Chriftians draw the figures of their own
gods, as well as thofe of Jefus Chrift, the apoftles, the fun,
moon, ftars, rivers, &c.: on different parts of this inftru-
ment and its ornaments are placed {mall brafs rings, which,
when the drum is beaten with a little hammer, dance over
the figures, and according to their progrefs the forcerer
prognolticates, They retain the worfhip of many ‘Teutonic
gods, and have ameng them confiderable remains of Druidical
inftitutions. They believe in the tranfmigration of the foul,
and have feftivals fet apart for the worfhip of certain genii,
who, they imagine, inhabit the air, and have the direction
and fuperintendence of human aétions. A black cat is
reckoned one of the moft valuable appendages in each
houfe: they talk to it as to a rational creature, and in their
hunting and fifhing parties it is their ufual attendant. ‘To
this animal the Danifh Laplanders communicate their fe-
crets; they confult it on all important occafions ; andamong
the Swedifh Laplanders, the drum is kept in every family for
the purpofe of confulting the devil.
The account given by M. Maupertuis of the rigour of
‘this climate, when he went to the polar circle to afcertain
the real figure of the earth, deferves to be noticed in this
article. He obferves, that in the month of December fpirits
froze within their houfes ; and if the door of a warm room
were opened only for a moment, the external air inftantly
converted all the vapour within into a kind of fnow, whirl-
ing it round in vortexes. When they wént abroad, they
felt as if the air was tearing their breafls to pieces, and
within doors, the cracking of the wood, of which the
houfes were built, continually warn them by its contraction
of an increafe of cold. In {peaking of the atmofpheric ap-
pearances, and of the heavenly bodies ; he fays, the bright-
ne{s of the moonlight, the twinkling of the ftars, and the
effulgent corrufcations of the aurora borealis, afford a light
fufficient for moft of the occafions of life. No fooner, fays
he, are the fhort days clofed, than fires of a thoufand figures
and colours light the fky, as if intended to make up for the
abfence of the fun. Thefe lights are perpetually variable.
Sometimes they begin in the form of a great fearf of bright
light, with its extremities upon the horizon, which, with the
motion refembling that of a fifhing-net, glides foftly up the
fy, preferving a dire¢tion nearly perpendicular to the meri-
dian, and commonly after thefe preludes all the lights unite
at the zenith, and form the top of thecrown. It would be
difficult to enumerate the different figures which thefe meteors
affume, and the various motions with which they are agitated.
Their motion is moft commonly like that of a pair cf colours
waving in the air, and the different tints of their light give
them the appearance of fo many ftreamers of changeable
filk. «I faw,’? fays the philofopher, <¢ a phenomenon of
this kind, that in the mid{ft of all the wonders to which I
was now every day accuftomed, excited my admiration.
To the fouth a great fpace of {ky appeared tinged with fo
lively a red, that the conftellation of Orion looked as if it
had been dipped in blood. This light, which was at firft
fixed, foon moved, and changing into other colours, violet
and blue, fettled into a dome, the top of which ftood a little
to the fouth-weft of the zenith. In this country, where
there are lights of fo many different colours, I never faw

7

LAP

but two that were red, and fuchi are always taken for pres
fages of fome great misfortune. ~ It is not at all furprifing,
if people, with an unphilofophic eye, difcoverin thefe pheno-
mena armies engaged, fiery chariots, and_a thoufand other
prodigies. ‘To the enlightened and rational philofopher,
Lapland every where prefents fubjeéts of refleGion and con-
templation: no arts flourifh here ; we no where meet with
temples, houfes, wrecks of columns, or of other monuments,
but a fine opportunity is afforded of ftudying among the
wandering tribes the firft elemests of focial lite; of foriety
in its moft ancient form.’? Acerbi’s Travels into Sweden,
Lapland, &c, Confett’s Tour to Lapland.

LA PLATA. See La Prata.

LAPMARK. See Finmarx.

LAPOUTI, a mountain of Afia, between Cafhgar and
Little Thibet.

LAPPA, in Botany, the Latin name for any kind of
Bur, or feed that fticks to the coats of animals. See Arc-
t1uM, ApaRine, and XANTHIUM.

LAPPAGO, a name for the Galium Aparine, or
Goofe-grafs, alluding to the bur-like nature of its feeds.
(See Lappa.) It is now appropriated by Schreber to a par-
ticular genus of grafles ; fee the next article.

Laprpraco, fo named by Schreber, on account of the
bur-like afpe& of the feed invefted with its muricated hufks,
—Schreb. 55. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 484. Mart. Mill. Dié.
v. 3. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Graec. Sibth. v. 1. 76. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 182. (Tragus; Hall. Hift. v. 2. 203.
Desfont. Atlant. v. 2. 386.)—Clafs and order, Triandria
Digynia. Nat. Ord. Gramina, Linn,

Gen. Ch. Cal. aggregate, each glume of one valve,
fingle-flowered, lanceolate, pointed, ventricofe, angular,
furrowed, permanent, muricated at the back with a triple
row of cartilaginous prickles, hooked upwards. F/oret {o-
litary, feffile. Cor. of two valves, fmaller than the calyx,
awnlefs, {mooth, membranous and whitifh ; its glumes lan-
ceolate, acute, concave; the outermoft oppofite to the ca-
lyx, ribbed, inner more delicate and but half the fize of
the outer, embraced by the calyx. Neétary of two lanceo.
late acute leaflets. Stam. Filaments three, capillary, the
length of the glumes; anthers fhort, deeply divided. Piff.
Germen fuperior, ovate ; {tyles two, capillary, rather fhort ;
ftigmas cylindrical, feathery. Peric. none, except the per-
manent corolla. Seed unconnected, elliptic-oblong, with a
longitudinal furrow.

Eff. Ch. Calyx muricated, of one valve, fingle-flowered,
agyregate. Corolla of two valves, awnlefs.

The only known fpecies is ,

1. L. racemof?. Branching Bur-grafs.—Sm., Fl. Gree.
Sibth. v. 2.t.1or1. Hoft. Gram. Auftr. v. 1. 28. t. 36.
(Cenchrus racemofus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1487. Schreb. Gram.
v. 1.45. t. 4. Gramen caninum maritimum afperum ; Bauhs
Prodr. 2. Theatr. 16.) —Native of the fandy fea-fhores of
the fouth of Europe, as well as of Arabia and India. It
is a hardy annual with us, flowering in the warmeft part of
the fummer. The roof confifts of downy fibres. Stems
numerous, a fpan high, jointed, unbranched, leafy, round,
{mooth, decumbent and taking root at the bottom. Leaves
fpreading, lanceolate, very acute, flat, ftriated, {mooth, »
except the edge, which is fringed as well as toothed; the
bafe is heart-fhaped ; the upper leaves are very fhort : fheaths
rather fwelling, ftriated, {mooth, the upper ones longett.
Stipula hort, fringed. Spikes terminal, folitary, two or
three inches long, ereét, cylindrical, obtufe, many-flowered,
generally purplith, and of an unufual afpeét on account of
the prickly hufks. Their common /a/é is hairy. Flowers
three or four on each little zig-zag partial ftalk, <<

rather

TAG

“yather diftant, ereét, the uppermoft generally abortive. The
lower part of the /pife is thin and (lraggling. ;

LAPPANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in @ala-
bria Citra ; four miles N. of Cofenza.

LAPPO, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, between the coat
of Finland and the ifland of Aland, N. lat. 60° 20'. E. long.
20° 48'.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo; 23 miles S, of Abo.—Alfo, a town of Sweden, in
Eaft Bothnia, and government of Wala; 37 miles E.N.E.
of Wafa.

Laprrvo Jerfoi, a town of Sweden, in Eaft Bothnia; 60
miles S.E. of Wafa.

LAPPOJOCK, ariver of Eaft Bothnia, which runs inte
the fea, five miles below Ny-Karleby.

LAPPOREN, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf,
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 23'. E. long. 20° so’.

LAPPTRASK, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Nyland; 21 miles N.E. of Borgo. N. lat. 60° 37’. E.
long. 26° 12'.

LAPPULA, in Botany, a name given by fome to the
great caucalis, or rough-fruited ftone-parfley, or baftard

arfley.

LAPSANA, by fome written Lamp/ana, an old Latin
name, ufually derived from Ax7%w, to purge or evacuate, on
account of afuppofed quality in the plant. Ambrofinus
deduces it, by antiphrafis, from aAxjrnc, deffitute of /plendour,
becaufe of the mean appearance of the herb.—Linn. Gen.
4o5. Schreb. 534. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1622. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 3. Sm. Fi. Brit. 842. Juff. 168. Tourn. t. 272.
Lamarck, [llultr. t. 655. Gertn. t. 157. (Rhagadiolus ;
Cefalp. 511. Schreb. 534. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1625. Mart.
Mill. Dic. v. 4. Juff. 168. Tourn. t. 272. Lamarck. Illuftr.
t. 655. Gertn.t. 157. Koelpinia; Pallas. It. v. 3. 755.)
—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-aqualis. Nat. Ord.
Compofite Semiflofeulofe, Linn. Cichoracee, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, fomewhat cylindrical, an-
gular, of about eight equal, linear, keeled, channelled, acute
{cales, with a tew {mall imbricated ones at the bafe, all per-
manent. Cor. compound, imbricated, uniform ; the florets
hermaphrodite, about 16, more or lefs, equal, each of one
petal, ligulate, abrupt, with five teeth. Stam. Filaments
five, capillary, very fhort ; anthers united into a cylindrical
tube. Pi/?. Germen rather oblong ; ftyle thread-fhaped, as
Jong as the ftamezs ; ftigma cloven, reflexed. Peric. none,
except the permanent fcales of the calyx. Seeds folitary,
oblong, angular, contratted at the top, upright or {preading,
_ dettitute of wing or down. Recept. naked.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx with fcales at the bafe,
its inner {cales equal, channelled. Seeds without down, con-
tracted atthe top. ;

t. L. communis. Common Nipple-wort.—Linn. Sp. Pl.
1141. Engl. Bot.t. 844. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. t. 59. Fi.
Dan. t. 500.—Calyx of the fruit clofed, unchanged, {mooth.
Seeds loofe. Stem panicled.—Frequent in waite or culti-
vated ground throughout moit parts of Europe, flower-
ing in fummer. The root is annual. Stem erect, two or
three feet high, roundilh, nearly {mooth, much branched in
a panicled manner, leafy in the lower part. Leaves foft and
rather hairy, toothed ; the radical oues lyrate, the others
ovate, acute, alternate. Flowers {mall, yellow, on long,
flender, alternate ftalks. Seeds nearly ftraight and ere@, an-
gular and ftriated, furrounded by the dried, fmooth, per-
manent, fcarcely changed calyx, but unconneéted with it,
and at length falling out, leaving it empty. This plant is
faid to be called Papillaris, in Pruffia, a name fynonymous
with Nipple-wort; becaufe it is faid to cure ulcerated
breafts,

Vou. XX.

L‘A‘P

A variety of this, with the margins of its Ieaves curled,
and more deeply as well as unequally toothed, is Z. crifpa of
Willdenow, faid by him to continue conftant from’ feed.
Linnzus confidered it a variety, nor do we find reafon to
{werve from that opinion.

2. L. flellata. Starry Nipple-wort.—Linn. Sp. Pl. 1411.
Gertn. v. 2.354. (L.n.33; Gerard. Gallopr. 175. Raga-
diolus ftellatus; Willd. n. 1. Ragadiolus altera; Cefalp.
stx- Hieracium ftellatum; Bauh. Hift. v. 2. rorg. He
narbonenfe faleatum ; Lob. Ic. 240. H. falcatum Lobelii ;
Ger. em. 298.)—Seeds awl-fhaped, {preading, fomewhat
incurved, embraced by the muricated calyx-feales. Stem
widely fpreading. Radical leaves obovate, fomewhat run-
cinate.—Native of the fouth of Europe. oot annnal.
Stems feveral, widely {preading or decumbent, branched.
Leaves thin and nearly {mooth, except a little roughnefs
about the edge; the lower ones obovate, rather acute; tapering
and nearly entire atthe bafe ; more or lefs runcinate about
the middle, with numerous fharp teeth, each tipped with a
little pale callous point: the upper leaves are linear-laneeolate,
undivided and nearly entire. Flowers {mall, yellow, or
long {preading ftalks. Calyx rough with minute afcending
briitles or prickles. Perfeé feeds generally cight, 4 of an
inch long, widely {preading in the form of a ftar, awl-fhaped,
flender, fmooth, each embraced by one feale of the calyx,
which rather exceeds it in length, and is externally rough
with little prominent prickles, efpecially towards the point.
About two or three very much incurved, fmaller, apparently
abortive feeds are found in the centre, each in like manner in-
vetted with its rough calyx-feale. All the feeds, as well as
the calyx, a¥e firmly united together to the tumid receptacle,
which they entirely cover, till they are loofened by time or
accident. q

We unite, without the leaft {cruple, the L. fiellata and
L. Rhagadislus of Linnzus as one fpecies, on the authority
of his own {pecimens, as well as that of his and our learned
friend Gerard. They differ only in having more or lefs
toothed radical leaves. very other part precifely accords.
Whether the two following be ciftiné from this now de-
{cribed may admit of fome doubt, but we are perfuaded
they are fo.

3. L. Rbhagadiolus. Bird’s-foot Nipple-wort.—Scop.
Carn, ed. 2. v. 2.119. (Ragadiolus edulis; Gaertn. v. 2.
354. Willd.n.2. Rh. lampfane foliis; Tourn. Cor. 36 ?
Rh. alter; Tourn. Inft. 480. t. 272. Rh. fig. 1. La-
marck Illuftr. t. 655. Ragadiolus ; Cxfalp. 511.)—Seeds
few, awl-fhaped, widely {preading, fomewhat recurved, em-
braced by the {mooth calyx-feales. Stem fpreading. Ra-
dic \l leaves deeply runcinate, with rounded lobes.—WNative
of the fouth of Europe. We have garden f{pecimens, named
L. /rellata, from Mr. Davall. The radical kaves are deeply
and regularly pinnatifid in a lyrate manner, with two or
three pair of oppofite lobes, all rounded and blunt like the
terminal one, but each tipped neverthelefs, as in the former,
with a little callous or glandular point. The calyx is per-
fectly fmooth, beth in flower and fruit. Perfect feeds ge-
nerally but four, fhorter and thicker than in the laft, co-
loured, recurved, or, as Scopoli obferves, deflexed, well
compared by Czfalpinus to a bird's foot, from which de-
{cription and Tournefort’s figure there can be no doubt of
this being the plant both thefe authors meant, though
Tournefort appears to have reverfed the two fpecies of Cz-
falpinus ; and hence perhaps arofe the almoit inextricable
confufion among following authors. Linnzus could not
correct this, as he never faw but one fpecies. We believe
the two to be truly diftin@. The refemblance of the radical
leaves of the prefent to LZ. communis, makes us retain the

Qq fynonym

LAP

fynonym of Tournefort’s Corolla, though with a mark of
doubt.

4. L.. Koelpinia. Linear-leaved Nipple-wort.— Linn.

Suppl. 348. (Koelpinia linearis; Pallas It. v. 3. 755.
t. L, 1, f 2. Rhagadiolus Koelpinia; Willd. n. 3.)—
Seeds numerous, awl-fhaped, {preading, incurved, embraced
by the muricated calyx-fca'es. Leaves all linear-lanceolate,
entire. —Found by Palas in only one moift valley, by mount
Bogden, in the defert of Altrachan. We have a_ wild
{pecimen from Aleppo, given by fir Jofeph Banks, It
flowers in the middle of May, ripening feed by the end of
the month. The yellow blofloms open to the morning fun,
and clofe at noon. This isa very flender plant, with a {mall
annual root. ‘The /ems are from ten to eighteen inches long,
fearcely branched, loofely {preading, fmooth; fquare and
furrowed towards the top. Leaves diftant, ail linear lance-
olate, acute, entire, pliable, f{mooth, obfcurely three-ribbed.
Flowers folitary, on fhort fcattered ftalks, from the very
root to the extremity of cach ftem. Calyx clothed with in-
curved prickles.
fourteen, {preading from their bafe, but ftrongly incurved,
each inveited with one of the calyx-feales, whofe numerous,
incurved, hooked prickles are much more remarkable than
in either of the two lait, fome of them forming a recurved
{tar at the top of each feed. This {pecies is more akin to
L. ftellata perhaps than any other, but the characters given
above feem fufficient to keep them diftinét. Pallas fuggetted
the propriety of feparating the three la(t-deferibed {pecies
from Lapfana, by the name of Koelpinia; fee that article.
“Whether they ought to form a genus, is, to us at lealt,
doubtful. Schreber has agreed with Pallas if this point,
only properly preferring the name of Rhagadiolus for the
genus, as given by Cefalpinus and Tournefort, and cor-
reGtly derived from faye foyatec, a cleft or fifure, whether
it alludes to the reputed virtues of thefe plants in healing
cracks of the fkin, or to the cut (or ftar-like) afpeét of the
feeds. In habit they fufficiently accord with the original
Lapfana, and the difference in the pofition of the ripening
feeds is their only diftinétion. We ought rather perhaps to
admrre the fagacity of Linneus in perceiving their agree-
ment, than the ingenuity of thofe who have diftinguifhed
them. Pallas himfelf, with great modeity, merely fubmits
his opinion to the decifion of thofe who take the lead in bo-
tany. In the fame uncertainty we wifh now to leave it.—
L. Zacyntha feems to be feparated from the re{t with more
propriety, as its feeds have. a feathery crown, and the nature
of the torofe calyx is more like that of Crepis. Juffieu in-
cludes it under his genus Hedypnois ; fee that_article.

Three much more diffimilar-plants are ranged under Lap-
Jana by Willdenow. Thefe are Hyoferis fetida and minima
of Linnzus, with L. virgata of Desfontaines, Fl. Atlant.
v. 2. t. 215.—The firft is on the authority of Haller and
Scopoli, who fay the feeds are without down. We have
never feen them, but the ftemlefs habit of the plant, and its
whole afpeé, exactly like a Leontodon, are fo foreign to
Lapfana, that the natural charaéters of the genus would be
overfet by its admiflion.—Ayoferis minima, Gertner's dr-
noferis, t. 157, is indeed lefs unlike in habit, though ftem-
lets; but the feeds have an elevated border, and do not
agree with Laf/ana.

The third, virgata, hes fo great a number of florets as
to take off an important part of its generic affinity, and its
habit is more like an Hedypnois. “Having feen no {pecimen,
we can decide nothing as to this fpecies. It is neceflary to
know whether the feeds have an elevated border, in which
eafe it might very well be placed along with Hyo/eris minima,
wherever that:remains ; or whether they be truly all without

Ripe /eeds numerous, about twelve or’

iG A P

a crown, and contraéted at the fummit, as in the true {pecies
of Lapfana. 5.

LAPSARILI.
SUPRALAPSARIL P

LAPSE, in Law, a flip or omiffion of a patron to pre-
fent a clerk to a benefice within fix months of its being
void: in which cafe, the benefice is faid to be in lapfe,:
or lapfed, and the right of prefentation devolved to the or-
dinary.

And if the ordinary negle& to prefent during the fame
time, the right of prefentation accrues to the metropolitan,
and to the king by negle& of the metropolitan. This right
of lapfe was firit eflabiifhed in the reign of Henry II., when
the bifhops firft began to exercife univerfally the right of
in{titution to churches (Braét. |. 4. tr. 2. c. 3.) : and there-
fore, when there is no right of inftitution, there is no right
of lapfe; fo that no donative can lapfe to the ordinary, unlefs °
it hath been augmented by the king’s bounty ({t. 1 Geo. I.
it. 2. c. 10.) 3 but no right of lapfe can accrue when the
original prefentation is in the crown. (St. 17 Edw. Il.
c.8. 2 Inft, 273.) In cafe the benefice becomes void by
death, or ceffion through plurality of benefices, there the
patron is bound to take notice of the vacancy at his own
peril; but in cafe of a vacancy by refignation, or canonical
deprivation, or if a clerk prefented be refufed for infuffi-
ciency, thefe being matters of which the bifhop alone is pre-
fumed to be cognizant, here the law requires him to give
notice theréof to the patron; otherwife he can take no ad-
vantage by way of lapfe. (4 Rep. 75. 2 Inlt. 632.)
Neither fhall any lapfe accrue thereby to the metropolitan or
the king. If the bifhop refufe or negleét to examine and
admit the patron’s clerk, without good reafon efligned or
notice given, he fhali have no title to prefent by lapfe
(2 Roll. Abr. 639.) and if the right of prefentation be li-
tigious or conte{ted, and an aGtion be brought againft tke
bifhop to try the title, no lapfe fhall occur till the queftion
of right be decided. (Co. Litt. 344.) If the bifhop be
both patron and ordinary, he fhall not have a double time
allowed him to collate in (Gibf. Cod. 769.) ; and if the
bifhop doth not collate his own clerk immediately to the
living, and the patron prefents, though after the fix months
are lapfed, yet the prefentation is good, and the bifhop is
bound to inftitute the patron’s clerk. (2 Init. 273.) If
the bifhop fuffer the prefentation to lapfe to the metropo-
litan, the patron alfo has the fame advantage if he prefents
before the archbifhop has filled up the benefice: yet the or-
dinary cannot after lapfe to the metropolitan, collate his own
clerk to the prejudice of the archbifhop. (2 Roll Abr. 368.)
But if the prefentation lapfes to the king, the patron fhall
never recover his right, till the king has fatisfied his turn by
prefentation ; for ullum tempus occurrit regi. But to pre-
vent the inconvenience of the church’s continuing void for
ever, unlefs the king fhall be pleafed to prefent, the law has
lodged a power in the patron’s hands of, as it were, com-
pelling the king to prefent. Tor if, during the delay of
the crown to prefent, the patron himfelf prefents, and his
clerk is inftituted, the king indeed, by prefenting another,
may turn out the patron’s clerk; or, after induction, may
remove him by guare.impedit: but if he does not, and the
patron’s clerk dies incumbent, or is canonically deprived,
the king hath loft his mht, which was only to the next or
firft prefentation. 7 Rep. 28. Cro. Eliz. 44. Blackit.
Com. vol. ii.

LAPSED Leeacy. See Lecacy,

LAP-SIDED, in Sea Language, denotes the ftate of a
fhip, which is built in fuch a manner as to have one fide
heavier than the other, and confequently to retain a ot

2 ee.

Sce INFRALAPSARII, SUBLAPSARII, and

LAR

heel or tendency toward the heayer fide, unlefs when fhe is
brought upright by placing a greater quantity of the cargo
or ballalt on the other fide.

LAPTANA, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
province of Samland; 10 miles N. of Konigfberg.

LAPTCHOUT-HOTUN, a town of Afia, in the
country of Hami; 30 miles W. of Hami-Hotun. N. lat.
43°. E. long. 92° 48’.

LAPUSZNA, a town of European Turkey, in Mol-
davia, near a river of the fame name; 50 miles E.S.E. of
Jali.

LAPWING, Caperta, in Ornithology, the black-
brealted tringa, wich a hanging creft, or Tringa vanellus of
Linnzus, commonly known in England by the name of lap-
wing or baftard plover, and called by fome, in Latin, vanel-
lus. See TrinGa.

Were the lapwing lefs common, it would be highly
efteemed for its beauty. It is very frequent in our fenny
countries, and in the wet places of moft other parts of
Europe.

Iz lays four eggs, of an olive caft, {potted with black, in
a flight neft made with a few bents. The young, as foon as
hatched, run like chickens, and are preferved with great
anxiety and clamour by their parents from apprehended
danger ; whichare faid to flutter along the ground to a con-
fiderable diltance from their neft, to elude purfuers, and to
become more clamorous when moft remote from it. The
eggs are much valued for their delicacy, and are fold by the
London poulterers for three fhillings per dozen. In winter,
lapwings join in large flocks, and are very wild; their flefh
is very good, their food being infeéts and worms. During
Odtober and November, they are taken in the fens in nets,
in the fame manner as ruffs are, but are not preferved for
fattening, being killed as foon as caught. Ray and Pen-
nant.

LAQUEARIUS, a kind of athleta among the ancients,
who in one hand held a /agueus, i.e. a fort of {nare, where-
with to embarrafs and entangle his antagoniit, and in the
other a poignard to itab him.

LAQUER. See Lacquer.

LAQUEUS, in Surgery, a noofe or fnare ; or a-kind of
ligature, fo contrived, that when itretched, by any weight,
vor the like, it draws up clofe.

It is ufed to extend broken or disjointed bones, to keep
them in their places, when they are fet, and to bind the
parts clofe together.
~ LAQUILO, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Medi-
terranean, near the coait of Murcia, about 3 miles S.E. of
Almagaran.

“LAR, or Laar, acity of Perfia, and capital of Lariftan,
fituated on a fandy foil, amidft barren mountains; but the
gardens, of which each houfe has one, abound with dates, an
excellent fruit, which particularly profpers in this part of
Perfia. The houfes are low, and in the time of Chardin
were about 200. The city alfo contains bazars, mofques,
a caftle on a rock, and a palace, in which the governor re-
fides. The Jewsrefide in a quarter by themfelves, and carry
ona filk manufaéture ; and the Dutch have a factory here.
In the vicinity are plantations of oranges and tamarinds, as
well as dates; and at the foot of a mountain, at a {mall
diftance from the city, is found the fubttance called
««Mummy ;”? 120 miles W. of Ormus. N. lat. 27° 20!.
E. long. 54° 10'.

LARA, a town of Spain, in Old Caftile, on the Arlenza;
‘33 miles S.S.E. of Burgos. >

LARACHA, or Laracue, a fea-port town of Africa, in
the empire of Morocco, on the river Luccos, near the Atlaatic

LAR

ocean, ‘I'he environs are interfeCted by woods and marfKer,
A fort, built by the Spaniards, on the land fide, ftill remains,
and the caftle on the fide of the road is defended by batteries,
which lie clofe to the water's edge. The river is of good
depth ; and fome commerce was formerly carried on in this
place by the Europeans; but in the year 1780, the emperor
compelled the merchants to retire. ‘The large veflels of
the emperor ufually winter here; but there are no docks
for fhip-building. The road of this harbour is infecure in
winter, but it is free from danger between the beginning of
April and the end of September ; 33 miles S. of Tangiers.
N. lat. 34° 58’. W. long. 6 2% Chenier’s Morocco,
vol. i.

LARADA, a town of Tripoli; 30 miles S.E. of
Mefurada.

LARAGNE, a town of France, in the department of
the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict
of Gap; 9 miles S.S.E. of Serres. The place contains
664, and the canton 3673 inhabitants, on a territory of
1924 kiliometres, in 8 communes.

LARANDA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Afia, in
Cappadocia, belonging to Antiochiana, according to Pto-
lemy, who joins this canton to Lycaonia, but by other. au-
thors it is united with Pifidia and Ifauria.

LARASSA, a town of Afia, in Media, not far from
Ecbatana. Ptol.

LARBOARD, in Sea Language, the left-hand fide of
the fhip, looking forward from the itern.

LARBORUM, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal town
of Afia, in Caria.

LARCENY, or Larciyy, in Law, is a theft of per-
fonal goods or chattels, in the owner's abfence. See
THEFT.

The word comes from the French /arcin ; and that from
the Latin /atrocinium, theft.

Larceny is diftinguifhed by the law into two forts; the
one called /imple larceny, or plain theft, unaccompanied with
any other atrocious circumitance ; and mixed or compound
larceny, which includes in it the aggravation of taking from
one’s houfe or perfon,

In ref{pe& of the things ftolen, /imple larceny is either great
or fall.

Larceny, Great, Grand, is when the things ftolen, though
feverally, exceed the value of 12d.

Larceny, Petty, or Petit, is when the goods ftolen exceed
not the value of 12d.

Simple larceny is defined the felonious taking, and carrying
away, the perfonal goods of another: fo that im order to
conftitute this crime, there muft be a ézéizg, which implies
the confent of the owner to be wanting ; and therefore no
delivery of the goods from the owner to the offender, upon
truft, can ground a larceny. By the common law it was
no larceny in a fervant to run away with the goods com-
mitted to him to keep, but only a breach of trult: but by
ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 7. if any fervant embezzles his
matter’s goods to the value of 4os. it is made felony, except
in an apprentice and fervants under eighteen years old. But
if he had not the poffeffion, but only the care and overfight
of the goods, as the butler of plate, the fhepherd of fheep,
and the like; the embezzling of them is felony at common
law. (2 Hal. P. C. 506.) By the declaratory act of
39 Geo. III. c. 85. entitled “ An a& to proteé& matters
againft embezzlements by their clerks or fervants,’”” it is
enacted and declared, that if any fervant or clerk, or any
perfon employed for the purpofe in the capacity of a fer-
vant or clerk, to any perfon or perfons whomfoever, ce to
any bedy corporate or. politic, fhall, by virtue of fuch em-

Qq 2 playment,

LARCENY.

ployment, receive or take into his poffeffion any money,
goods, bond, bill, note, banker’s draft, or other valuable
fecurity, or effects, for, or in the name, or on the account of
his matter or matters, or employer or employers, and fhall
fraudulently embezzle, feerete, or make away with the
fame, or any part thereof; every fuch offender fhall be
deemed, to have felonioufly {tole the fame ; although fuch
money, goods, &c. was or were not otherwife received into
the pofleffion of fuch mater or matters, &c. than by the
actual poffeflion of his or their fervant, clerk, or other per-
fon fo employed. And every fuch offender, his advifer,
procurer, aider, or abettor, being thereby lawfully convicted
or attainted, {hall be liable to be tranfported to {uch parts
&c. for any term not exceeding fourteen years, in the dif-
cretion of the court before whom he fhall be convited or
adjudged. Several ftatutes have alfo, at various times,
paifed to protect public companies from depredations by
their officers and fervants ; as 15 Geo. II. c. 13. f. 12. with
re{pect to thofe of the bank of England, rendering embez-
zlement a capital felony; 35 Geo. III. c. 66. {. 6. and
37 Geo. IIL. c. 46. touching certain annuities payable at
the bank of England, and containing the fame provifions as
the.15 Geo. II. c. 13. f.r2. The 24 Geo. II. c. rr. f. 3.
contains the fame provifions refpeéting 'the officers and fer-
vants of the South Sea houfe.
tavern of a piece of plate, it is larceny (1 Hawk. P. C. 90.) 5
and fo it is declared to be by 3 & 4 W. & M. c.g. if a
lodger runs away with the goods from his ready furnifhed
fodgings. ‘There mutt alfo be a carrying away ; and a bare
removal from the place in which he found the goods, though
the thief does not quite make off with them, is fufficient.
But this mult be felonious, i. e. done animo furandi, or, as the
civil law exprefles it, /ucri canfa. (Init. 4. f.1.) The
ordinary difeovery of a felonious intent, is where the party
doth it clandeftinely, or, being charged with the faét, denies
it: belides which, there are other circumttances that evince
a felonious intent, which are left to the confideration of the
court and jury. Moreover, this felonious taking and earry-
ing away mutt be of the personal goods of another. Of things
that adhere to a freehold, as corn, grafs, trees, and the like,
or lead upon a honfe, no larceny could be committed by
common law ; but the feverance of them was, and in many
things is ftill, merely a trefpais: however, if the thief fevers
them at one time, whereby the trefpafs is completed,
and they ave converted into perfonal chattels, in the con-
flruétive poffeffion of him on whofe foil they are left or laid,
and comes again at another time, when they are fo turned
into perfonality, and takes them away, it is larceny; and
alfoif the owner, or any one elfe, has fevered them. (3 Init.
rog. 3 Hal. P.C. 510.) And by 4 Geo. II..c. 32. to
iteal, or fever with intent to iteal any lead or iron fixed to
a dwelling-houfe, or out-houfe, or in any court or garden
belonging to it, is made felony, liable to tranfportation for
feven years. And by 21 Geo. IIT. c. 68. he who fhall ftea},
rip, cut, break, or remove, with intent to fteal any copper,
brafs, bell-metal, utenfil, or fixture, fixed to any building,
or in any garden, orchard, court-yard, fence, or outlet, be-
longing to any building, or iron-rails, or fencing, &c. and
alfo his aiders and abettors, and all who fhall knowingly buy
or receive the fame, fhall be guilty of felony, and tranfported
for fever years, or detained in prifon and kept to hard
labour, not exceeding three years, nor lefs than one, and
within that time, if the court fhall think fit, fhall be once
or oftener, but not more than thrice, publicly whipped.
Moreover, to {teal underwood or hedges, and the like, to
rob orchards or gardens of fruit growing therein, to {teal or
otherwife deftroy any turnips, or the roots of madder

So if a gueft robs his inn or

when growing, are, by 43 Eliz. ¢.7. 15 Car. IT, ¢. 2
31 Geo. Il. c. 25. 6 Geo. III, c. 48. 9 Geo. IIT. c. 41,
13 Geo. IIL. c. 32. punifhable criminally by whipping,
fmall fines, imprifonment, and -fatisfaCtion to the party
wronged, according to the nature of the offence. More-
over, the ftealing by night of any trees, roots, fhrubs,
or plants; to the value of 5s. is by 6 Geo, III. c. 36, made
felony in the principals, aiders, and abettors, and in the pur-
chafers knowing the fame to be {tolen ; and by 6 Geo. IIT.
ec. 48. and 13 Geo. HII. c. 23. the ftealing of any timber-
trees, as oak, beech, chefnut, walnut, afh, elm, cedar, fir,
afp, lime, fycamore, birch, poplar, alder, larch, maple, and
hornbeam, and of any root, fhrub, or plant, by day or night,
is liable to pecuniary penalties for the firlt two offences, and
for the third is conftituted a felony, liable to tranfportation
for feven years. Stealing ore out of mines is no larceny,
except the ftealing ore ovt of mines of black lead, which is
felony without benefit of the clerzy by 25 Geo, II. ¢. 10.
Stealing of writings relating to a real ettate is no felony, but
atrefpafs (x Hal. P.C. 510. Stra. 1137.): bonds, bills, and
notes are goods of which larceny cannot be committed by
common law (8 Rep. 33.): but by 2 Geo. II. c. 25. they
are put upon the fame footing with refpe& to larcenies, as
the money they were defigned to fecure. And by 7 Geo. III.
c. 50. if any officer or fervant of the poft-office fhall fecrete,
embezzle, or dettroy any letter or packet, containing any
bank-note, or other valuable paper, {pecilied in the act; or
fhall fteal the fame out of any letter or packet, he fhall be
guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. 'Or if he fhall
deltroy any letter or packet with which he has received
money for the poltage, or advance the rate of poitage, and
fecrete the money, he fhall’be guilty of fingle felony. By
26 Geo. IE. c. 1g. plundering or ftealing from any fhip in
dittrefs, whether wreck or no wreck, is felony, without
benefit of clergy. For the laws relating to fish and game,
fee Stealing of Fisu and Gamr.

Of all valuable domeftic animals, as horfes, and of all
animals, domite nature, which ferve for food, as fwine, fheep,
poultry, and the like, larceny may be committed ; and alfo
of the flefh of fuch as are fere nature, when killed. 1 Hal.
BP. Cr5rr

Although no lareeny can be committed, unlefs there be
fome property in the thing taken, and an owner; yet, if
the owner be unknown, provided there be a property, it is
larceny to fteal it; and an indiétment will lie, for the goods
of a perfon unknown. (1 Hal P.C. 512.) This is the
cafe of ftealing a throud out of a grave; which is the pro-
perty of thofe, whoever they were, that buried the deceafed,
but ftealing the corpfe itfelf, which has no owner, (though
a matter of great indecency,) is no felony, unlefs fome of
the grave clothes be flolen with it. *

By the Roman law, the penalty of fimple and fecret lar= _
ceny was the returning it two-fold; and of manifeft larceny
four-fold ; manife/t larceny was, where the criminal was
taken in the fact; fimple, where he was not. The Lace-
dzmonians never punifhed larceny provided the perfon was
not caught in the faét; but, on the contrary, it was ap-
plauded as a mark of dexterity and addrefs. See Lacn-
DEMONIANS.

The laws of Draco at Athens, which are faid to be writ-
ten in blood, punifhed it with death ; but Solon afterwards
changed the penalty into a pecuniary mulét: and fo the
Attic laws in general continued. By the Jewifh law, theft
was only punifhed with a pecuniary fine, and fatisfaétion to
the party injured. (Exod. chap. xxii.) From thefe exam-
ples, as well as the reafon of the thing, many learned and
icrupulous men have queftioned the propriety, if not law-

fulnefs

LARCENY.

fulnefs, of inflicting capital punifhment for fimple theft; and
propoled either a ‘pecuniary or a corporal punifhment.
Thomas More in his Utopia, p. 42. and more lately the
marquis Beccaria, Eff. on Crimes and Punifhments, chap.
Xxii. have propofed thet kind of corporal punifhment, which
approaches neareft to a pecuniary fatisfaction, viz. a tem-
porary imprifonment, with an obligation to labour, firlt for
the party robbed, and afterwards for the public, in works
of the mot flavith kind: neverthelefs the punifhment of
theft ftill continues, through the greatett part of Europe,
to be capital. Puffendorf (Law of Nat. 1. 8. c. 3.) and
fir Matthew Hale (1 Hal. P. C. 13.) are of opinion, that
thismult be always referred to the prudence of the legifla-
ture; yet both writers agree, that fuch punithment fhould
be cautioufly inflicted, and never without the utmoit necef-
fity.. It is obferved, that our ancient Saxon laws nominally
punithed theft with death, if above the value of 12d. but
the criminal was permitted to redeem his life by a pecuniary
ranfom : as, among their anceftors the Germans, by a itated
number of cattle. (Tacit. de Mor. Germ. c. 12.) But in
the ninth year of Henry I. this power of redemption was
taken away, and perfons guilty of great larceny directed to
be hanged, which law continues in force to this day. (1 Hal.
P.C. 12. 3 Inft.53.) See Ferony. Pefi? larceny by com-
mon law is only punifhable by whipping or imprifonment.
(3 Int. 218.) Or, by 4 Geo. I.c. 11. the punifhment may
be extended to tranfportation for feven years; but the
punifhment of grand larceny, or dtealing above the value of
12d. which fum was the ftandard in the time of king Athel-
ftan, eight hundred years ago, is, at common law, regularly
death : upon which fir Henry Spelman obferved, above a
century fince; when money was at twice its prefent rate,
that while every thing elfe was rifen in its nominal value, and
become dearer, the life of man had continually grown
cheaper. And though the jury may exercife'a kind of un-
warrantable clemency, by bringing in larceny under the va-
lue of 12d. and the benefit of clergy is allowed for the firit
offence ; yet in many cafes of fimple larceny this is taken
away by the ftatute; as from horie-{tealing (1 Edw. VI.
c.12. 2 & 3 Edw. Vi.c. 33. 31 Eliz. c. 12.), taking wool-
Ten-cloth from off the tenters ({tat. 22 Car. IT. c. 5.), or
linen, fuftians, calicoes, or cotton goods from the place of
manufacture (18 Geo. II. c. 27.), ttealing fheep or other
cattle {pecified in the ats (14 Geo. II c.6. 15 Geo. II.
c. 34), thefts on navigable rivers above the value of. 405.
(24 Geo. II. c. 45-), plundering veffels in diftrefs, or that
have fuffered fhipwreck (12 Ann. ftat.2.c.18. 26 Geo. II.
e. 19 ), itealing letters fent by the poit (7 Geo. IIE.c. 50.),
and itealing deer, hares, and conies under the circumitances
recited in the Waltham Black ad, ftat. gq Geo. I. c. 22.

The Circaffians are faid to honour theft at this day ;
infomuch that at their public feafts, their youth are not fuf-
fered to drink, if they have not performed fomething re-
markable in that way. Solinus tells us, that in Sardinia
there was a fountain that had the virtue of difcovering a
perfon that had committed larceny. ‘

Compound or mixed larceny is that, which, befides all the
properties of the former, has the aggravation of taking
from one’s houfe or perfon. With refpeé& to larceny from
the hou/z, fee BurcLAry and House-breaking.

It may be here obferved, that the benefit of clergy is de-
nied: 1. In all larcenies above the value of 12d. from a
church, or from a dwelling-houfe, or both, any perfon
being therein. 2. In all larcenies to the value of 5s. com-
mitted by breaking the dwelling houfe, though no perfon
be therein. 3. In all larcenies to the value of 40s. from a
dwelling-houfe, or its out-houfes, without breaking in, and

Sir:

whether any perfon be therein or no. 4. In all Jarcenies to
the value of 5s. from any fhop, warehoufe, coach-houfe,
or ftable, whether the fame be broke open or not, and whe-
ther any perfon be therein or no: whether thefe offences are
committed by day or by night.

Larceny from the perfon is either by privately ftealing ;
or by open and violent affault, ufually called robbery. The
offence of privately ftealing from a man’s perfon-above the
value of 12d. as by privately picking his pocket or the like,
without his knowledge, was debarred of clergy, fo early as
by the ftatute 8 Eliz.c. 14. For the other kind of larceny
from the perfon, fee Roppery. See alfo Fenony.

Perfons who buy or receive any ftolen goods, knowing
the fame to be ftolen, fhall be deemed acceffaries after the
fact: 3 W. c.g; and by 4Geo. c. 11. they may be tranf-
ported for fourteen years: and by 5 Anne, c. 31. fuch per-
fons, and thofe who conceal any felons or thieves, hall be
deemed acceflary to the felony, and being conviGted on the
tettimony of one witnefs fhall fuffer death as a felon convi@ :
but within clergy. If the principal felon cannot be taken,
fo as to be profecuted and convicted, yet the buyer and re-
ceiver of {tolen goods may be profecuted for a mifdemefnor,
and punifhed by fine and imprifonment, or other fuch corpo-
ral punifhment as the court fhall think fit; which fhall ex-
empt him from being punifhed as acceflary, if the principal
fhail be afterwards taken and convicted. Receivers of ftolen
lead, iron, copper, brafs, bell-metal, and folder, fixed to
or being in any houfes, out-houfes, mills, &c. fhall, on con-
viétion by due courfe of law, although the principal hath
not been convicted, be tranfported for fourteen years.
Sufpeéted places may be fearched, and fufpeGted perfons
may be apprehended, and carried before two juftices, and if
the perfon from whom the goods were received be not pro-
duced, or fome credible witnefs do not depofe upon oath
the fale or delivery of them, or no fatisfactory account of
them he given, they fhall be adjudged guilty of a mifdemef-
nor. Every perfon, to whom fuch goods fhall be offered
for fale, or to be pawned, fhall apprehend the perfon offer-
ing them ; and if it fhall appear, to the fatisfa@ion of two
juitices, that fuch perfon did not apprehend, &c. the per-
fon who brought or offered the fame, then he fhall be ad-
judged guilty of a mifdemefnor. And perfons for the
two former mifdemefnors, in having or carrying any of the
faid goods, fhall forfeit for the firit offence 4os., for the
fecond 4/., and for every fubfequent offence 6/.; and for
rot carrying a fuipected perfon before a juttice, he fhali-
forfeit for the fir‘t offence 20s., for the fecond 40s., and for
every fubfequent offence 4/. (29 Geo. II. c. 30) By
21 Geo. 411. c. 69. every perfon who fhall buy or receive any
pewter pot or other veilel, or any pewter, knowing the
fame to be ftolen or unlawfully come by, or fhall privately
buy or receive any ftolen pewter, he thall, though the prin-
cipal perfon be not convicted, be tranfported not exceédin
feven years, or detained in prifon and kept to hard labour
not more than three years nor lefs than one; and within that.
time be once or oftener, but not. more than thrice, pub-
licly whipped. Perfons offering for pawn or fale goods.
fufpected to be itolen, may be feized and conveyed by a
confable or other peace officer before a juftice, who may
commit them for any time not exceeding fix days for examir
nation, and afterwards, if the goods were itolen or clandefs
tinely obtained, to the common gaol or houfe of correAion.
(30 Geo. II. c. 24.) Perfons advertifing a reward for helping
to ftolen goods, and alfo the printer and publifher of, fuch
advertifement, fhall refpeétively forfeit so/. with.cofts-(25
Geo. II. c. 36.) And by 4 Geo. c. 11. thofe who receive
{uch reward, without apprehending the felon ani bringing

m

LAR

him to trial, fhall be guilty of felony in the fame manner as
if they had ftolen the fame. The charges of profecution
and conyidtion, in refpeé of any grand or petit larceny, may,
by order of court, and at the prayer of the profecutor, be
paid by the county treafurer, with a reafonable allowance
for his time’and trouble.. (25 Geo. II. c. 36.) And by
48 Geo. III. c. 19. the fame charges fhall be allowed to the
profecuter, whether the perfon tried be convicted or ac-
quitted, provided that in this latter cafe it fhall appear to
the court that there was reafonable ground of profecution,
and that the profecutor had bond fide profecuted. And by
27 Geo. II. c. 3. 18 Geo. III. c. 19. reafonable charges
may be allowed and paid in the fame manner, to a poor per-
fon who is required to give evidence: in Middlefex thefe
charges fhall be paid by the overfeers of the poor where the
peyfon was apprehended. It is provided by ftatute, that
every perfon who fhall apprehend any one guilty of houfe-
breaking or private ftealing, to the value of 5s. and profe-
cute him to conviction, and all the executors or adminiftra-
tors of a perfon {lain in endeavouring to apprehend a houfe-
breaker or felon, fhall have a certificate without fee, under
the hand of the judge, certifying fuch conviétion; &c. which
certificate fhall be inroiled by the clerk of the peace of the
county where it is granted, and may be once afligned over
and no more. By virtue of this certificate the original pro-
prietor, or affignee of the fame, fhall be difcharged from
all parifh and ward offices, within the parifh or ward where
the felony was committed. (10 & 11 W. c. 23.) Every
fuch perfon, and alfo thé executors and adminiltrators of a
perfon killed as before, fhall alfo have another certificate,
which, on being tendered to the fheriff, and demand made,
fhall entitle him to the fum of 40/. without fee, in one month
after the tender and demand ; on pain of forfeiting double
with treble cofts. (5 Anne, c. 31.) See Discovery of Ac-
complices.

The fheriff, on producing the certificates and the receipts
for the faid rewards, may deduét the fame from his accounts ;
and if he have not money in his hands, he fhall be repaid out
of the treafury, on certificate from the clerk of the pipe;
er he may immediately apply to the commiffioners of the
treafury, who fhall pay the fame without fee. 3 Geo.

esr hs
LARCH-Tres, Larix, in Botany. Linneus refers this
to the genus of pine. See Pinus Larix.
lt is the common name of a kind of pine or fir tree, the
Jeaves of which are long and narrow, and are produced out of
iittle knots or tubercles, in the form of a painter’s pencil ;
. the cones are produced at remote diftances from the male
flowers on the fame tree; the flowers are very bke {mall
cones at their firft appearance, but afterwards ftretched
out in length. Thefe trees are propagated by feeds, which
fhould be fown in the béginning of March, upon a bed of
light foil, expofed to the morning fun only ; or they may
be fown in pots or boxes of light earth, and placed near a
hedge, where they may be expofed to it. The feed fhould
be covered about half an inch thick with fine light earth,
and in very dry weather fhould be gently refrefhed with
water. In about fix weeks, if the feeds be good, the plants
will come up, at which time they fhould be carefully guarded
again{t rapacious birds, which would otherwife pull off the
heads of the plants, as they thruft themfelyes out of the
ground with their covers on them; and refrefh them with
water in dry weather, efpecially if they are fown in pots or
boxes; alfo keep them clear from weeds, which, if {uffered
to grow among the young plants, will foon deftroy them.
In O@ober, if they are in boxes or pots, remove them into
a fituation where they may be defended from fharp winds,

LAR

which are fometimes hurtful to them, while young ; but
afterwards they will endure the fevereft weather of our cli-
mate. ‘Thefe trees are very proper for the fides of barren
hills, where few other forts will thrive fo well; nor are they
very delicate in regard to foil, but will grow much better on
poor, ftrong, ftony land, than in rich ground; during the
fummer, they appear very beautiful; but in autumn they
calt their leaves, and are not evergreen like the fir.

It has been obferved in the fifth volume of the Annals of
Agriculture, that ‘ lgrix wood is pofleffed of fo many va-
luable qualities, that to enumerate the whole would appear
an extravagant hyperbole, It is known to refift water,
without rotting, almoit forever. The. piles of larix tim-
ber on which the houfes of Venice were built many hundred
years ago, when examined, are {till found as frefh as when
firft put in. And he has been told, ftakes of it have been
tried in the decoys of Lincolnfhire, which, between wind and
water, have already out-worn two or threé fets of oak ftakes,
and do not yet difcover any fymptoms of decay. It is aifo
known to poffefs the valuable quality of neither fhrinking
nor warping, when put into work; nor is it liable to be
pierced by worms in our climate, as many of the paintings of
Raphael Urban, which are done on this wood, and are {till
perfeGly entire, fufficiently prove. Experiments have not
yet afcertained whether it will refift the fea-worm in tropical
climates, like the Bermuda cedar; but there is reafon to
think it would, as, in many of its other properties, it re-
fembles that wood very much. Along with thefe valuable
properties, it is known to be one of the quickeft growing
trees in this climate, remarkably hardy, and extremely
beautiful when growing. It is, befides, much more eafily
reared than the oak, and could be {pread oyer a great extent
of mountains, if fufficiently bare of herbage, at kext to no
expence, by the natural fhedding of its feeds, hike birch or
fir in foils that favour them, merely by keeping out cattle
from thofe fields in which fmall clumps of this kind of wood
had been planted fome years before. In this way very ex-
tenfive tracts in the condition juit defcribed might be en-
tirely filled with this valuable timber. ‘The ufes to which
it might be applied are innumerable. It would be valuable
not only for fhip-plank, but even crooked timbers might be
obtained by uling a little art, when young, to bend it, as
the Bermudians do their cedar ; for flood-gates in navigable
canals and wet-docks it would exceed every thing that can
be obtained in this climate. For barrel-itaves it would be
inimitable, «nd would enable us to furnifh that article as
cheap as any other nation whatever ; and in building it would
anfwer all the purpofes to which fir is now applied, being
much ftronger and more durable than that wood. And
when it is alfo adverted to, that it is next to incombuftible,
the reader will not think it ftrange that he in this manner
fo ftrongly recommends it to the attention of his country-
men, particularly thofe in the moft rugged and barren dif-
trids; for, in fuch fituations, it would be eafy to fhew,
that, at a very trifling charge, they might, in a fhort period
of years, bring their eftates to a hundred times the value they
bear at prefent, or even-can be made to bear by any other
kind of improvement. This would be a much more eligible
plan of bettering their fortunes than that of trying to fqueeze,
with difficulty, from a poor people, a raifed rent, for a fub-
je@t that does not admit of proportionable improvement.
See PLANTING. a

The common cone-bearing larch-tree grows naturally
upon the Alps and Apennines, and has been lately much
propagated in England. | Thofe trees raifed from feeds
thrive beft in the worlt foil and fituation. ‘There are two
varieties of this tree, one of which is a native of Sa

an

LAR

and the other of Siberia ; neither of which thrive well in
this climate. In, Switzerland the wood of the common
Jarch-tree is ufed for building and covering the, houfes ; and
in other countries, where it abounds, it is preferred for
every purpofe to all the kinds of fir. In many places there
are fhips built of this wood, which are faid to be durable ;
and, therefore, this may be a very proper tree for planting
upon fome of the cold barren hills in many parts of Eng-
land, which, befides the profit they would yield to their pro-
prietors, would alfo conduce to national benefit. The Ve-
nice turpentine is extracted from the larch-tree. See Tur-
~PENTINE.
_ LARCHE, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of Correze, and chief place of a canton, in the
diitrict of Brives. he place contains 569, and the canton
6679 inhabitants, on a territory of 135 kiliometrés, in nine
commumes.
LARCIANO, a town of Etruria ; five miles S. of Piftoia.
LARDNER, Narnaniet, in Biography, was born at
Hawkhertt, in the county of Kent, on the 6th of June,
1684. He probably received his grammatical learningat Deal,
which was his father’s refidence, and where he was paftor of
a congregation of Proteftant Diffenters ; and from {chool he
was removed to a diflenting academy in London, under the
care of the Rey. Dr. Jofhua Oldfield ; but after ftaying here
a fhort time, he was fent, inthe year 1699, and when he
was only in his fixteenth year, to profecute his ftudies at
Utrecht, under profeflors D’Uries, Grzvius, and Bur-
man. In his journey he was accompanied by Mr. Martin
Tomkins, and on their arrival they found there Mr. Daniel
Neal. After {pending fomewhat more than three years at
Utrecht, Mr. Lardner removed to Leyden, where he ftudied
about fix months. In 1703, he returned to England, and
from this time to 1709, we have no memorials concerning
him. In the laft mentioned year he preached, for the firlt
time, at Stoke Newington, trom the words of the Apoltle
Paul, “ For I am not afhamed of the gofpel of Chrift,”” &c.
“There could not,” fays his biographer, the excellent Dr.
Kippis, “have been a more proper text, for a man who
was deflined, in the order of divine providence, to be one of
the ablelt advocates for the authenticity and truth of the
Chriftian revelation that ever exifted.”? In 1713, Mr. Lardner
undertook the tuition of Mr. Brindley Treby, fonof firGeorge
Treby, knt. late lord chief juftice of the commun-pleas. Hav-
ing conduéted the ftudies of the young man, about three years,
in lady Treby’s houfe, where he was domettic chaplain, he ac-
companied him in an excurfion into France, the Auftrian Ne-
therlands, and the United Provinces, which employed them
about four months. It does not appear how long his connec-
tion, in lady Treby’s family, as tutor, lafted, but he continued
to refide in the houfe till fhe died, in 1721. In 1723, Mr.
Lardner was engaged with a number of minifters, in carrying
on a courfe of leétures, on a Tuefday evening, at the Old
Jewry. The gentlemen who conducted thefe le€tures preached
a courfe of fermons on the evidences of natural and revealed
religion. The proof of the credibility of the gofpel hiltory
was affigned to Mr. Lardner, and he delivered three fer-
mons on this fubjeé&t, which probably laid the foundation of
his great work, as from this period he was diligently en-
gaged in writing the firft part of the Credibility. In 1727,
he publifhed, in two volumes o€tavo, the firft part of ‘The
Credibility of the Gofpel Hiftory ; or the facts occafionally
mentioned in the New Teftament, confirmed by paflages of
ancient authors who were contemporary with our Saviour, or
his Apoftles, or lived near their time.’ This has been
efteemed by perfons of all parties an invaluable performance,
that has rendered the moft eflential fervice to the caule of

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Chriftianity. It has pafled through feveral editions. Tn
the year 1728, Mr. Lardner’s life was long defpaired of, by
the attack of a violent fever, from the effects of which he
flowly recovered. With all his great merit, Mr. Lardner,
defirous of a fettlement as a diffenting minifter, did not re-
ceive an invitation for this purpofe till he was 45 years of age.
It was in 1729 he became affiltant to Dr. Harris, minifter at
Crutched or Crouched Friars. About this period he publifhed
«A Vindication of three of our blefled Saviour’s Miracles ;
viz. The Raifing of Jairus’s Daughter, The Widow of
Nairn’s Son, and Lazarus,”’ in anfwer to Mr. Woollfton’s
attack on the fcripture account of Chrift’s miracles. In
1733, appeared the firlt volume of the fecond part of “The
Credibility of the Gofpel Hiftory ;”? this volume comes
down to the year 178, and is prefaced by an introduction,
giving a clear and very luminous hiitory cf the New Tefla-
ment. It was immediately tranflated into the Low Dutch
and Latin languages. The fecond volume was publifhed
in 1735, and concludes the author’s remarks out of Chriftian
writers of the fecond century. In 1736, he was attacked with
another dangerous fever, the effeéts of which prevented him
from preaching for feveral months. In 1738, Mr. Lardner
publifhed the third volume of the fecond part of “ The Cre-
dibility,"’ ending with the year 2333 in 1740, the fourth
volume, which comes down to the year 248 ; and, in 1743, he
publifhed the fifth volume, which concludes with the year
306. About the fame period he fent into the world another
performance, entitled “The Circumitances of the Jewifh
People, an Argument for the Truth of the Chriftian Religion,
in three Difcourfes.’? He brought out the remaining vo-
lumes of * The Credibility,” at intervals between this pe-
riod and the year 1755, and in the next two years he added
to this great and valuable work a fupplement, in three yo-
lumes, comprifing a hiftory of the apoftles and evangelifts,
with remarks and obfervations upon every book of the New
Teftament. Our author, on account of his very high merit
as a writer, had, in 1745, received a diploma, conferring upon
him the degree of doGor of divinity. In the year 1751, he
refizned the office of preacher at Crutched Friars, having,
during the preceding year, publifhed a volume of Sermons,
the fubje&ts of which are entirely of a praétical nature ; and,
in 1760, he gave the world a fecond volume of thefe fermons.
He had alfo publifhed many other fmaller pieces which were
well received by the public ; fuch was a fermon entitled “The
Counfels of Prudence, for the Ufe of young People,’’ for
which he was thanked by Dr. Secker, at that time bifhop of
Oxford. The difcourfe has been very frequently printed,
and has at the prefent moment a large fale. Lardner had
alfo publithed « A Differtation upon the two Epiftles
afcribed to Clement of Rome, &c.;'’ “An Effay on the
Mofaic Account of the Creation and Fall of Man ;’’ “* The
Cafe of the Demoniacs, mentioned in the New Teftament ;’”
«: A Letter to Jonas Hanway, Efq.’’ to fhew that Mary Mag-
dalen was not the finner mentioned in the feventh chapter of St.
Luke’s gofpel, but a woman of diftinétion and excellent cha-
rater, who for a while laboured under bodily indifpofition,
which our Lord miraculoufly healed ; and that, therefore,
houfes intended for the reception of penitent proititutes,
ought not to be denominated Magdalen houfes. 1n 1762, he
publifhed <‘ Remarks on the late Dr. Ward’s Duffertations
on feveral Paflages of the facred Scriptures ;”” to which fuc-
ceeded, in 1764, ‘¢ Obfervations upon Dr. Macknight’s Har-
mony, fo far as related to our Saviour’s [tefurre¢tion.’’
Amidit thele various productions of a fmaller nature, Dr.
Lardner continued the profecution of his grand cbjeét, and
in the laft mentioned year he gave the world the firlt yolume
of «A large Collection of ancient Jewifh and Heathen

a Teilimonies

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Treftimonies to the Truth of the Chriflian Religion,’ com-
prifing the Jewith and Heathen authors of the firft century.
The remaining three volumes were publifhed in intervals
between this and the clofe ofthe year 1767, and in them the
biblical {tudent is prefented with a noble treafure of curious
and valuable information, and of able and judicious critiei{m,
for which the Chriftian world is deeply indebted to the au-
thor. They complete the grand defign which had occupied
a large portion of forty-three years of Dr. Lardner’s valual_e
life ; and by them, though far from profitable, he has railed a
monument to his fame, which can never perifh. Dr. Lard-
ner lived to a very advanced age, and, with the exception of
his hearing, retained the ufe of his faculties to the laft, ina
remarkably perfect degree. In the year 1768, he fell into a
gradual decline, which carried him off in a few weeks, at
Hawkherit, his native place, at the age of eighty-five. . He
had, previoufly to his lat illnefs, parted with the copy-right
of his great work for the miferable fum of 1g0/. but he hoped
if the book{ellers had the whole intereit of his labours, they
sould then do their utmolt to promote the fale of a work
that could not fail to be ufeful in promoting the intere!ts of
his fellow creatures, by promulgating the great truths of
Chriftianity on a rational foundation. After the death of
Dr. Lardner, fome of his pofthumous pieces made their ap-
pearance ; of thefe the firlt.confilt of eight fermons, and
brief memoirs of the author. In 1776, was publifhed a fhort
letter, which the doétor had written in 1762, ‘¢ Upon the
Perfonality of the Spirit.”? It-was part of his defign, with
regard to “The Credibility of the Gofpel Hiltory,’’ to
give an account of the heretics of the fir{t two centuries.
In 1780, Mr. Hogg of Exeter publithed another of Dr.
Lardner’s pieces, upon which he had beflowed much la-
bour, though it was not left in a perfect ftate; this was
“The Hiltory of the Heretics of the firft two Centuries
after Chrift, containing an Account of their Time, Opinions,
and Teftimonies to the Books of the New Teftament; to
which are prefixed General Obfervations concerning He-
retics.”” The laft of Dr. Lardner’s pieces was given to the
world by the late Rev. Mr. Wiche, then of Maid{lone in
Kent, and is entitled “Two Schemes of a Trinity con-
fidered, andthe Divine Unity afferted;"’ it conlifts of four
difcourfes ; the firft reprefents the commonly received opi-
nion of the Trinity ; the fecond deferibes the Arian {clieme 5
the third treats of the Nazarene do@rine; and the fourth
explains the text according to that do¢trine. This work
may perhaps be regarded as fupplementary to a piece which
he wrote in early life, and which he publifhed in the year
1759, without his name, entitled «* A Letter written in the
Year 1730, concerning the Queftion, Whether the Logos
{upplied the Place of the Human Soul in the Perfon of Jefus
Chritt ;°? in this piece his aim was to prove that Jefus
Chrift was, in the proper and natural meaning of the word,
aman, appointed, anointed, beloved, honoured, and exalted
by God, above all other'beings.

For the many teftimonies given of Dr. Lardner’s cha-
racter, the reader muft be referred to Kippis’s life, pre-
Axed toa complete edition of his works, publifhed in 1788,
in eleven very large volumes, by the late J. Johnfon. One
or two only fhall be quoted in-this place. ‘The name of
Lardner is well known -in the literary world. No writer,
from the very exiltence of Chriltianity, ever conferred fo
eflential fervice upon true religion, or contributed more te
clear up its evidence and elucidate its antiquities. Accord-
ingly, there is no country, where the Chriftian religion is
profefled, in which his name is not held in the greateft
efteem. Every church would have been proud to boalt
of him as their member, and his voluminous productions

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have been tranflated into almoft all the languages of Eu-
rope.”

« Dr. Lardner,” fays his moft excellent biographer,
« may be held out, in particular, as a fine example to thofe
cf his own profeffion, As the Diffenters had the honour
of producing Dr. Lardner, ‘he will naturally be the obje&
of emulation to the diflenting clergy. ‘They will fo far
look up to him as their pattern, as to endeavour to qualify
themfelves for appearing, when occafions call for it, in the
great departments of literature, and efpecially in the caufe
of religious truth and liberty, and in defence of the facred
writings.” A

The piety of Dr. Lardner was fincere and ardent ; it was
the governing principle of all his actions, and founded on
jult and enlarged views concerning the nature of religion,
The love of truth appears manifeftly in all his works; and
no one ever feems to have preferved a greater impartiality in
his enquiries, or to have been more free from any undue
bias. He foliowed truth wherever it led him; and for the
attainment of it he was admirably qualified, both by the turn
of his difpofition and his underftanding. The candour and
moderation with which he maintained his own fentiments,
conftituted a prominent feature of his character. Bene-
volence, as well as piety, entered deeply into Dr. Lardner’s
charaéter : he was ready to promote every good work; and
to perfons in diftrefs he was ever willing to contribute, to
the higheft degree which his fortune would admit. His
manners were polite, gentle, and obliging ; and he was at-
tentive in every refpect to the laws of decorum.

We may obferve, that to Dr. Lardner’s great works we
are unquettionably indebted for Dr. Paley’s “ View of the
Evidences of Chriftianity ;” nor is it too much to fay that
if the former had not been publifhed, the latter, probably,
would never have appeared; and jultice requires us to add,
that fufficient acknowledgements were not made for the affift-
ance which was derived from the labours of the excellent
Lardner. It mu{t, however, be admitted, that the defi-
ciencies of the aimable Paley have been fupplied by his
biographer Mr. Meadley ; who, in {peaking of his * View
of the Evidences of Chriltianity,’? which appeared in 1794,
in three volumes, 12mo. but which have in all fubfequent
editions been printed in two volumes, 8vo. Mr. Meadley
fays, “the direct hittorical teftimony for the authenticit
of the Chriltian revelation, already adduced by the indefa-
tigable Lardner, is admirably felected and arranged in this
important work: and the general argument drawn up with
great clearnefs and felicity. The moit {triking of thofe col-
lateral proofs of the credibility of the gofpel hiltory, pro-
duced ‘by the fame writer, are alfo here again prefented,
in a novel and impreflive manner, and eftablifhed by auxi-
haries of a different kind.”? Of Dr. Paley’s works, and of
his-motives in the publication, too high encomiums cannot
be paid, and it is to be regretted that in his preface he had
not acknowledged his obligations to our author. Paley’s
View is capital as an abridgment of Lardner, Douglas,
&c. and his work has been twice, at leait, abridged or
analyfed: one of thefe abridgments was publifhed at Cam-
bridge in 1795, and another in London in 1810, Lard-
ner’s Works, and Life by Kippis ; Meadley’s Life of Dr.
Paley ; and private information.

LARE, in Geography, a town of the principality of
Georgia, in the province of Carduel ; 80 miles S. of Teflis.

Large Point, a cape on the E. coaft of Madagafcar. S.
lat. 16° ao’.

LAREDO, a fea-port town of Spain, in the province of
Bifcay, with a good harbour, ina gulf of the fame name ; 29
miles E. of Santander. N. lat. 43° 25’. W. long. 3° 21’.

LAREK,

LAR

LAREK, or Larepsyr, a fmall ifland in the Perfian
ulf ; the foil of which is bad and the water brackifh. "The
Perfians have prevented the attempts of the Dutch for
fettling a factory in this ifland ; 12 miles S.S.E. of Gam-
bron. N. lat. 26° 50’. E. long. 56° 38'.

LARENDEBA, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Cara-
mania; 40 miles $.S.E. of Cogni.

LARENSIS, in Ancient Geography, an epifcopal fee of
Africa, in the Proconfular province.

LARENTINALIA, in Antiquity, a feaft held among
the Romans on the 23d day of December, but ordered to
be obferved twice a year by Auguitus ; by fome fuppofed
to have been in honour of the Lares, but by others, with
more probability, in honour of Acca Laurentia; and to
have been the fame with Laurentalia.

LA REOLA, in Geography. See La Reowa.

LARES, among the Ancients, derived by Apuleius, De
Deo Socratis, p. 689, from Jar, familiaris ; a kind of do-
mettic genii, or divinities, worfhipped in houfes, and efteemed
the guardians and protectors of families ; fuppofed to refide
more immediately in the chimney corner.

The Lares were diftinguifhed from the Penates, as the
former were fuppofed to prefide over houfe-keeping, the
fervants in families, and domeftic affairs; and the latter
were the. protectors of the mafters of families, their
wives and children: accordingly, the Lares were dreffed
in fhort fucciné& habits, to fhew their readinefs to ferve,
and they held a fort of cornucopia in their hands, as a
fignal of hofpitality and good houfe-keeping. Accord-
ing to Ovid there were generally twe of them, who were
fometimes reprefented with a dog at their feet. Fatt. 5.
v. 146.

Bitatch diftinguifhes good and evil Lares, as he had be-
fore done good and evil Genii.

~'There were alfo fome public, others private Lares.

Apuleius tells us the domeftic Lares were no more than
the fouls of departed perfons, who had lived well, and
difchargrd the duties of their ftation ; whereas, thofe who
had done otherwife, were vagabonds, wandering about,
and frightening people, called Larve and Lemures; which
fees

The Lares were alfo called Penates, and were worfhipped
under the figures of little marmoufets, or images of wax,
filver, or earthen-ware.

The public Lares were alfo called Compitales, from com-
pitum, a crofs-way ; and Viales, from via, a way, or pub-
lic road; as being placed at the meetings of roads, and in
the highways, and efteemed the patrons and protectors of
travellers. :

Their private Lares took care of particular houfes and
families: thefe they alfo called Preflites, from pre/fo ?

Ovid. Fat.

They gave the name Urbani, i.e. Lares of cities, to thofe
who had cities under their care ; and Hoffilii, to thofe who
were to keep their enemies off. There were alfo Lares of
the country, called Rurales, as appears by feveral antique
infcriptions.

The Lares were alfo genial gods, and were fuppofed to
take care of children from their birth. It was for this rea-
fon that when Macrobius tells us the Egyptians had four

ods who prefided over the birth of children, viz. the
iat, Fortune, Love, and Neceffity, called Preftites, {ome
interpret him as if he had faid, the Egyptians had Lares ;
but they have mentioned that there was a great difference
between the Lares of the Romanus, and the Preftites of the

= Vor. xn.

“ Quod preftant oculis omnia tuta fuis.’”’
Pp

LAR

Egyptians. However, the learned Mr. Bryant affirms that
they were the fame.

The ancients differ extremely about the origin of the
Lares. Varro and Macrobius fay, that they were the chil-
dren of Mania: Ovid makes them the iffue of Mercury,
and the naiad Lara, whom Laé¢tantius and Aufonius call
Larunda; Apuleius affures us they were the potterity of
the Lemures; Nigridius, according to Arnobius, made
them fometimes the guardians and protectors of houfes,
and fometimes the fame with the Curetes of Samothracia,
which the Greeks call Jdei da@yli. Nor was Varro more
confiftent in his opinion of thefe yods ; fometimes making
them the names of heroes, and fometimes gods of the
air.

T. Tatius, king of the Sabines, was the firft who built
a temple to the Lares. The chimney and fire-place in the
houfe were particularly confecrated to them.

Tertullian tells us the cuftom of worthipping the Lares
arofe from this, that they anciently interred their dead in
their houfes ; whence’the credulous people took occafion to
imagine their fouls continued there alfo, and proceeded to
pay them divine honours. ‘To this it may be added, that
the cuftom being afterwards introduced of burying in the
highways, they might hence take occafion to regard them
as gods of the highways.

The vitim offered to the Lares, in the public facrifices,
was a hog: in private, they offered them wine, incenfe, a
crown of wool, and a little of what was left at the tab e.
They alfo crowned them with flowers, particularly the
violet, myrtle, and rofemary. Their fymbol was a dog,
which was ufually reprefented by their fide, on account of
its fidelity, and the fervice it does to man, in watching his
houfe. They were fometimes alfo reprefented as clothed
in a dog’s fkin.

See farther on the Lares, in Arnobius, LaGtantius, Au-
gultine de Civit. Natalis Comes, Lambin. on Plaut. Aulul,
and on Hor. Cafaubon on Sueton. &c.

The term Lares, according to Mr. Bryant, was formed
from /aren, an ancient word by which the ark was repre-
fented ; and he fuppofes that the Lares and Manes were the
fame domeitic deities under different names; and that by
thefe terms the Etrurians and Latins denoted the dii arkite,
who were no other than the arkite anceftors, or the perfons
preferved in the Jaren or ark; the genius of which was Ifis,
theireputed parent of the world. He obferves farther, that
they are defcribed as demons and genii, who once lived on
earth, and were gifted with immortality. Arnobius, lib. iii.
p- 124. fty'es them Lares quofidam genios &F fundorum animes;
and he fays, that according to Varro de Ling. Latin. lib. viii.
p- J13, they were the children of Mania. Huetius De-
monft. Prop. 4. p. 139. adds, that Mania had alfo the name
of Larunda; and fhe is~ftyled the mother of the demons.
By fome fhe is called Lara, and was fuppofed to prefide over
families ; and children were offered at her altar in order to
procure her favour. Macrob. Sat. lib, i. c.7. p.154. In
lieu of thefe they in aftertimes offered the heads of poppies,
and pods of garlick. Anal. of Ancient Mythol. vol. ii.
P+ 449, &c.

The pantheons. or images reprefenting feveral gods at
once, were alfo called Lares. Harpocrates was one of
thefe.

Lanes, or Laris, in Ancient Geography, a town of Africa
Propria, according to Ptolemy, who places it in the terri-
tory of Cirtha.

LARG, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the W. coaft
of Sumatra. 5, lat. 3° 30 E. long, 100° 3!

z r Lare

LAR

Lare Feé, a mountain of Scotland, in the county of
Kircudbright ; 13 miles W. of New Galloway.

Lane Kiré, a town of Scotland, in the county of Suther-
land; 18 miles N.W. of Dornock. }

LARGA, a {mall ifland in the Spanifh Main, near the
coait of South America. N. lat. 10? 1’. W. long. 76° 6’. -

LARGE, a Sea Term, applied to the wind, when it
erolfes the line of a fhip's courfe in a favourable direction,

: igs ; ;
particularly on the bean or quarter. Thus, if a fhip fleer
welt, then the wind in any point of the compals to the ealt-
ward of the fouth er north, may be called /arge, unlefs
when it is directly eaft, and then it is faid to be right aft.
Sailing large, is, therefore, advancing with a laree wind, fo
as that the fheets are flackened and flowing, and the bow-
lines entirely difufed. his phrafe is generally oppofed to
faiing clofe-hauled,

Lares, in the Afenege. A horfe is faid to go large, or
wide, when he gains or takes in more ground in going
wider from the centre of the volt, and deferibing a greater
circumference. To make @ horfe go large, you mult give
him the aid of your inner heel. See Extanes.

Larger, fynonymous with mavima, the longeft note in the
firit time table, equal to two dongs, four Lrewes, and eight
Jfinibreves. Its form is an oblong fquare, with a tail on the

right fide, thus PR. See Cuanacren,

Lance River, in Gzogrsphy, a river of Louifiana, which
runs into the Miffifipni, N. lat. 38° 25'. W. long. 95° 7’.

LARGENTIERE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Higher Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the
ditri@ of Briangon. The place contains 978, and the canton
5971 inhabitants, on a territory of 4625 Kiliometres, in 7
commuies.

T/ Ancextiern, a town of France, and chief place of a
difrid, and feat of a tribunal, in the department of the
Ardeche ; 18 miles W.of Privas. The place contains 1906,
and the caaten 9543 inhabitants, ona territory of 1773 kil-
emctres, in 14 communes. N. lat. 44° 32’. E. long 4° 42!

LARGHET TO, Stal, the diminutive of Jarga.

LARGO, in the Jialian Majic, a flow movenient, one de-
gree quicker than adagio, and twothan grave. Sce Time.

Rouffean makes largo flew in the firll degree ; but we
think erroncoafly. Adagio is the flo welt time in Corelli,
and alf the old maflers; grave the fecond; and largo the
third. In adagios and largos, the time is ufnally counted
by qtiavers, und in grave by crotchets. }

Larco Gulf, in Geography, a bay on the -ceaft of Iftria,
hear, Pirano. :

LARI, a town of Etruria; to miles E. of Leghorn.

LARIBUS Cotoyta, in Aacient Geography, Lurbufs, a

Roman colony in 3 frica, fitaated on an ennnence, five leagues
NE. from Sicca.
* LARICAX AS, a province of South America, in the
reverament of Buenos Ayres, about 240 n hes from E. to
W., and 75 from N. to 5. Its climate varies in different
parts, and its products are the fame with thofe cf Carabaya,
which terminates it northward. It abounds ia gold mines,
the metal being 23 carats and 3 grains fine. ‘Tite celebrated
rnountain of Sunchuli in this province, about half a century
ago, yielded -old in great quantity of this Randard, but its
mine was overflowed, ar d'no labour could recover it.

LARICE, in Ancient Geograp'y, the name given by
Péolemy to the province of India, now called Guzerat.

LARICOT, Fr. an acute {top in the organs of France,
a 3d above the major 17th,, and an c¢tave above the 12ih in
our organs, which would he a oth ek diapafon.

LAR

LARIK, in Geography, a town of Afiatic Turkey. ix
the government of Sivas; eight miles N.N.E. J ab

LARINO, a town of Naples, in the Molife; the fee of
abifhop, fuffragan of Benevento ; 25 miles N.E. of Molife.
N. lat. 41° 47'. E. long. 14° so.

LARINUM, in Ancient Geography, Larino, a.town of
Italy, in Samnium, towards the fouth; it had the title of
municipal. ‘

LARIO, in Geography, a department of Italy, occupy~
ing the whole of the W. coaft of the lake of Cofmo, an-
ciently Larius lacus.”? Its population amounts to 137,264.
perfors, who eleét 12 deputies. The capital is Como,

LARIOZO, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 48 miles
I. of Spirito Santo.

LARISSA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Theffaly,
upon the right bank of the Peneus, 10 miles above Atrax,
E. of the mouth ef the Apidanos or the Peneus, 44 miles
from Demetrias, and 24 from Dium. Acrifius, king of
Argos, retired to this town, in order to avoid the death
which the oracle had menaced; but taking a part in the
games which were celebrated in this place, he was killed by
a ftroke of the difcus of Perfeus. Lariffa always main-
tained a diftinguifhed rank among the towns of Theffaly 5
but it declined from the time of Teeas However, it ftill
fubfilts under the fame name in European Turkey, near
the celebrated mount Olympus, and is inhabited by Chrif-
tians, Turks, and Jews; the former having an archbifhop and
feveral churches; and the Turks having feveral mofques.
The number of inhabitants is eftimated at about 25,000.

Its fituation, on an eminence, is pleafant. By the Turks it.
5 si Sally aaa eae a 7 . T 5 1 eo
is called Genjfahar ov Jengifchahir. N.lat. 39° 45'. E. long.

22° 29'.—Alio, a town of AZolia, in Afia Minor, fituated
E. of Phoewa and §.E, of Cyme, formmg with thefe two
towns the vertex of a triangle. Xenophon calls it the
Egyptian Larifla, becanfe it was one of the towns which
Cyrus, the firlt king of Perfia, gave to the Egyptians. —
Alfo, a town of Afia, on the banks of the Tigris. Xeno-
phon fays, that it had been large, but deferted,. and that it
had anciently been under the dominion of the Medes.— Alloy
a town of ‘Triphylia, in the nerthern part, upon the river
Lariflus, near the frontiers of Arcadia. — Alo, a town of
Crete, according to Strabo.—Allo, a town furnamed Cre=
maflé, according to Strabo; whe fays, that it was called
Pelafgia, though fituated out of the Pela!pian terrrory,
Livy places it on the fea-coaft, between Echinus and An-
tron, Juflathius and Porphyrogenitus fay, that it had been
anciently called Argos —Alfo, a town cf Italy, in Cam-
pania; faid to be built by the Pelafgians, but deferted and

ruined in the time of Dionyfius Halicarnaflus. ‘
LARISTAN, a fmall province of Perfia, formerly a
kingdom conquered by Abbas the Great, in 1412; bounded
on the N. and E. by Kerman, on the S. by the Perfian
guif, and on. the W. by Farfiltan or Wars, of which fome
have regarded it asa part. The fubdivition feems not te
have been known in ancient times, though the long ridge of
mountains on the S. of Fars, and gencrally about 60 Dritifh
miles from the Perfian gulf, natural'y indicates a maritime;
province ; which, if the ancient Perfians had been addiéted
to commerce, would have been the feat of great wealth by
intercourfe with Arabia, Africa, and India. But the Per-
fans were high-fpirited, horfemen and warriors, totally averle
from maritime enterprize, either, af war or trade, froma
contempt, of the Arabian fifh-eatergs an their coall, or move
probably, from particular precepts of Zoroaller, the founder
of their faith, which rendered a:maritime life incompatible
with the pracliee of their religion, The air of this proyines
at

LAR

Ys infalubrious, and varies frequently from extreme heat to
extreme cold; water fit for ufe is fearce; that which is
drank being found, as it is faid, to breed worms in the legs
and ‘thighs of thofe who ufe it. Camels are the principal
articles of trade. The capital is Zar, which fee.

LARIX, in Botany, an ancient Latin name, the Larch.

See Prxus. The older botanifts diltinguifhed Larix as a
genus by its fafciculated leaves, but no difference is difcover-
able in the frutification, at leafl between it and Abies,
which all Linnean botanilts refer to Pinus. Juffieu keeps
the two latter diftinét, and hints at feparating Larix.

LARK, in Ornithology. See Atauna.

Lark, Sea. See'Cuanranaivus Hiaticula.

Larx’s Point, in Geography, a cape on the coaft of Ca-
nada, on the river St. Laurence, at the mouth of the Sa-
guenay river.

LARKENTING, a town of Thibet; 55 miles E.N.E.
of Tchiatam.

LARKSPUR, in Botany. See Devpninium.

LARMIER, &r, in ArchiteSure, the fame as Corona;
which fee.

LARNE, in Geography, a fea-port and poft-town of
Ireland, in the county of Antrim. It is fituated on the
north-welltern extremity of Larne Lough, and has a good
yarn market once a month. There are great falt-works
here, and its exports confift of falt, lime, limeftone, and fome
provilions. It is g7 miles N. by E. from Dublin. N. lat.
54° 5t'. We long. 5° 44!.

Larne Lough, a bay on the eaft coaft of the county of
Antrim, Ireland, called Oldfleet haven by Boate, and Wol-
derfrith in the enumeration of the havens by Stanihurft. It
is formed by the peninfula called Ifland Magee, and is faid
by M‘Kenzie to be a {mall but fafe harbour, where veflels
that draw not above ten feet water may ride on clean good-
holding ground. It is about fix miles long and one wide. _

LARNIC, or Larnica, a fea-port town on the coaft
wf the ifland of Cyprus, the fee of a Greek bifhop, and the
refidence of feveral European confuls.. The Turks have a
mofque, and the Greeks have three churches. It is now a
poor place, though the road-ftead is good ; 30 miles S.W.
of Famagofta.

LARNTUKA, or Lanruntuxa, a fea-port town on
the S. fide of Ende, one of the Molucca iflands, with a good
harbour. S. lat. 8° 15/. E. long. 122° 57’.

LAROAH, a town of Hindooftan, in Guzerat; 10
miles E. of Baroach.

LAROCHE, atown of France, in the department of
the Sambre and Meufe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Marche, The place contains 1006, and the can-
ton 6167 inhabitants, on a territory of 250 kiliometres, in
20communes. .

LAROS, atown of Turkifh Armenia, on the coaft of
the Black fea; 18 miles S.W. of Gonieh.

LAROTAVA, atown of theifland of Teneriffe.

LAROW, a town of Hindooftan; in Bahar; ro miles
5. of Gayah.

LARRAGA, a town of Spain, in Navarre ; 11 miles E.
of Eftella. -

LARRASOANNO, a town of Spain, in Navarre 3
x2 miles N.E. of Pamplona. ;

LARREA, in Botany, named by Cavanilles, in hénour
of Don John Anthony Hernandez de Larrea, dean of Sa-
ragofla, a liberal encourager of chemiftry, botany, and agri-
culture. The author had, in his fourth volume of Feones,
p. 63, fuppreffed this name, given by his countryman Or
sega to.another genus, and had changed it te He/fman/-ggia,

LAR

being then, as if feems, not fo fenfible of the dean of Sara-
goffa's botanical merits as he afterwards became.—Cavan. Ic.
v. 6. 39.—Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Gruinales, Linn. Rutacee, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of five ovate, concave,
rather unequal, deciduous leaves. Cor. Petals five, equal,
ovate, with claws. Stam. Filaments ten, rather fhorter
than the corolla, awl-fhaped, equal, each furnifhed at its bafe,
en the infide, with a cloven feale, applied clofe to the germen ;
avthers heart-fhaped, ereét, fimple. if. Germen fuperior,
globofe, with five deep furrows; ftyle awl-fhaped, with
five angles, nearly equal to the ftamens; ftigma fimple.
Peric. Drupas five, dry, cohering by their acute inner mars
gin, externally convex, of one cell. Nués folitary, ovate-
oblong.

Ob{. There are the rudiments of feveral feeds in the young
fruit, though only one of them comes to perfetion in each
nut. The genus comes near Zygophyllum and Fagonia.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of five leaves. Petals five. Neary of
five cloven leaves, covering the germen. Drupas five, fingle-
feeded.

Yt. L. nifida. Bhining-leaved Larrea.—Cavan. Ic. t. 559.
Leaves pinnate. Fruit {mooth.—Gathered at Buenos
Ayres by Louis Née, flowering in April. It has been
raifed with good fuccefs in the garden of Madrid, and we
have fpecimens from Cavanilles himfelf, The /fem is fhrubby,
nine feet high in its native country, havd, knotty, very,
much branched, the branches round, rather zig-zag, repeat-
edly fubdivided, {preading, two-ranked, leafy, rough,
vifcid. Leaves oppofite, feffile, twice as long as broad,
about half an inch in length, fhining, glutinous, fmoothifh,
minutely dotted, each compofed of about feven or eight
pair of crowded, two-ranked, oblique, feffile, oblong, ob-
tue, entire leaflets, of which the two uppermoit are unequal
and very fmall, looking ‘as if there were an odd one at the
end. Stipzlas oppofite, triangular, acute, reddith. . Fiowers
axillary, folitary, alternate, deep yellow, on rouchifh flalke,
fhorter than the leaves. ‘Lhe germen is hairy, though the
fruit is naked, or only clothed with fine fhort down. Its
outer coat is coriaceous and rugged. Wu's without valves
or futures.—The whole plant exudes a copious glutinous
refin, of a {trong fcent, fill very powerful in the dried fpeci-
mens, and intolerably fo on their being moiilened with proct
{pirit, which extra&s from them abundance of a yellow fetid
folution.

2. L. divaricaia. Spreading-lobed Larrea.—Cavan. Ic.
t. 560. f, 1.—Leaves fimple, with two deep {preading lobes.
Fruit hairy. Found with the former, flowering at the fame
feafon. The fle is fhrubby, fix feet high, with much of the
habit of the foregoing; but the /caves are fimple, very
deeply cloven into two ipreading acute lobes.
are yellow, larger than thofe of L. nitida, with obtufe
petals ; and the truit is befet externally with long prominent
hairs.

3- L. cuneifolia. Wedge-leaved Larrea.—Cavan. Ic.
t. 5Gorf, 2.—Leaves wedge-fhaped, cloven at the end, with
an intermediate briftle-—‘This appears to differ in foliage only
from the lait, along with -which it was found.

Thefe plants-promife to be not unworthy of attention for
their dyeing qualities. Cavanilles fays, ten leaves of the d-
varicata, boiled in a quart of water, with the little brancli
on which they grew, tinged the whole liquid ofa deep
faffron colour. ~

LARREY, IsAac pz, in Biography, born of a noble
French family in 1638, was brought up to the profeffion
ef the law. He atted feme time as an advocate w his na-

Rrz tive

The flocwers

LAR

tive province, but having been educated in the reformed
religion, he was obliged to quit his country at the repeal of
the edi&t of Nantes. He went from France to Holland,
and obtained the office of hiftoriographer to the States-gene-
‘ral. Ann invitation from the eleGtor of Brandenburg induced
him to remove to Berlin, where he died, in 1719, at the age
of eighty-one. His principal works are ‘* Hiftoire d’An-
gleterre,"’ 4 vols.: Hiltoire de Louis XIV.’ 3 vols.
quarto; “ Hiftoire d’Augufte ;” *‘* Hiftoire des Sept
Sages,” 2 vols. 1713. Of thefe his Hiftory of England jis
mott efteemed, and was in high reputation on the continent
till that of Rapin was publifhed. Larrey was a man of
great integrity, zealous for his religion, and warm both in
raife and cenfure, Moreri.

LARRISOUN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Mazanderan ; 65 miles S.W. of Fehrabad.

LARROQUE, Martuew pg, in Biography, an eminent
French Proteftant, divine in the 17th century, was born at
Leirac, a {mall city of Guienne,-near Agen, in the year
1619. He was educated with a view to the church, and
applied himfelf, in early life, with great diligence to the
ftudy of the belles-lettres, philofophy, and theology. Hav-
ing made great progrefs in all the various branches of ufe-
ful knowledge, he was admitted a minifter with great applaufe
in the province of Guienne. He was afterwards appointed,
by the duchefs de la Tremouille, miniiter of the church of
Vitre, in Brittany. Here he officiated nearly thirty years,
during which time he applied himfelf moft earneftly to the
ftudy of the fathers, and Chriltian antiquities. He was
next invited to become both minifter and profeffor of divi-
nity at Saumur: he readily accepted the former office, but
declined the latter, not thinking it to be confiftent with the
courfe of ftudy: in church-hiftory, to which he had a preva-
lent inclination. Before he could take poffeffion of his
office, he received a prohibition from the intendant of the pro-
vince, forbidding him to enter upon its duties. He there-
fore continued at Witré, and employed his time very ufefully
in compofing works of merit. In a fhort time he received
three invitations at once, from three of the moft confiderable
churches in the kingdom, viz. thofe of Montauban, Bour-
deaux, and Rouen. He made choice of the latter, at which
place he died in 1684, at the age of fixty-five.. His works
are numerous, and they acquired for the author a high repu-
tation for real learning, as a theologian. He was a pious and
faithful paftor in the church; and in the world an honeft
man. Moreri.

LARRY-BUNDER, in Geography, a fea-port of Hin-
dooftan, in the province of Sindy, on a branch of the
Indus, called the Pitti, about zo miles from the fea. It
has a good road. for fhipping, and the river is navigable for
{mall veffels. 'The town contains about roo houfes, and is
defended by a fort; 48 miles W.S.W.of Tatta. N. lat.
24° 45'. E. long. 66° 42’.

Larry-BUNDER is alfo the name of a branch of the
Indus ; which fee.

LARS, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Cau-
eafus ; 56 miles S.E. of Ekaterinograd.

LARSMO, a {mall ifland on the E. fide of the gulf of
Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 46’. E. long. 22° 39!.

LARVA, in Natural Hiflory, a name given by Lin-
pus to infects in that ftate, called by other writers eruca or
caterpillar. See Enromo.oey and Insects.

LARVA, in Antiquity, derived from the Etrufcan word
ler or lars, fignifying prince or lord, denoted the ghofts of the
deceafed, confidered as wicked and mifchievous. Hence is
formed the term J/arvatus, i. e. larva indutus, ox demoniac,

LAR

The ingenious Mr. Farmer urges the etymology and ufe of
this term to prove, that the heathen demons were deified hu-
man ghofts. The term /ar was applied not only to their do-
meflic, but alfo to their ce/e/ial gods, the dii majorum gentium,
who were all natives of this lower world ; and anfwersto
the word deiner. Quos Greci dassve<, noltri, opinor, lares,
Cicer. in Timzo. 3. (See Lares.) The larve were cqnfi-
dered as mif{chievous f{pirits : and this author fays, that the
larvati were demoniacs ; but the larve, with which they were
offefed, were human. gholts; fuch alfo as demans were.

Eff. on the Demoniacs, p. 27, &c.

The larve were alfo called emures.

LARUCACHI, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the diocefe of La Paz; 110 miles N. of Chucuito.

LARVIGEN, or Laurwie, a fea-port town of Nor-
way, in the diocefe of Chriltiania, and capital of a county,
deriving from it its name, fituated at the conflux of two
rivers near the fea. Its trade is confiderable, and its iron-
works are the moft valuable in Norway; 56 miles S.S.W.
of Chriftiania. N. lat. 59°3’. E. long. 10° 15/.

LARUNS, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét
of Olerof ; 18 miles S. of Pau. The place contains 1607,
aud the canton 3855 inhabitants, on a territory of 445 ki
liometres, in 8 communes. .

LARUS, in Ornithology, a genus of the order Anferes.
In this tribe the bili is ftraight, acute at the edges, hooked
at the tip, and deftitute of teeth; the lower mandible gib-
bous below the point; noftrils linear, broader on the ie
part, and placed in the middle of the bill. Thefe are the
gulls of Englith writers; a race of birds very widely diffufed
throughout the globe, fome of the fpecies inhabiting A fia,
Africa, and Europe, others Europe, Afia, and America,
but the far greater number of fpecies are natives only of the
northern regions of Americaand Europe, as Hudfon’s bay,
Iceland, Greenland, and the north of the European conti-
nent, beyond which, towards the fouthward, their number
materially diminifhes. Many of the {pecies found in northern
latitudes inhabit the Britifh ifles, refiding on our fhores the
whole year; others are extremely rare with us, or at leaft
can be confidered only as accidental vifitors driven from more
northern countries in fevere winters. The haunts of the
gull tribe are the borders of the fea, and marfhes imme-
diately in its vicinity, or in the depth of winter they fome-
times retire inland, but only into fuch parts as are abundantly
fupplied with water, their food confifting principally of
fifh and worms. The gulls have a light body, the wings
long; tongue rather cloven; legs fhert, naked above the
knees, and the hind toe very fmall. They are very vora-
cious, and when terrified are faid to caft up the indigefted
food they have lately fwallowed. The {pecies of this genus
are not very clearly difcriminated, owing to the variations
that prevail in the colours of the plumage in different ftates
of growth, till the birds have attained their third year.
This genus is divided into two fections, in the firft of which
the noftrils are without a cere, and in the other are covered
by one.

Species.
*® Noftrils without a Cere.

IctuyzxTus. Snowy; head entirely, and neck to the
middle, deep black; eyelids white. Pallas. Larus albus,
&e. Oedm. Die grofe Lachmoeve, Gmel. Great black-
headed gull. '

A native of the borders of the Cafpian fea, The fize ~
: we

__

LARUS.

of the bernacle goofe, or larger. The bill is fearlet, with
yellow bafe, the tip yellow with a brown fpot ; the infide of
the mouth red; tail white, even at the end, and reddifh
brown. This {pecies lays its eggs on the bare fands; the
eggs are of an elongated oval form, marked with brown
{pots intermingled with others paler. When in flight it ut-
ters a hoarfe cry like that of a raven.

Rissa. Whitifh; back hoary ; quill-feathers white ;
potterior toe unarmed. Larus riffa, Linn. Gmel, &e. Larus
tridadylus, Lath. Kittiwake Penn. Donov. Br. Birds, &c.

Length fourteen inches ; the bill yellowifh ; mouth faffron
within; head, neck, belly, and tail fnowy; wings hoary,
the outer edge of the firft and tips of the four or five
feathers next fucceeding white ; legs dufky; pofterior toe
refembling a wart. It varies in fometimes having behind the
ear a duiky fpot.

This kind of gull inhabits the cliffs on the north coafts of
Wales and Scotland, from whence it extends as far as Green-
land, Spitzbergen, and Iceland, the arctic coait of Afia, and
Kamtfchatka. The Icelanders call it Ritfa. Fabricius, in
his Faun. Groen. defcribes this as the adult ftate of the
Tarrock, an affirmation contradiéted by fonie authors and
admitted by others, while again fome few are of opinion they
may be the two fexes of the fame f{pecies.

Tripactytus. Whitifh, back hoary ; tips of the tail-
feathers, except the outer one, black; feet three-toed.
Linn.

Larus TripactyLusf, Lath. Kuuige-gef, Klein. Tarrock,
Will. Donov. Br. Birds, &c. :

Frequents the fame rocky coafts of the fea as the former.
The eggs, two in number, are greenifh-ath, {potted with
brown; they are noily, {wim well, and remain on the wing
for a confiderable time. The flefh and eggs are efteemed by
the natives of Greenland, and their fkins ufed as garments.
Length fourteen inches ; bill and legs dufky ; head, neck,
and body beneath white ; wings varied black and white 3 tail
black at the tip.

In the Bankfian collection is a fuppofed variety of this
f{pecies exceeding the common tarrock in fize, being five
inches longer ; in this the wings are marked by an oblique
black band, and the chin white; the outer tail-feathers en-
tirely white. ‘This inhabits Kamtf{chatka.

Minurus. Snowy; head, and beginning of the neck
black; back and wings ruffet ; bill brown-red ; legs fearlet.
Pallas. Gmel. La plus petite des mouettes, Vieill. Little gull,
Lath.

Size of a thrush ; irides blueifh s tail equal and white ; in-

‘habits near rivers in Siberia and Ruffia.
. Exsuryevus. Entirely white; bill and legs lead colour.
Gmel. Phipps, &c. Larus niveus, AG. Holm. Larus
candidus, Fabr. Fu. Gr. La mouette blanche, Buff. Rath-
JSaer, or Ratzher, Ray. Ivory gull, Ar&. Zool.

The length of the fpecies is fixteen inches, the breadth
thirty-feven ; the bill paler at the tip; wings much longer
than the tail; legs lead colour, the claws black.. This bird
inhabits the Frozen fea between Afia and America. From
its ftately gait when walking on the ice, and the itrength of
its voice, it is faid to have obtained the name of Ratzher, or
Senator. The flefh of the morfe conftitutes its favourite
food ; befides which it fubfifts on worms and fifhes. During
the fummer, it vifits the little ifles and Jakes in the interior,
where it forms a neft compofed of dried herbage, and lays
four eggs of a white colour. The young are {potted with
black principally on the back-and wings, and the beak is of
the fame colour.

Canus. White; back hoary ; primary quil-feathers .

black at the ends, the fourth and fifth with a black fpot at the
tip, the outer one black without. Lath.—Zarus Canus,
White, back hoary. Linn. Fn. Suec. Larus cinereus minore
Common fea-mew or mall, Ray. White web-footed gull, Albin.
Common gull, Aré&. Zool. “Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

Common on the coatt of Britain, and in various parts of
Europe and America. The length feventeen inches ; bill
yellow; legs greenifh-white, or fometimes reddifh. It forms
a neft chiefly of fea-weeds; the eggs are large, deep olive,
and marked with dark irregular blotches. (Vide Brit.
Birds.) This kind of gull extends as far north as Iceland
and the Ruffian lakes, and occurs alfo on the borders of the
Cafpian fea, the various fhores of the Mediterranean, and
thofe of Greece. Its breeding places are the hollows in
rocks and cliffs near the fea. ;

Hysernus. Cinereous; beneath fnowy; head white,
varied with fufcous fpots; neck above fufcous; wings
varied ; tail-feathers white, with a black band.—Zarus
Ffybernus, Gmel. Larus canus 8, Lath. Gavia hyberna,
Briff. Larus maculatus, Brunn. Mouette d'hyver, Buff.
Guaca-guacu, Ray. Winter mew, coddy moddy, Wil.
Donov. Brit. Birds. . Winter gull, Lath. Synop.

Feeds on reptiles and {mall fithes. This kind is very
common in England, and is obferved to inhabit further in-
land than any other of the gull tribe. In Ind. Orn. of
Latham it is defcribed as the young of the foregoing {pecies.
Length feventeen inches.

Ruprsunpus. White; head blackifh ; bill and legs red-
CEd; Nov. Aét. Stockh. Larus rudibundus, Linn. La-
rus albus erythrocephalus, Klein. Brawn-headed gull, Albin.
Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c.

Length fourteen to fifteen inches; the eye-lids the fame
colour as the bill and legs; firft ten quill-feathers white,
with the edge and tip black. Inhabits Europe and Ame-
rica, and makes a laughing kind of noife. The eggs,
three in number, are greenifh-brown, {potted with tawny,
Gmelin admits two varieties of this fpecies: one of a white
colour, with hoary back, and the head and bill blackith, as
defcribed by Nozena; the other is white, with blue legs,
the bill at the bafe blue, at the tip yellow. Latham in
Ind. Orn. confiders as varieties of rudibundus the Linnean
larus cinerarius, and alfo larus erythropus of Gmel., both
which are placed as diftin&t {pecies in the preceding publica-
tion. Gen. Syn.

Marinus. White; ‘back black. Linn. It. Weoth.
Larus dorfo nigro, pedibus rubris, Ed. Goeland noir, Buff,
Great black and white gull, Ray. Black-backed gull, Ar&.
Zool. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

Native of the maritime parts of Europe and America, the
Cape of Good Hope, New Holland, &c. The length
twenty-nine inches; the bill yellow, with a red {pot near
the tip, and in the middle black ; quill-feathers black, with
the tips white, and the legs flefh-colour,. Feeds on fifh and
young-birds,

Nevius. White; back cinereous; tail-feathers at the
tip black. Gmel. Wagellus cornubienfium, Ray. Wagel .
gull, Will., &c. Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

This {pecies inhabits the fhores of European feas. Its
length is about two feet ; the bill black ; legs dirty Aeth-
colour. This is by fome efteemed the female of the fore-
going (marinus), and by others as either a variety rather
than a diftin&t bird, or as the younger bird.. ’ The bird de-
{cribed by Brunnich under the name of larus argentatus, the
filvery gull of Latham, is likewife confidered as a varietyo£ .
L. marinus.

Foscus. White; back brown, Linn,.Fn. Suecs-.Za-

TUS.

LAR

seus grifeus, Brill. Larus cinereus maxinus, Marfd, Goe-
dand & mantzau gris-brun, Bui. Herring gull, Will. Donov.
brit. Birds, &c.

Inhabits Europe, America, and Afia. The length
twenty-three inches ; ‘bill and legs in the adult bird yellow ;
eyes itraw colour. The birds feed on the herring, the
fhoals of which it purfues, asd thus direéts the fifhermen to
the capture of that fifh. The eggs, three in number, are
svhitifh, {potted with black.

Graucus. White; back and wings hoary; quill-feathers
tipped with white; bill yellow, at the angle faffron, id.
Larus albus, Olaff. Goeland cendré, Bull. Burgermeifler,
Martens. .Glaucous gull, Ar&. Zool.

Inhabit Sweden; is larger than the herring gull, very
voracious, and feeds on fmaller birds, fifh, and carrion.

Arricirta. Wohitifh; head blackifh; bill red; legs
‘black. CEd. Gavia rudibunda, Brifl. Larus albus, Sqop.
Larus minor, &c. Wein. Baliner’s great afh-coloured fea-mew,
Will.

Length eighteen inches. Flies in flocks, with a continual
elamour; builds in pine trees, and inhabits America and
“Europe.

A TRICILLOIDES.
black; back and wings cinereous; legs fcarlet.
-Gmel. Siberian gull.

Smaller than the former.
of Siberia.

Reddifh-white ; head, orbits, and neck
Falck.

This’ inhabits the falt marfhes

** Noflrils covered with a Cere.

Panasrticus. Two middle tail-feathers very long. Linn.
Sterna, Fe. It. Wgoth, Catarrada parafitica, Brunn.
Siercorarius, ct flercorarius longicaudatus, Brill. Avis Norwe-
gica kyuffa, Ol. Labbe a longue quene, Buff. Aréiic bird,
Edwards. Ardélic gull, Donov. Brit. Birds, &c.

Length twenty-one inches; the hill andlegs dufky; body
above dufky, beneath, with the temples, and front white ;
preaft with a dufky band; female brown beneath. Very
rare in Britain. The {pecies is found in the north of Europe,
and alfo in Afia and America. Tt is of a’rapacious difpofi-
ion, and wi!l purfue the leffer culls in the air till they mute,
when, inftantaneoufly darting down, it dexteroufly catches
the excrement before it reaches the water, and devours it.
‘The eggs are cinereous, {potted with black.

‘Crepipatus. Dufky-white and brown, varied; two
middle tail-feathers longer ; anterior half ef the feet black.
Donov. Br. Birds. Larus crepidatus, Gmel. Hawkefw.
Catarrada cepphus, Brion, Stercorarius friatus, Brill. Black-
toed gull, Arct. Zool. &c.

This, like the former, is very fcarce in Britain ; its length
is fixteen inches the bill black, with the tip orange ; breait
and belly whitifh, with numerous darkifh lines. The two
middle tail-feathers longer than the reft; and the anterior
half of the feet black; the polterior, with the legs, paler and
yellowifh, or, as it fometimes appears, blueifh,

The defcription of the black-toed gull in Dr. Latham’s
Synoplis, is an extrac from Pennant’s Britith Zoology,
befides which Dr. Latham mentions another bird of the
fame kind in the late Leverian mufeum, which had the
Eght er half of the feet, with the legs, yellow inflead of blue.
In the defcription ofthis latter bird Dr. Latham obferves,
however, that ‘the two middle tail feathers are not particu-
larly longer than the others ;?? and again in Ind. Orn., this
author hefitates apparently from this circumttance, in addi;
tion to the yellow colour of the legs, whether it fhould be
admitted as a variety of larus crepidatus, or be efteemed a
diftin& fpecies. It becomes therefore defirable to add that
the defeription afforded us by Dr. Latham is not, in this

LAR

re{pect, entirely free from error; that able. ornithologit
was, in fome manner, deceived, perhaps from the fituation
of the bird itfelf, which might preclude the poffibility of an
attentive infpection. Be this as it may, the Levetian fpe-
cimen recorded by Dr. Latham, and alfo another from the
fame collection, are both in the mufeum of the writer of this
article ; in one of thefe (which we conceive to be the male)
the two middle tail feathers are nearly as con{picuoufly longer
than the reft, as in the Arétic gull projecting beyond them
{carcely lefs than two inches ; and in the other, which we ap-
prehend mutt be the female, they are advanced above an inch
beyond the reft; in other particulars they accord pretty ge-
nerally with Dr. Latham’s defcription, and, as that writer
obferves, the lighter parts of the feet, with the legs, are
yellow. We have befides this another example of this bird,
a {pecimen recorded as being fhot near Oxford, in which
the legs are black and yellow, as in the former, from
whence we may conclude thofe to be the true colours, except
perhaps in certain varicties.

Cararactres. Greyifh; quill and tail-feathers white, at
the bafe ; tail-fub-equal. Gmel. . Cathara@a fkua, Brunn,
Larus fufcus, Briff. Catarraéies, Gein. Shua hoyeri, Claf
Goéland-brun, Buff. Cornifh gannet, Ray. Brown gull,
Albin. Skua gull, Donoy. Brit. Birds, &c.

Length two feet; the bill duflky, and much hooked ;
upper mandible covered half way down with a black cere ;
body brown; beneath rufty-cinereous; legs blackifh,
rough, and warty; claws hooked and black ; pofterior toe
fhort, and armed with a fharp hooked claw. ‘This voracious
birdinhabits Europe, Afia, and America, and is remarkable
for its voracity and ferocious difpofition, efpecially in the
breeding feafon. It feeds on fifh, and all the fmaller kinds
of water-birds, and is the terror of the leffer birds of its own
tribe, which it haunts on the wing, till they mute or vomit
up what they have eaten, and then devours it.

Kerrask. Brown; wing-coverts variegated with white 5
tail black, {potted and tipped with white. Lath. Ind. Orn.
Efquimaux gull, Ar&. Zool. &e.

inhabits America, as far as Hudfon’s bay ; the length
is twenty-two inches; the bill and legs black; toes and
:eembrane half black, half white. It arrives at America in
April, conftrucis a flight neft of grafs, and lays two pale
ferruginous eggs {potted with black. a

LARYNGEAL, in Anatomy, an epithet applied to
parts belonging to the larynx. ‘he laryngeal arteries are
the veffels more commonly defcribed under the name of thy-
roid arteries. The laryngeal nerves, fuperior and inferior,
are branches of the par vagum. See Nerve,

LARYNGOTOMY, (from acpuyt, the upper part of
the qwindpipe, and repo, to cuf,) an operation in Surgerys
which confifts in making an artificial opening into the larynx
with a knife, a meafure fometimes neceflary in certain cafes
of difeafe to prevent fuffocation, as well as to enable the
prattitioner to inflate the lungs in inftances of fufpended ani-
mation.
itfelf, and the operation called tracheotomy. See ‘Tra-
CUEOTOMY.

LARYNX, in Anatomy, a hollow organ, placed between
the root of the tongue and the trachea, giving paflage to the
air into and out of the lungs in refpiration, and producing
the voice,

The organs of locamotion, whether thofe of the limbs or
of the trunk, are the principal means by which man re-aéts on
thofe external objeAs which have acted on him through the
medium of the fenfes. They are particularly deftined, in the
natural {tate, to provide for the wants of digettion, of which
they colle&t the materials, They alfo furnifh the animal oa

. the

The incifion is now generally made in the windpipe.

LARYNX.

the means of offence and defence, of which digeflion is in'ge-
+ neral the immediate object. But focial man has vaflly ex-
tended the domain of this function. Submitted, through the
cerebral nerves, to the direction of intelle&, it isthe inftru-
ment by which moft of the conceptions of the latter are ex-
ecuted; andif the vait feld of activity opened to our view
in the arts fhews the extenfive agency of this power, it proves
no lefs clearly how greatly the {phere of action of the loco-
motive organs has been increafed. Man in fociety not only
derives from his voluntary mufcles, by acquiring extreme pre-
cifion in their motions, much greater advantages than thofe to
which the limited operation of iuftin€t confines animals, but
he has alfo given to them another diretion—they ferve him
as.a filent language, and a mede of intelletual communica-
tion. The head, the arms, the eyes indicate to us what the
yoice does not difclofe ; but geftures are in general only fup-
plementary to the latter function,
Speech is the chief means of our intelle@ual communica-

_ tions: and here we have occafion to obferve how va‘t!y the

functions of the larynx are extended by man in fociety. This
extenfion is {till greater than that which the locomotive agents
offer to our view in the arts where indultry has been pufhed
the fartheft.. Originally nature befiowed on man merely a
voice, the chief objeé&t of which was,to eftablith thofe rela-
tions which bring together the fexes. Hence the clofe con-
neCtion between the voice and the generative organs : it
has, like them, a true period. of puberty, whether. in. ani-
mals in whom it does not. exilt at all until that epocha, or
in thofe, where, exifting antecedently, it undergoes at this
time a remarkab'e change. _Remove thefe organs, anda
new and peculiar modiiication of the voice foon fhews itfelf.
Bach fex has a voice diflinzuifhed by particular charafters :
energy and force belong to that of the male; flexibility, de-
licacy, and grace to that of the female. Moit animals em-
ploy their voice chiefly at the rutting feafon ; many are dumb
at all other times: We cannot therefore avoid the conclu-
fon, that, in the natural late, the communications of the
two fexes relating to generation are the particular obje& of
the preduciion of found. Man in fociety has deftroyed this
original deftination, and at the fame time created another,
of which the extent is bounded only by the limits of his in-
teiligence. ‘The mere voice, which fufficiently enables the
individuals of both fexes to exprefs the mutual wants con-
neéied with the generative functions, is inadequate to the
coaveyance of thofe which have arifen out of the {tate of fo-
ciety. It has therefore béen modified ; fpeech is the re-
fult of that modification ; and thenceforth the larynx has
performed a part in fociety not lefs impertant than that of
the locomotive organs. Thefe two modes of communication,
which man enjoys, are almoit equally employed, and pro-
duce, each in its way, nearly equal effects. If one be the
organic inflrument of all the arts, and of all the affections
which the mind experiences in the focial Rate through the
‘eyes, the other is the agent of ail that belongs to the domain
of inreiligence, of all that the mind perceives through the
ears. Compare the vatt flock of ideas, which are tranfmitted
from man to man, with the material objeéts employed in
their reciprocal commerce, and you will find the amount of
each nearly che fame. Yet, although the fum of the loco-
motive agents forms more than half of the entire volume of
the body, the vocal inflrument takes up a little room ina
fmall part of the fame body. The great difproportion he-
tween the organs of the voice and the important effets which
they produce in fociety, is very ftriking,
‘The voice, from its deitination, would naturally fall
mnder the immediate empire of the brain. Hence the ftruc-

ture of the larynx has much analogy to that of the locortio-
tive apparatus. It is compofed of cartilaginous pieces,’
moved in various direétions by voluntary mufcles, on the
motions of which the habits of fociety have conferred a pre-
cifion foreign to the natural ftate, as it has on thofe of the
fingers in certain arts, and on thofe of the lower limbs in
others. ‘Thus the voice is to fpeech, in relation to the mufcles’
of the larynx, what the rude movements of the fingers of
the favage are to the precife and delicate motions of the man
who has employed himfelf on a mechanical art, in relation to
the mufcles of the upper extremity. ‘I'he principle is the
fame, the refults only are different. It is a general law in
the ergans of yoluntary motion, that they acquire pei fection:
by exercife, that they are in fhori fufceptible of education.

This dependance of the funétions of the larynx on the
brain is not only marized in the {tate of health, but alfo in
difeafes. Paralyfis, convulfions, and fpafms of the mufcles
of this cavity have the fame-chara€ters as in the locomotive
organs, and have no analogy to the affections of involuntary
parts. Hence Bichat has followed the indications of nature,-
in feparating the vocal organs from the lungs in his phytio-
logical and anatomical arrangement: their proximity has-
generally led to their being confidered together, in treatifes:
of anatomy and phytiology.

The following arrangement will be adopted, in confidering
the vocal organs: t!t, General confiderations on the larynx 35
adly, Particular defcription of the component parts ; 3dly,-
The aflemblage of thefe paris in the general conformaticae
of the cavity ; 4thly, Mechanifm of the larynx; sthiy, Its
developement in various ages; 6thly, The organs of fpeech 5:
7thly, The phyfiology of the voice and f{peech.

General Ccnfiderations. ~The larynx is-a cavity compofed
of moveable pieces, of a form not. eafily defined, and oc-
cupying the anterior and fuperior region of theneck. It is-
fituated on the median line, and confequently regular and
fymmetrical in its form, like all. the organs of the animal
life. It terminates-the trachea above, and forms a ftnking
contraft with the lower extremity of that organ, which,
formed by the bronchi, and concerned merely with the func-
tions of the organtc life, is made up of two lateral portions
not refembling each other. The lateral portions of the la-
rynx are, on the contrary, exa¢tly fimilar. This fymmetry
of the larynx is neceffary to the harmony of its functions: a
difeordant voice would inevitably refult from different or-
ganizations of the two fides, or from inequality in the powers
of the mufcles of the right and left: fides. The organ is
placed below the os hyoides, to which it is fixed: it is fu-
perficial in front, and refts behind on the vertebral column,
from which the pharynx alone feparates it.

Deltived, on the one hand, to allow a continnal :paflage
to the air in refpiration, whichris to a-certain point involun~
tary ; and concerned, on the other, in producing the: voice
entirely under the influence of the will, the larynx .offers to.
our view a ltruture accommodated to thefe-twe very difs
ferent phenomena. Several cartilages united tugether form
its cavity, and ‘their elaiticity prevents it from being eyer
clofed.:; hence a free paflage is fecured: for the air. ‘To
theie moveable cartilages are attached mufcles,-of which the:
voluntary eontraétion may increafe or diminifh the. dimen-
fions of the cavity 3 circum!tances which are’ effential to the-
produétion of the yoice. One cf thefe cartilages,. very dif
ferent in-its itruéture from the others, can-clefe the cavity
momentariky, by being depreffed on its aperture. Laitly,:
a mucous-membrane, continuous with that which lines the
mouth, lines all thefe parts, and is prolonged into the lupge,s
following all the ramifications of the bronchi. i

. The:

, LARYNX,

“The fize of the larynx does not follow the proportions of
the general ftature: it may be as large in a little perfon as
in’one of confiderable height ; and this correfponds to what
we know of the voice, the forceor weaknefs of which do
not depend on the fize of the, individual. It would be an
interefting refearch to compare the different kinds of voice
with the organization of the larynx. We cannot doubt
that the tenor, counter-tenor, &c. are produced by fome
peculiarities in the laryngeal ftructure; but the impoffibility
of knowing, in the cafe of fubjeéts employed for diffeétion,
what kind of voice the individuals pofleffed, prevents us
from afcertaining any thing concerning this point. The
difference in the voices of man and woman cannot but have
been always obferved; and their larynxes exhibit, on a
merely fuperficial infpeCtion, a great difproportion in fize.
The organ is large and broad in man : it appears contracted
in woman, fo as to be about one-third lefs: often it is not
more than half as large as that of the male. This does not
depend on ftature: a large woman and a fhort man have this
diftinguifhing character, as well as two individuals of equal
fize, or as a tall man and fhort woman. The fame circum-
ftance runs through all parts of the larynx : it is obferved alfo
in the neighbouring organs, as the trachea, the os hyoides,
and their dependencies ; it takes place alfo conftantly.

The general form of the organ is nearly the fame, or at
jeaft the differences are much lefs remarkable than thofe
which affeét the fize. However, the fexes are diftinguifhed
in feveral points. The two plates of the thyroid cartilage
are much more oblique and proportionally lefs feparated in
man thanin woman: hence they form in the former, where
they are united in front, a much more confiderable pro-
minence under the integuments, and a much more acute
angle.. This projection is named pomum Adami: in wo-
men the angle is very obtufe. The excavation which ter-
minates it above is fuperficial and rounded in the female ;
much deeper and terminated by an acute angle in the male.
The cricoid cartilage fhews no difference in the two fexes in
front. The male and female larynxes are diltinguifhed al-
snoft folely By their fize behind ; yet, as the two fides of the
thyroid are more widely feparated in women, there is in
them a greater relative breadth in the triangular {paces which
feparate this cartilage from the proper cavity of the larynx.
“The organ is furmounted in man by a much broader and
thicker os hyoides than in woman. The epiglottis is alfo
broader, more prominent above, and thicker: its general
form is the fame in both fexes. The glottis is alfo of the
fame form in both, and diftinguifhed merely by its dimen-
fons. As the arytenoid cartilages are longer, and confe-
quently more elevated in man, the ventricles of the larynx
are more deeply feated, and more diftant from the external
opening. ‘The only difference obferved below is the greater
circumference of the cricoid in man. ‘The trachea corre-
{ponds in fize to the larynx, and is confequently fmaller in
women than in men. From the preceding obfervations it
appears that the form of the larynx, although differing
flightly in the two fexes, as well as the texture, which is
the fame in both, cannot be the effential caufe of the dif-
ferences in the key or pipe of the voice, which appear much
rather to depend on the ftriking difproportion in fize. It
will be feen afterwards, that the particular character of the
voice in the infant depends on the fame caufe.

Defeription of the Parts of the Larynx.—We may diftin-
guifh, in this organ, the cartilages which effentially compofe
3ts cavity, and give it folidity; 2. The ligaments which
tie thefe together; 3. The mufcles moving the cartilages,
and thereby eonftituting the a¢tive inftruments of the voice 3

i

4. The glandular bodies fituated in the neighbourhood of
the cavity ; 5.¥The membranous lining. ‘The firft four di-
vifions mutt be examined in-detail; the common membrane
will be deferibed with the larynx taken altogether.

Cartilages of the Larynx.—Thefe are five in number.
The firft, named the thyroid, is broad and tolerably thick ;
it covers the organ in front, but is no farther concerned in
forming the cavity than by the attachment it affords to cer-
tain ligaments and mufcles. The fecond or cricoid carti-
lage, which poffeffes, as its name implies, an annular figure,
forms the folid part of the cavity. T'wo arytenoid carti-
lages, fituated behind, and much fmaller than the others,
give to the glottis that mobility which makes it the feat of
the voice. Liaftly, the epiglottis, a true fibro-cartilage, has
the office of clofing the larynx occafionally.

The thyroid or icutiform cartilage occupies the front and
lateral part of the larynx, meafuring more from fide to fide
than from above downwards, and being broader above than
below. It confifts of two lateral portions obliquely united
in front, where they form a more or lefs prominent acute
angle, correfponding to the median line, and producing a
confpicuous prominence in the neck of the male, already
mentioned by the name of pomum Adami. This angular
prominence is bifurcated above, fimple and rounded below.
Each of the lateral divifions offers in front a nearly plane
furface, flightly concave, covered principally by the thyro-
hyoideus mufcle. An oblique line bounds this furface ex-
ternally, and affords attachment to the thyro-hyoideus,
fterno-hyoideus, and the inferior conftri€tor of the pharynx.
Behind it is a {mall furface covered by the two latter mufcles.
This cartilage prefents behind a concavity in the median
line, correfponding to the front prominence: the nents
of the glottis and the thyro-arytenoidei mufcles are attached
to this. Two plane furfaces, floping backwards, corre-
{pond above to thefe mufcles, from which a fatty cellular
fubftance feparates them, and below to the lateral crico-
arytenoid mufcles, and to fome fibres of the crico-thyroidei.

Four edges terminate the furfaces of the thyroid cartilage...
The fuperior is the largeft, affords attachment throughout
to the thyro-hyoideal membrane, has in its middle the notch
furmounting the angle of union of the two pieces, then pro-
ceeds outwards on each fide nearly horizontally, prefenting
a flight prominence correfponding to the external oblique
line, and terminates beyond this by an appendix which will
be mentioned. The inferior edge is fhorter, concave in the
middle, and has on the fides two convex prominences cor-
re{ponding to the lower ends of the external oblique lines,
and then two depreffions. It affords attachment to the
crico-thyroid membrane and to the crico-thyroidei mufcles.
The potterior margins, two in number, are direéted ob-
liquely, and reft againft the fpine: rather concave above
and convex below, they afford attachment to fome fibres of
the ftylo and palato-pharyngei. A rounded procefs, of
different lengths in different fubje€&ts, directed obliquely
backwards, furmounts each of thefe margins, and is con-
nested by a ligament to the extremity of the os hyoides :
thefe are the fuperior cornua of the thyroid cartilage. A
fimilar rounded procefs, fhorter than the former, direéted
rather forwards, terminates each of the perpendicular mar-
gins below: thefe are the inferior cornua, and are arti-
culated by their extremities to the fides of the cricoid car-
tilage.

A round opening is fometimes feen on each fide of the.
cartilage, towards its upper part, tranfmitting an artery
and nerve to the cavity of the larynx.

« The cricoid or annular cartilage occupies the lower and

7 back

LARYNX.

back part of the larynx, of which it more particularly com-
pofes the cavity by its ring-like figure. Its general figure
is completely circular. It is narrow in front, where it is
placed immediately under the lower margin of the thyroid ;

rows broader at the fides, and {wells behind into a con-
fderable fize, where it rifes into the middle of the interval
left between the two polterior borders of the thyroid. The
external furface muft be every where convex, from the cir-
cular figure of the part: in its middle and front portion it
is covered only by the integuments; on the fides by the
crico-thyroidei mufcles; and further back by the thyroid
cartilage, whofe inferior cornua are articulated to two {mall
rounded furfaces. The broad pofterior furface is nearly
quadrilateral, and prefents, in the middle, a perpendicular
rifing, covered merely by the membrane of the pharynx ;
on the fides, two ftrongly marked depreffions, in which the
polterior crico-arytenoidei mufcles are placed. The internal
furface of the cartilage, every where concave, is lined by
the laryngeal membrane. The fuperior circumference pre-
fents in front a broad and fuperficial excavation, to which
the crico-thyroideal membrane is attached, and on the fides
of this the infertion of the lateral crico-arytenoid mufcles.
Behind, the edge of the cartilage rifes confiderably, and
prefents two {mooth furfaces for articulation with the ary-
tenoid cartilages: thefe two furfaces are oblique, narrow,
and convex; between them the arytenoid mufcle is in
contact with the cricoid cartilage. The inferior circum-
ference is placed horizontally, and forms nearly a circular
outline ; the margin is a little convex in front, then flightly
concave; rather convex again where the thyroid is arti-
culated to it, and flightly hollowed at the middle of the
_ pofterior portion. It is joined to the firft ring of the trachea

by Piectbrane fimilar to that which joins together the other
rings, and affords attachment behind to the pofterior tracheal
membrane.

The arytenoid cartilages, two in number, a right anda
left, are much fmaller than the preceding, placed at the
back of the larynx, on the upper edge of the broad pof-
terior portion of the cricoid. When viewed in the dead
f{ubje&, before the membranes and mufcles have been re-
moved, they form a fingle prominence, concave above, fo
as to refemble flightly the mouth of an ewer, from whieh
their name is derived. They are moveably articulated to the
criooid cartilage, and caufe, by their motions, the enlarge-
ment or diminution of the glottis, by which the voice is pro-
duced. The form of the arytenoid cartilage is triangular
and pyramidal; but the apex is bent backwards, or towards
the pharynx. It poffeffes a pofterior concave furface, filled
bythe arytenoid mufcle; an anterior convex one, with
excavations filled by the arytenoid gland; an internal flat
and perpendicular one, turned towards the oppofite carti-
lage, and covered by the membranous lining. Thefe fur-
faces are united by three angular edges; an internal, an ex-
ternal, and anterior: in the latter there are fometimes in-
equalities. The bafis offers behind a concave oval articular
furface, covered by a fynovial membrane, dire€ted down-
wards and outwards, and refting on the convexity of the
cricoid, to which it is articulated. In front of this there is
a confiderable triangular eminence, forming the fide of the

lottis behind, fometimes confifting of a {mall diftin& carti-
age, and always affording attachment to the aryteno-thyroid
ligament. The apex, brought to a fharp point, is inclined
backwards and inwards. It is commonly furmounted by a
{mall bit of cartilage, conneéted to it, involved in the mem-
brane, and turned towards the pharynx. Soemmerring calls
thefe cornicula laryngis. Another {mall rounded portion is
feen on each fide in the membrane, which paffes from the

Vor. XX.

epiglottis to the arytenoid cartilage. The fame author calls
thee cartilagines laryngis cuneiformes.

All thefe cartilages have a common ftruéture. Their
denfe and folid tiffue, and greyifh colour, which is not
{plendid like that of the articular cartilages, approximate
them to the bony fyftem. In the progrefs of years, they
come {till nearer to it: they are conftantly found offified in
old fubje&ts, particularly the thyroid and cricoid. Even
before this time we very frequently find in them reddifh
points, the nuclei of an incipient and often extenfive offifica-
tion. An areolar fubftance, analogous to the fpongy tex-
ture of bones, forms at the fame time, and contains a little
medullary texture, from which an oil may often be ex-
prefled.

Fibro-cartilage of the Epiglottis.—This has not the fame
ufes as the parts juft deferibed. Situated at the upper part
of the larynx, between it and the root of the tongue, it
varies in its direction. It is perpendicular in the ordinary
ftate, fo as to leave the glottis free for the purpofes of re-
{piration: it becomes nearly horizontal at the moment of
deglutition, fo as to cover the glottis, and prevent the en-
trance of the food into its cavity. (See DeGLutirion.) Its
form has been compared to that of a myrtle leaf; it is flat-
tened in its figure, and has its extremity flightly recurved.
We divide it into a lingual and a laryngeal furface, and a cir-
cumference. The lingual furface is concave from above
downwards, but convex tranfverfely : it is dire€ted anteriorly,
or towards the mouth, in the perpendicular pofition of the
organ ; fuperiorly, or towards the pharynx, in the horizontal
ftate. It is covered by the mucous membrane of the
mouth, continued to it from the tongue, and forming three
folds between thefe two organs. The middle, which is the
moft ftrongly marked, is prolonged on the lingual furface :
this is fometimes called frenum epiglottidis. The lateral du-
plicatures are loofer and lefs Seatictone: and end on the
circumference of the epiglottis. The frenum, being ftretched
when the epiglottis is depreffed, muft affift a little in elevat-
ing it, when the tongue is carried forwards :.but if we cut
the franum, the epiglottis ftill recovers its perpendicular
pofition, fo that this fold can affeét it but very flightly.
The two other duplicatures have no connection whatever
with the motions of the part. In the inferior part of its
anterior furface the epiglottis is feparated from the thyro-
hyoideal membrane by the peculiar tiffue conftituting the
epiglottic gland. The laryngeal furface is convex from
above downwards, and concave tran{verfely: it is covered
by a continuation of the laryngeal membrane, and its af-
pects, in the different pofitions of the organ, may be un-
derftood, from what is faid concerning thofe of the lingual
furface. The circumference of the epiglottis is free above,
and here the membranes covering its two furfaces are con-
tinuous. From each fide a fold of the mucous membrane is
continued to the arytenoid cartilage. The lower part,
fometimes called the bafis of the epiglottis, where the two
fides are united into an acute angle, is conneéted to the
hollow furface of the thyroid.

The fibro-cartilage, compofing the epiglottis, is thicker
below than above, on the median line than on the fides: it
belongs to the membranous fibro-cartilages. (See Frero-
CARTILAGE.) Its two furfaces, particularly the laryngeal,
prefent a great number of {mall holes, like the prickings of
a pin, lodging glandular bodies: thefe are clofed by the
mucous membrane, and may be feen by removing that part.
Several of them communicate from one furface to the
other.

Articulations of the Larynx.—lts cartilages are united to
each other, or to the furrounding parts, by fibrous and mem-

Sf branous ,

LARYNX.

branous connections: we fhall confider at prefent only thofe
of the firlt kind, the others belong to the general defeription
of the organ.

The thyroid is conneéted to the cricoid cartilage in front
and on the fides. In the former fituation, a membrane,
called the crico-thyroid, proceeds from the upper edge of
the cricoid cartilage, and is attached to the middle of the
lower border of the thyroid; it is loft infenfibly on each
fide on the mucous membrane of the larynx. It is deepeft
in front, and grows narrow and lefs diflin& towards the
fides ; it has a fibrous appearance in the former, which it
lofes in the latter of thefe fituations. Covered on the fides
by the crico-thyroidei mufcles, it is fubeutaneous in front,
and correfponds to the laryngeal membrane behind. It
allows a confiderable motion between the two cartilages.
On the fides there are two {mall articulations, formed be-
tween the inferior cornua of the thyroid, and the lateral ar-
ticular faces of the cricoid: they are lined by loofe fynovial
membranes, and lubricated by a tolerably copious fynovial fe-
cretion. The furfaces, which admit readily of a gliding
motion on each other, are held together by very diftinét
ligamentous fibres. An anterior fafciculus is continued
obliquely downwards and forwards from the front of the
thyroid cornua to the fide of the cricoid cartilage. A pot-
tetior goes from the back of the fame procefs, and afcends
to be fixed to the back of the cricoid under the arytenoid
cartilage. There are fome irregular fafciculi, befides the
two firlt defcribed. :

The oppofed furfaces of the arytenoid and cricoid carti-
lages are covered by very loofe fynovial membranes, lubri-
cated by a copious fecretion, and ftrengthened by ligamen-
tous fibres at fome parts. The moft remarkable of thefe
fibres are on the infide and behind ; externally they are little
apparent, and feem often hardly to exilt at all.

Each of the arytenoid cartilages is conneéted to the thy-
roid by a fibrous fafciculus, particularly important on ac-
count of its concern in the produétion of the voice. They
are called the aryteno-thyroid ligaments, ligamenta glottidis,
or chorde vocales. The ligament compofed of parallel
fibres, and about half an inch in length, arifes from the an-
terior prominence of the bafis of the arytenoid cartilage,
pafles horizontally forwards and inwards, and is fixed to the
concavity of the angle formed by the junction of the two
fides of the thyroid, uniting at this point with that of the
oppofite fide. It is;covered externally by the thyro-aryte-
noid mufcle, and correfponds every where elfe to the mu-
cous membrane. The ‘flit-like aperture left between the
right and left ligaments is the glottis, or rima glottidis.

‘The two arytenoid cartilages are connected together
merely by the membrane of the larynx, and by the arytenoid
mufcle. It is faid that a tranfverfe fibrous fafciculus is
fometimes placed in front of the latter, to prevent the two
eartilages from being feparated too widely. ;

The acute and elongated angle, which terminates the epi-
glottis below, gives origin to a narrow fibrous fafciculus,
about half an inch in length, which is covered in front by
the epiglottic gland, and is fixed to the angle of the thyroid,
juft above the attachment of the ligamenta-glottidis. ‘

The arytenoid cartilages are not connected to the epi-
glottis by any fibrous union ; two confiderable membranous
folds, forming the principal part of the upper aperture of
the larynx, proceed from the former to the fides of the
latter ; they feem to be the ligamenta thyroidea fuperiora of
Soemmerring. ; (

Mufcles of the Larynx.—The organ is moved by two kinds
of mufcles, of which one is common to it with other parts,
_ ahe other belongs particularly to it The firlt are the mulf-

cles of the os hyoides, and move the whole organ together =
thefe, as well as the os hyoides, are defcribed in the article
Deciutirion. The others are concerned in moving on
each other the parts of the larynx.

The crico-thyroideus is a thin quadrilateral mufcle, fituated
in front of the larynx, and often’ divided into two parts by
a fatty line. It is attached to the front and fides of the
cricoid, and proceeds upwards and outwards to the inferior
edge of the thyroid, to which, as well as to a little of
the pofterior furface, the internal fibres are fixed. The
external are longer, and reach to the front of the inferior
thyroid cornua. An interval appears between the right and
left mufeles, in which the crico-thyroid membrane is vifible.
It correfponds in front to the fterno thyroideus, and to the
inferior conitrictor of the pharynx; behind to the crico-
thyroid membrane, and to the crico-arytenoideus lateralis.

The crico-arytenoideus pofticus is a ftrong mufcle, flattened
on its furface, triangular, and placed at the back of the
larynx. Its origin fills the lateral excavation of the pof-
terior furface of the cricoid. The fuperior fibres are the
fhortett, and proceed nearly tranfverlely ; the following are
longer, and gradually more and more oblique from below
upwards and outwards; they are attached to the pofterior
and outer part of the bafis of the arytenoid, between the
infertions of the arytenoideus, and of the crico-arytenoideug
lateralis. In front it correfponds to the cricoid cartilage,
and behind to the membrane of the pharynx.

The crico-arytencideus lateralis is a thin and flattened muf-
cle, rather elongated and quadrilateral, proceeding from the
fide of the cricoid to the fide of the arytenoid cartilage. It
arifes from the fuperior margin of the former, pafies ob-
liquely backwards and upwards, and is fixed oe to
the bafis of the arytenoid. It is conneéted in front with
the thyro-arytenoideus, feparated on the outfide from the
thyroid cartilage by cellular fubftance, and lined on the in-
fide by the laryngeal membrane.

The thyro-arytenoideus is a thin and flattened mufcle of
irregular figure, fituated within the concavity of the thy-
roid cartilage. It arifes near the angle of that cartilage,
from the lower part of its pofterior furface, proceeds back-
wards and outwards, becoming rather narrower, and is in-
ferted in the front of the arytenoid cartilage, below the pre-
ceding, to which it is clofely comneéted. It correfponds
externally to the thyroid cartilage, and internally to the
laryngeal membrane.

The arytencideus is the mafs of mufcular fibres filling the
pofterior concavities of the arytenoid cartilages, and occu-
pying the interval between them. The fibres arife from the
concave furface of one cartilage, go acrofs, and are inferted
into the torrefponding part of the oppofite cartilage. They
are partly oblique and partly trartfverfe ; the former confit
of a few fuperficial fibres crofling refpectively from the
bafis of one to the apex of the other cartilage, and con-
fequently decuffating like the two parts of the letter X.
The great mafs of the fibres has however a tranfverfe direc
tion. From the different courfes of thefe two defcriptions
of fibres, two arytenoidei mufcles have been diftinguithed ;
viz. an obliquus and a tranfverfus. Thefe fibres are placed
between the membranes of the larynx and pharynx: in
front they are alfo partly in contact with the arytenoid ear~
tilages.

Under the names of thyreo-epiglotticus, major and minor,
fome anatomilts have defcribed a few flender fibres pro-
ceeding from the pofterior furface of the thyroid cartilage
to the fide of the epiglottis. Others do not admit the ex-
iftence of thefe mufcles, which are allowed by all not to
be found generally. Haller regards thefe fibres, when they

4 exift,

LARYNX.

exift, asa part of the thyro-arytenoideus. The motions of
the epiglottis, in the human fubjeét, are all entirely of a
mechanical nature, and not performed by mufcular a¢tion.

Glands of the Larynx.—There are three bodies of this
defeription in the neighbourhood of the organ; wiz. the
epiglottic, the arytenoid, and the thyroid.

Glands of the Epiglottis.—In front of, and below the epi-
glottis, a triangular {pace is left, bounded behind by this car-
tilage, in front by the thyro-hyoideal membrane, below by
the thyro-epiglottic ligament, and on the fides by the lateral
folds of mucous membrane which line the two fpaces left
between the fides of the thyroid and the cricoid cartilage.
This {pace is filled by a body, manifeitly cellular and adi-
pous for the molt part, but covering below {mall granular

lands, fometimes united together, fometimes infulated, and
eating prolongations into the holes with which the epi-
glottis is pierced. The latter open on the laryngeal furface
of the organ by very diftin& apertures. The glandular
bodies are fometimes fo much covered and concealed by the
furrounding fat, that they can hardly be diftinguifhed. In
all cafes we may remove by diffeétion thefe bodies from the
openings in the epiglottis, which then appear as empty {paces.
We may diitinguifh as many as thirty of thefe. The fupe-
rior excavations of the epiglottis contain {mall diftin& grains :
the epiglottic gland and its cellular tiflue belong only to the
inferior half of the organ. The openings in the epiglottis
are of different fizes; they are very regularly formed, with
rounded edges, and penetrate always ftraight through, never
obliquely.

Arytenoid Glands.—In the fold of mucous membrane, pro-
ceeding on each fide from the epiglottis to the arytenoid
— a fmall body is found, evidently of a glandular
nature, prefenting {mall diltin@ grains, very analogous to
thofe which compofe the lacrymal gland, and generally of a
greyifh hue. It may be compared in form toa carpenter’s
{quare. The perpendicular branch, which is rounded, and
may be felt by the finger, when we feize the fold that con-
tains it, lies againft the front of the arytenoid cartilage, and
is loofe above. The horizontal branch runs along the fape-
rior fold of the ventricle of the larynx, and is lefs promi-
nent than the other. The fituation, at which the two
branches form their angular union, is in front of the bafe
of the arytenoid. The glandular grains of this {mall body,
probably, have excretory duéts terminating on the edge of
the fuperior aperture of the larynx : but thefe apertures are
not vifible like thofe of the duéis of the lait-mentioned
glands,

Thefe epiglottic and arytenoid giands furnifh a mucous
fecretion, and are of the fame nature as the others which
belong to the laryngeal membrane. The paflage of the
food in deglutition, and of the air in refpiration, requires
that thefe organs fhouid be defended by a mucous fluid.

The thyroid gland is one of thofe organs, of which the
ufe is entirely unknown to us, although its conftant exift-
ence, through all periods of life, and the great number of

' veffels which it receives, do not allow us to doubt that it
performs fome important office. Its fituation immediately
below and in front of the larynx, leads us to conne@ its
hiitory with that of this cavity, although we are ignorant
whether it has any concern in the fame fun&tions. This
organ, as well as the fpleen, capfule renales, &c. fuggelts
a very important refle€tion ; viz. that our notions concern-
ing the general relations of the funétions of the animal eco-
‘nomy mutt ftill be neceffarily very imperfe&, and that we
fhould deceive ourfelves if we fuppofe that we can embrace
‘the plan of nature in one general view, and reprefent it
accurately in our phyfiological claffifications. Caa we

doubt that the unknown funétions of thefe vifcera are-con-
ne&ed to the general plan, and make an effential part of it ?
How then can we be certain that a knowledge of them
would not either partly overturn, or confiderably modify our
prefent notions on thofe fubjects. Why is the theory of foetal
exiftence ftill fo obfcure? Becaufe the tun@tions of feveral
organs, at that.time perfeétly developed, and in a very aétive
ftate, efcape our obfervation, and we cannot arrive at ge

neral refults when the particular facts are unknown.

The bulk of this gland, which is always very confider-
able, varies much in different individuals: perhaps no organ
prefents more ftriking variations. No particular condi-
tion of the body, no modification of any particular func-
tion, no differences in ftature, in the itate of the larynx,
trachea, lungs, &c. have been obferved to accompany thefe
varieties. Its form is tolerably conftant ; but in this refpeé
there are alfo varieties. It is compofed of two diftin&
portions, nearly pyramidal in their figure, occupying the
fides of the larynx, and of the upper extremity of the
trachea, fo that the bafe is placed downwards and forwards,
and the apex ftretches upwards and backwards. Variations
are obferved in the extent and dire@tion of thefe two lateral
portions. They are united in front by a {mall flattened
tranfyerfe band, which may be large and thick, fmall and
narrow, or made up of diftin& tubercles ; indeed, we fearcely
find it the fame in two individuals fucceffively. In a few
inftances this part does not exift, fo that there are two dif-
tin& thyroid glands, one on each fide. It does not extend
above the trachea, fo that the whole larynx is uncovered in
front, nearly fubcutaneous, and, embraced by the curve
formed by the two lateral portions of the gland united by
the intermediate band.

In front the thyroid gland is covered by the fterno-
thyroidei, fterno-hyoidei, omo-hyoidei, and latiffimi colli. It
refts behind and towards the outfide on the vertebral co-
lumn, to which a loofe cellular fubftance conneés it, and
where, according to its bulk, it conceals or leaves expofed
the nerves and blood-veflels of the neck. Internally, or
towards the middle line, it covers the fides of the firft
rings of the trachea, part of ‘he cricoid and thyroid carti-
lages, the crico-thyroidei, thyro-hyoidei, and inferior con-
ftriftor of the pharynx. Exattly in the middle and front
it conceals the two firft rings only of the trachea. A loofe
tiflue feparates it from all thefe parts.

It is furrounded by no membrane: the exterior cellular
tiffue is rather more denfe and compaéi than the reft, as in
the pancreas and falivary glands; but it forms no proper
membrane. It never contains any fat.

With this external covering fome mufcular fibres are
blended ; not noticed by Albinus, nor by moft other ana-
tomifts, but forming the levator gland. thyr. of Hailer, the
mufculus giand. thyr. of Soemmerring. It does not exiit
conftantly ; is generally a fingle mufcle, fituated in the mid-
dle of the larynx, fometimes is placed towards the right or
left, and fometimes, but very rarely, is double. It arifes
by a narrow tendinous flip from the bafis of the os hyoides ;
defcends in a ftraight courfe, growing broader, and has its
fibres expanded on the front of the gland, and blended with
the covering of the organ. It muit apparently have the
effe&t of fulpending and fupporting the gland. Mufcular
fibres have fometimes been feen, extending over the furface
of the gland from the crico-thyroideus. Beiides the effe&,
which thefe and the fibres juit defcribed may produce on
the gland, it will be expofed to powerful compreifion againft
the larynx and trachea by the fterno-hyoidei and iterne-
thyroidei, which embrace it very clofely.

The proper tiflue of the thyroid gland varies confiderably

Sf{2 us

LARYNX.

in colour and denfity : it is often red, and even dull brown,
like the fpleen, fometimes yellowifh or greyifh, It may be
flabby or compaé&t; but its denfity varies lefs than its
colour. The fubftance of the organ, like that of other
glands, is difpofed in dittiné&t lobules, which are collected
into more or lefs voltiminous lobes. This conglomeration
is never fo perceptible as in the falivary glands, the pancreas,
&c. ; excepting, however, certain cafes of increafed volume
without organic change, where the furface of the organ is
tuberculated and irregular from the unequal prominence of
the lobes. In the natural ftate of the part, we may diftin-
guifh the lobes by diffection, as the great vafcular trunks
run in their intervals: the latter, which are hardly per-
ceptible at firft view in confequence of the lobes being prefled
again{ft each other, become apparent by the ufe of the knife.
A fine cellular tiffue, never containing any fat, and {mall in
quantity when compared to what is found between the lobes
of other glands, is feen in thefe intervals. :

The lobes of the thyroid gland are mixed in fome fub-
jets with rounded velicles, containing fometimes a yellowith,
fometimes a tranfparent and colourlefs fluid. In moft fub-
jects thefe cy{ts do not exift, and in many we cannot obferve
the flighteft traces of them. Yet flices of the gland recently
cut give us a peculiar feeling of vifcofity, not obferved in
other glandular bodies, and proceeding from the fluid juft
mentioned. If an acid be poured on the cut furface, a flight
whitenefs is produced, as in moft other ergans. ;

Although provided with a great number of blood-veffels,
the thyroid gland contains in its capillary fyftem lefs blood
than the liver, the kidney, &c. It only difcolours the wa-
ter of maceration once or twice, which arifes evidently from
the {mall number of its capillaries. It is not by the large
veflels, in which the blood is influenced by the heart's action,
but by the capillaries, that we may judge of the quantity of
blood habitually contained in an organ. As putrefaétion
generally proceeds more quickly, in proportion as the quan-
tity of blood remaining in the organs after death is greater,
the thyroid gland undergoes this change lefs readily than
moft others. Slices of it dried are greyifh and friable.
When boiled, they curl a little before ebullition, and then
become confiderably harder and corrugated as almoft all the
animal folids do. But, inftead of growing foft again, like
the mufcles, tendons, &c. they are rendered ftill harder, like
the glands, by a continuance of the boiling. Acids and
alkalies have no peculiar operation on the tiflue of the thy-
roid gland.

Nothing like an excretory du& has hitherto been difco-
vered in this body : no communication has been pointed out
between it and the trachea or larynx. The emphyfema, of
which it is fometimes the feat, proves nothing in this quef-
tion; for the air is contained in the cellular tiffue which
unites the glandular lobes, and is introduced in confequence
of its general diffufion in the cellular tiffue of the neck.
By inferting a blow-pipe into the fubftance of the organ,
and inflating forcibly, it may generally be diftended fo as to
form an artificial emphyfema. The air, in this cafe, is not
contained in the veficles, but in the cellular interltices: it
follows the courfe of the vafcular trunks.

Some fexual. differences may be noticed in the thyroid
gland. It is generally larger in the female, and its lateral
divifions are more prominent in front ; which diminifhes the
apparent prominence of the thyroid cartilage. Ino man, on
the contrary, the two lateral portions are thinner and pro-
portionally flatter ; and lie more clofe on the fides of the
larynx, below the external oblique line of the thyroid car-
tilage. But there are fo many varieties in other points, that
this fexual difference is often little obfervable.

The differences from age are few. ‘The gland is pro-
portionally larger in the foetus and child than in the adult.
Its front prominence is more ftriking at the firft period ; and
its colour is deeper and brownifh. Its proportional excefs
of volume cannot, however, be compared to that of the
thymus, capfule renales, &c. : indeed, it is not fufficiently
remarkable to authorife us in concluding that the ufe of the
part is particularly relative to fcetal exiftence, although fe-
veral authors feem to have believed this.

The thyroid gland has four large arteries, two on each
fide, one of which is derived from the external carotid, the
other from the fubclavian trunk. No part in the body has
fo confiderable an arterial fupply as this organ ; that of the
brain is very much lefs in proportion. he inferior thy-
roid artery in the child is as large as the remaining trunk of
the fubclavian after its origin. Thefe veffels are conneéted
in the gland by large and numerous inofculations. The veins
correfpond in number and magnitude to the arteries, and ter-
minate in the jugular and fubclavians. The abforbing veffels
are alfo confiderable, and join the jugular glands. The thy-
roid arteries are accompanied by nervous filaments from the
great fympathetic ; but it cannot be eafily decided whether
the proper fubftance of the gland receives any nervous fupply.

As we have ftated already that the ufe of this organ is
unknown, we fhall not fatigue the reader with mentioning
and refuting the affigned ites: Although they are very
numerous, they are not grounded on any faéts worthy of
attention. Soemmerring, in his 6th vol. De corporis hu-
mani fabrica, § 56, gives a long lift of ‘ opiniones de glan-
dule thyreoidee ufu ;’’ and there is a fimilar catalogue in
Haller’s Elementa, lib. ix. fe&t. 1. § 22

Of the Larynx in general. <i

General Conformation.—The larynx is a cartilaginous ca-
vity moved by various mufcles. It is broad above, narrower
below, and poffefles an external figure, which does not cor-
refpond to that of the internal hollow. In faét, the latter,
being effentially formed by the cricoid and arytenoid carti-
lages, and the membranous coverings belonging to them,
poffeffes nearly an uniform diameter throughout ; and it is
moft contra€ted towards the upper part. This arifes from
what we have faid of the thyroid cartilage, which rather
protects than forms the larynx, although it is effential to
its ftru€ture and aétian, from the attachment which it affords
to muicles and ligaments. We may confider, in our view
of this organ, the external and internal furfaces, the fuperior
and inferior extremities.

The external furface, confidered in front, prefents, on the
median line, the prominence formed by the union of the two
portions of the thyroid, which exhibits, above, a confiderable
depreffion, particularly in man; then the membranous in-
terval, which feparates the two crico-thyroidei, and below
it the convexity of the cricoid: on the fides we fee the two
flat furfaces of the thyroid cartilage, covered by the hyo-
thyroidei, the external oblique line, the triangular furface
covered by the inferior conftri¢tor, and terminated by
the inferior cornu, lower down the crico-thyroideus,
which, at this point, almoft entirely covers the cricoid car-
tilage. Behind, the external furface of the larynx, more
depreffed in the middle than towards the fides, prefents, on
the median line, the middle prominence of the cricoid; on the
fides of this, the hollows lodging the crico-arytenoidei pof-
tici, then a triangular {pace, broad above and narrow below,
filled with a more or lefs adipous cellular fubftance ; laftly,
two rounded edges, bounding the fpaces juft mentioned,
more prominent than any other parts in this afpeét, and
refting on the vertebral column, fo as to allow a free motion

to

LIA RYN. X.

to all the effential parts of the organ, particularly to the
arytenoid cartilages.

The internal furface of the larynx, lined throughout by
the mucous membrane, may be divided into two parts,
one folid, the other moveable. The firft is inferior, in
point of fituation, and formed entirely by the cricoid ring.
The proportions of this part are conftantly the fame; and
it contains nothing worthy of notice. The moveable portion
is above, formed behind by the arytenoid cartilages, in front
by the thyroid and epiglottis, on the fides by the folds of
mucous membrane, continued between the epiglottis and the
arytenoid cartilages. In the ordinary {tate this is triangular,
broad in front, and narrow behind ; but the motions of the
epiglottis and arytenoid cartilages change its figure con-
fiderably. This part forms the opening by which the larynx
communicates with the pharynx : the aperture is placed juft
behind and below the root of the tongue, and is often called
the glottis, although it has no fhare in the formation of the
voice. Of its relatiow to the pharynx, in refpeét to deglu-
tition, fee a further account in that article. The part, at
which thefe two divifions of the larynx are united, is re-
markable for the two membranous folds, called ligamenta
glottidis, or chorde vocales. Thefe arife from the bafes
of the arytenoid cartilages, and pafs obliquely, forwards and
inwards, to meet together at the concavity of the thyroid,
where they are fixed juft under the epiglottis. They leave
between them a triangular fpace, of which the bafis is be-
hind, and the apex forwards: this is the true glottis, and is
placed about half or three quarters of an inch lower down
than the opening defcribed above: as the meafurement of
the opening from behind forwards confiderably exceeds the
tranfverfe diameter, it has a flit-like appearance, from which
the name of rima glottidis has been applied to it. The

folds, which form the fides of the upper opening, differ-

effentially in their compofition from thofe of the inferior
aperture. The former are merely membranous: the latter
contain the fibrous fafciculi, defcribed already under the
name of the thyro-arytenoid ligaments. ‘he interval left
on each fide between the fuperior and inferior folds con-
ftitutes the ventricles of the larynx, or facculi laryngis.
Their form mutt correfpond to the direétion of the folds,
which have been juft defcribed; their depth is inconfiderable.
Sometimes the mucous fecretion of the internal lining ac-
cumulates here for a fhort time: fometimes foreign bodies
become engaged in them, and produce fuffocation by ftop-
ping the rima glottidis, or caufe great diftrefs until they are
removed. The ventricles, as well as the fuperior laryngeal
folds, correfpond on the outfide to the thyro-arytenoidei
mufcles: the inferior folds feparate thefe mufcles from the
crico-thyroidei, which complete towards the outfide the
{pace feparating thefe folds from the circumference of the
cricoid.

The inferior extremity of the larynx, formed by the infe»
rior circumference of the cricoid cartilage, is exa€tly cir-
cular. It is united to the firlt ring of the trachea by a
fibrous membrane, fimilar to thofe which unite to each other
the remaining rings of this tube. Behind, the pofterior
tracheal membrane is attached to it. ;

The fuperior extremity, much larger than the inferior, is
formed in front and at the fides by the upper edge of the
thyroid cartilage. This edge is conneéted to the os hyoides,
which is immediately above it, by the loofe and foft thyro-
hyoideal membrane : this is thicker in front than towards the
fides, has very little fibrous appearance, but feems rather of
a cellular nature. It is covered by the hyo-thyroidei and
fterno-hyoidei ; it correfponds behind to the epiglottis,
from which the epiglottic gland feparates it, and to the la-

ryngeal membrane. It is fhorter in the middle than at the
fides ; confequently the cornua of the os hyoides can be ele-
vated to a greater diftance from the thyroid cartilage than
the bafis of the fame bone, and the bafis of the tongue,
which is fupported by the os hyoides, can be drawn up
higher at the fides than along the middle line ; which difpo-
fition of parts is favourable to the formation of the channel,
along which the food is conveyed towards the cefophagus.
The two extremities of the os hyoides are conneéted to the
fuperior cornua’of the thyroid cartilage by long, denfe, and
round ligaments, generally containing granular bodies of a
cartilaginous or bony nature. Thefe are named ligamenta
hyo-thyroidea lateralia, to diftinguifh them from the former,
which is called lig. hyo-thyroid. medium. The length of
thefe lateral ligaments, in addition to that of the thyroid
cornua, meafures the diftance between the os hyoides and
the thyroid cartilage behind, which is about double the front
interval.

Behind the edge of the thyroid cartilage, and in front of
the epiglottis, there is a triangular fpace filled by the epi-
glottic gland, and its adipous cellular fubftance. This {pace
1s bounded above by the fold of mucous membrane continued
from the bafis of the tongue to the epiglottis, and, more-
over, by a kind of fibrous membrane, which lies immediately
under the former, and over the gland. The membrane in
queftion is ftronger in the middle than at the fides : it arifes
from the concavity of the os hyoides, and is attached to the
middle of the epiglottis. Behind this {pace we fee the epi-
glottis, and behind it the fuperior opening of the larynx,
already mentioned. As the breadth of the epiglottis, which
forms the front of this opening, is always the fame, while
the arytenoid cartilages, which compofe the back part,
admit of confiderable motion, the figure of the aperture can
undergo little change in front, while it may vary much more
confiderably behind. The pofition of the opening is rather
oblique, from before backwards and downwards.

Membrane of the Larynx.—The interior of the cavity is
lined by a mucous membrane, forming part of the general
fyftem common to the refpiratory and digeftive organs. It
proceeds backwards from the bafisag the tongue over the
front of the epiglottis, forming, as it paffes, the three folds
already defcribed : it is refleGed over the loofe edge of this
fibro-cartilage, covers its pofterior furface, and then enters
the larynx. On each fide it is Continued dire@tly backwards
to the arytenoid cartilages, being loofe and unconneéted at
its edge, and correfponding only to the thyro-arytenoidei
mufcles. At the pofterior edge of the opening of the larynx,
it is continuous with the membrane of the pharynx. When
it has arrived in the cavity of the larynx, and towards the
bafis of the arytenoid cartilage, it forms on each fide a hori-
zontal fold, direéted obliquely forwards to the concavity of
the thyroid, to which it is fixed, joining that of the oppofite
fide. Below this point it lines the cavity of the ventricle,
then forms ancther fold, which bounds this cavity below,
and embraces the thyro-arytenoid ligament : it afterwards
lines the lower portion of the larynx, and is continued into
the trachea. In the whole of its extent the mucous mem-
brane is of a pale rofe-colour, and diftinguifhed by that
charaéter from the lining of the mouth, of which it is a pro-
longation, and which is much redder. Its denfity is con-
fiderable, particularly on the cartilages, where it is united
with the perichondrium : in other parts it is more thin and
loofe in its texture. On the laryngeal furface of the epi-
glottis, it is perforated by feveral holes, which are the ter-
minations of excretory du&s. Mucous glands are apparent
in feveral points of its furface. The capillary fyftem of this
membrane is not very confiderable, and hence arifes its

palenefs.

LARYNX.

palenefs. It pofleffes very acute fenfibility from the fuperior
opening to the glottis; but is much lefs fenfible below.
For an account of the relation, which this property bears to
the funGtions of the part, fee DecrutitioN. The fenfibility
is not excited by the contaé of air, as that is habitual ; but
it is quickly roufed by vapours diffeminated in the atmo-
{phere, particularly when they are at all acrid.

Mechanifin of the Larynx.—The motious of this part are
of two kinds, general and particular. The former, in which
the whole larynx is moved, take place in deglutition, and in
the pronunciatien of different founds. For an account of the
former, and of the powers which act at that time, fee Dr-
GLUTITION.

The larynx is moved in the fame way, and by the fame
mufcles, in the pronunciation of different founds. Whén an
acute found is uttered, it afcends very fenfibly: and this
afcent, which is gradual, according to the tone, may be
felt by placing the finger on the thyroid cartilage, while we
go through the gamut. In the formation of grave founds,
there is, on the contrary, a very fentible depreffion.. Thefe
motions can be very clearly feen in the throat ef a finger :
the rapid and confiderable changes which take place in that
mode of exerting the voice, render the motions very per-
ceptible. The afcent of the larynx is neceffarily accompa-
nied by an elongation, andits defcent by a fhortening of the
trachea ; inthe former cafe its diameter is diminifhed, and
in the latter increafed. Some have fuppofed that thefe
changes in the trachea are concerned in producing the’altera-
tions of tone; but if they produce any effe& on the founds,
it is very flight, and they feem rather to be merely confe-
quent on the movements of the larynx.

What conneétion is there between the founds uttered and
the general motions of the larynx ? We know very little on
this fubje&t. We may obferve that they have no relation to
the force or weaknefs of the found ; fo long as the voice re-
mains at the fame tone, the larynx does not move, however
the found may be changed in ftrength or weaknefs.

The thyroid and cricoid cartilages admit of reciprocal
motion; the former can be brought downwards and forwards
upon the latter ; in Bice the chorde vocales are relaxed.
The crico-thyroideus mufcle has this effect.

But the motions of the arytenoid cartilages are the moft
importart, on account of their conneGion with the chorde
vocales. They may be brought towards each other, until,
indeed, they come into actual conta; this is attended witha
proportionate approximation of the chordz vocales. When
the cartilages touch each other, the rima glottidis is com-
pletely clofed ; this is done by the arytenoid mufcle. This
fhutting of the aperture is fometimes produced f{pafmodi-
cally, as when the parts are irritated by acrid vapours, or by
foreign bodies coming into contaét with them. Refpiration
muit experience a temporary ob{tru€tion under fuch circum-
ftances. When thefe cartilages are moved away from each
other, the chord vocales are feparated, and the rima glottidis
proportionally enlarged ; this is the action of the crico-aryte-
noideus pofticus. The arytenoid cartilages admit alfo of
being moved forwards and backwards; the chordz vocales
are rendered tenfe in the former ftate, and are relaxed in the
latter. The thyro-arytenoidei and crico-arytenoidei laterales
carry them forwards; and the crico-arytenoidei poftici
backwards.

Developement of the Larynx.—The differences of this
organ, according to the age of the individual, are not lefs
con{fpicuous than the fexual diftinions in the adult. They
refer to two principal periods ; viz. the years which precede,
and thofe which follow puberty ; for the great changes #h

the ftructure of the larynx, which in this re{pect follows the

developement of the fexual organs, take place about this
epocha, Inthe foetus and childthere are no differences in the
larynxes of the two fexes: until the period of puberty, the
fame fize, the fame rounded form, and the fame want of
prominence are obferved both in the male and female. At
this time the organ is much {maller in proportion in both
fexes, but more particularly in the male, than it will be in
the fequel. This’ will appear in a more ftriking point of
view, 1f we compare the larynx to the os hyoides, which
furmountsit. That organ, already much advanced, in confe-
quence of its conneétion with the tongue, whichis developed
early in life, projeéts before the larynx ; while in the adult,
and efpecially in the male fubjeé, the larynx projects before it.
The thyroid cartilage can hardly be faid to have a prominent
angle in the child. It is rounded at this part in either fex.
Nothing particular is to be obferved of the cricoid cartilage ;
and all the parts at the back of the larynx prefent the fame
difpofitions as in the fequel, excepting the difference in
fize.

The nature of the voice is influenced by this diminutive
fize of the larynx, and by the famenefs of its conforma-
tion in the two fexes. At this period of life we remark
that its pipe or key is flender, and that its charaéter is the
fame in both fexes. If there be any difference, it is not
fuch as that which in the fequel diftinguifhes the voice of
man from that of woman.

As the growth proceeds, the Jarynx approaches to the
flate in which we find it intheadult. Yet it does not follow
the fame courfe of developement as moft other organs. In
children of fix months it is often as large as in thole of two
years. Sometimes in a fubje@ of three years it will be
{maller than in one of a year, although the flature of the two
may be fuitable to their refpective ages.

A change almoft fudden, or at lealt much lefs gradual
than any which had occurred before, in the funétions of
the larynx, is remarked at the epocha of puberty; this in-
dicates an alteration in the organization of the cavity, anda
more rapid developement of its ftructure. The change is
much more remarkable in man than in woman, becaufe the
larynx remains much f{maller in the latter than in the former,
even after puberty. At this time the larynx is enlarged in
all its dimenfions by a {peedy growth analogous to what is
obferved in the generative organs. But while this change
is going on, for feveral months, the voice has a pecuhar
pipe, which is neither that of infancy nor of adult age.

After puberty the larynx undergoes no well marked
change: its form becomes more fixed, and the prominence
of its thyroid cartilage more confiderable in man.

In the old perfon, as the cartilages are con{tantly receiving
frefh depofitions of earthy matter, they at laft nearly equal
bone in hardnefs. This change affeéts the thyroid fire :
then the cricoid, and laftly the arytenoids. The epi-
glottis is hardly ever affected, probably on account of its pe-
culiar organization, which refembles that of the cartilages
of the nofe, ears, &c. Thisexemption is very favourable
to its funétions, which require pliancy. The voice always
becomes weak and broken in the aged: the weaknefs of the
mufcles and the {tiffnefs of the joints account for this, as
analogous changes explain fimilar phenomena in the organs
of locomotion. ’

The remarkable change in the pipe of the voice produced
by the remoyal of the telticles has been mentioned in the
article GENERATION. It has not been afcertained whether
there is any change in the organization of the larynx in thefe
cafes.

The parts hitherto defcribed are the inftruments by which
the voice is produced: the action of other organs is re~

quired,

LARYNX.

nired, in order to modify this, fo as to form it into articulated
Sounds or fpeech. Of thefe the tongue and the os hyoides are
the moft important : the latter bone is the balis of the tongue,
the fixed point from which its mufcles proceed, as alfo the
point of attachment of the chief mufcles of the larynx, The
defeription of thefe organs, and of the mufcular powers em-
ployed in moving them, will be found in the article DecLu-
rition. A knowledge of the parts about the throat,
which anatomifts generally term the fauces, is alfo effential
in confidering the fubje& of the voice. The larynx opens
into a large membranous cavity, defcending from the bafis
of the fkull in front of the fix upper cervical vertebra,
and named the pharynx. A large opening in the front of this,
and between the tongue and foft palate, leads into the mouth :
this aperture may be either free or clofed. Another paflage
goes above the palate into the nofe ; but this is not fo change-
able in its dimenfions as the former. Thus the air, expelled
from the larynx, muft proceed either through the mouth or
the nofe, or both. The mouth is the large {pace bounded
by the lips and cheeks, the tongue and palate. Into it the
tongue projects below, with free power of motion in every
direétion, and in the ordinary ftate nearly fills the cavity.
The two rows of teeth form a kind of divifion into an outer
and an inner cavity. For the more particular defeription of
all thefe parts, fee DzcLuririon.

It was formerly held that the palate and uvula hada
confiderable influence on the voice: but this feems doubtful.
The foftnefs of the part, which is drawn down againtft
another foft part, the tongue, renders it unfit for producing
any modification in the found. Animals, for the mott part,
have no uvula, and we know that the organ may be vari-
oufly difeafed without affecting the fpeech: ‘* Wherefore,
fays Haller, (Elem. Phyfiol. lib. ix. fe&. 2. § 17.) if af-
feGtions of the uvula have produced any confiderable altera-
tions in the voice, I fhould be rather inclined to afcribe them
to fome undue’ paffage of the found from the velum palati
being at the fame time injured. ‘Thus, when the nofe is
difeafed, a peculiar modification of the voice takes place,
not becaufe the noftrils are moved in the vocal functions,
but becaufe they tranfmit or refle& the fonorous tremors of
the air. Thus, too, when the voice is injured by deitruc-
tion of the bony palate, an artificial plate, which reftores
the power of refleCtion, without adding any motion, re-
medies the deficiency. I have the fame opinion concerning
fpeech. The guttural letters may be lefs perfe&ily formed,
when the organs about the throat are difeafed, becaufe the
allifions of parts cannot take place in the natural way: but the
uvula is concerned in the pronunciation of no letter, and we
might quote numerous auchors who have feen it entirely cut
away, or deftroyed by difeafe, or originally deficient with-
out the fpeech being impaired.”

The paflage from the pharynx, above the velum palati,
leads into a large and irregularly formed bony cavity,
lined with a foft membrane, and increafed by many ex-
eavations in the neighbouring bones. ‘This is the cavity of
the nofe, divided by a nearly perpendicular partition into two
halves, the right and left noftrils. This cavity is defcribed
under the articles Cranium and Nosr. The air emitted
from the larynx, rushes into thefe bony hollows, when they.
are not filled with mucus, {trikes their fides, and throws the
whole of the furfaces into vibrations, from which import-
ant modifications of the voice enfue.

Phyfiology of the Voice and Speech. — The voice, like all other
founds, isa vibration communicated to the air ; and it offers
to our obfervation, like them, three diltin& kinds of quali-
ties, independentof each other. 4. The tone, or the various
degrees of acutenefs and gravenefs, which depend on the ve-

locity of the vibrations. 2. The intenfity, or the degrees of
force, which depend on the extent of the vibrations. 3. ‘The
character or key, which arifes from circumftances hitherto un-
determined, and relating to the ftru&ture, the fubftance, or the
figure of the fonorous body. ‘The human voice is fufcepti-
ble of a fourth order of modifications ; viz. that which we
reprefent by the letters of the alphabet, and which is itfelf
divided into two other orders; the one relative to the principal
founds, which we reprefent by the vowels ; and the other to
their articulations, which conttitute the confonants. We do
not exa¢tly know on what the two latter modifications de-
pend : and although we perceive to a certain point the cir-
cumftances under which they are executed, we are not yet
able to imitate them by artificiai inftruments.

The found is produced by the paflage of air through the
rima glottidis, or the flit-like ovening left between: the two
chorde vocales. Almott invariably it is the paflage-of the
air from the lungs, in ex{piration, that produces the found:
but there are fome rare exceptions to this. In hiccough,
and under fome circumftances in coughing, found is produced
during infpiration. Many conceive, moreover, that the
phenomena of yentriloquifm are to be explained by the
exertion of the vocal organs, when air is admitted into the
chet. .

That the larynx is the primary organ, in which the ori-
ginal found is produced, is proved by the circumitance, that
difeafes and accidents affecting it deftroy or modify the voice.
If an opening be made in the trachea, below the larynx, fo
that no air fhall pafs through the latter, no voice is pro-
duced. When, on the contrary, an opening is made imme-
diately above the glottis, the voice is not affected. Bichat
made an incifion between the os hyoides and the thyroid
cartilage, and through the membrane, which conneéts the
tongue to the epiglottis: through this tranfverfe opening
he drew out the epiglottis with a hook, fo that the found,
inftead of pafling through the mouth and nofe, came di-
reGtly by the external wound. ‘The voice was as {trong as
before, and very little changed in chara&ter. He drew the
glottis between the fides of the wound, fo that the found
could not pafs at all into the mouth and nofe: the refult
was itill the fame. In thefe experiments the epiglottis may
be completely confined, or even cut away, without affeting-
the phznomena, fo that it can have no concern in the
formation of the voice. When the arytenoid cartilages were-
cut through, or the thyroid divided longitudinally, as in the
operation of bronchotomy, the voice was deftroyed.

The two elaftic ligamentary and membranous bodies,
which form the chordz vocales, ure analogous, in the human
inftrument of the voice, to the various provifions for pro—
ducing vibration in the different wind inftruments. No.
found is produced by blowing into a tube through a fimple-
opening ; the only effe& is a motion of the air, incapable
of producing found, unlefs it meets with a body fufceptible
of being thrown into vibration. It is, moreover, afcer-
tained that the fides of the inftrument are not the vi-
brating parts :. for the fub{tance of which they are compofed,
or the manner in which they are held, produces no change
in the tone or key. On examining the parts, to which the
mouth is applied, in the various wind inftruments, it ap-
pears, that vibrations are produced in the air contained in
the tube, as they are in the external air; that is, the inter-
vention of an elaftic body is neceflary, which the blowing
of the player agitates, and the vibrations of which are com-
municated to the air in the tube; or at leaft fome angular
body, againit which the air may break as it pafles with
violence, and thereby be thrown into vibration. In the flute
with a mouth-piece, in organ-pipes of various kinds, in the.

hautboy,

LARYNX.

hautboy, baffoon, &c. in trumpets, horns, &c. there are dif-
ferent provifions of this kind, to which the chordz vocales
are perfectly analogous. The tube then produces no found
itfelf, it only modifies, dire&ts, or augments that which it
produced at its embouchure by the fonorous body again{t
which the air breaks. The trachea of an animal is a con-
tinuous tube without any contraétion, or any piece fufcept-
ible of vibration, except at its upper extremity, or the
glottis. As the found is only formed at the end of the
trachea, that tube cannot ferve to modify it ; it can only be
compared to the pipe of the bellows of an organ, or to
any canal which may convey air to the embouchure of the
inflrument ; and the only part of the vocal organ in the
mammalia, which can be. compared to the tube of one of
our wind inftruments, is that placed in front of the glottis,
viz. the mouth and nafal cavity. If we confider, not only
the want of refemblance between thefe two cavities and all
the inftruments which we are acquainted with, but alfo the al-
moft infinite number of means by which we can change their
length, diameter, figure, and vents,—means which it is al-
moit impoffible to determine with fufficient exaétnefs to
deduce from them phyfical confequences, we fhall not be
furprifed at the difficulties which the theory of the human
vocal organ prefents.

But the mere paflage of the air through the glottis is not
fufficient for the purpofes of this funtion. The voice con-
neéts us with the individuals of our own fpecies, enables us
to communicate our thoughts to them, and muft, confe-
quently, be under the regulation of the will. Hence it is
produced by voluntary motion, and does not take place
except under the influence of volition. We are conftantly
breathing during fleep, without the produétion of any found :
and we may ex{pire, as ftrongly as we pleafe, in the wak-
ing ftate without the voice being formed, until we exert a
particular a&t of volition. Again, although the whole
ftru@ture of the larynx is entire, the ligature or fection of
the recurrent nerves, or of the nerves of the eighth pair,
deftroys the voice. An injury of one nerve aelttoye half
the vocal powers, but the voice is completely loft by ope-
rating on both. Galen performed this experiment repeat-
edly on pigs: Vefalius, and other more modern phyfiologitts,
have afcertained that the effects are correétly ftated by Galen.
In fhort, all the changes and conditions of the vocal organs,
of whatever defcription, neceffary to the produétion and
modification of found, are produced by the mufcles of the
part, under the influence of the will. The exaé& nature of
the mufcular motions, required for producing the voice, is
not known. Bichat obferved, in the experiments already
alluded to, that the rima glottidis was contracted when-
ever a found was uttered; and that this contraCtion was the
more fenfible, in proportion as the found was ftronger. He
ftates that it never was dilated during the formation of
found. He obferved, moreover, that infpiration and exfpi-
ration were conftantly attended refpectively by dilatation and
contraction of the glottis.

The air expelled from the lungs through the opening,
prepared for its paflage by the aétion of its proper mufcles,
throws the fides of this aperture, the chorde vocales, into
a ftate of vibration: the fame effect is produced in the
larynx, whofe cartilaginous ftruCture renders it particularly
fufceptible of fuch vibrations, and in all the furrounding
organs. The found produced by the tremulous motions of
all thefe parts is the voice. Hence we underftand why
hoarfenefs and fmallnefs of the voice accompany catarrhs,
in which the unufual coverings of mucus render the parts
lefs fufceptible of vibration ; why thofe animals which have
the greateft quantity of cartilage and the leaft membrane in

their vocal organs, have the flrongeft and moft fonorous
voices, and vice verfd ? We fee alfo that all animals pro-
vided with a pulmonary organ will have a voice ; fince no-
thing more is required, for the produétion of this found,
than the accumulation of air in fome receptacle, its expul-
fion in a mafs, with a certain force, and its meeting on its
paflage with elaftic and vibratory organs. Fifhes, which
have gills, and infeéts, in whom the diftribution of air is by
means of trachee, produce no found.

It feems impoffible to explain how the paflage of air
through the human glottis fhould produce vocal founds dif-
tinguifhing man from all other animals, and how each animal
fhould have his peculiar and charaéteriftic voice, where the
differences of ftru€ture, in a part of fuch fimple formation,
muft be very flight. Yet it feems true that the glottis alone
produces the fpecific charaéter of the voice in each animal.
Numerous and refpeétable authors affirm, that the inflation
of air through the glottis is fufficient, even in the dead
animal, to produce its particular voice: this has been
afferted of the human fubje€t, the cow, pig, cat, rabbit,
hare, goofe, and frog. It is dire€tly adverfe to what we
have already ftated concerning the neceffity of fome muf-
cular aétion to the produétion of the voice, and is fo con-
trary to thofe principles, by which thefe fun¢tions are fub-
jected to the will, that we cannot help doubting the whole
affertion. After reciting what others have ftated, Haller
adds, ** with me thefe experiments have not been fo fuc-
cefsful : I have fometimes obtained a found, that might be
recognifed as the voice of the animal, but could never imitate
the charaéter of the voice in the pig or doz, and much lefs
in man.’’ Elem. Phyfiol. lib. ix. feét. 3. § 4.

As the found, formed in the larynx, or the voice, proceeds
through the mouth and the multiplied hollows of the noftrils,
it undergoes various modifications, according to the nature
of thefe parts, which produce in it changes affeting its
key or pipe.

Ventriloquifm is, perhaps, one of the moft fingular phe-
nomena connected with the vocal funétions ; and certainly
one, of which the nature is very little underftood. This
name, as well as the Greek term of engaftri-muthifm, pro-
ceeds on the fuppofition that the found comes from the
abdomen: but we cannot doubt, in general, that the vocal
organs alone are concerned, however unable we may be to
explain the exa& nature of the procefs. Ammann, the
Swifs, whofe philofophical labours on the fubje& of lan-
guage, and particularly in the inftru€tion of the deaf and
dumb, entitle him to much confidence, fays, that he faw an
old woman who could fpeak during infpiration, and others
have explained ventriloquifm in the fame way. We believe
that the point has not been fufficiently afcertained by actual
obfervation : and others, in their attempts at explanation,
even fuppofe that it is produced, like ordinary fpeech, during
ex{piration. Some conceive that the tongue is fixed, and
that fome motions of the pharynx and velum palati do the
bufinefs. Richerand obferved, that a man who could give
a dialogue between two fpeakers, with different voices, as
if placed at fome diftance from each other, did not infpire
while he was doing this, but that he expelled air in much.
{maller quantity than ufual. The fame author obferves,
that a Mr. Fitz-James, who poffeffes the power of ventri-
loquifm in wonderful perfeGtion, does it by means of an
extremely gradual ex{piration, in which the air is brought out
in a very flender ftream, He precedes this by a very deep
infpiration: hence a full ftate of the itomach renders the
exertion of his talent difficult, which all individwals, who
have had the art in queftion, feem to experience. By acce-
lerating or retarding the exit of this air, Mr. Fitz-James

9 can

LARYNX.

an imitate different voices, make his auditors believe that
the interlocutors in a dialogue, which he carries on alone,
are placed at different diftances, and produce the moft com.
plete illufion on thefe points. See Richerand, Elemens de
Phytiologie, § 2, p- 339. : y

In hawking the air is violently forced, by a kind of inter-
rupted action, through the trachea, larynx, and fauces, fo
as to detach the fecretions of the parts, or any thing elfe
which lies on the furface. The peculiar noife is produced
by the air thus violently dafhed againft the parts. :

Snoring is produced by a kind of tremulous ofcillation
of the velum palati, generally in infpiration, but fometimes
alfo in exfpiration. Wailing, or the plaintive found pro-
duced in weeping, is the confequence of tremors of the
foft palate, gradually diminifhed in force as the air is ex-
{p'red.

ee humming the mouth is clofed, and the ex{pired air
enters the nafal cavities with tremulous motions of the muf-
cles of the fauces.

When the tongue is drawn upwards and prefled againit
the palate, and then fuddenly depreffed, fo as to allow the
air to pafs quickly, the noife called chuckling takes place.
By drawing the lips between the teeth, and then quickly fepa-
rating them, we can imitate the trot of the horfe ; and by
exercife we can even produce a found like the clapping of
hands.

When we wih to afcertain the odorous properties of any
body, we fniff at it ; that is, the infpired and exfpired air is
conveyed through the nofe with a tremor of the alz nafi
caufing a particular noife.

Hiffing is produced by expelling the air between the
teeth, when brought clofe together.

In whiftling, the tongue is rendered concave on its fuperior
furface, and applied to the bony palate, and upper teeth, fo
as to have a paflage for the air between it and thofe parts;
the lips are at the fame time contra&ed into a round aper-
ture; and the point of the tongue is in contaét with the
front lower teeth. The vibrations of the parts through
which the found paffes produce the peculiar effet, and the
motions of the tongue and lips increafe or diminifh the dimen-
fions of the openings through which it paffes. The pro-
duétion of a loud found requires a large quantity of air, a
itrong and accelerated ex{piration, and a confiderable tremor
of the chorde vocales. The lungs muft therefore be large
and admit eafily of diftention ; the trachea and larynx mutt
alfo be ample, and the reflexion of the found in all the paf-
fages unimpeded. A diftended ftate of the ftomach is un-
favourable to the production of fuch founds, as it impedes
the defcent of the diaphragm. The impervious ftate of the
lungs in the confumptive mutt be equally unfavourable ; and
we accordingly find that the voice becomes weaker, as the
difeafe advances.

In forming high or acute founds, a contraGted ftate of the
glottis, with tenfion of its ligaments, are required ; the air
paffes rapidly through the narrow opening, and numerous
ofcillations of its fides are produced. The whole larynx is
carried upwards and forwards; and, in uttering the moft
acute founds, the head is thrown backwards, that the la-
rynx may be elevated through a wider range. ‘This eleva-
tion equals nearly half an inch for one ottave. That the
changes above-mentioned take place, is proved, by placing
the finger on the larynx, which gives us immediate demon-
ftration of its afcent, when we utter acute founds; by the
comparatively acute voice of children and women, in whom
the larynx is fmall, and the glottis confequently narrow ;
by comparative anatomy, which fhews us that the glottis is
imall and narrow in finging birds, large and relaxed in ani-

VoL. XK .

mals which utter deep founds ; by the blowing of wind ine
ftruments, in which the opening for the paflage of the air
ts always contra¢ted in order to produce the high notes ; and
alfo by this general faét, that the founds are always more
acute in proportion as thefe inftruments are of fmaller fize.

If we talk too impetuoufly, the quick paffage of the air
throws the chordz vocales into too rapid ofcillations, and the
voice fuddenly becomes exceedingly fhrill. Thefe changes
have nothing to do with the loudnefs of the found ; a weak
as well as a ftrong found may be either acute or grave in its
tone.

In the produétion of deep or bafe tones, an oppofite ftate
of parts is required ; the larynx is carried downwards, and
the head itfelf brought towards the cheft. This defcent,
like the afcent, is about half an inch for an o&ave: In the
male fex, where the larynx is larger, and the glottis confe-
quently more ample than in the female, the voice is ha-
bitually deeper toned. Eunuchs and women may be taught
to fing foprano, but not bafs. When very low tones are
formed, in which the chordz vocales are greatly relaxed, the
production of found ceafes altogether.

A human voice that has been much exercifed, can pafs
through about two o€taves and a half in either direétion
from the middle ; confequently it has a range in the neck of
nearly three inches.

The queftion has been much agitated among phvfiologifts,
whether the changes of tone in the voice depend on altera-
tions in the diameter of the opening, or in the ftate of tenfion
of the ligaments forming its fides. By the advocates of the
former opinion, the organ of the human voice is compared to
wind inftruments, in which the enlargement of the aperture
renders the found grave, and its diminution acute; and by
thofe of the latter to ftringed inftruments. We admit, in
the preceding account, the efficacy of both kinds of changes,
but we confider the alterations in diameter as the moft
efficient. The change of the voice from acute to grave, at
the time of puberty, when the larynx undergoes a remark-
able developement, as well as its acutenefs in females, whofe
glottis is lefs by one-third than that of man, fhew that the
fize of the aperture has a great influence. Obferving, on
the other hand, that the chordz vocales admit of confiderable
tenfion and relaxation, we mutt allow that thefe variations will
render them fufceptible of executing, ina given time, vibra-
tions more or lefs extenfive and rapid. And although they
are neither dry, ftretched, nor ifolated, which are neceflary
conditions to the produétion of found in thofe ftringed in-
ftruments to which the larynx has been compared, yet they
are analogous to vibrating bodies placed at the top of wind
inftruments, as the reed in hautboys, the mouth piece in
flutes, &c. and equally contribute to the formation and
varied inflexion of vocal founds. Haller, in his Elementa
Phyfiologiz, lib. ix., has given a long and very inftructive
account of the whole controverfy. We fhall be furprized
at feeing how very {mall a change can alter the tone, when
we refle& that the breadth of the rima glottidis does not ex-
ceed a line at its broadeft part, and that there is an almoft
innumerable variety of tones diftinétly perceptible.

Singing is the expreffion of love and joy, common to birds
with the human fubje@&t. The pronunciation of words or let-
ters is not effential to its nature. It includes the greateit
variety of acute and grave founds, and the moft rapid tran-
fition from the one to the other. In general the tone of
finging is more acute than that of talking. The great dif-
ference between thefe two modes of vocal exertion is in the
tranfitions of finging ; in order to execute thefe, the larynx,
inftead of refling, is fultained in a kind of equilibrium betweee
the elevating and deprefling powers. A perfon will foon

Et perceive

LAR WT WN x.

perceive this by placing his finger on the larynx while he
fings, or by obferving the throat of another. As finging
requires the exertion of many mutcles, it foon fatigues. It
allo exercifes the mufcles of refpiration ; asa large quantity
of air is frequently required. ‘The rapid paflage of the air
in finging dries the parts quickly.

Speech is the formation of the voice, produced, as we
have already defcribed, by means of the organs about the
throat, nofe, and mouth, into articulated founds, by which
men communicate their thoughts to each other. All gpi-
mals have a voice, but man alone {peaks in the fenfe now
alluded to. Some, indeed, which have a broad tongue,
have been taught to pronounce a few words ; but they ex-
prefs no thoughts by thefe founds. We believe that no
{ufficient reafon can be drawn from organization, why man
invariably fhould poffefs, and animals invariably want the
power of f{peech.

The tones are not fo quickly changed as in finging, con-
fequently the larynx is much lefs moved. Recitative is a
kind of mixture of finging and {peaking, partaking equally
of the characters of each.

If we confider a letter to be a found, that cannot be re-
folved into more fimple elements, fpeech is the formation of
the voice into the founds exprefled by letters, and the com-
polition of words from thefe.

Letters are divided into vowels and confonants. The for-
mer (vocales) are produced fimply by the voice pafling
through the mouth opened to a greater or lefs degree, with-
out the tongue being applied:to the lips or to any other
part. Thefe founds are produced in laughing, and fome-
thing like them may be obferved in the voices of animals.

In the formation of the vowels, the paflage through the
nofe is clofed ; the voice proceeds {traight through the
tongue and lips, and the mouth is open. ‘The larger the
fpace lett for the voice along the tongne and through the
lips, or the lower the tongue is placed in the mouth, and
the wider the lips are apart, the more deeply do the vowels
found. Thefe founds are the moft clear and diltin&, becaufe
the canal, through which they proceed, is free and unconfined
in every diretion.

The confonants are founds pronounced with the vowels,
and modifying or limiting them. They mutt therefore have
vowels either before or after them. The found of the vowel
in thefe cafes is altered by the tongue being applied to fome
part in the cavity of the mouth, itriking againit the teeth or
lips, &c.

The confonants are diftinguifhed into different claffes ac-
cording to different principles of arrangement. Soemmer-
ring gives the four following claflifications.

I. 1. Nafales; m,n,ng. 2. Orales; /,r. 3. Sibilantes ;
f& 4, ch, f- 4. Explofive ; 6, d, ks p,q t 5. Compo-
hte; «x, 2,

Il. 1. Nafales; m,n, ng. 2. Liquide; Lr. 3. Mute;
fi hy ch, fy % feb, th, v, w. 4. Explofive ; 2, p, 4, t, kg.

III. 1. Mute; 4p, ¢% 2. Explofive et vocales; g, r.
3. Explofive; f 4, f, /ch. 4. Vocales; 4, d, g, 1, m,n.

IV. 1. Gutturales ; g, oh, th. 2. Palatine; d, /, n, r,
ft 3. Labiales; 4, f,m,p, w. Decorp. hum. fabrica, t. 6.

ALO}

f To point out the motions by which all thefe founds are
produced, would lead us into too wide a field. We refer
the reader to.the work of Soemmerring already quoted, ‘and
to Haller’s Elementa Phyfiologiz, lib. ix.

The remarkable change which occurs in the voice, at the
time of puberty, mutt be referred to the fudden developement
which the organ undergoes at that time, as we have already
tated. The various affections of the ae accompanied

by the utterance of particular founds; and this is flrongly
feen alfoin animals, In them, the wants couneéted with the
generative functions, afford the molt frequent ecaufe for the
exertion of the yocal organs. But we may obferve further,
both in birds and quadrupeds, that certain modifications of
the voice exprefs fear and anger, affection for the offspring,
joy and pain, that others are ufed in calling the affembly to-
gether, and, in the cafe of zregarious animals, in imparting
toeach other fomething which we do not underftand, Si-
milar vocal expreflions of what is pafling internally are ob-
ferved alfo in the dumb, who have not Jearned to {peak ; and
even animals diftinguifh in man the founds denoting anger,
approbation, &c. Inthe founds which we utter, on many
of thefe occafions, in civilized fociety, there may be fome-
thing arifing from imitation or habit, or referrible in fome
way to aconventional origin ; but much ofit is fo completely
inartificial, that we feem to obey merely a {pecies of inftinét,
and to exprefs the fimp'!e voice of nature. Various mal-
formations and difeafes of the organs concerned in fpeech im=-
pair or entirely deflroy the power of pronunciation. From
the important fhare which the tongue has, in producing arti-
culated founds, we fhould expect that extenfive injuries of it
would be very injurious in this way. But experience fhews
us that it may be very extenfively injured without greatly
impairing the powers of fpeech. Indeed feveral letters may
be pronounced without its aid- Mr. Louis has colletted fe-
veral cafes in his ‘* Memoire phyfiologique et pathologique,
fur la Langue ;”’ in proof of this point, he ftates, that after
very ferious injuries the power of {peech was at firfl greatly
impaired; but that it gradualy returned. Memoires de
l’Acad. de Chirurgie, t. v.

Stammering may be caufed by too large and thick a
tongue, by great length of the frenum; by any caufes that
impair the motions of this organ, whether they be referrible
to organization, or to the {tate of the nervous fyltem, as in
drunkennefs, apoplexy, &c.

Too great confinement of the organ, by its franum, fome=
times prevents children from learning to {peak.

Want of the front teeth, as well as undue fize of the ©
tongue, produces lifping.

The confinement of the tongue in the aged, confequent on
the diminution of the cavity of the mouth from the lofs of
the teeth, very much impedes the powers of pronunciation.

When we aflign certain organieal defects, as the caufes of
‘defe&tive pronunciation, we do not mean to affert that this
is conftantly true. A perfon who ftammers, for example,
will often be able to fpeak clearly, if he will {peak flowly.

The obftrution o; the paffage of the found through the
nofe, either by clofing the front openings of the noftrils, or
by the elevation of the velum palati behind, produces a pe=
culiar modification of the voice, which is ftrangely enough
termed, in common language, fpeaking through the. nofe.
Difeafes of the palate, or its velum, ulcerations, and preter-
natural openings in them, have alfo very confiderable effeét
on the voice; the fame may be obferved of difeafe affeGting
the bones of the nofe.

Dumbnefs may be accidental, or may fubfift from birth,
In the former cafe, it arifes from organic injury; which ei-
ther affe&ts the mechanifm of the parts, or which intercepts
the communication between the vocal mufcles and the brain.
In dumbnefs from birth, deafnefs feems to be always the
eaufe ; fo that the abfence of {peech fhould here rather be
called filence. This, at leaft, is conftantly the cafe, according
to the obfervation of Sicard on the numerous pupils com-
mitted to his care. Here there is an abfolute ignorance of
founds, and of their reprefentative value in letters of the al-
phabet. The vocal organs exhibit no marks of deficiency 5

they

LAS

they are fit, in fhort, to fulfil the ufes for which nature has
deitined them, but they remain in a ftate of ina¢tion, be-
caufe the deaf infant is not confcious that he has the means
of communicating his thoughts. See the article Dums-
NESS,

Bichat, Anatomie Defcriptive, t. ii. Soemmerring, De
Corporis humani fabrica, t. vi. Haller, Elementa Phyfio-
logiz, lib. ix. ’ be

LASAITA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Princi-

ato Citra; 21 miles S.S.W. of Cangiano.

LASANON, a word ufed by different authors in very dif-
ferent fenfes ; fome applying it to the trivet commonly ufed
in kitchens; others to a clofe-flool; and others, among
whom are Hippocrates, and the ancient phyficians, for a
fort of chair, contrived for a woman in labour to fit in, as
being fo made, that the weight of the child, when born,
fhall help to draw away the fecumdines.

LASCARIS, Constantine, in Biography, a learned
defcendant of the imperial family of that name, was born at
Conttantinople. He quitted his native city when it was
taken by the Turks in'1454, and went to Italy, where he
was moit amicably received by duke Francis Sforza of
Milan, who placed his own daughter, a child of ten years
of age, under the care of Lafcaris for inftruétion in the
Greek language. For her ufe he compofed his Greek
grammar. From Milan he went to Rome, and from thence,
at the invitation of king Ferdinand, he repaired to Naples,
where he opened a public fchool for Greek and rhetoric.
Having {pent fome years in this employment, he was de-
firous of repofe, and embarked with the intention of fettling
at a town of Greece; but having touched at Meffina, he
was urged by fuch advantageous offers to make it his refi-
eence, that he complied, and paffed there the remainder of
his days. Here he received the honour of citizenfhip, which
he merited by his virtues as well as his learning, and by the
influx of fcholars which his reputation drew thither, among
whom was the celebrated Bembo. He lived toa very ad-
vanced age, but the time of his death has not been exacily
afcertained. He bequeathed his library to the city of
Meffina. His Greek grammar was printed at Milan in
1476, and was the firft book that iffued trom the Italian
prefs. A better edition of it was given in 1494, by Aldus
Manutius : Erafmus confidered it as the beft Greek gram-
mar then extant, excepting that of Theodore Gaza. Liaf-
caris was author likewife of two tra&ts on the Sicilian and
Calabrian Greek writers.

Lascaris, Joan Anprew, a learned Greek of the fame
family with the preceding, came over to Italy, on the ruin
of his country. He ftudied at Padua, obtained a high repu-
tation for his knowledge in the learned languages, and re-
ceived the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici, who fent him
into Greece with recommendatory letters to fultan Bajazet,
in order ¢o colle& ancient manuicripts. After the expul-
fion of the Medici family from Florence, in 1494, he was
carried to France by Gharles VIII., after which he was
patronized Sy Louis XII., who fent him, in 1503, as his
ambaflador to Venice, in which office he remained till 1508.
He joined the purfuit of literature with his public employ-
ment, and held a correfpondence with many learned men.
After the termination of his embafly, he remained fome
years at Venice, as an inftructor in the Greek language.
On the election of pope Leo X. to the popelom in 1513,
‘he fet out for Rome, being perfuaded that,he fhould meet
with a favourable reception frem that patron of learning.
At the initigation of Lafcaris, Leo founded a college for
noble Grecian youths at Rome, at the head of which he
placed the author of the plan. In 1518, he quitted Rome

LAS

for France, whither he was invited by Francis I. ; here he
was employed by the monarch in forming the royal library.
He was alfo fent as his ambaffador to Venice, with a view
of procuring Greek youths for the purpofe of founding a
college at Paris fimilar to that of Rome. After the accom-
plifhment of other important miffions, he died at Rome in
1535, at an advanced age. As an author he compofed
epigrams in Greek and Latin ; he tranfleted into the Latin
language, a work extraéted from Polybius, on the military
conllitutions of the Romans; and he printed at Florence a
magnificent edition of the Greek Authologia. By his con-
temporaries he was greatly praifed, on account of the emi-
nent fervices which he performed for the extenfion of litera-
ture.

LASCHE, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; eight miles E. of Chrudim.

LASCHI, in Biography, an admirable finger and ator
in the firft burletta band of fingers which arrived in Eng-
land during the autumn‘of 1748, when ferious operas were
difcontinued by the abdication of lord Middlefex, who was
as unfuccefsful in his opera regency, as James II., in en-
deavouring to eftablifh the Roman Catholic religion in this
country.

The new troop confifted of Pertici, as buffo caricato, Laf-
chi, tenor, and Guadagni, counter tenor, (then very young, )
as ferious men. Frafi, and, afterwards, Mellini, for fericus
women ; and the comic female parts by the wives of Per-
tici and Lafchi, the two beit comic a€tors we ever faw on
any ftage, formed a very good troop, and in the comic
operas of « La Comedia in Comedia,’’ “ Orazio,’”?. “ Don
Colafcione,”’ “ Gli tre Cicifbei Ridicoli,"” &c. compofed by
Latilla, Mitale Refta, and Ciampi, who came over as maeftro
to the company, pleafed the public and filled the theatre
very fuccefsfully during the whole winter. Lafchi was cer-
tainly the beft firft buffo, except Lovatini, that has ever
appeared on our ftage: and the aGting of him and Pertici
was undoubted!y the moit amufing and ingenious that can
poflibly be imagined.

LASCIGO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; 18 miles W. of Policaitro.

LASCO, Jouw~ a, in Biography, a zealous promoter of
the Reformation, was born in Poland, of a noble family,
about the clofe of the fourteenth century. He received the
early part of his education in his own country, and then
travelled into foreign parts for improvement. _ In Switzer-
land he became acquainted with the celebrated Zuingle, by
whofe influence he determined upon ftudying divinity, and
having by the example of his friend imbibed the {pirit of the
reformation, he returned home with the defign of propagat-
ing the principles which he regarded as having their founda-
tion inimportant truth. At firft he was promoted to a high
fiation in the Catholic church, and at length was nominated
bifhop of Vefprim, in Hungary. His honours, probably,
did not fit ealy upon him, and he determined to make an
open avowal of his fentiments ; by this decided courfe he
drew upon himfelf the vengeance of the Catholic bithops,
who did not hefitate to pronounce him an heretic. He ap-
pealed to the king, but the fovereign was either unable or
unwilling to extend the fhield of his authority in protecting
his bifhop, and he was obliged to quit Hungary in the year
1540. In 1542, he was chofen minifter of a church at
Embden, and in the following year he went to Oldenburgh,
to eltablifh the doétrines and diicipline of the reformation in
that diftricd. In 1544, he was invited into Proffia, by duke
Albert, for the fame purpofe, but as he was not altogether
a Lutheran, he was obliged to relinquifh this miffion and
to return to Friefland. tere he refided about ten years,

‘bt 2 whes

LAS

when the publication of the Interim by the emperor
Charles V. compelled him to feek another afylum, which he
found in England, on the invitation of Edward VI., which
was conveyed to him by archbifhop Cranmer. Here he
became minifter to a German Proteftant church, which af-
fembled for divine worfhip at Auftin-Fryars. Of thefe
Proteftants, almoft four hundred were admitted to the
honour of citizenfhip; they were not tolerated, but gua-
ranteed by royal patent, in the confcientious difcharge of
their duties to God, while numbers of his majefty’s natural
born fubje€ts were grievoufly pertecuted on account of their
inability to join in all the ceremonies enjoined by the efta-
blifhed religion. 'The preamble to the patent referred to,
is a curious document confidering the times ; it admits that
the German church made profeffion of pure and uncorrupted
religion, and was inftruéted in truly Chriftian and apottoli-
cal opinions and rites, and it was permitted them to enjoy
and exercife their own rites, ceremonies, and difcipline,
though th¢y were different from thofe ufed in this kingdom.
Lafco avdwed the fame opinions as thofe held by Hooper,
Latimer, and other illuftrious divines of that ‘day: he was,
however, permitted to live in peace during the reign of the
youthful monarch; but upon the acceffion of the infamous
Mary, he and his congregation were ordered to leave the
kingdom. ‘They embarked with their families and pro-
perty, and at the commencement of a very fevere winter
arrived off the coaft of Denmark, but were not permitted
to land on account of their known tenets. For the fame
reafon they were refufed an afylum at Lubec, Hamburg,
and fome of the cities of Saxony ; at length, after they had
been driven from place to place, they were hofpitably re-
ceived at Embden in March 1554. In the following year
Lafco went to Frankfort upon the Maine, and obtained
leave from the fenate to build a church for foreign Pro-
teftants. In 1556, he wrote a letter to Sigifmund, king of
Poland, in vindication of himfelf and his doétrines, from
certain mifreprefentations which had been cireulated by his
enemies. In 1557, he publifhed an apology for the church
of the reformed Proteftants at Frankfort, on the fubject of
the variation in their creed from that of the confeffion of
Augfburg with refpe& to the Eucharift. He was anfwered
by Weitphalus, who, feeling that he had the weakelt fide of
the argument, exhorted the fenate to interpofe its power,
and to withdraw its protection from the difciples of Zuingle,
whom he denominated rank heretics, and the Devil’s martyrs.
Lafco, after a thoufand viciffitudes, returned to his native
country ; but f{carcely had he arrived, when the bifhops and
other ecclefiaftics fet about every method to ruin him. A
fynod was convoked to meet at Warfaw; the refult of their
deliberations was, that Lafco was a heretic ; he was agcufed
before the king, and a petition was drawn up praying that
he might be banifhed. The fovereign nobly rejected their
demand, and he was permitted to live free from perfecution,
though he was daily affailed by the dark calumnies of his
enemies. He died in 1560, leaving behind him many works
which teftify that he was a man of great talents and pro-
found learning. He was the friend of Erafmus, who ac-
knowledged the obligations he was under to him; and Peter
Martyr calls him his moft learned patron. He was highly
efteemed, and frequently confulted by Sigifmund, king of
Poland; and he is commended by contemporary hiltorians
as 2 man poffefling many virtues, and the moft unafiected
iety. Gen. Biog.

LASCORIA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Afia, in
Galatia, belonging to the Trocmi. Prolemy.

LASDIPELEN, in Geography, a town of Pruflian Li-
thuania ; nine miles N. of Plikdlen

LAS

LASER Cynrenatrcum, in the Materia Medica, a name
fuppofed to be given by the ancient Greeks to the gum we
at this time call afla foetida. The word affa, or, as it was
originally written, afa, was evidently formed on the lafer
of the Greeks ; but there was alfo an afa mentioned by the
old authors very different from this, being a fragrant and
{weet-fcented gum. This {weet gum was evidently the lafer
and afa, or afla, of the ancient Greeks: and the filphiam
was the plant which produced it. This plant grew in
Cyrene, and furnifhed it a long time; but in the days of
Pliny it was in a manner loft. The people of Cyrene
found it more profitable to feed their cattle upon the
filphium, than to gather its gum,

Pliny continues to tell us, that by the feeding cattle on
this plant, it was fo perfe&ly dettroyed, in a courfe of years,
that there had been, of a long time, only one plant of it
feen, and that reckoned fo great a curiofity, that it was fent
as a prefent to the emperor Nero.

When Cyrene no longer afforded the filphium, it was
fought for in other places. "The original afa, or lafer, had
the fmell of myrrh, but more mild and agreeable ; and the
afa of fucceeding times had that of leeks or garlic, and
thence was diftinguifhed by the name /corads laferum.

LASERPITIUM, in Botany, Laferwort ; an ancient
name of uncertain derivation, fynonymous with the ciAGioy
of the Greeks. Lac ferpitium, alluding to its milky juice,
or /adipitium, becaufe that milky juice has a pitchy imell,
both fuggefted by etymologilts, afford little fatisfaGtion.
The word is evidently compounded of Lar, the name of
the gum which it produces, and from which 4/a is by fome
thought to have been corrupted. Hence A/fi-fatida has been
fuppofed the true La/fér, or gum of the cirgio, which is
known to be of a fetid nature. Ambrofinus aflerts Lafer to
be a corruption of LaGir, from Jac, milk. Whatever the
ciadicy of the Greeks, or the La/erpitizm of the Latins may
have been, the Si/phium of modern botaniits isa genus of the
fyngenefious clafs, and the La/erpitium is one of the umbel-
liferous tribe, of which we are now to fpeak. It fo far ac-
cords with the ancient plant, that feveral of its fpecies dif-
charge, when wounded, an acrid and ftrongly feented:
refinous gum.—Linn. Gen. 136. Schreb. 186. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 1.1414. Mart. Mill, Dig. v. 3. Ait. Hort.
Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 138. Sm. Predr. Fl. Gree. Sibth. y. 1.
191. Juff. 222. Tourn. t. 172. Lamarck Illuftr. t.199.
Gertn. t. $5. (Siler; Gaertn. t. 22.)—Clafs and order,
Pentandria Digynia. Nat. Ord. Umbellate, Linn. Umbel-
lifere, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. General umbel very large, of from twenty to
forty rays; partial of many rays, flat. General involucrum
of many leaves, fmall; partial of many leaves, {mall. Pe-
rianth of five teeth, fcarcely difcernible. Cor. Univerfal
uniform ; all the flowers fertile; partial of five f{preading,
nearly equal, petals, their points bent in fo as to form the
fhape of aheart. Stam. Filaments five, briltle-fhaped, the
length of the corolla; anthers fimple. Pi/?. Germen in-
ferior, roundifh; ftyles two, rather thick, pointed, diftant 5
ftigmas obtufe, fpreading. Peric. Fruit oblong, with eight
longitudinal membranous angles, feparable into two parts.
Seeds two, very large, oblong, femicylindrical, flat on the
inner fide, furnifhed eack with four dorfal and marginal
membranes on the other.

Eff. Ch. Involucrum both general and partial. Frnt
oblong, with membranous angles. Petals uniform, inflexed,
emarginate, {preading.

The fpecies of La/érpitium are in general of a larger pro-
portion, with more ample foliage, than moft other umbel.'
Lferous plants. To this neverthelefs there are fome excep-

tions,

LASERPITIUM.

tions, for we perceive a prodigious difference between the
gigantic L. aguilegifolium, Jacq. Auttr. t. 147, and the Tittle
L. fimplex, Jacq. Mifc. v2. t. 2. The 14th edition of Sytt.
Veg. has fourteen {pecies, comprehending Forfter’s genus
Aciphylla; Willdenow has twenty-three. In each of thefe
lifts, however, there are {ome ambiguous or doubtful plants,
which, from variations incident to this tribe, relative to the
occafional abfence or prefence of an involucrum, are fup-
pofed to be defcribed twice over in the Linnean fyftem.
Such is the cafe with L. Chironium, fufpeted to be the fame
as Paflinaca Opopanax, we believe juftly. Willdenow doubts
whether ZL. Archangelica of Jacquin, Ic. t. 58, be diftin&
from this plant of Linnezus, but we are quite clear on this
point, and are almoft as perfeétly fatisfied that L. Chironium
is Paffinaca Opopanax, which laft name Linnzus, in his note
on the fubject, has accidentally written Cofina, apparently
from having Bauhin’s fynonym in his head; yct Reichard,
Willdenow, and Laicharding copy him without reflection
or remark. }
Indubitable {pecies of Laferpitium, which will ferve to give
a competent idea of the genus, are the following. None
are natives of Britain. t
__ LL. [atifolium. Broad-leaved Laferwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 356. Jacq. Auitr. t. 146. (Libanotis Theophratti
major; Ger. em. 1010. )—Leaflets obliquely heart-fhaped,
undivided, with fharp-pointed teeth.—Native of moun-
tainous dry woods in various parts of Europe, flowering in
July, ripening feed late in autumn. Jacquin obferves that
it varies greatly in fize and roughnefs, being only a foot or
two high on the Alps, while in lefs elevated fituations it
rifes to four or five feet, with ample and handfome foliage.
He afferts alfo that wild plants of a very rough habit, on
being brought into the garden, became fmooth the next
feafon. Hence he determines the L. a/perum of Crantz,
Diff. fafe. 3. 50. t. 1. f. 2, and g/abrum of the fame author,
54, to be one and the fame fpecies. This f. 2. of Crantz
very correctly exprefles a leaflet of our plant, fuch as is
preferved in the Linnzan herbarium, and exhibited by
Jacquin as above. The radical aves are twice or thrice
compound, with large, heart-fhaped, ftalked, undivided
leaflets, unequal at the bafe, veiny, from one to two or
three inches'long; {mooth and dark green above; paler,
and more or lefs rough with rigid briftles, beneath; the
margin befet with flrong broad fharp ferratures, the bafe
entire. The /fem is {mooth and round, bearing a few {maller
more entire leaves, whofe common ftalk is greatly dilated
and inflated at the bafe. The umbels are broad. Flowers
fmall, white. Wings of the /éeds, according to Jacquin’s
plate, even, and fearcely at all undulated, rounded not an-
ular at their fummit, agreeing very well with the firft
Piste of the feed annexed to Morifon’s Seé&. 9. t. 19. f. 1,
fo that, if he be right, his whole fig. 1. muft belong to our
plant, though it is not a very good one. We cannot help
thinking too that the Laferpitium of Rivinus, Pentap. Irr.
t. 21, is the fame fpecies. Profeffor Willdenow, however,
feems to have been led by Crantz and Lamarck to eftablith
another fpecies, by the name of £. Libanotis, for which he
quotes this plate of Rivinus, as well as another figure of
Morifon, Se&. 9. t. x9. f.6. This he fuppofes to be the
glabrum of Crantz, who cites as a certain though rude figure
Libanotis alpina latifolia, femine erifpo, Bocce. Muf. 24. t. 3.
The plant of Boccone, according to all appearance, we have
from Italy, and can aver its being totally different from L.
latifolium and all the fynonyms of Willdenow’s L. Lilanotis,
being, as far as we can tell, not yet defined by any fyf-
tematic author. The wings of its feeds,’ though called
srifped, axe nearly even, and terminate in a lateral angle at

the top, like Morifon’s t. 19. f. 6, which may poffibly bea
bad delineation of Boccone’s plant. Willdenow does not
mark his £. Libanotis as one that he had feen, and he might
well be led into confufion by the writers on whom he has
depended. Among thefe the moft blameable is Crantz, who
roundly afferts his a/perum, (our latifolium,) to be L. Chi-
ronium of Linneus, which we can politively contradiét, and
which nobody but Lamarck has believed. The latter feizes
with alacrity the opportunity of cenfuring Linnzus on the
fubjeé&t of his fynonymy, though in this inftance unjuftly,
while he himfelf defcribes under the name of ZL. Lilanolis,
with extremely confufed fynonyms, what appears clearly by
his account to be Z. trilobum of Linneus, of which we fhall
now fpeak.

L. trilabum. Three-lobed Broad Laferwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 357. (L. Libanotis; Lamarck Di&. v. 3. 423, by
the very excellent defcription. Ligufticum Rauwoltii, foliis.
aquilegie; Bauh. Hift. v. 3. p. 2. 148. Pluk. Phyt.
t. 223. f. 7. Siler foliis aquilegie; Rivin. Pentap: Irr.
t. 64.)—Leaflets broad-ovate, three-lobed, cut and fharply
ferrated.—Native of Italy, and we believe alfo of Switzer
land; though Profeffor Lachenal, from whom we have 2
{pecimen of the true plant, afferts the n. 793. of Haller,
taken for this, to be only a variety of Jatifolium, which ac-
cording to him has occafionally two or three lobes in its
lower leaflets. A Swifs fpecimen from Schleicher feems to
be the real trilobum, but it wants the lower leaves, and there-
fore cannot be abfolutely determined. The /eaffets of L. tri-
lobym differ from the foregoisg, in being by no means heart-
fhaped at the bafe, but either ovate or tapering, and more
or lefs deeply three-lobed, fometimes to the very bafe; as
well as cut and fharply ferrated. The umdbel is very large
and {preading, with long purple rays. Flowers {mall, white.
Wings of the /eeds even, and very narrow. Lachenal feems,.
when he wrote his remarks above alluded to, in Aét. Hel-
vet. v. 8. 145, not to have diftinguifhed this from the fol-
lowing, though they are widely different.

L. aquilegifolium. Great Columbine-leaved Laferwort.
Jacq. Auftr. v. 2.—Leaflets feffile, rounded, bluntly lobed
and cut. Wings of the feed very narrow.—Native of Auf-
tria, Switzerland, and the Bithynian Olympus, firft well
determmed by Jacquin. It is five or fix feet high, with
ample /eaves, much refembling thofe of a Columbine ia their
rounded obtufe form and fegments. The umbels are very
large and fpreading. Flowers white. Wings of the fed
even, and very narrow. Crantz makes it a Siler, and mif-
quotes under it fynonyms which belong to the la{t, and
which he therefore juftly fays “* could never be gueffed to
belong to the prefent? Why then, as they certainly do.
not, are they quoted?

L. Siler. Mountain Entire Laferwort. Linn. Spi
Pl. 357- Jacq. Auftr. v. 2. 27. t. 145. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Gree. Sib. v. 1. 19. (Siler montanum officinarum ; Ger.
em. 1-48.)—Leaflets elliptic-lanceolate, entire, ftalked.—.
Found on the mountains of Auftria, Switzerland, France,
Greece, and other parts of the fouth of Europe. It is of
more humble growth than any of the former, and diftin-
guifhed by the form of its eaffets. The feeds are fhaped and,
winged much as in the laft. They are aromatic and very
bitter. Haller complains of its being negleéted as a medi-
cinal plant, though ftrong in aromatic virtues.

L. prutenicum. Pruffian Laferwort. Linn. Sp Pl. 357.
Jacq. Auttr, t. 153. Ehrh. Herb.93. (L..minus; Rivin:
Pentap. Irr. t. 23.)—Leaflets pinnatifid; their fegments.
lanceolate, acute, decurrent, entire. Stem hifpid.— Fouud.
in Pruffia, Auftria, Switzerland, &c. The /fem is about
two feet high, erect, hairy, as. well as the leaf-ftalks.

Leaves

LAS

Leaves light: green, {mooth, bipinnate; their leaflets pin-
natifid, with elliptic-lanceolate, decurrent, pointed feg-

ments. Unmdbels rather large, white, with white-edged in-
volucral leaves, Seeds {mall, their wings broadifh and
wavy.

L. Airfutum. Hairy Fine-leaved Laferwort. Lamarck
Did. v. 3. 425, with a wrong reference to Linneus. (L.
Halleri; Villarf. Dauph. v. 2. 625. L. n. 795; Hall.
Hitt. v. 1. 353.t. 19.)—Leaves hairy, many times decom-
pounded, with lanceolate decurient fegments, often three-
cleft. Involucral leaves with membranous fringed edges. —
Native of the alpine parts of Switzerland, Savoy, and
France. We gathered it on Mount Cenis, flowering in
Auguit. The broad, extremely compound, finely cut and
hairy /eaves, at once diltinguifh this fpecies. The umbels
are large, denfe, and white. Wings of the /zeds rather
broad, pale, and flightly crifped.

Lasenpitium, in Gardening, Sc. The plants of this genus
grow naturally in the fouth of France, in Italy, and Germany,
and are preferved in botanic gardens for the fake of variety ;
they have no great beauty. It has been generally {uppofed, that
the filphium of the ancients was procured from one {pecies
of this genus, but from which of them (if any) we are at
prefent ignorant. All the f{pecies, if wounded, drop a very
acrid juice, which turns to arefinous gummy f{ubitance, very
acrimonious. "This was externally applied by the anciznts to
take away black and blue fpots that came by bruifes and
blows, as alfo to take away excrefcences: it was alfo by
fome of the ancients prefcribed in internal medicines, but
ochegs have cautioned people not to make ufe of it this
way, from the effects which they mention to have feen pro-
duced from the violence of its acrimony.

All thefe plants are extremely hardy, fo will thrive in
moft foils and fituations. They are propagated by feeds,
which, fown in autumn, will afford plants in the {pring,
that may be tranfplanted in the following autumn. Miller.

LASERRA, in Geography, a town of Corfica; 10 miles
N.E. of Sarcena.

LASERWORT, in Botany, &c. See LAsErPiTiuM.

LASGRUFVA, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in
Helfingland; 58 miles E. cf Hudwick{wal.

LASH, or #o /a/h, is to make fa{t the booms, anchors,
&c. by feveral turns of rope, to prevent their moving by
the motion of the fhip.

Lajbing, which alfo denotes.a piece of rope ufed to
faften or fecure any moveable body in a fhip, or about her
malts, fails, and rigging, is chiefly ufed for binding up to
the fhip’s fide, muikets, butts of water or beer, or pieces
of timber to make fpare top-mafts.

LASHERS are properly thofe ropes only which bind
faft the taekles, and the breeches of the ordnance, when
they are haled or made falt, within board. :

LASHOM Jamnas, in Geography, a town of Egypt,
on the coait of the Mediterranean; 12 miles N.W. of
Damietta.

LASIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated on the
coaft of Lycias. Pliny.—Allo, an iflend on the coaft of
the Peloponnefus, over-againft Troézené.—Alfo, one of the
names of the ifle of Andros. ;

Lasta, in Botany, from Axcis, hairy or briflly, becaufe
the plant is befet with numerous little briftles or prickles.
Loureir. Cochinch. 81.—-Clafs and order, Tetrandria /Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Piperite, Linn. Aroidee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha awl-fhaped, twifted, coloured,
very long. Spadix fhorter than the fpatha, entirely covered
with florets. Cor. Petals four, flefhy, obtufe, concave,
clofel - embracing the organs of impregnation. Stam. Fila-

LAS

ments four, fhort, flat, hidden by the petals; anthers two
to each filament, rounded, concave, protruding beyond the
corolla. Pi/f, Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle none; ftig-
ma rather abrupt. eric. Berry {mall, roundifh, unequal.
Seed folitary, roundith.

Eff. Ch. Spadix covered with florets.
flefhy, inferior.
with one feed.

1. L. aculeata. Cu chadc gai, of the Cochin-chinefe.
Native of the moift plains of Cochinchina. A ftemlefs
plant, fix feet high, with large, pinnatifid, aves, on long,
round, upright ftalks. nvrag smd radical, quite fimple
and naked, about as tall as the leaves. . The eaves, and all
the /falks are covered with numerous little thort curved
prickles. Loureiro juftly indicates the affinity of this plant
to Pothos, and no lefs jultly prefers placing it in the fourth
clafs, rather than in Gynandria. 'The prickly pubefcence,
if we may fo term it, is very curious in this family. It is
to be prefumed the anthers are each of one cell only, or
rather that each filament bears one anther, of two feparated
lobes and cells.

LASIO, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Pelopon-
nefus, or Triphylia.—Alfo, a mountain in the ifland of
Crete, on which was the tomb of Jupiter.

LASIOPETALUM, in Botany, from rxc10¢, hairy, and
lzAox, -a petal, alluding to the hairinefs of the flower.—Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 4. 216. Venten. Malmaif. 59. Bil-
lard. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 63. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. y. 2;
36.—Clafs and order, Pentandria Menogynia. Nat. Ord.
Rhamni, Jull.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, wheel-
fhaped, hairy, in five deep, equal, ovate, folded, at length
expanded fegments, permanent, often coloured. Cor. Pe-
tals five, minute, reundifh, inferted into the bafe of the
calyx between its fegments. Stam. Filaments five, very
fhort, cppofite to the petals; anthers terminal, ovate, two-
lobed behind, opening by two pores at thetop. Pi/?. Ger-
men fuperior, globofe, with three furrows, very hairy; ftyle
fhort, itraight, fmooth; flizma fimple, acute. Peric. Cap-
fule invelled with the calyx, nearly globofe, with three an-
gles, downy, of three ceils and three valves, partitions from
the centre of each valve. Seeds few, roundifh, inferted into
the inner edge of the partitions.

Eff. Ch. Calyx wheel-fhaped, in five deep folded feg-
ments. Petals five, minute, oppolite tothe itamens. An-
thers opening by two terminal pores. Capfule fuperior,
of three cells, and three ‘valves, with the partitions from
their centre.

Obf. ‘The late excellent M. Ventenat, erroneoufly quoted
as the author of this genus in the new edition of Hort.
Kew. has juftly corrected its original defcriber, who mittook
for a corolla what is truly the calyx. This corre&tion is the
more important, as it leads to a knowledge of the true na-
tural order to which the genus belongs, as given. above.
M. La Billardiere has obferved a fpecies with five interme-
diate abortive ftamens, and no petals.

1. L ferrugineum. Ruily Woolly-bloffom. Andr. Repof.
t. 208. Wenten. Malmaif. t. 59.—Leaves alternate, linear-
oblong, dependent. Flowers racemofe.—Native of marfhes
in New South Wales, from whence the feeds were received
in 1791, by Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy. It flowers during ”
moft part of the fummer, being fheltered in winter in the
green-houfe, and allowed but a {mall fupply of moifture.
Stem fhrubby, upright, flender, round, leafy, clothed with
denfe, rulty, ftarry pubefcence, and, in its native fituations,
throwing out long, flender, extremely tough branches, to
the extent, as it is reported, of many yards, amongft other

fhrubs, :

Petals four,
Anthers two to each filament. Berry

LAS

farubs. Leaves alternate, ftalked, dependent, linear-oblong,
bluntifh, entire or flightly wavy, from two to four inches
‘in length, and half an inch broad; heart-fhaped, rather
dilated, and often fomewhat angular at the bafe; deep-
green and {moothifh above ; white and downy, v. tha rulty
rib, beneath. J /owers in fhort, lateral, deflexed clufters,
nearly oppofite to the leaves, with three or more linear rutty
bragtcas clofe to each flower. Calyx half an inch broad,
light green, befprinkled on both fides with denfe, ftarry,
rather rufty down. Petals and anthers brown, ‘Che whole
fhrub is more remarkable for fingularity than beauty. Some-
times, according to Ventenat, the flowers are four-cleft and
tetrandrous only.

2. L. kedifolium, Rofemary-leaved Woolly-blofiom. Vene
ten. Malm. at p. 59—Leaves oppofite, linear-lanceolate,
fpreading. Stalks fingle-flowered. Bracteas remote from
the flower.—Seen by M. Ventenat in the herbarium of M.
Thibaud, profeflor of botany at Strafburgh. We prefume
it mutt be, like the former, and all the known {pecies be-
fides, a native of New Holland. It is defcribed as varying
with broader and crowded, or narrower and more diitant,
leaves ; and as being remarkable for the fituation of its
bra&eas, in the middle ef the flower-{talk.

3. L. purpureum. Purple Woelly-bloffom. Ait. Hort.
Kew. n. 2.—Leaves oval, entire.—Found in New Holland
by Mr. Brawn. Sent to Kew in 1803 by Mr. Good. It
is a green houfe fhrub, flowering from April to July.
OF this we have no further knowledge, not having feen any
{pecimen.

4. kL. avborefeens. Nettle-tree-leaved Woolly-bloffom.
Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 3.— Leaves heart-fhaped, deeply toothed.
—Native of New South Wales, from whence it was fent
by Mr. George Caley in 1802, through fir Jofeph Banks,
to Kew. It flowers from May to July, and is fheltered in
the green-houfe.

5. L. triphyllum. Three-leaved Woolly-bloffom. Billard.
Noy. Holl. v. 1. 63. t. 85—Leaves three together; the
middle one largeft and lobed. Stamens ten, the interme-
diate ones abortive. Petals wanting.—Gathered by M. La
Billardiere in Van Lewin’s land; by Mr. Menzies at King
George’s found, on the weft coalt of New Holland. We
received a fpecimen in flower, by favour of Mr. Aiton,
from Kew garden in May lait. It isa /2rub, kept, like
others of its genus, in the green-houfe. The whole plant
is clothed with rather foft ftarry pubefcence, like fome of
the mallow tribe, which affumes a rufty hue on the ftalks,
and on the veins of the leaves. ‘he foliage is remarkable.
Three /eaves grow on ftalks from one fpot, (at the fides of
the branches,) of which the middlemoft is much the largeft,
from one to two inches long and nearly as wide, heart-fhaped
at the bafe, more or lefs diftinétly five-angled, or five-lobed,
and fomewhat finuated, its footitalk nearly its own length;
the fide ones are unequally heart-fhaped and entire, on very
fhort ftalks, and refemble ftipulas. Long fimple clufers,
of feveral flowers, grow folitarily, oppofite to the large
leaves, between the {mall ones. The ca/yx is blufh-coleured,
hairy, with pointed fegments. Anthers dark brown, with
yellow tips; the barren ones fmaller and paler.

6. L. guercifolium. Oak-leaved Woolly-bloffom. Avndr.
Repof. t. 459. Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 4.—Leaves three to-

ether, all fnuated ; the middle one largeft and three-lobed,

omewhat pinnatifid. Stamens five. Petals wanting.—Ga-
thered by Mr. Menzies, at King George’s found, on the
weft coaft of New Holland. Mr. Brown alfo obferved it
in that country. Seeds were fent to Kew, by Mr. Peter
Good, in 1803. This is moft akin to the laft, but abund-

LAS

antly diftin&. The éaves are finaller, fomewhat glaucous,
and much more harfh, owing to the more rigid and promi-
nent ftarry briftles on their upper furface ; the three which
grow together are more fimilar in fize and figure, being all
finuated, though the middle one is much the moft deeply
lobed: the edges are flightly revolute. The flowers have
their calyx of a deeper rofe-colour, with lefs pointed feg-
ments. We perceive no barren flamens, nor any petals.

7. L. corniculatum. Horned Wooily-blofom.—Leaves
three together, cut and crenate ; the lateral ones very {mall.
Petals with linear points as long as the caeyx.— Gathered by
Mr. Menzies, at “King George's found.—The caves are
more denfely and uniformly hairy than in the laft, as well as
fofter to the touch, The flowers are racemofe, as in that,
but much fmaller, and are effentially diftinguifhed by the
long prominent linear appendages, or horns, of their petals, -
which equal the calyx in length, and in its dry fhrivelled
{tate extend much beyond it.

Several more {pecies of this genus are in our pofleffion,
but we forbear to attempt their definition from imperfeét
dried {pecimens, as they will doubtlefs be more correétly
and amply illuftrated in the Prodromus of Mr. Brown, who
has had the advantage of feeing them alive, ard whofe
meritorious labours we never feel a defire to forcltall. S.

LASIOSTOMA, fo called by Schreber, from Aaciory
hairy, and soya, the mouth, in allufion to the hairinefs which
covers the upper fide of the flower, and furrounds its orifice.
Schreb. 75. Wiild. Sp. Pl. v. 1.624. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 3. (Rouhamon; Aubl. Guian. 93. Lamarck. Illuftr.
t. 81.) —Clafs and order, Tvtrandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
Apocinee, Jul. ‘

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, very fhort,
in five deep acute fegments, with two {mail oppofite fcales at
its bafe. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped 5 tube cylindri-
cal ; limb in four acute equal fegments, villous on their upper
fide. Stam. Filaments four, capillary, villous at their bafe,
inferted into the tube of the corolla; anthers oblong.
Piff. Germen fuperior, ovate ; ftyle longer than the corolla ;
ftigma obtufe. Peric. Capfule orbicular, of one cell, with
a brittle bark. Seeds two, hemifpherical.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla funnel-fhaped, hairy
about the mouth. Capfule fuperior, brittle ; of one cell,
with two feeds.

1. L. cirrofa. Willd. (Rouhamon guianenfis; Aubl.!
Guian. 93. t. 36. Lamarck. Illuitr. 322.)—Gathered by
Aublet on the banks of rivers in Guiana, bearing fruit
as well as flowers in November. Rouhamon is the Cari-
bean name, ‘The woody ¢runé is feven or eight feet high,
with many very long, knotty, oppofite branches, climbing
oyer the neighbouring trees, and clothed with reddifh down.
Leaves oppotite, on fhort ftalks, elliptical, pointed, entire,
pale, fmooth, three-ribbed. Yendri/s axillary, fimple, rather
longer than the leaves, recurved and thickened at the extre-
mity, not always prefent. F/owers {mall, white, in axillary
tufts. Cap/ule rather large in proportion, an inch in diame-
ter, yellow.—Juflicu refers this plant to the genus Strychaos,
apparently with great reafon.

LASK, a term ufed by Farriers, for a loofenefs in horfes,
often fatal to them.

Lasx, or Lafko, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Warfaw ; 30 miles N.E. of Siradia.

LASKETS, or Larcues, in a Ship, are {mall lines,
like loops, faftened by fewing into the bonnets and drablers,
in order to lace the bonnets to the courfes, or the drablers to
the bonnets. -

‘ LASKING, a fea-term for going large, or veering. r
LASNE-

LAS

LASNEBOURG, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Mont Blanc, onthe Are, at the foot of
mount Cenis, the paflage of which is the principal fupport
of the inhabitants. ‘The fun is hidden from this town by the
mountain during two months in the year ; 20 miles N.N.W.
of Sufa.

LASOY, a town of Thibet; 4o miles N.N.W. of
Tacpoy. ;

LASSA, the capital of Thibet, is called by different
names, which have occafioned no {mall degree of confution.
Its proper rame, in the language of Thibet, is faid to be
Baronthala; but the Tartars call it Laffa or Lahaffa.
Others call it Tonker, and apply the names Laffa and Baron-
thala to the diftri€ which contains Laffa and Putala. Others
again give the name of Putala, inftead of Laffa, to the capi-
tal of ‘hibet. Rennell fays that we ought to apply the
name Laffa or Lahafla, to the capital, and to confider Puta-
la as the cattle and palace of the Lama, and his ordinary'place
of refidence. Lafla, which is not contidered as a large city,
is fituated on an extenfive plain; the houfes are of ftone, and
are fpacious and lofty. The mountain of Putala (La Puta,
the hill of Puta or Boodh, /a fignifying a hill in the native
tongue), on the fummit of which ftands the palace of the
grand lama, the high prieft and fovereign of Thibet, (fee
Lama), is about feven miles E. of the city. On the north
of Laffa ftands another range of mountains, covered with
{now, which are clearly feen from Kambala, a very high
mountain on the N. of the lake of Palté. lLiafla is in the
province of Ou, and almoft in the centre of Thibet. The
xiver Sanpooa Burrampooter runs at the diftance of 24
miles from the city. The royal palace at Laffa is called
Laprang, where, among other ornaments, are maps of the
various provinces, painted about 1665, by the orders of the
king Tifri, on 16 walls. Laprang is alfo one of the cele-
brated academies or {fchools of Thibet, which are frequented
by the youth of many furrounding countries, as far as Cafh-
gar, Yarkend, Camul, Turfan, and fome from Kokonor,
Amdoa, and China. The courfe of ftudies employs twelve
years, occupied in logic, aftronomy, philofophy, medicine,
and, above all, the theology of Boud, or Xaca. In the
city of Laffa are many foreign merchants, and the women
have been recently polifhed by their converfation with the
Chinefe. A beneficial traffic is carried on with Laffa, by
exchanging gold duft for filver bullion. N. lat. 30° 30!.
E. long. 91° 40’.

LASSAN, or Lessan, a town of Anterior Pomerania,
ona lake formed by the Peene; 38 miles S.S.E. of Stral-
fund. N. lat. 53° 58!. E. long. 13° 52!.

LASSAY, a town of France, in the department of
Mayenne, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrid of
Mayenne; 9 miles N.N.E. of Mayenne. The place con-
tains 2976, and the canton 14,258 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1324 kiliometres, in 14 communes. N, lat. 48° 27’.
_W. long. 0° 24!.

LASSEUBE, a town of France, in the department of
the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
tri& of Oleron; 6 miles E. of Oleron. The place contains
2884, and the canton 4974 inhabitants, on a territory of
130 kiliometres, in 5 communes.

LASSIELI, a town onthe E. coaft of the ifland of
Bouro. N. lat. 3°30’. E. long. 127° 34’.

LASSIGNY, a town of France, in the department of
the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Compiégne; 6 miles W.of Noyon. The place contains
+18, and the canton 10,575 inhabitants, ona territory of 135
kiliometres, in 24. communes.

2

LAS

LASSIRA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis, in the interior of the country of the
Edetani. » Ptolemy.

LASSITI, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Can-
dia ; 22 miles S.E. of Candia.

LASSITUDE, in Medicine, a fenfe of wearinefs and
debility, independent of fatigue, by which a perfon is in-
duced to feek for repofe and quiefcence.

A laffitude is felt in almoft Wi febrile difeafes ; and in many
chronic affections, in which the circulation is feeble and un-
equal, as in feurvy, chlorofis, &c.; and in diforders of the flo-
mach, liver, and alimentary canal, ‘This feeling of weari-
nefs and indifpofition to exertion, is indeed often the firft and
only perceptible fymptom of approaching illnefs, as was re-
marked by Hippocrates: ‘ Laflitudines fpontanee morbos
prenunciant.’’ (Aph. ii. 5.) It isa confequence alfo of
mott acute difeafes, which leave the ftrength confiderably im-
paired ; and in this cafe it diminifhes in proportion as the
fyitem regains its vigour in the progrefs of convalefcence.
As it is to be confidered only as a fymptom of various mor-
bid ftates of the body, it requires no particular remedies
to be fpecifically adopted for its removal ; the cure of it will
be effe€ted by remedying the particular morbid conditions
with which it 1s connected.

LASSONE, JosrrpH Maria Francis px, in Biogra-
phy, an eminent French phyfician, was born at Carpentras,
onthe 3d of July, 1717. His parents quitted their native
province, to-procure him the advantages of education afford-
ed by the capital; and the ultimate fuccefs of the plan
evinced their wifdom and prudence. In his early years,
however, young Laffone was not remarkable for his perfe-
verance in ftudy : on the contrary, his family were frequent
ly alarmed by the propenfity which he fhewed for the gay
pleafures of youth ; but he as often raifed their hopes by
fome ingenious performances, which merited academic ho-
nours, as well as the efteem of his preceptors. He wrote a
comedy, which his parents infifted that he fhould fupprefs,
and facrifice the imprudent produétion: he fubmitted, and
was never afterwards willing to declare the title of the piece,
which had neverthelefs been aéted with much fuccefs, under
a different name, and ftill remains on the theatre. This ju-
venile work, foreign as it was to his ftudies, gave an extra-
ordinary proof of the facility and flexibility of his genius,
which afterwards enabled him to acquire in the different
{ciences a juft and elevated reputation. Determining upona
ftri& attention to fludy, he devoted himfelf wholly to the
purfuits of anatomy, in which he made fuch rapid pro-
grefs, that, at the age of twenty-five, he was received into
the Academy of Sciences as aflociate-anatomift. He exa-
mined, with great care and perfeverance, the ftru€ture of the
bones, and of the arteries, and demonttrated the mufcular
coat of the latter. He alfo inveftigated the ftru€ture, and
inquired into the economy and ufe of the fpleen, attempting
to reconcile the different accounts given of that vifcus by
Ruyfch and Malpighi. He had ftrong hopes of difcovering
the office of this vifcus, when an extraordinary event put a
period to his anatomical purfuits. In fele€ting among fome
dead bodies a proper fubje& for diffeCtion, he fancied he
perceived in one of them fome very doubtful figns of death,
and endeavoured to reanimate it : his efforts were for a long
time vain; but’ his firft perfuafion induced him to perfift,
and he ultimately fucceeded in bringing his patient to life,
who proved to be a poor peafant. This circumftance im-
preffed fo deep a fenfe of horror on the mind of the anatomift,
reflecting on the confequences of his having feleéted this un-
happy objet for diffection, that he declined thefe purfuits

in

LAS

in future. Natural hiftory fueceeded the fludy of anatomy,
and mineralogy became a favourite object of his purfuit : he
publifhed his obfervations on the crytlallized free-{tones of
Tentainebleau. But chemiftry, a f{eience to which he was
thus led, finally became the beloved occupation of M. de
Laffone. His numerous memoirs, which were read before

_ the Royal Academy of Sciences, prefented a valuable train of
new obfervations, ufeful both to the progrefs of that ftudy,
and to the art ef compounding remedies ; and in every part
of thefe he evinced the fagacity ofan attentive obferver, and
of an ingenious experimentalift.

M. Laffone, although he had, by the number of his works,
given every one reafon to fuppofe that he had devoted him-
felf exclulively to the fciences, had not neglected the prac-
tice of medicine. After having exercifed it for a long time
in the hofpitals and cloifters, he was fent for to court; and
he was the only example, except the celebrated Ternel, of one
individual holding the office of firft phyfician at Verfailles,
fucceffively to two queens, and afterwards to the king : the
minifters and the courtiers had been all changed, but he pre-
ferved the friendfhip of his fovereigns. He lived in friendthip
with Fontenelle, Winflow, D’Alembert, Buffon, and other
{cientific charaéters; and the affability of his manners,
and his ardent zeal for the advancement of knowledge, among
the young {cholars, whofe induftry he encouraged, and whote
reputation was become one of his molt fatisfactory enjoy-
ments, gained him general refpeét. When from a natural
delicacy of coniitution, M. de Laffone began to experience
the inconveniences of a premature old age, he became forrow-
ful and fond of folitude ; yet reconciled to his fituation, he
calmly obferved his death approaching, and expired on the
3th of December, 1788. Laffone, at the time of his death,
held the appointment of firlt phyfician to Louis XVI. and
his queen ; he was counfellor of ftate, do¢tor-regent of the
faculty of medicize at Paris, and penfionary-veteran of the
academy of {ciences, member of the academy of medicine at
Madrid, and honorary affociate of the college of medicine at
Nancy. Hutchinfon, Biog. Med. Eloy. Dict. Hift. Hitt.
de Acad. Roy. des Sciences, 1788.

LASSOTH, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Neifie ; 10 miles N. of Neiffe.

LASSOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Au-
rungabad ; 32 miles N.W, of Aurungakad.

LASSUS, Oranvus, or, as he is called by the Ita-
lians, Orlando di Laffo, was a native of Mons, in Hainault,

_ born in 1520, and who not only fpent many years of his life
in Italy, but had his mufical education there, having been car-
ried thither furreptitioufly, when a child, on account of his fine
‘voice. The hittorian Thuanus, who has given Orlando a
place among the illuftrious men of his time, tells us that it was
a common practice for young fingers to be forced away from
their parents, and detained in the fervice of princes; and
that Orlando was carried to Milan, Naples, and Sicily, by
Ferdinand Gonzago, Afterwards, when he was grown up,
and had probably loft his voice, he went to Rome, where
he taught mufic during two years; at the expiration of
which, he travelled through different parts of Italy and
France with Julius Cefar Brancatius, and at length, return-
ing to Flanders, refided many years at Antwerp, till bein

invited, by the duke of Bavaria, to Munich, he fettled at
that court, and married. He had afterwards an invitation,
accompanied with the promife of great emoluments, from
Charles IX., king of France, to take upon him the office
of matter and dire¢tor of his band; an honour which he ac-
cepted, but was {topped on the road to Paris by the news of
that monarch’s death, After this event he returned tp Mu-
Vou. XX.

LAS

nich, whither he was recalled by William, the fon and fucceflor
of his patron Albert, to the fame office which he had held
under his father. Orlando continued at this court till Ins
death, in the year 1593, at upwards of feventy years of age.
His reputation was {fo great, that it was faid of him: Hic
ille Orlandus Laffus, qui recreat orbem."’

As he lived to a confiderable age, and never feems to have.
checked the fertility of his genius by indolence, his compo-
fitions exceed, in number, even thofe of Palettrina, There
is a complete catalogue of them in Draudius, amounting to
upwards of fifty different works, confifting of maffes, mag
nificats, paffiones, motets, and pfalms: with Latin, Italian,
German, and French fongs, printed in Italy, Germany,
France, and the Netherlands.

A\s Orlando di Laffo was the contemporary of Cypriano
Rore, a compofer of equal renown in the 16th century, and
who fo much refembled him in genius, abilities, and reputa-
tion, we fhall here draw a parallel between them, as the two
principal matters of Flemith and Netherlandifh counterpoint.
To form a comparative idea of the ftyle of thefe two com-
pofers, with that of Paleftrina, the fpecific difference feems
to be this: that the two Netherlanders, by having {pent the
chief part of their time in the courts of princes, had ac-
quired a lighter and more fecular caft of melody than Paleftri-
na, who, refiding con{tantly at Rome, and writing chiefly for
the church, had a natural and chara¢teriftic gravity in all his
productions. Indeed, the compofitions a capella of Cyprian
Rore and Orlando Laffo are much inferior fothofe of Pa-
leftrina in this particular; for by ftriving to be grave and
folemn, they only become heavy and dull; and what is unaf-
fected dignity in the Roman, is-little better than the ftrut of
adwarf upon ftilts in the Netherlanders. They were, how-
ever, great mafters of harmony, and, out of the church,
prepared the colours, and furnifhed the mufician’s pallet with
many new tints of harmony and modulation, which were of
great ufe to fubfequent compofers, particularly in dramatic
painting.

In the fame colleGtion of fongs, printed 1555, we have z
Latin poem, fet by Orlando di Laffo, in the manner of x
madrigal, in which the modulation is curious; but thougli
elaborate and recherchée it is pleafing, and has had many
imitators.

Cyprian and Orlando were the firft who hazarded what are
now called chromatic paflages. At the end of the four-
teenth book of fongs in four parts, printed at Antwerp by
Tylman Sufata, there is an irregular Latin ode by Cy-
priano, fet likewife jy the madrigal ftyle, in which not only
an A %, but an A }, appear, for the firft time, in the fame
movement, and almoi{t every accident incident to moderiz
mufic. Part of this curious compofition is inferted in Bur-
ney’s General Hiitory of Mufic, vol. iii. as a {pecimen of
the author’s frequent attempts at new harmonies and modu-
lation, which, as it is laid before the learncd mufical
reader in fcore, it will afford him much better information
concerning the real hiftory and progrefs of the art of coun-
terpoint at this time, than all the catalogues of books, and
defcriptions of their contents, which diligence and language
could furnifh, Many of the forced, crude, and unexpected
modulations in the motet of Cyprian Rore, however they
may have been admired for their boldnefs and novelty, were
neyer adopted by fubfequent compofers. Beautiful, natural,
and pleafing paffages and effects are foon rendered common
by plagiarifm and imitation ; whereas the unnatural and difli-
cult are long left in the poffeffion of the original proprietor.
Perhaps in a feries of years, {ome other compofer, unable to
aflonifh by his inventions in a natural way, and. determined,

Uu

L A‘s

to produce fomething that hall, at leaft, /eem new, will pro-
pofe them again to the public, who will again rejeét, and fo
on, ad infinitum. But thefe mufical hunters after novelty,
without genius to find it, forget that fuch paflages or mo-
dulations mutt have prefented themfelves to thoufands in the
courfe of their {tudies and ricercate, but that good talte and
found judgment had rejetedthem. It is at all eine eafy to
produce mew arrangements and combinations of founds, if
nature, grace, and propriety be renounced ; but at once to
be new and natural, belongs only to genius of the firtt
order.

The fongs in the fame collection by Orlando, are faid by
the publither to have been compofed a la nouvelle compo-
fition d’aucuns d'Italie.’? We find but little melody in any
of them, though much modulation, different from the other
Flemifh matters of this period. There is another effential
difference in the notation, as the diminutions into crotchets
and qifavers, particularly in the fongs alla Napolitana, arc
more frequent than in any other compofitions of the mid-
dle of the 16th century. The chromatic accidental femi-
tones are exprefled by a fharp, and no longer left to the
mercy and fagacity of the finger, as was before the conftast
cuftom. The occalional changes in the intervals, which are
necefiary in counterpoint, though formed upon ecclefiaftical
melodies, were at firlt {muggled into harmony, perhaps by
fingers whofe good ears fuggelted them, thongh the com-
pofer had not dared to point them out, left he fhould be ac-
cufed of corrupting the modes. Orlando feems the firft who,
in fpite of ancient prejudice and pedantry, when he wifhed
to alter a note, dared to exprefs his intentions in writing.
In his more gay and comic ttyle, however, the modulation
is overcharged with wanton and unneceflary tranfitions from
one key to another, without remaining long enough in any
one to fix it in the hearer’s attention.

Of the two compolitions by Orlando di Laffo, and Cy-
priano di Rore, to Latin words, the firit is in hexameter and
pentameter, and the fecond an irregular ode, partly in the
choral meafures of the Greek tragedies. At this mark +,
in Orlando’s compolitions, the firit A 3 occurs that we had
ever feen ufed in counterpoint of equal antiquity ; and
this feems to have been fuggefted by the words novumque
melos. Which of thefe produétions was firlt compofed, we
know not, as they were both publifhed together at Antwerp,
in 1555. The only copy of this work which we have ever
feen, is preferved inthe Britifh Mufeum. The madrigals, in
general, of both Cypriano and Orlando, to Italian words, are
excellent, in the dtyle of the times. But as the fingulari-
ties in the two compofitions before us feem innovations, and
preparatory to that revolution in the art, which takes place
foon after, they feemed proper fubjeéts of difcuffion ; for
the laboured and equivocal modulation, attempted by thefe
compofers, who, though often learned and ingenious, by
abandoning the fimplicity of their contemporaries, thefe pro-
duétions border fometimes fo much on caprice and af-
fe€tation, as to fatigue the attention and offend the ear.

The pedantry of cr:ide harmonies, and learned modulation,
only fuits depraved ears, that have grown callous to every
thing that is eafy and natural. ‘Ihe Italians, when they
quitted madrigals, and no longer afpired at the applaufe of
faftidious chamber-critics, whofe approbation was beftowed
on no compofitions that did not fmell of the lamp, fimplified
their fecular mufic, and inftead of puzzling and goading the
hearer with complicated contrivances and extraneous modu-
lation, aimed at grace and facility in their melodies, which
they clothed with fuch plain and tranquil harmony, as, in-
s@ead of difguife and {uffocation, added greatly to their ener-

LAS

gy and effeét. Dramatic mufic was not yet even in idea, and
concerts, or other aflemblies of gay and unlearned hearers,
feem now not to have exilted; fo that mufical compofers
could not be faid to write for the public, who will ever pre-
fer fuch pleafure and amufement as give them the leaft trou-
ble. Authors of all kinds, who feek for applaufe, conform
to the taite of their judges ; and we find, in ont own times,
that thofe muficians who are qualified by their genius and
abilities, to dire& and govern the public opinion, think it
neceflary, however falfe and corrupt it may be, to humour
and flatter it, by all the conceflions in their power. ‘he art
never long remains {tationary at any one point of cultivation ;
and if perfection could be attained, its reign would inevi-
tably be fhort. In mufic, the learned are few and filent ;
the ignorant numerous and noify: in the chamber it was
right to pleafe the former, and in the theatre, where

««___ the fair, the gay, the young
Govern the numbers of each fong,’’

there isno choice. A public and mixed audience is fuch a
many-headed montter, that all its ears cannot be pleafed at
the {ame time ; and whether the good or the bad predominate,
a greater number mutt be gratified at the expence of the
efs.

Two of Orlando di Laffo’s fons, Ferdinand and Rodolph,
were able muficians, and both in the fervice of Maximilian,
duke of Bavaria; the eldeft as chapel-maiter, and the other
as organiit-to that prince. Thefe colleéted their father’s
motets, as well thofe which had been publithed during his
life, as thofe which remained unpublifhed at his deceafe, and
printed them ina very {plendid and fumptuous manner at Mu-
nich, in feven volumes, large folio, 1604, with a dedication
to their patron, the fovereign of Bavaria. The general re-
ception, however, of thefe compofitions, feems not to have
equalled the expectations of the editors. Other produc-
tions had taken poffeffion of the public ear and favour. It
is, we fear, in vain to hope for the revival of old mufic ; too
many are interelted in the fuccefs of the new; and fuch are
the viciflitudes of what are called tafte and expreffion in this
art, that if fufficient probity and zeal could be found in
fafhionable performers to incline them to attempt doing
juftice tothe produ&tions of former times, it is hardly pofli-
ble for them to fucceed; the accent, energy, and expreffion
are either loft in the execution, or unintelligible to the
hearers. There is, indeed, as little chance for a mufician of
the prefent age to perform fuch productions in the raanner
of the times in which they were compofed, as to pronounce
a foreign language as well as his own; and if, againit all
calculation, he fhould facceed, this mufic will ftill be an
unknown tongue to the public.

LAST, or Lesz, in general, fignifies the burden or load
of a hhip.

Last is alfo ufed for a certain weight and meafure, which
is various in various countries ; though, in the general, the
lat is eftimated at four thoufand pounds weight. A lalt
of cod-fih, white herrings, meal, and afhes for foap, is
twelve barrels ; of corn, or rape-feed, ten quarters ; of gun-
powder, twenty-four barrels, or two thoufand four hundred
pounds weight; of red herrings, twenty cades ; of hides,
twelve dozen ; of leather, twelve diekers ; of pitch, or tar,
fourteen barrels ; of wool, twelve facks; of {ftock-fifh, a
thoufand; of flax, or feathers, one thoufand feven hundred
pounds weight.

Lasr, in the marfhes of Kent, a court held by the twenty-

four jurats, and fummoned by the bailiffs ; wherein orders
é are

LAS

are made to lay and levy taxes, impofe penalties, &c. for the
prefervation of the faid marfhes.

Last Heir, is he to whom lands come by efcheat, for
want of lawful heirs; which, in many cafes, is the lord
of whom they are held: but in others the king.

Last Will. See Witt.

Last, Port. See Port-Laf.

LASTAGE, or Lesrace, according to Rattal, is a duty
exaéted in fome fairs and markets, for carrying things bought
whither one will.

Lastacr, according to another author, is properly that
cuftom which is paid for wares fold by the laft.

In the law of Richard II. laftage is taken for tke ballaft,
or for lading of a fhip. See Bavuast.

LastaGe is fometimes alfo ufed for garbage, rubbifh, or
fuch filth.

LASTEIN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the pro-
vince of Samland ; 15 miles S.E. of Ragnitz.

LASTISANA, a town of Italy, in Friuli; 7 miles E.
of Concordia.

LASTRES, a fea-port town and cape of Spain, on the
N.E. coaft of Afturia; 30 miles N.E. of Oviedo. N. lat.
43° 33. W. long. 5° 19’.

LASTRINGE, a town of Sweden, in Sudermanland ;
12 miles N. of Nykoping. ;

LASULA, a {mall ifland near the E. coaft of Lucon,
N. lat. 13° 27'.. E. long. 123° 57’.

LASUS, in Biography, was born at Hermione, a city
of Achaia, in the time of Darius Hyttafpes, in the 58th
Olympiad, 538 years B.C. Diogenes Laertius fays, that
he deferves to be ranked among the feven fages. He was
generally allowed to be the firft among the Greeks who
wrote about mutic, and was not only a theorift and great
praCtitioner, but a dithyrambic poet, perhaps the inventor
of that kind of poetry in honour of Bacchus, which was
fung in the Phrygian mode at the public games, and partook
of all that fire and hilarity which the god to whom it was
addreffed infpired.

Plutarch fays, that he introduced new rhythms in his
poetry and dithyrambic mufic, and upon the lyre, imitated
the compals and variety of the flute; for which he is men-
tioned, in the Dialogue on Mutic, as a great innovator.
Among the corruptions complained of, in the mew mufic,
the frequent and licentious tranfitions from one mode and
genus to another, was not the leaft, If the obje& for mul-
tiplying the ftrings of the lyre, and the holes in the flute,
fo much complained of by the adherents to the old fchool,
may be fuppofed to have occafioned the convenience by
having an inftrument nearly tuned for all the modes, like
our harpfichords, it feems probable, that Lafus and other
innovators might have been /emperers, and have accommo-
dated their dodrine to their praéice.

Theon of Smyrna teftifies that Lafus, as well as the
Pythagorean Hippafus of Metapontus, made ufe of two
vafes of the fame fize and tone, in order to calculate the
exact ratio or proportion of concords. For by leaving one
of the vafesempty, and filling the other half full of water,
they became o¢taves to each other: and filling one a fourth
part full, and the other a third, the percuffion of the two
veffels produced the concords of 4th and sth; from which
procefs refulted the proportions of thefe three concords con-
tained in the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4.

* This affertion, which has been taken upon truft, like the
anvil ftory of Pythagoras, is equally falfe: to tune glaffes
by water has been lately practifed, and thought a new dif-
covery ; but that their tones are altered in the proportions
given above, is by no means true. Modft glaffes are lowered

IrAut

about a whole tone, by being half filled with water, and not
more than a major 6thif quite filled.

LATA, Licamenta, in Anatomy. See Licamentum.

LATABI, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the king-
dom of Aquamboe.

LATAC, or Lapak, a town and country of Thibet,
forming a kind of detached fovereignty. ‘The town is feven
miles N. of the river Lachu, which falls into the Ganges.
N. lat. 30° 55, .E.long. 74° 34’.

LATACUNGA, a town of South America, and a ju-
rifdiGtion in the audience of Quito. ‘This jurifdiction is
called Affiento Latacunga ; afliento denoting a place lefs
than a town, but Jarger than a village. This place is fitu-
ated ona wide plain, having on the E. fide the eaftern Cor-
dillera of the Andes, from which projeéts a very high
mountain, ata {mall diftance from the foot of which 1s fitu-
ated Latacunga, in S. lat. 557 14'. W. long. 73° 16'; 50
miles S. of Quito. This affiento is large and regular ; the
ftreets broad and ftraight ; the houfes of ftone, arched and
well contrived ; but on account of the dreadful earthquakes
to which it is fubjeét, confilting only of one ftory ; one of
thefe happened in June, 1698, and its effeét was fuch, that
of 600 ftone houfes, which the affiento then contained, only
a part of one, and the church of the Jefuits, were left ftand-
ing in a damaged ftate, and moft of the inhabitants were
buried under their ruins. The ftone of which the honfes
and churches are conftruéted, is a kind of pumice, or {pongy
ftone, ejected from volcanoes ; inexhauttible quarries of it
being found in the neighbourhood. This jurifdiction con-
tains feventeen principal villages. [he temperature of the
air is cold: as this afliento is only fix leagues diftant from
the mountain of Cotopaxi, which, not being lefs in extent
and height than thofe of Chimborazo and Cayamburo, is,
like them, covered with ice and {now ; but the temperature
is very different in the feveral villages of this jurifdiction ;
being hot in the vallies, temperate on the plains, and often
exceffively cold in places bordering on the mountains. The
villages are generally larger, and more populous, than thofe
of the other jurifdictions in the fame province. Their in-
habitants are Indians, Meftizos, and afew Spaniards. The
afliento, befides a parifh church, ferved by two priefts,
one for the Spaniards, and the other for the Indians, has
convents of Francifcans, Auguitines, Dominicans, the Fa-
thers of Mercy, and a college of Jefuits. The inhabitants
amount to between ten and twelve thoufand, chiefly Spa-
niards and Meftizos. The Indians live in a feparate quarter,
as they do at Quito. In this afliento all kinds of trades
and mechanic arts are carried on; and, as in all the other
parts of this jurifdiction, it has a contiderable number of
manufaétories of cloth, bays, aad tucvyos. Great quan-
tities of pork are falted here for exportation to Quito,
Guayaquil, and Riobamba. The neighbouring country is
fowed with clover, and interfperfed with plantations of wil-
lows, the perpetual verdure of which gives a chearful afpect
to the country. The Indians of Pugili and Saquifili, two
villages in this jurifdi€tion, are noted for making earthen-
ware, as jars, pans, pitchers, &c. which are much valued.
The clay of which they are made is of a lively red colour,
and emits a fort of fragrancy. The workmanfhip is very
neat and ingenious. Juan and Ulloa’s Voyage to South
America, vol. i.

LATAKIA, the ancient Laodicea (which f{ce), a fea-
port town of Syria, in the pachalic of Tripoli, is fituated
at the bafe, and on the fouthern fide of a {mall peninfula,
which proje&ts half a league into the fea. Its port, like
all the others on the fame coaft, is a fort of bafin, environed
by 2 mole, with a very narrow entrance. It is capable of

Uu2 containing

LAT

containing twenty-five or thirty veffels, but the Turks
have fuffered it to be choaked up, fo that it can fearcely
admit four. Ships of above 4oo tons cannot ride here ; and
hardly a year pafles in which one is not ftranded in the en-
trance. Neverthelefs, Latakw carries on a very great com-
merce, partly of olives, but chiefly of tobacco, of which
upwards of twenty cargoes are annually fent to Damietta ;
the returns from thence are rice, which is bartered in Upper
Syria for oils and cottons. In the time of Strabo, inftead
of tobacco, the exports confilted of its famous wines, the
produce of the declivities of its hills. Even then, Egypt
was the market by way of Alexandria. Neither Latakia
nor Tripoli can be mentioned as places of ftrength ; they
have neither cannon nor foldiers: a fingle privateer would
conquer them both. Each of them is {uppofed to contain
from four to five thoufand inhabitants ; 50 miles S. of An-
tioch. N. lat. 35°36’. E. long. 35° so’. Volney’s Tra-
vels in Egypt, &c. vol. ii.

LATALATTA, one of the Molucca iflands.~ S. lat.
oFFgt SEM long. 827%"

LATANG, a town of Thibet; nine miles S. of Dfa-
rong. \

LATANIA, in Botany, a name given by Commerfon
to a kind of palm, found in the Ifle de Bourbon, and which
feems to be barbaroufly conftructed of the French word
late, a lath, this palm being called in that language Jatanier.
—Juff. 39. Lamarck. Dit. v. 3. 427.—Clafs and order,
Dicecia Monadelphia. Nat. Ord. Palme. ‘

Eff, Ch. Male, Spatha of numerous imbricated leaves.
Spadix branched, its branches fingered at the top, catkin-
like, fomewhat cylindrical, of many imbricated fingle-
flowered feales. Corolla in fix deep fegments; the three
outer ones fmalleft. Stamens 15 or 16; anthers oblong,
two-celléd. Female unknown.

1. L. Borbonica. Lamarck.—Its érunk is ftraight, fimple,
eylindrical. leafy at the top. Leaves ltalked, fan-fhaped,
glaucous; their ribs cottony at the back. Fvot/la/k without
fpines. Spatha at the bafe of the foliage. The flowers are
yeliow, imbedded in each f{eale of the catkin. Filaments
united at their lower part into a thick column.

LATATSI, in Geography, a mountain of Thibet. N. lat.
31° 35°. E. long?77° 14!.

LATCHA, a lake of Ruffia, in the government of Olo-
netz, about 32 miles long and eight broad. N. lat. 61° to
61° 20!. E. long. 387 30!.

LATCHETS. See Lasxerts.

LATCHOU, or Lacuu, in Geography, a river of Thibet,
which runs into the Ganges, N. lat. 30° 50's E. long.

Q'

LATE, a town of Peru, in the jurifdiétion of Lima.

LATEEN Sau, in Sea Language, a long triangular
fail extended by a lateen-yard, trequently ufed by xebecs,
polacres, fettees, and other veffels navigated in the Mediter-
ranean fea.

LATERAL. See CotuatreraL, MULTILATERAL, and
QUADRILATERAL.

Larerat Equation, in Algebra, denotes a fimple equa-
tion; an equation whofe root is of one dimenfion.

Larerat Ligaments, in Anatomy, are thofe placed at.the
fides of the joints. See Jorn.

Larerat Line. See Line.

Lavera Operation for the Stone.

Larerar Pal/y, See Parsy.

Larerat Sinufes, in Anatomy, the right and left ; are the
fwo branches into which the fuperior longitudinal finus of
the dura mater is divided at the internal tranfverfe ridge of
tHe occipital bone. See VEIN.

—

4/

See Lrrnoromy.

LA T

LATERALIS Morsus, a name given by fome writers-
to the pleurify.

Lareratis Naris Mufeulusya name given by many authors
to that mufele of the face which Albinus has called, from its
office; the levator labii fuperioris aleque nafi. It is alfo
called the obliquus nafi.

Lareraris Reéus Capitis. See Recrus.

LATERAN was originally the proper name of a man,
whence it defcended to an ancient palace in Rome, ard to the
buildings fince ereéted in its place ; particularly a church
called St. John of Lateran ; which is the principal fee of
the popedom. ;

Lareran, Councils of the, are thofe held in the bafilica of
the Lateran: of thefe there have been five, held in 1123,
1139) 1179, 1215, and 1513.

Lareran, Canons regular of the-Congregation of the, is a
congregation of regular canons, whereof that church is the
principal place, or feat. :

It is pretended there has been an uninterrupted fucceffion
of clerks, living in community from the time of the apof-
tles ; and that a number of thefe were eftablifhed in the
Lateran in the time of Conftantine. But the canons were
not introduced till the time of Leo I. and thefe held the
church eight hundred years, tll the reign of Boniface,
who took -it from them, and placed fecular canons in their
room: one hundred and fifty years after, the regulars were
reinftated.

LATERCULUM, among the Romans, was ufed for a
roll or litt of all the magiitrates and military officers under
the Roman emperors, with an account of their refpective
offices and fees.

LATERE, A, a Latin term ufed to denote the qualifi-
catian of cardinals, whom the pope fends as legates into:
foreign courts; who are called cardinals ¢ /aiere, as being
his holinefs’s counfellors in ordinary, and afliftants. See
LEGATE. :

The guards of princes were heretofore called /aterones,
becaufe always attending at their fides, a /atere. ;

Du Cange, in his Gloffary, fays there were aneiently
counts @ /atere, and monitors a /atere.

LATESA, in Geography, a town of Naples,
Citra; 10 miles S. of Lanciano.

LATEWA, a town of Bengals 45 miles N.W. of
Ramegur.

LATEX, in Chemifiry, a name by which Van Helmont
has, in fome of his writings, called the famous menitrunm,
which he boafts Paracelfus and himfelf to have been pofleffed
of, and which he ufually calls aléahef?.

LATH, in Building, flips of wood ufed in plaftering,
tiling, and flating. ‘Thefe are what Feltus calls ambrices 5
in other Latin writers they are denominated temp/a; and
by Gregory of Tours, /igature.

In plaftering, the narrower the laths are the better they
are for the purpofe, fo as they are of fufficient breadth to
hold the nails, as the number of interftices are increafed,
the lime or ftuff will hang more readily, and the thieker
they are they will be the better adapted to refift violence ;
but then they would be much more expentive. The laths
are ‘generally made of fir, in three, four, and five feet lengths,
but may be reduced to the flandard of five feet. Laths are-
fingle or double; the latter are generally about three-eighths
of an inch thick, and the former barely one quarter, and
about an inch broad. Lath is fold in bundles; the three
feet are eight fcore to the bundle, four fees, fix feore, and,
the five feet, five feore. The lath for plain tiling is the
fame as that ufed in plaltering. Laths are alfo diltinguifhed,
into heart and fap-laths; the former fhould always be vfed

in

in Abruzzo:

BOF

in plain slings and the latter, of an inferior quality, is mo
frequently ufed by the plafterer. Heart-of-oak laths, by the
ttatute Edw. II1., fthould be one inch in breadth, and half
an inch in thicknefs ; but now, though their breadth be an
inch, their thicknefs is feldom more than one quarter of an
inch ; fo that two laths, as they are now made, are but equal
to one lath. According to the faid ftatute, pan-tile laths
are nine or ten feet long, three-quarters of an inch thick,
and one and a half inch broad, and fhould be made of the
beft yellow deal: the bundle confifts of twelve fuch laths.
A fquare of plain tiling will require a bundle of Jaths, more
or lefs, according to the pitch. The diftance of laying laths,
one from another is various, differing more in fome places
than in others ; but three and a half, or four inches, are ufual
diftances, with a counter-lath between rafter and rafter :
but if the rafters ftand at wide intervals, two counter-laths
will be neceffary. Laths are employed for various other
purpofes as well as plaltering and tiling, as in filleting for
fuftaining the ends of boards; in naked flooring and roof-
ing; for furring up the furfaces; and in every kind of
{mall work, where the dimeniions of the parts do not ex-
ceed the {cantling of laths.

In lathing for plaftering, it is too frequent a cuftom to
Jap the ends of the laths upon each other, where they ter-
minate upon a quarter or batten, in order to prevent cutting
them; but though this practice faves a row of nails, it leaves
only a quarter of an inch for plalfter, and if the laths are
yery crooked, as they frequently are, there will be no fpace
whatever left to {traighten the platter: the finifhed furface
mult, therefore, be rounded, contrary to the intention and
to the good effet of the work ; but if the ends are to be
' laid upon each other, they fhould be thinned at the lapping
out to nothing at the extremity, or otherwife they fhould
be cut to exact lengths.

Laths fhould be as evenly fplit as poffible ; thofe that are
very crooked fhould not be ufed, or the crooked part fhould
be cut out ; and fuch as have a fhort concavity on the one
fide, and a convexity on the other, not very prominent,
fhould be placed with the concave fide outwards.

The following is the method of fplitting laths: the lath-
eleavers having cut their timber into lengths, they cleave
each piece with wedges into eight, twelve, or fixteen pieces,
according to the fcantling of the timber: the pieces thus
cloven are called bolts; then, in the direétion of the felt-
grain, with their dowl-ax, into fizes for the breadth of the
Jaths + this operation they call felting ; and, laltly, with
their chit they cleave them into thicknefs by the quarter-

rain,
_ Latu Bricks are bricks made much longer than the ordi-
nary fort, and ufed inftead of laths for drying malt upon ;
for which purpofe they are extremely convenient, as not
being lable to catch fire, and retaining the heat much longer
than thofe made of wood, fo that a very {mall fire is fufficient
after they are once heated.

LATHAM, in Geography, is a townfhip in the parifh of
Ormikirk, hundred of Weft Derby, Lancafhire, England,
fituated 210 miles from London, and containing 434 houfes,
and 2179 inhabitants. In this townfhip is Latham-houfe,
the feat of Edward Wilbraham Bootle, efg. M.P. This
place is noted in the Topographical Annals of Lancafhire as
the ancient feat of the Lathams in the reign of Edward IIL,
and afterwards of the Stanleys, and lailly, of the Bootles.
In the civil wars of the 17th century, Latham-houfe was
heroically and gallantly defended by Charlotte, countefs of
Derby, who was befieged here by colonels Egerton, Rigby,
Ashton, and Holcroft, from the 28th of July, 1644, to the
27th of the following May. ‘This is a memorable inftance

LAT.

of feminine courage and fortitude : a fimilar example, how-
ever, was manifeltedin Blanch, lady Arundel, at War-
dour-cattle, in Wiltfhire. A particular account of the
former is recorded in the ‘ Hiltory of the Houfe of
Stanley,” 8vo. 239; and of the latter in Britton’s Beau-
ties of Wiltfhire,”’ Svo. vol. i. Latham-park is about five
miles in circumference, and contains fome fine forett {cenery.
Nearly in the centre is the houfe, built of ftone, after a
defign of Leoni. In this townfhip is alfo Crofs-hall, once
belonging to the earls of Derby, but is now the property
of colonel Stanley, M. P, Near it is Blythe-hall, the feat

of Thomas Langton, efq. Beauties of England, vol. ix.
LATHE, an engine of the moft extended application in
the mechanic arts, for forming wood or metal into any
article of a circular figure. The mode of action in a lathe
is eflentially different from any other method of cutting, as
the work is caufed to revolye in a circle, while the tool is
held upon a fixed fupport, and prefented to it to cut away
any parts projecting beyond the circle defcribed by the
motion of the work. ‘To the mechanic the lathe is an in--
valuable machine, as a very great proportion of all the parts
of machines is formed in it, and as it is the only method of-
working metal which may be confidered as perfect. AIL
things which can be turned are made in the lathe, both for
accuracy and expedition. The common wooden lathe, in
ufe among wood-turners for making articles of houfho’d
furniture, ‘is fo generally underitood, that it is necdlefs to
give a minute delcription of it ; we have, therefore, given
drawings in Plate (Lathe) of a metal lathe, the moit perfect
of its kind, proper for turning accurate and delicate works.
for mathematical inftruments, or machinery : it was made by
Mr. H. Maudflay, London, who has a great number of dif-
ferent fizes, but on a fimilar con{truétion, in conitant ufe,.
at his manufactory for {team-engines, and other machinery,
in the Weftminfter-road. Figs. 1. and 2. of the plate are a
front and end elevation of the whole lathe, where A A is a
{trong mahogany bench, fupported on iron ftandards B, B,,
which are fhewn fully in fig. 2; beyond thefe are fuits of
drawers C, C, to contain the tools, &c.: the ftandards B,
carry the axis D of the great foot-wheel E, which gives
motion to the work when it is turned by its crank D and
treadle F, on which the workman preffes his foot, at inrer-
vals, to turn the wheel round. The lathe itfelf, which is
fixed upon the bench, confifts of a triangular bar G. See
alfo fig. 3, which is an enlarged figure of it; it is f{upported.
on {mal! itandards a, 4, c, tixed to the bench A by ferews
going through it: upon this bar the puppets H, I, and K,.
are fitted with perfect accuracy, and H, which is called the
back puppet, can be faltened at any part of the bar by a.
ferew beneath it; the other two puppets, I, K, are ferewed
down upon the itandards a and 4, and are connected together
by a piece of metal d fitting upon the bar, and caft in the
fame piece with them: thefe two.puppets fupport the man- *
drel, or fpindle L, one having a fcrew. with a conical {leel.
point to enter a hole in the end of the fpindle, and the other
having a hard ftecl collar to receive the neck of the fpindle,.
which fits it with the molt perfect accuracy, to turn round
freely (by a band encompafliig its pulley M.), but without
any {hake in its collar ; on the end of the {pindle, beyond the
collar, is a fmall ferew. to fix on the work, to be turned.
The back puppet H has a hole thraugh the top of it,
exaCtly in a line with the fpindle, and a iteel pin e, with a:
conical point fitted: int it to fupport the end of a long
piece of work; the point. is faftened by a ferew g in the
top of the puppet, and has a ferew 7 behind it to force it
forwards : the bar G, alfo, has the reit, or fupport, for the
tool fixed upon it, by a piece of metal g, (fg. 1.) fitted upon
2 the

LATHE.

the bar; a flider is fitted upon this piece to flide in a direc-
tion perperdicular to the bar, and the fame fcrew beneath
faftens the reft upon the bar at any place, and the flider at
any length acrofs the bar. On this flider is a focket to re-
ceive a pin, on the top of which is a crofs-piece, formed like
a T, upon which the tool is laid ; this TT can be adjulted to
the height of the work the tool is to be applied to, ahd can
be faflened at any height by the ferew in the fide of the
focket. The various kinds of work to be turned are faf-
tened to the end of the fpindle, fo as to be turned round
with it, by means of what are called chucks: thefe are
pieces of wood, or metal, fitted to ferew faft upon the end
of the fpindle, and a hollow, like a difh, being turned out
in it; the piece of wood or metal to be turned is driven
into this hollow, and thus held to be turned, by holding a
tool over the T of the reft, which is previoufly fixed clofe
to the work, and prefenting the edge to the work as it re-
volves by the treadle F, turning the foot-wheel, &c. ; this,
by its band turning the pulley M, and the work with an
increafed velocity. «A chuck of this defcription is fhewn
mounted in fg. 1, with what is fuppofed to be a plate of
brafs, held in it to turn the flat face. Some chucks are flat,
with holes through them, and the work is held by fcrews
again{t it ; others are provided with three jaws, like a vice,
which can be altogether caufed to advance to, or recede
from, the centre, by turning a fcrew, fo as to encompafs a
piece of work of any dimentions. This method of chucking
_1s adopted to form all kinds of flat or hollow work, as cups,
boxes, circular rings, or plates, wheels, &c. which are,
therefore, termed chuck-work ; but articles of confiderable
length are fupported at both ends, which method is called
turning between centres. In this method the puppet H is
flid along the bar to the length of the work, and fixed there
by its {crew : the point e is now, by its {crew f, thruft for-
wards, and its point enters a {mall hole, previoufly drilled in
the end of the work: the fcrew g is now tightened, to faften
the point ¢, upon which one end of the work revolves as a
centre, the other end is received inte a fquare hole in the
end of a chuck fcrewed to the f{pindle. In other cafes, the
{pindle has a chuck fcrewed to it, terminating in a conical
point fimilar to that at e; this forms a fupport for the end,
and an arm, projecting from the chuck, intercepts a pin or
arm fixed to the work, and by this means turns it round
with the {pindle. This method of turning between centres
is employed to turn fpindles of wheels, bolts, fcrews, rollers,
the outfides of cylinders, or any other articles of greater
length than their diameter. When a piece of work is to be
turned, which is larger than the lathe will admit, the bar is
to be drawn out, as in fig. 1, and fupported by an additional
ftandard c ferewed to the bench. In the fame ftate it will
admit longer work.

The particular manner of holding the tool to the work is
not eafy to defcribe in words, but is foon acquired by prac-
tice. The tools for brafs are {quare or flat bars of iteel,
the ends of which are cut off obliquely, to form an edge like
a chiffel, but with a very obtufe angle. It is held in fuch
a pofition, that its upper flat furface points to the centre of
the work to be turned: it is to be held down as firmly as
pofiible to the reft, and advanced to the work at intervals,
whenever it ceafes to cut, by having removed all the pro-
jetions of the work without the circle it defcribes. For
turning with extreme accuracy, the flide-reft is a very ufe-
ful addition to the lathe. It isa reft with two fliders in dif-
ferent directions, to one of which the tool is fixed: by means
of {crews with handles, the fliders and the tool can be moved
in either direction, to bring the tool to the work. Figs. 3,
4, and 5, explain the ingenious piece of mechanifm. NA

is a piece of metal, fitted to the bar of the lathe, and provided
with a {crew to faften it at any place: upon the upper fur-
face, which is flat, two pieces of brafs are ferewed, to form
a dove-tailed groove, in which a flider, 4, is fitted, to move
with freedom and precifion 3 a {crew, i; is mounted in the
frame N, and is lapped into a piece projecting from the
lower fide of the flider, fo that the ferew, when turned
round by a handle fitted on its fquare, advances or draws
back the flider in its groove. Upon this flider, 4, is a
frame /, having at the top of it a flider 4, provided with a
{crew m, as the former, to move it, and carrying a piece n,
with fquare holes through it in two direCtions to receive the
tool o, and a fcrew at top to faften it in. The flide-reft
being mounted, in the manner of fig. 3, upon the bar, the
upper flider, /, is parallel with the fpindle, and the lower
one, 4, perpendicular thereto. For turning flat work, the
tool is put in as there fhewn: now by turning the ferew, m,
of the upper flider, the tool is advanced in contaét with the
work, which is mounted as in fig. 1; then by the other
ferew, #, it is drawn acrofs the face of the work, turning it
as it proceeds, to a perfeétly flat furface. For turning a
cylinder between centres, the tool, 0, is put through its
holder x, in a direction perpendicular to that fhewn in fg. 3 ;
and then the lower flider, 4, is moved to adjuft the tool to
the diameter of the intended work ; and the upper flider is
moved, to carry the tool along the length of the cylinder,
and cut it as it goes. The flide-reft will alfo turn cones, by
the following contrivance: the frame 4, fupporting the up-
per flider, is fitted to the lower flider by one pin, upon
which the whole frame and upper flider may be turned
round and faftened at any inclination, by two {crews paffing
through circular grooves. By this means the upper flider
is inclined in any angle to the {pindle, to turn a cone either
hollow or folid, as the tool is put into its holder in one or
other dire€tion.

The flide-reft can be made to cut fcrews by an ingenious
application, which is explained in figs. 6 and 7. A fhort
bar P, exaétly of the fame dimenfions as the large one, is fitted
thereon, and faftened by its ferew #. Upon this the flide-
reft is placed: its fliders now ttand in a direction perpendi-
cular to what they did before, though on the fame level.
The {crew to be cut, reprefented by Q, fig. 6, is mounted
between the centres, and turned to a true cylinder by a tool
put in the holder #, and carried along parallel to the fpindle,
by turning the {crew, i, of the lower flider: this being done,
a cog-wheel, V, is fitted on the chuck, at the end of the
{pindle, and another, W, is attached to the end of the ferew,
i, of the lower flider, fo that it will be turned round at the
fame time with the f{pindle. A tool, with a point of the
proper form to cut the thread of the fcrew, is put in the
holder n, and advanced by the fcrew, m, of the upper flider
to touch the cylinder Q. The lathe being now put in mo-
tion, the tool is moved along by the fcrew of the lower
flider, at the fame time the work revolves, and upon which
it traces a fpiral groove. When it arrives at the end of the
fcrew, which it only feratches the firft time, the tool is
drawn back clear of the work, and the lathe turned the
contrary way, to return the tool to the place where it firlt
fet out. The tool is then fet by the {crew m, to cut deeper
than the firft time, and the fcrew is cut over again: this
being repeated four or five times, the ferew is completed.
By this method a ferew of any degree of finenefs may be
cut, by merely changing the proportion of the cog-wheels,
V, W, which conneét the fpindle and the fcrew of the lower
flider. . It is plain, if thefe wheels are of equal fize, a ferew
wil! be formed of the fame width of threads as the ferew of
the flide-reft at i; and if the wheel, W, on the fcrew, is the

largelt,

LAT

largeft, the ferew cut will be finer; if, on the other hand,
the f{malleft wheel is fixed on the ferew at W, it will cut a
ferew of.a coarfer thread than the fcrewi. The lathe is
provided with wheels of all the different fizes, fhewn by the
dotted circles V, fig. 7, any of which may be fixed on at
pleafure, either on the ferew or the chuck. The f{erew cut
in this manner will have its threads inclined in a contrary
direCtion to the ferew of the flide-reft ; and if that is a left-
handed ferew, it will cut a right-handed ferew, becaufe the
flider-fcrew revolves in an oppofite direétion to the fpindle.
That the lathe may cut fcrews of either kind, an inter-
mediate cog-wheel is introduced between the two, to caufe
them to turn the fame way. This gives another advantage,
viz. that any two wheels may be ufed together ; the inter-
mediate wheel communicating motion from one to the other,
though they are confiderably diftant from touching each
other. ~The application of the intermediate wheels is ex-
plained in figs. 8 and 9, where r is a projeSiing fhelf from
the itandard 2; upon this a piece of metal, s, is faftened by
afcrew, and a fhort hollow f{pindle, », is fitted into it, and
faftened by proper fcrew-collars which admit its rotation ;
upon the end of this the cog-wheel W, which turns the
fcrew of the flide-relt, is faflened by a nut: an arm, w, is
fitted on the fhort fpindle v, fo as to have an angular motion
round the centre: the arm has a groove in its length, in any
part of which the centre pin of the intermediate wheel, x,
can be faltened ; and by thefe two motions this wheel may
be fixed at any joint, fo as to conneét the wheels of any fize.

The hollow f{pindle, v, is adapted to receive an arbor or axis 7,
which has a focket in the end adapted to the fquare, upon
the end cf the flide-reft {crew i: by this method the flide-reft
may be fet at any part of the lathe bar; when it is required
to cut a {crew at the end of a long bolt ; the arbor y, form-
ing the conneétion between the cog-wheel, W, and the
ferew, for which purpofe it flides through the hollow fpindle
v, butis caufed to revolve with it, by a feather or fillet pro-
jeCting from one fide; the focket of the hollow f{pindle may
be fet and faftened at any required diftance from the lathe
bar, and faftened by its fcrew; the flide-reft being fet at a
correfpondent diftance from the fpindle of the lathe, by
moving it upon the bar P, will admit a large piece of work,
when a ferew is required to be cut upon it. R, fg. 7, is an
iron frame, faftened to the lower flider of the ihde-reft, to
fupport the fcrew from bending by the preffure of the tool,
when it is long and flender. he frame is fhewn in plan in
Jig. 10, where the holes are fhewn for the two fcrews which
hold down the frame upon the lower Slider.

' The methods of holding various pieces of work in the
lathes to turn them are endlefs, and depending in a great
meafure upon the ingenuity of the workman to adapt them
to the particular occafions he meets with. This fubje@, as
well as the fgure and manner of holding the tools, will be
refumed under the article Turnine; an art which, from
the facility with which it produces fo many beautiful forms,
has become a fafhionable amufement among gentlemen, who
-may require many praCical inftruétions, which would be
needlefs to the mechanic regularly educated in the work-
fhop. We fhall alfo defcribe the method of turning elliptic
work, as well as circular.

Larue, in Law. See Letue and Latrureve.

Larue, in Rural Economy, a provincial term ufed in fome
counties to fignify a barn.

LATHR£A, in Botany, (essay clandeftine or con-
cealed, becaufe the herbage is moftly under the ground, or at
Jealt covered with dead leaves of trees.) Toothwort. Linn.
Gen. 3¢5. Schreb.402. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 200, Mart.
Mill. Dic. v. 3. Sm, Fl. Brit. 654. Juff. 102, La

5

LAT

Gertn. t. 52.—Clafs and order,
Nat. Ord. Perfonate, Linn, Pe-

marck I[lluflr. t. 55
Didynamia Angio/permia.
diculares, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,
erect ; its orifice deeply four-cleft. Cor. of one petal, rin-
gent; tube longer than the calyx ; limb ringent, {wellingg irs
upper lip concave, helmet-like, broad, with a narrow hooked
point ; lower lip {mallelt, reflexed, obtufe, moftly three-cleft.
Neétary a very fhort notched gland, depreffed on both fides, in-
ferted into the receptacle of the flower at one edge of the ger-
men. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, the length of the co-
rolla, and concealed under its upper lip, two rather fhorter
than thereft ; anthers oblong, two-lobed, barbed, flattened,
cohering in pairs. Pi/?, Germen fuperior, globofe, {lightly
comprefied ; ityle thread-fhaped, of the length and fituation
of the ftamens; ftigma tumid, abrupt, drooping, Peric
Capfule roundifh, obtufe with a point, inyefted with the
enlarged fpreading calyx, of one cell and two elaitic valves,
each bearing a central, longitudinal, fungous receptacle.
Seeds few, nearly globular, inferted into the receptacles.

Obf. The neétariferous gland fhews its very near affinity
to Orobanche. Linn.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. A depreffed gland
at the bafe of the future of the germen. Capfule of one
cell, with lateral fungous receptacies. Seeds globofe.

x. L. Clandeftina. Subterraneous Tcothwort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 843. Lamarck, fig. 1. (Clandeftina flore fubczruleo ;
Tourn. Inft. 652. t.424. Orobanche, five Dentaria aphyl-
los purpurea, cefpite denfo; Morif. Seét. 12. t. 16. f. 15.)
—Stem branched, fubterraneous. Flowers ere¢t, folitary. —
Native of fhady woods in France, Italy, and the Pyrenées,
growing parafitically on the roots of trees. The /fem is fub«
terraneous, at firft fhort, and denfely clothed with crowded,
feffile, rounded, convex, very flefhy, entire, whitith eaves.
In this ftage of the plant the flowers rife above the ground,
and are at firft nearly feffile, very large, the corolla being two
inches long, of a blueifh colour, fometimes white, and they
grow in rather clofe tufts. Afterwards the /lem is greatly
elongated, the aves become remote, and fhrivelled, the co-
rolla falls, and each calyx is elevated on its own feparate
fimple /fa/t above an inch long, This latter ftate is repre-
fented in Rudbeck’s Elys. p. 229. f. 2. As we find no
correct account of the growth of this fingular plant, the
above may not be unacceptable. It feems to fhew the herb,
if not the root, to be but of annual duration. What have
been called feales of the root in this genus, feem equivalent ;
to leaves, and we have fo denominated them above.

2. L. Anblatum. Oriental Toothwort. Lina. Sp. Pl.
844. (Anblatum orientale, flore purpurafcente; Tourn.
Cor. 48. t. 481.)—Lips of the corolla undivided.— Found
by Tournefort in the Levant. Linnzus has taken up this
{pecies entirely from the plate and fhort definition of the
great French botanift. It fhould appear to be moft akin
to the following, with which it ccnftitutes Toyrnefort’s-
genus of dnblatum, whofe name is of German etymology,
and adopted from Valerius Cordus. 3

3. L. Squamaria. Greater Toothwort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 844.
Fl. Dan. t.136. Engl. Bot. t. 50. (Squamaria; Rivin.
Monop. Irr. t. 89. f.2. Dentaria major Matthioli; Ger.
em. 1585.)—Flowers racemofe, pendulous. Lower lip
three-cleft.—Native of fhady woods throughout Europe,
flowering in March or April, and growing parafitically on.
the roots of the hafel, for the moft part. The fubterraneous.
portion of the ffem is branched,. clothed with flefhy-white
leaves, as in the firft {pecies ;, what rifes above-ground is
fimple, purple, downy, racemofe, bearing numerous droop-
ing purple flowers, with a pale calyx, each partial aye

ftalk

TAT

{talk attended by a leaf like thofe that grow below the
furface.

Larurxa Phelypea. See Onowancne. " t

LATHREVE, Leincreve, or Zrithingreve, was an offi-
cer under the Saxon government, who had authority over a
third part of the county ; and whofe territory was therefore
called trithing, otherwife a leid, leithin, or lathe, in which
manner the county of Kent is {till divided ; and the rapes
in Suflex feem to anfwer to the fame. As to the jurifdic-
tion of this officer, thofe matters that could not be deter-
mined in the hundred court, were thence brought to the
trithing ; where all the principal men of the three or more
hundreds being aflembled by the lathreve, or trithingreve,
did debate and decide it: or if they could not, then the
lathreve fent it up to the county court, to be there finally
determined.

LATHRUS, in Entomology. See ScARABREUS.

LATHYRIS, in Botany, a name given by many authors
to a fpecies of tithymal, or fpurge, commonly known by
the name of tithymalus latifolius, the broad-leaved {purge,
and called by fome allo cataputia.

LATHYRUS, a name adopted from Theophraitus,
swhofe raSupos appears evidently to be, like our’s, fomething
of the pea or vetch kind, though it is impoflible precifely
to determine what —Linn. Gen. 375. Schreb. 497. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 3. 1077. Mart. Mill. Dict. v. 3. Sm. Fl.
Brit. 763. Jufl. 359. Lamarck. Illuttr. t. 632. Gaertn.
t. 152.—Clafs and order, Diadelphia Decandria. Nat. Ord.
P apilicnacee, Linn. Leguminofe, Jul,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped ;
its fexments lanceolate, acute ; the two uppermott fhortett,
the lower one longelt. Cer. papilionaceous. Standard very
large, inverfely heart-fhaped, reflexed at the fides and fummit.
Wings {maller, oblong, fomewhat crefcent-fhaped, fhort
and obtufe. Keel femicircular, the fize of the wings but
broader, feparating about the middle inwards. Siam. Fila-
ments in two fets, one fimple the other in nine divifions,
curved upwards; anthers roundifh. Pil, Germen com-
prefled, oblong, linear ; ftyle in its upper part erect, flat,
broader upwards, acute at the fummit; ftigma on the
upper or inflexed fide of the ftyle, extending from the
‘middle to the top, hairy. Peric. Legume very long, cy-
lindrical or comprefled, pointed, of two valves and one
cell. Seeds feveral, either cylindrical, globofe, or flightly
angular.

Eff. Ch. Style flattened, downy above, broader upwards.
‘Two upper fegments of the calyx fhortett.

Tournefort divides this genus into four by the foliage.
‘His Lathyrus, t. 216, 217, has only a fingle pair of leaflets
en each foot{talk, the latter terminating in a compound
tendril; his Clymenum, t. 218, has many leaflets to each
flalk ; his Nifolia, Init. 656, has fimple leaves without any
tendril ; and his 4phaca, t. 223, bears {tipulas without leaves,
-at leaft in the adult plant. 'Thefe, however, are very juftly
deemed by Linneus mere differences in habit, among the
fpecies of one great genus, which is on the whole fufficiently
natural. His 14th edition of Syft. Veg. enumerates 21
fpecies, Willdenow 36, in three fections. ‘The firft feétion,
with fingle-flowered italks, now and then varying to two
flowers, embraces 13 f{pecies ; the fecond, with two-flowered
ftalks, has fix ; the third, with many flowers on each ftalk,
has 17.—Seven of the genus only are natives of Britain.
The reft grow either in the warmer countries of Europe,
or in the aorth of Africa, fome in America, and one it is
faid in Japan, They are ftationed for the moft part in cul-
tivated fields, in meadows, or about hedges and thickets.
“Thofe referrible to the firlt and fecond f{ections are, perhaps

LAS.

without eXception, always annual plants, many of them
capable of being ufed as pulfe ; thofe of the third are ge-
nerally perennial, with very tenactous, deep or creeping
roots, and more calculated for fodder. Examples are here
fubjoined.

* Stalks fingle-flowered.

L. Aphaca. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1029. Curt. Lond. fafe. 5
t. 51. Engl. Bot. t. 1167. (Aphaca; Raii Syn. 320,
Ger. em. 1250.)— Flowers folitary. Tendrils leaflefs. Sti-
pulas between heart and arrow-fhaped.—Found in the bor-
ders of gravelly corn-fields, but rarely. The fem is weak.
a foot or two high, fapported by its numerous fimple ten-
drils, each fpringing from between two large, angular,
almoft halbert-fhaped /iipulas, which give the plant a peculiar
afpe@. One or two of the very firft ftipulas only are ac-
companied by a pair of fmall /eaflets, with or without any
elongated tendril. The flowers are {mall and yellow, very
rarely two together on each flower-ftalk.

L. amphicarpos. Linn, Sp. Pl. 1029: (LL. minimus pe-
rennis %Qimeprocy feu fupra infraque terram filiquas gerens ;
Morif. Seét. 2. Append. t. 23. f. 1.)—Stalks fingle-flowered,
longer than the calyx. _ Tendrils two-leaved, quite fimple.
—Native of Syria. A humble plant, remarkable for produc-
ing many of its pods, with perfect feed, immediately from
the root, or rather from the fubterraneous part of the ftem 5
yet thefe are the offspring of perfect flowers, (at leaft as
to ftamens ‘and piltil,) though born under ground; as we
have verified by examining the plant in Kew garden 30
years ago, Whether the roots be annual or perennial, we
are not certain, but this fubterraneous mode of fruétifying
is feen in two or three more f{pecies of Lathyrus or Ficia.
Morifon’s figure exhibits the prefent plant very tolerably.
What rifes above ground bears linear-lanceolate rather glau-
cous kaflets, in pairs, with half arrow-fhaped /lipulss, and
large folitary dull-purple fowers, which alfo produce feed.

L. ariiculatus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1031. Curt. Mag, t. 253.—
Stalks with one or two flowers. Tendrils accompamed by
many alternate lanceolate leaflets, on a winged ftalk.—Native
of France and Italy. A common hardy annual in our gar-
dens, to a place in which it is recommended by its elegant
though fcentlefs fowers, whofe crimfon ftandard is prettily
contrafted with their white wings. ;

** Stalks tevo flowered.

L. odoratus. Common Sweet Pea.—Linn. Sp. Pl. 1032.
Curt. Mag. t. 60.—-Stalks two-flowered. Leaflets oyate-
oblong, two to each branched tendril. Legumes hairy.
—Native of Sicily, and fome fay of Ceylon; but the latter
may perhaps be doubted, the plant being in the Enghih
gardens fo hardy an annual, as frequently to furvive our
winters, when it comes up in autumn, Its great beauty,
delicious fragrance, and varicty of colours, render it a
general favourite. More than two flowers are frequent om
each ftalk, though the uppermoft are.commonly blighted.

*** Stalks many—lowered.
L. tuberofus. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1033. Curt. Mag. t. 112.

—Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets oval, in pairs. “Stem
without wings. Roots tuberous.—A troublefome weed in
{ome parts of Germany and Italy, fpreading widely over
all kinds of cultivated ground, by means of its tuberous
flefhy perennial roots, hardly to be extirpated. In our gar-_
dens it is a beautiful hardy plant, confpicuous for the pecu-
liarly delicate rofe-colour of its L/ofoms, and we have never
heard of its being troublefome in its increafe. The Laced

: rarely

L, A&E
rarely ripen, The Awobs of the root are eatable when
boiled.

L. Jatifolius. The Great Everlafting Pea. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1033. Engl. Bot. t. r1ro8. Mill. Illuftr. t. 62.—
Stalks many-flowered. Leaflets elliptical, in pairs. Stem
winged.—Very commonly cultivated in gardens, where its
roots endure for a long courfe of years, throwing up tall
climbing flems, which bear large bunches of beautiful crim-
fon flowers, well known to moft people. We rather doubt
whether the plant be truly wild in England, yet it appears
in fome places to be fo, and finds a place in all our Britifh
Floras.

L. fylveftris. Narrow-leaved Everlafting Pea. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1033. Engl. Bot. t. 805. Curt. Lond. fafe. 6. t. 52.—
Differing from the laft in the narrownefs of its /eaffets, and
lefs gaudy hues of its flowers, is perhaps a more elegant
plant, and certainly wild in many parts of England in low

buthy fpots.
Laruyrus, in Gardening, contains plants of the herba-

eeous climbing flowery kinds, of which the fpecies chiefly _

cultivated are the {weet lathyrus, or pea, L. odoratus ;
the tangier lathyrus, or pea, L.tingitanus ; and the broad-
leaved lathyrus, or everlafting pea, L. latifolius.

But feveral other fpecies may be cultivated where variety
is wanted.

The firft of thefe forts has feveral varieties ; as the purple-
flowered, the white-flowered, the variegated or painted lady,
f{weet-fcented, and the fcarlet.

The fecond fort is a fhowy plant for fhrubberies, wilder-
nefs quarters, arbours, and trellis-work ; but too large and
rampant for borders of the common flower-garden.

_ It has many varieties ; as the red-flowered, the purple-
flowered, the fcarlet-flowered, and the large-flowered.

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants may be readily raifed,
by fowing the feeds of the different forts in the autumn or
{pring feafons, at different times in patches of fix or eight
together, in the places where they are to grow. Where
the foil is light and dry, the autumn is the beft feafon, as
the plants appear mote early, but in other cafes the {pring
fhould be preferred. The plants afterwards only require to
_ be kept clean from weeds, and be properly fupported by

branchy fticks.

The laft fort may likewife be increafed by tranfplanting
the roots in the autumn; but the plants in this way are
feldom fo good as by feeds.

And the two firft forts muft be fown annually, but the
laft will remain many years.

It may be noticed that it is the praétice with the gar-
deners who raife the firft forts for the London markets, to
fow them in the autumn in pots, and fecure them from fe-
vere weather, by placing them in hot-bed frames: by which
means they can bring them much more early to market.
They may be continued in flower the whole of the fummer
by repeated fowings in the fpring. When fown in pots,
they fhould be watered frequently in a flight manner.

All thefe plants are highly ornamental in the borders,
clumps, and other parts of pleafure-grounds, when properly
intermixed in their fpecies and differed varieties in fuch
compartments.

LATIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in the

rovince of Otranto ; five miles E. of Oria.

LATIAR, a feaft or ceremony, inftituted by Tar-
quinius Superbus, in honour of Jupiter Latiaris, or
Latialis,

Tarquin, having made a treaty of alliance with the Latins,
propofed, for perpetuating it, to ereé&t a common tem-
ple, where all the allies, the Romans, Latins, Hernici,

Vat. XX.

LAT

Volfci, &c. fhould affemble themfelves every year, hold a
kind of fair, exchange merchandizes, feaft, facrifice, and
make merry together. Such was the inftitution of the La-
tiar. The founder only appointed one day for this feaft ;
the firft conful added another to it, upon concluding the
peace with the Latins; and a third was added, after the
people who had retired to the Mons Sacer were returned to
Rome ; and a fourth, after appeafing the fedition raifed on
oceafion of the plebeians afpiring: to the confulate.

Thefe four days were called the Latin feriz ; and all things
done during the courfe of the feriz, as feafts, facrifices, of-
ferings, &c. were called Latiares.

LATICLAVIUM, or Latus-cravus,a garment which
was a diftin€tion and dignity among the Romans, contradif-
tinguifhed from the angufticlavium.

The lati-clavium was a kind of tunic or long coat, faced
with one or two flips of purple, applied lengthwife to the
two fides of the tunic.

-In the latus-clavus thefe flips were pretty broad, and in the
anguftus-clavus narrower; though there is nothing about
which the learned differ more than the difference between
thofe two habits.

There were buttons fet on the latus-clavus, which ap-
peared like the heads of large nails; whence fome think it
took its name.

The fenators, prztors, and the chief magiftrates of co-
lonies and municipal cities, had a right to wear it. The robe
called pretexta was worn over the latus-clavus. When the
prator pronounced fentence of death, he put off the prx-
texta; but retained the latus-clavus.

LATICZOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Braclaw ; 60 miles N.W. of Braclaw.

LATILLA. Gagrano, in Biography, an excellent
Neapolitan compofer, much efteemed by connoiffeurs, in
every fpecies of vocal mufic. His comic operas, however,
were the moft ingenious and fuccefsful of all burletta com-
pofitions, till the Buona Figliuola of his nephew Piccini
came out, which furpaffed all preceding comic operas fo
much, that no other excited any curiofity in the public; till
Paefiello’s fuperior fertility was known and felt.

Latilla’s comic operas, that were performed in London,
from 1748 to 1753, when the Mingotti firft arrived, were La
Comedia in Comedia,’? “*Orazio,”? and “ Don Calafcine,”
which were admirable. ‘The melodies new, eafy, and pleaf-
ing ; humour without buffoonery ; and the ators confidered
as well as the fingers, in allowing time for Pertici and
Lafchi, thofe nice obfervers of whatever was ridiculous in
the voice, countenance, or gefture of man, to convey their
obfervations to the fpeCtators. ‘

We met with poor Latilla 20 years afterwards at Venice,
“ fallen from his high eftate,”? and fhrunk into an humble
deputy organift, at the church of St. Maca; but found him
an intelligent and well informed man, on other fubje€ts than
that of his own profeffion, which, however, he had culti-
vated in all its departments.

LATIMER, Hueu, the fon of a refpeGtable Leicefter-
fhire yeoman, was born about the year 1470. He was ini-
tiated in fchool learning in the country, and making a ver
rapid progrefs in his youthful ftudies, he was, at the age of
fourteen, fent to Chrift’s college, Cambridge, where he was
diftinguifhed for his rapid proficiency in the ftudies of the
place. Here he took his degrees, entered upon holy orders,
and was at this period a zealous Papift, read the fcriptures
and the fchoolmen with the fame reverence, and held Thomas
a Becket and the apoftles in equal honour. He had taken
alarm at the progrefs of Lutheranifm, and inveighed with
great bitternefs, publicly and privately, againit thofe prin-

Xx ciples,

LATIMER.

ciples, of which he was hereafter to become a moft zealous de-
fender. His zeal asa Papilt was fo diltinguifhed in the uni-
verfity, that he was elected crofs-bearer in all public pro-
ceffions, an employment which he is faid to have accepted
with a high degee of reverence, and to have difcharged with
much folemnity. Our good divine was a Papift from con-
viction, and had a mind open to arguments on all fides of the
queltion : he fortunately met with Mr. Thomas Bilney, a
clergyman of great piety, and who, by the perufal of Lu-
ther’s works, had become a fecret favourer of the reformation.
By degrees he infufed into the mind of Latimer all thofe
doubts which he had formerly felt re{pe€ting the difcordance
of Popery with pure Chrittianity, Latimer heard the argu-
ments of his friend, and was prepared at firft to difpute the
ground inch by inch. At length he found the ground on which
he ftood abfolutely untenable ; and acknowledged the errors
in which he had been educated. But the temper of the
{cholar was not like that of the matter: he could not bea
Protettant in fecret ; he mutt come forth boldly and declare
the convictions of his heart : he had fought truth as the pearl
of great price, and having, as he believed, found it, was deter-
mined not to conceal its beauty from his friends and the
world. He became an active apoitle in the caufe of Protettant-
ifm: he preached in public, he exhorted in private, and
every where enforced tle neceflity of a holy life, in oppofition
to the fuperititious ceremonies and obfervances inculeated
by the Romifh religion. He foon became obnoxious to the
generality of the clergy, but being contented to go through
evil as well as good report, he continued on his courfe with
more ardour in proportion to the outcry made again{t him.
He inveighed againft the ceremonies which encumbered
true religion, and expofed the pride and ufurpation of the
Romifh hierarchy: but what he moft infifted on was the
right of the people to read the {criptures in their native,
tongue. Dr. Buckenham, one of the Black-friars, was fe-
lected to anfwer, from the pulpit, the arguments of Latimer :
he performed the tafk with great pomp, but not to the com-
plete fatisfaGtion even cf his own party, andin a fhort time
afterwards the whole univerfity met to hear what the reformer
had to fay inhis defence. Mr. Latimer at firft recapitulated
Dr. Buckenham’s arguments ; placed them in the flrongeft
light, and gave them much greater importance than the
friar had been able to do: he then. attacked them with fo
much force of reafoning, and fuch abundance of wit, as to
render the learned door truly ridiculous ; he next appealed
to his hearcrs, urging them to refpeét their own underitand-
ings, and not to fubmit to be led by the prielts, who had
ever been accuftomed to treat the people at large with con-
tempt; and he conciuded with ardently hoping, that his
honeft countrymen might be permitted to have the ufe of
the fcriptures, till they fhewed themfelves to be as abfurd
interpreters of them as the learned friar. Latimer, by
this exertion, and by an anfwer to Venetus, greatly in-
ereafed the credit of the Proteftant party at Cambridge.
Bilney and Latimer were regarded as the heads of the
party, and to them the itudents looked with refpect, at-
tachment, and even veneration. The heads of the colleges,
and the fenior members of the univerfity, were alarmed, and
determined to withftand the progrefs of herefy. Frequent
convocations were held, and the ftriteft injunGions were
laid on all the tutors to be watchful of the opinions of their
pupils ; but thefe efforts were in vain, and the bifhop of
Ely was applied to, and entreated to crufh, by his autho-
rity, the new opinions, The prelate, though a Papilt, was
not a friend to perfecution; he was willing to judge for
himfelf, and though he went to Cambridge and preached
againit the heretics, yet he didnot feruple to attend himfelf

the fermons of Latimer, and with much candour declared, that
the reformer was the beft preacher he had ever heard. Liati-
timer’s enemies next appealed to the court, and tranfmitted
very heavy complaints refpeéting the increafe of herefy ; and
Wolfey, contrary, it is thought, to his own inclination, in-
{tituted a court, confifting Hy bifhops and other divines, to
put the laws in execution again{t herefy. Bilney and Lati-
mer were called to anfwer for their conduét, and as the
former was regarded as the moft guilty, by being the firft
promulgator of the new doGtrines, his examination was the
moft fevere, and he was pronounced guilty ; but not having a
mind formed for the fufferings prepared for him, he re-
canted, and after fome ignominious treatment was difmifled.
Latimer, and others who were involved in the charge, were,
by the management of the cardinal, and the merciful difpofi-
tion of ‘Tunttal, bifhop of London, difmiffed probably
without a reproach: the cardinal even granted Latimer his
licence to preach throughout England. The friends of the
reformers received them with open arms; but the fate of
Bilney was truly wretched ; he wag ftruck with remorfe at
the thought of his recantation, and the agonies of his mind
deprived him for a time of his reafon, In a few years he re-
turned to a {ane ftate, and determined to expiate his abjura-
tion by his death. He accordingly left his friends at Cam-
bridge, went into Norfolk, his native country, and preach-
ed moft earneftly againft the corruptions of the eltablifhed
religion; he was feized, imprifoned, andexecuted, at Nor-
wich, exhibiting, at his elofing f{cene, a moit admirable ex-
ample of compofure, firmnefs, and Chriftian courage. La-
timer, inthe mean time, exerted himfelf more than ever: he
was conttant in his exertions, and once or twice he had the
honour to preach before the king at Windfor. Encouraged
by the gracious reception afforded him by Henry, he took
the liberty of writing a very bold letter to his majefty,
againft a proclamation which the clergy had prevailed upon
the king to publifh, forbidding the ufe of the bible in Eng-
lith, The king received the letter with good temper, and
even thanked Mr. Latimer for his well-meant advice. When
meafures were taken for the eltablifhment of the king’s fu-
premacy, Latimer exerted all his powers in forwarding his
majefty’s defigns. His zeal in the bufinefs procured for him
the prefentation of the rectory of Weltkinton, in Wiltthire,
and, notwith{tanding the remonitrances of his friends, who
confidered this as the firft ftep only to higher dignities in the
church, he went to refide on his living. His preaching ren-
dered him very popular, and he was foon after appointed by
the mayor of Briitol to preach on Ealter Sunday. Public

notice of this appointment had been given, and received by

the people with great joy; but an order was fuddenly iffued
by the bifhop of Briflol, prohibiting any one to preach
there without his licence. This was but the firft inflance of
oppofition which the c'ergy in that neighbourhood excited
againft him; they traduced his character, and inveighed
againft him with the greateft violence; and at length they
drew up a {et of articles, in the form of an accufation, which
was laid before Stokefley, bifhop of London, who immedi-
ately cited Latimer toappear before him. To this mandate
he was not obedient, but on a citation from the archbifhop
he inftantly fubmitted. He fet out in the midft *of
winter, and at a moment when he was grievoully afflided
with the ftone and other acute diforders. On his arrival in
London he found the court fitting, but inftead of being ex-
amined as to any particular charges, he was ordered to fub-
fcribe a paper put into his hand, containing the obnoxious
doétrines againit which he had been preaching. ‘This he
politively refufed, and he was difmiffed, for the prefent,
with an exhortation to reflect upon his conduét, and fubmit,

3 Frequently

ad

LATIMER.

Frequently was he brought before the court, and as fre-
quently he rejected the propofal. At length he remonttrated
againft their ill-treatment, and was probably refcued by the
interpofition of the king. In 1534, he was appointed chaplain
to queen Anne Boleyn, and in the following year he was
offered the bifhopric of Worcetter, which he accepted, and
difcharged the duties of the office with zeal, piety, and
diligence. In 1536, he was called on to attend the parlia-
ment and convocation ; and it was hoped that this feffion
would bring with it many important advantages for the
Proteftant caufe. The convocation was opened by an elo-
quent Latin difcourfe from Latimer, who had been appointed
to this office on account of his great talents, and becaufe it
was known that no other perfon could fo ably expofe the cor-
ruptions of the clergy as himfelf, and thus lead them to an
active difcharge of their duty. In a fhort time after this, an
Englifh tranflation of the bible was publifhed and recom-
mended by authority to a general perufal. During the fit-
ting of the convocation, an animated but unfuccefsful at-
tempt was made to ftigmatize archbifhop Cranmer and
bifhop Latimer, by fome public cenfure. As foon as the
convocation broke up the bifhop repaired to his diocefe ; he
had no tatte for {tate affairs, and he had a mind ill adapted to
the manners of acourt. It was the cuftom at that period
for the bifhops, at the commencement of every new year,
to make prefents to the fovereign, and many of them were
very liberal in their donations ; but Latimer, on this occa-
fion, prefented, inftead of a purfe of gold,a New Teftament,
with a leaf doubled down on this paflage, Whoremongers
and adulterers God will judge.” ; ‘
Attempts were frequently made to ruin the bifhop, but
hitherto they were unfuccefsful ; and*he continued in favour
with the king. After the pafling of the bloody itatute, or
the a& of the fix articles, the bifhop protefted againft it by
his conduét ; he refigned his bifhopric, and retired into the
country. Here he intended to pafs the remainder of his
days, but an accident, which befel him, by the fall of a
tree, obliged him to come to London for furgical affiftance.
His arrival was foon known in the metropolis, and the {pies
of the bloody-minded Gardiner watched him in every place.
At length they obtained, or made, matter for accufation ;
he was charged with {peaking againft the ftatute of the fix
articles, and was, without hefitation, committed to the
Tower, where he fuffered a cruel imprifonment during the
remainder of king Henry’s reign. On the acceffion of
Edward VI. Latimer, and all the others who had been im-
prifoned in the fame caufe, were fet at liberty. He might
have been reinitated in his bifhopric, but he preferred a more
private life, accepted an invitation from Cranmer, and took
up his refidence at Lambeth, where his chief employment
was to hear the complaints, and to procure redrefs for the
injuries, of poor “people. No man was fo well qualified for
an office of this kind, and he continued in it during two years,
interfering very little with public tranfactions. It was, how-
ever, known that he affifted the archbifhop in compofing
the Homilies, which were’ publifhed, by authority, in the
beginning of king Edward’s reign, and intended to fupply
the want of preaching, which was now at a very low ebb,
Being one of the moft eloquent preachers of the age, he
was appointed to preach the Lent fermons before the king,
during the firft three years of his reign. After this he re-
tired into the country, and made ufe of his majeity’s licence,
as a general preacher, in thofe parts where he thought his
labours might be moft ferviceable. He continued in this
practice till Popery was re-eitablifhed in the reign of queen
Mary, when he was cited to appear before the council in
London.. He immediately obeyed, and as he paffed through

Smithfield, the fcene of the moft horrid cruelties exercifed
upon thofe who had been denominated heretics,. he faid, very
cheerfully, to shis attendants, « this place has long groaned
for me.’’ The next day he appeared before the council,
who, after loading him with many reproaches, committed
him to the Tower. His imprifonment was rendered uncom-
monly fevere, but he endured every evil with refignation, and
true Chriftian humility. The weather was exceedingly fe-
vere, but no fire was allowed him, which led him to tell the
lieutenant of the Tower, that, however his enemies might ex-
pect he fhould be burned, unlefs he was permitted to have
a fire this frofty weather, he fhould be firtt ftarved to death
with cold. About this time archbifhop Cranmer and bifhop
Ridley were committed to the Tower, which became fo
crowded with prifoners, that the three prelates were con-
fined in the fame room, a circumftance which, no doubt,
they greatly enjoyed. The pleafure, however, was but
of fhort duration ; they were hurried to Oxford under
the pretence of a public difputation to be held there by the
moft eminent divines on both fides. At this place they
were mott clofely confined in the common prifon, and de-
prived of every comfort, and of almoft all the neceflaries of
life ; hence they readily inferred what kind of difputation
would be allowed them. They fully expeGted that the argu-
ment of power was the only one that would be reforted to, and
having made up their minds to this, Latimer faid he fhould
give them very little trouble. «I thal,” faid he, “ offer
them a plain account of my faith, and fay but little more;
for I know that any thing more will be to no purpofe. They
talk of free difputation ; but I am aflured, their grand ar-
gument will be, as it was that of their forefathers, He have a
law, and by our law ye ought to die.’ When he was brought
into court, he had a cap on his head, buttoned under his
chin, a pair of {peGacles hanging at his breaft, a new tefta-
ment under his.arm, and a ftaff in his hand. He was ex-
haufted in preffing through the crowd, and was permitted
to fit down: after a fufiicient paufe, he was told he muft
difpute againit the articles brought againft him ; he declared
he was unable, through age, to do any fuch thing ; I am
not able to debate,’’ faid the venerable old man, “I will
avow my faith, and then do with me as you pleafe.” He
was next enfnared, by the artful conduct of his accufer, to
make conceffions which were again{t him, and upon this the
prolocutor arofe, and exclaimed to the populace, “ Here you
fee the weaknefs of herefy againft the truth; here is a man,
who, adhering to his errors, hath given up the gofpel, and
rejected the fathers.”? The good old man made no reply,
but wrapping his gown about him, and taking his new tef-
tament and his flaff, walked out with the greateit compofure.
On the following Friday he was again brought into court,
was firft excommunicated, and then condemned to death,
As foon as the fentence was read, Latimer, lifting up his
eyes to heaven, exclaimed, “I thank God moft heartily,
that he hath prolonged my life to this end."

No {teps were taken towards putting the fentence againtt
the prelates into execution, tor nearly a year and a half ; but,
in 1555, new laws in fupport of the Romifh religion having

‘been enaéted, a commiffion was granted by cardinal Pole,

the pope’s legate in England, to the bifhops of Lincoln,
Gloucefter, and Briftol, empowering them to try bifhops
Latimer and Ridley for herely. The prelates were ordered
before the commiffioners, and when Ridley had been
examined, bifhop Latimer was brought to the bar, whom
the bifhop of Lincoln addreffed, in an eloquent, and very pa-
thetic {peech, earneftly exhorting him to accept the. mercy
that was offered, and to acknowledge the authority of the
fee of Rome, The good bifhop was too firmly fixed in his

Xx 2 opinious

LAT

opinions to give them up through motives of timidity, and
the defire of prolonging his life. He was, however, re-
manded, and on the next day judgment was paffed on him
and Ridley. Their execution was fixed for the 16th of
Otober, and the place fixed on was the north fide of the
city, near Baliol college. Lett the bloody fcene fhould ex-
cite a tumult, the military were ordered to attend the place
of execution. Onthe day appointed, the vice-chancellor of
Oxford, and other perfons of diftin€tion, repaired to the
{pot which was to witnefs the fufferings of thefe worthy
men; the prifoners, at the fixed hour, were fent for,
and the concern of the fpe€tators, which was apparent in
every countenance, excepting in thofe who were adtors in
the {cene, was greatly augmented by the ftriking contraft of
their appearance. Ridley was drefled in his epifcopal habit,
fhewing what they had formerly been, and bifhop Latimer
wore his prifon attire, by which he exhibited the condition to
which they were now reduced. Having heard a fermon,
by a Popith doctor, in which they were treated with great
inhumanity, they prepared for their laft trial, and were
chained to the flake. The fire was {peedily kindled, and at
the fight of the flames Latimer exclaimed, ‘* Be of good
eheer, mafter Ridley, and play the man, we fhall this day
light fuch a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trutt
fhail never be put out.” He then recommended his foul to
God, anda few minutes put an end to the fufferings of thefe
noble martyrs. Such was the glorious and triumphant end
of Hugh Latimer, who had been indefatigable in the difcharge
of the duties of life, and who exhibited the moft aftonifhing
firmnefs and compofure in the feveral trials to which he was
expofed. He was not learned, in the ufual fenfe of the
word, for he cultivated only ufeful learning, and he lived
rather what the world calls a good than a great man. He
was eminent as a preacher, but his fermons, that are extant,
are not patterns of good compofition ; his manner of
preaching was affecting, as he {poke from the heart, and made
deep and lafting impreffions on his auditors. He difplayed
at all times a noble and apoftolic zeal in the propagation of
the truth. No one had a higher fenfe of what became his
office, or was lefs influenced by any finifter motive ; and none
ever reproved vice with more freedom, without any regard
to the rank of his hearers. A collection of his fermons was
publifhed, in 1570, by Auguiftus Bernhere, a Swifs, who de-
dicated them to Catharine, the duchefs of Suffolk. It con-
fifts of forty fermons, and has been frequently reprinted.
In Mr. Fox’s Acts and Monuments, feveral of his letters
are preferved, among which is the celebrated one to king
Henry VIII. for reftoring the free liberty of reading the
holy {criptures. Biog. Brit.

LATIN, a dead language, firft fpoken in Latium, and
afterwards at Rome, and {till ufed in the Romifh church,
and among men of letters.

Some authors rank the Latin among the number of ori-
[tes languages, but by miftake: it is formed principally
rom the Greek, and particularly from the /olic ‘dialect
of that tongue; though it has a great number of words
which it borrowed from the languages of the Etrufci,
Ofci, and other ancient people of Italy; and foreign com-
merce and wars, in courfe of time, added a great many
more.

The Latin is a ftrong, nervous language, perfectly fuit-
able to the charaéter of the people who fpoke it. The
Romans were engaged in wars and commotions, foreign
and domettic, which for feven hundred years engrofled
all their thoughts. Hence, therefore, fays the ingenious
Mr. Harris, their language became like their ideas, copious
im all terms, expreflive of things political, and well adapted

BAe Fs

to the purpofes both of hiftory and popular eloquence.
But the Romans were no philofophers; and hence
the unfitnefs of their language to this fubjeét; a defe&,
which even Cicero is compelled to confefs, and more fully
makes appear, when he writes philofophy himfelf, from the
number of terms he is obliged to invent. Harris’s Hermes,
p- 411, &e.

The Latin is more figurative than the Englifh, lefs pliant
than the French, lefs copious than the Greek, lefs pompous
than the Spanifh, lefs delicate than the Italian, but clofer and
more nervous than any of them. 1

We may here obferve, that the profody both of the
Greeks and Romans was carried much farther than our’s; or
that they {poke with more, and ftronger, inflexions of voice
than we ufe. The quantity of their fyllables was much
more fixed than in any of the modern languages, and ren-
dered much more fenfible to the ear in pronouncing them.
Befides quantities, or the difference of fhort and long, ace
cents were placed upon mott of their fyllables, the acute,
grave, and circumflex: the wfe of which accents we have
entirely loft, but which, it is well known, determined the
fpeaker’s voice to rife or fall. (See Accent and Prosopy.)
We may alfo obferve, that ftrong tones and animated gef-
tures always accompany one another. The ation both of
the orators and the players in Greece and Rome was far
more vehement than that to which we are accuftomed. (See
Action and Gesture.) When the Barbarians {pread them-
felves over the Roman empire, thefe more phlegmatic nations
did not retain the accents, the tones and geftures, which
neceffity at firft introduced, and cuftom and fancy after-
wards fo long fupported, in the Greek and Roman lan-
guages. As the Latin tongue was loft in their idioms, fo
the charaéter of {peech and pronunciation began to be
changed throughout Europe. The fame attention was no
longer paid to the mufic of language, or to the pomp of
declamation, and theatrical a€tion. The arrangement which
commonly obtains in the Latin language confifts in placing,
firft in the fentence, that word which expreffes the principal
obje& of the difcourfe, together with its circumftances ;
and afterwards the perfon, or the thing that aéts upon it.
‘Thus Sallutt, comparing together the mind and body, ufee
the following expreflion ; ‘* Animi imperio, corporis fervi-
tio, magis utimur ;”? in which the order renders the fentence
more lively and {triking than when it is arranged according
to our Englifh conftruétion ; “ We make moit ufe of the
direction of the foul, and of the fervice of the body.”
The Latin order more gratifies the rapidity of the imagina-
tion, which naturally runs firft to that which is its chief ob-
jet ; and having once named it, carries it in view through
the reft of the fentence. But though the common arrange-
ment in the Greek and Roman languages is to place that
firft which ftrikes the imagination of the {peaker moft, yet.
this does not hold without exception. Sometimes regard
to the harmony of the period requires a different order, and
to this the ancients attended. ‘The Latin order is more ani-
mated; but the Englifh is more clear and diftin@. The
Romans generally arranged their words according to the
order in which the ideas rofe in the fpeaker’s imagination.
We arrange them according to the order in which the ander-
ftanding direéts thofe ideas to be exhibited in fucceffion, to
the view of another. Our arrangement, therefore, appears
to be the confequence of greater refinement in the art of
fpeech ; as far as clearnefs in communication is underftood
to be the end of fpeech. he limitation of arrangement in
the modern tongues is, in a great degree, owing to the dif-
ufe of thofe differences of termination, which, in the Greek
and Latin, diftinguifhed the feveral cafes of nouns, and

9 tenfes,.

E & F

tenfes of verbs; and which, by means of thefe, pointed out
the mutual relation of the feveral words in a fentence to one
another, though the related words were disjoined and placed
in different parts of the fentence. As articles contribute
very much to the clearnefs and precifion of language, the
want of them in the Latin tongue is unqueftionably a defeét,
though they recur for the fupply of this defeé to the ufe of
pronouns. (See ArTicLE andPRoNoun.) Blair's Lectures,
vol. i.

For a while the Latin tongue was confired almoft wholly
within the walls of Rome; nor would the Romans allow
the common ule of it to their neighbours, or to the nations
‘they fubdued. Cicero obferved, that even in his time,
Greek was ufed almoft among every people, but the Latin
only confined to a very narrow compa{s. By degrees they
were brought to grant the ufe of it as a favour; and, in
time, became fentible of the neceflity there was of its being
generally underftood, for the conveniency of commerce : and,
accordingly, ufed their utmoft endeavours, that all the na-
tions fubje& to their empire fhould be united by one common
language: fo that at length they impofed that as a law,
which they had before granted as a favour.

After the tranflation of. the feat of the empire from
Rome to Conftantinople, the emperors of the Eaft, being
always defirous of preferving the title of Roman emperors,
appointed the Latin to be {till retained in ufe, both in their
refcripts and edicts, as appears by the conititutions of the
eaftern emperors, colleéted in the Theodofian Code; but
at length the emperors, neglecting the empire of the Weft,
abandoned all care of the Latin tongue, and allowed their
judges to pafs fentence in Greek; and, accordingly, we
find the emperor Juftinian’s Novels are compofed in Greek.

Chariemagne, coming to the empire of the Welt, ap-
pointed the law proceedings in fovereign cayrts to be made
in Latin; and the notaries were to draw their aés and in-
flruments in the fame tongue: this practice continued a long
time through a great part of Europe; but at length it gave
way, and the French took place of the Latin, not only in
France, but, in fome meafure, in England too; and the
reafon given for it was, that abundance of difficulties arofe
about the underttanding of Latin terms. See Law Language.

The Latin, however, was prodigioufly degenerated and
corrupted, before it came to be laid afide. The incurfions
of the Goths and Vandals into Italy brought an inundation
of foreign words and phrafes into it; infomuch that Valla
and Naud call Boethius the lait Latin author. By command
of Theodoric, king of the Goths, it was the hard fate of
this worthy man, fays Mr. Harris, to fuffer death; with
whom the Latin tongue, and the laft remains of Roman dig-
nity, may be faid to have funk in the weftern world. But
that was not all; when it once got into the courts of juttice,
it was itill worfe handled; till, at laft, being introduced
amongit the monks, and become the common language of
miflals and breviaries, it was debauched to that degree, that
it was almoft become feandalous to ufe it.

In this condition it was found at the time of the Refor-
mation, when Vives, Erafmus, &c. began to open the way
for its recovery; fince which time monkifh Latinity has been
declining, and all endeavours have been ufed to retrieve the
pure language of the Auguftan age.

It was faid of cardinal Bembo, that he would never read
the breviary for fear of corrupting his fine Latin.

Latin Bible. See Bisre.

Latin Charafer. See CHARACTER.

Latin Church, is a term ufed for the Romifh or weftern
church, by way of oppofition to the Greek church. See
CuurcH.

EB AF

LATINZ& Feria. See Fenix.

LATINI, Brunerro, in Biography, an early reviver of
literature in Italy, was born at Florence in the early part
of the thirteenth century ; he was employed, about the mid-
dle of that century, by the Guelphs, in Florence, as am-
baffador to Alphonfo, king of Cattile, with the view of
obtaining aid againft Manfred, king of Naples and Sicily.
By the prevalence of the oppofite party he was driven from
his country, and retired to France. At Paris he opened a
{chool of philofophy, and wrote feveral books. We find
him in his native country in 1284, and aéting as fyndic at
Florence. He died in 1294. The moft celebrated of his
works was his «* Teforo,” a compilation from various au-
thors, in hiftory, philofophy, rhetoric, and morals. He
tranflated into the Italian language part of the firft book of
Cicero de Inventione, and he was author of a moral work
in verfe, entitled « Il Teforetto.” He is reprefented as a
profound rhetorician and philofopher, and is faid to have
been the firft who began to polifh the language, and refine
the underftanding of his countrymen. Though he does not
appear to have been a public initruétor at Florence, he pra-
bably gave private affiftance in the ftudies of his friends, and
he is mentioned as having been, in fome meafure, the tutor
of Dante.

Lari, Latino, a-learned Italian, was born at Vi-

terbo in 1513. He ftudied feveral years at Sienna, with a
view to jurifprudence, which an ill ftate of health obliged
him to relinquifh. He then affumed the ecclefiaftical habit,
went to Rome, and became librarian to cardinal Rodolfo
Pio, who, dying in 1564, lefi Latini the bequeft of his co-
pious library. _ He was employed in the reformation of the
Decretal of Gratian, firft undertaken by defire of pope
Pius IV. and publifhed under Gregory XIII. and com-
mitted to the care of many of the moft learned ecclefiattics
of the Roman court. He died in 1593, and bequeathed
all his books to the chapter of Viterbo. He was highly
elteemed for his learning and induitry, though his modefty
did not permit him to publifh any thing during his life-time.
After his deceafe there appeared two volumes of his « Latin
Letters, Poems, and other fmall Pieces.”? He communi-
cated many emendations of Tertullian to the edition of that
father publifhed by Pamelius. His. MS. annotations on
the fathers, and on other authors, were given to the public
in the ‘¢ Bibliotheca Sacra et Profana,” printed at Rome in
1667. Moreri.
_ Lartint, the Latins, in Ancient Geography, comprehended
in general al the people of Latium, and partictlarly thofe
who inhabited the territory along the Tiber from Rome to
the fea. They were formed, it is faid, by the union of the
Aborigines, or of people whofe origin was not known, of
the Pelafgi, who had migrated from Theffaly, and of the
Arcadians, brought thither by Evander, 60 years before
the war of ‘Troy. /

LATION is ufed by fome for the tranflation or motion
of a body from one place to another.

LATISSIMUS Cottrr, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the
neck, often called platyfma nyoides. See Decrurition.

Larissmmus Dorfi, is a mufcle of the back, deferibed
under Dorst.

LATITAT, in Law, a writ, whereby all men in per-
fonal aétions are called originally to the kings bench-

It has this name, as {uppofing the defendant lurks, lies
hid, and cannot be found m the county of Middlefex, to be
taken by bill; but is gone to fome other county, to the
theriff whereof this writ is direGted. See Birt of Middlefex.

LATITUDE, in Geography and Affronomy. The lati-
tude of a place on the terreftrial globe is its angular diftanee

from

from the equator. It is meafured on the meridian, being that
part of it which is intercepted between the zenith of the
place and the equator. See Meripian.

If the place is fituated to the north of the equino&ial line,
it is faid to have north latitude ; if on the other fide, its
latitude is fouth.

When the fpherical figure of the earth was once ad-
mitted, obvious methods, founded on aftronomical principles,
were immediately invented, to determine the latitude of
places, or their relative fituation to the equator. Previous
to the eftablifhment of this theory, nothing could be more
vague and unfatisfactory than the methods employed by
the ancients of determining the relative fituations of the
principal cities of the world to each other. But the know-
ledge of the true figure of the earth, not only fuggefted a
more {cientifice divilion of its furface by imaginary circles,
fuppofed to be drawn on its circumference ; but by referring
thefe circles to correfponding ones in the heavens, alltronomy
and geography were combined, and the principles of the
former were fuccefsfully applied to the improvement of the
latter. Long before the apparent motion of the heavens
was known to arife from the real motion of the earth, the
two points which we now call the poles were referred to

thofe two points in the heavens which were obferved to be
ftationary ; and a great circle of the terreftrial fphere, fup-
pofed to be every where equally diftant from the poles, was
called the equinoGiial line, and affumed as a principal circle, to
which geographical fituations were to be referred; and as
aftronomers, in taking the ecliptic for their principal circle,
had defined the pofitions of the heavenly bodies by their
diftances from this circle, and a perpendiculat to it, calling
thefe diftances Jongitudes and Jatitudes } fo, in imitation of this
method, geographers afflumed the equinoétial line as their
ftandard, and taking another circle perpendicular to it, they
referred all pofitions on the earth to thefe circles by the
fame name. Hence longitude and latitude, in geography,
are not defined in the fame terms as in aftronomy, being in
the latter always referred to the ecliptic, and on the terrettrial
globe to the equator. This circumftance often embarraffes
the young ftudent in aftronomy, who is naturally at a lofs
to comprehend why the fame terms fhould have fuch different
fignifications, when applied to the terreftrial and celeftial
globe. It being once clearly underftood that every point
of the convex furface of the earth has at any given inflant
of time its correfponding point on the concave furface of
the heavens, a number of methods were immediately fug-
geited (and quite independent of a€tual meafurement), for
determining the fituation of places, or their latitudes and
longitudes as defined above. ‘he moft obvious method of
defining the fituation of points on a fphere, is to refer them
to two zreat circles perpendicular to each other. On the
celeftial globe, whether we affume the equator or the ecliptic
for one of thefe circles, we can have no hefitation in the
choice of the other, becaufe the equinoétial points are fo
remarkable, that they naturally indicate the advantage of
making the fecond circle pafs through them, — Still, however,
it mutt be remembered, that this choice is to a certain degree
arbitrary ; we might have aflumed the equator or ecliptic
for one principal circle, and for the other, a great circle per-
pendicular to either of them, which fhould pafs through any
remarkable fixed ftar, as Sirius, or Arcturus. The pre-
ference, however, has always been given to the equinoétial
points, and, accordingly, as we affuine the equator, or the
ecliptic, as the principal circle, we define the fituation of
the different points by right a/cenfion and declination, or by
longitude and latitude. See Rigur Ascension, and Dr-
LLINATION.

LATITUDE.

There is likewife another method occafionally employed
by altronomers, but which relates only to their own parti-
cular fituation at the moment of obfervation: this is by
altitude and azimuth. The place of a heavenly body de-
termined by this method is not permanent, but changes at
every inftant ; and fince no two obfervers can have the fame
zenith, no ftar can have the fame altitude and azimuth at
the fame inftant of time to different obfervers. Sve
AbtTitupE, AzimutH, &c. &c.

In this latter method the principal circle affumed is the
horizon, and the great circle perpendicular to it is that which
pafles throhgh any two oppofite cardinal points, as the North
and South, or the Eaft and Weft.

Let us now confider the terreftrial globe. Here the equi-
noétial line prefents itfelf as the great circle, of all others
the moft proper for our purpofe ; but what is to guide our
choice in the feleCtion of another great circle perpendicular
to it? We are not here affilted, as in the celeftial globe, by
finding any one point poflefling fome remarkable property
peculiar to itfelf ; and even if there were fuch a point arifing
from local circumftances, it would have no reprefentation in
the heavens ; and, therefore, would not facilitate the objeé
of our prefent inveftigation, which is to fhew by what me-
thod aftronomers have contrived to determine the fituation of
points on the earth’s furface, by finding their correfponding
zenith points in the heavens.

Finding, therefore, but one great circle on the terreftrial
globe indicated by nature, aftronomers and geographers have
been obliged to aflume a fecond from circumftances entirely
accidental. ‘The firft meridian has been differently affumed
by writers of different countries. The French aftronomers
divide the terreftrial globe by two great circles; one of
which is the equator, the other a great circle paffing through
the obfervatory af Paris, and to thefe great circles all other
places are referred ; hence, according to their definitions, if
a great circle be conceived to pafs through any place, and
to be perpendicular to the equator, then the latitude of that
place will be the arc of this fecondary circle between the
equator and the place, and its longitude will be the arc
of the equator, intercepted between this great circle and
that which in a fimilar manner paffes through the ebfervatory
of Paris.

Englifh geographers and aftronomers, in like manner, fup-
pofe their firft meridian to pafs through the Royal Obferva-
tory of Greenwich.

Having thus minutely defcribed what is meant by longi-
tude and latitude, both on the celeftial and terrettrial globe,
it remains to explain the different problems conneéted with
the fubjeét, and, agreeably to the arrangement adopted in
this work, we fhall confine ourfelves as much as poffible to
that part of the fubjeé& connected with Latitude, referring to
Longitude that which more immediately belongs to it.

‘The theory of mere the latitude of a place by aftrono-
mical obfervation is fo fimple, that it may be underftood by
merely infpecting a celeftial globe. See Giogr.

The meridian (Plate XVI. fig. 147. Ajironomy,) rifes (in
our latitudes) in the north point of the horizon O, pafles
through the poie P, through the zenith, and crofles the
equator AS before it meets the fouthern point of the horizon,
It is thus divided into four parts :

O

P = the latitude,
PZ = the co-latitude,
AZ = the latitude,
H & = the co-latitude.

{tis evident, that if the value of either of thefe four ares
can be determined, the latitude is known.

The moft ancient metho of determining the latitude was
% by

LATITUDE.

by means of a gnomon ; in this cafe the mean of the greateft
and leaft altitude of the fun was taken, which is always
equal to the co-latitude, or ALH. The altitude of the equa-
tor above the horizon, and the complement of this to go , is
the latitude of the place. See Gnomon.

We fhall fir give the methods of determining the lati-
tudes of 4ixed obfervatories on fhore, and then defcribe thofe
which are beft adapted to perform the fame operation at
fea.

Method of determining the Latitude of a fixed Obfervatory.—
The belt method of determining the latitude of a fixed ob-
fervatory, is by a long feries of obfervations of the pole-ftar,
made with an 18-inch repeating circle of Borda, The
method of adjuiting and obferving with this inftrument has
been already fufficiently explained under CrrcLe and Decui-
NATION. Butas this inftrument is not in this country in very
general ufe, we fhall fuppofe the obferver to be in poffeffion
of an aitronomical circle or quadrant, or fome equivalent
iaftrument adapted to the determination of zenith diitances
by meridional obfervations.

The latitude of an obfervatory may be determined with
wery conliderable accuracy by zenith diitances of the fun
when near the fummer folftice, as the obliquity of the
ecliptic is very correctly afcertained ; but the moft preferable
method is certainly by a regular feries of obfervations on
circumpolar ftars. Polaris, and @ Urfe minoris, are the
mott eligible itars for this purpofe. They fhould be ob-
ferved continually, both above and below the pole, and all
the obfervations carefully reduced to the firft of January, of
the year in which the obfervations are made. It is evident,
that the mean of the altitudes above and below the pole, will
be the altitude of the pole itfelf. The accuracy of the refult
will depend on the goodnefs of the inftrument, the fkil

_ of the obferver, and the exaétnefs with which the neceflary
corre¢tions have been applied. When thealtitude of a hea-
venly body is taken with an aftronomical inftrument, the
obferver mutt firft confider what correction is required from
the nature and conftruction of the inftrument itfelf; fach
as the error of collimation, or index error, error of divifion,
&e. This being properly allowed for, the obfervation is
next to be corrected for refraction, and here attention muit
be paid to the itate of the barometer and thermometer, and
the mean refraétion corrected accordingly. The true alti-
tude, or zenith diltance, being thus afcertained, the next ftep
is to determine what would have been the true zenith diftance
if the obfervation had been made on the firft of January, in-
flead of the given day. For this purpofe we mutt apply the
preceffion, aberration, folar and lunar nutation, and likewife
a correction arifing from the proper motion of the ftar
whenever thiscan be known. By a careful difcuffion of a
feries of obfervations thus corrected, the latitude is to be
obtained, and witha good two-feet circle a fkilful obferver
will never err above a fecond or two from the truth, except
from the little remaining uncertainty which itill attends the
fubje& of altronomical refraétions.

In the Philofophical Tranfaétions for 1806, Mr, Pond
fuggelted a method of correéting the refpedtive latitudes of
any two obfervatories, by means of the catalogues of {tars
made at each of them, and applied it with fuccefs to the
correction of the latitude of Palermo. The principle of
the method is this: If the declinations of a number of {tars
are obferved at two obfervatories, fubject only to the errors
of divifion in the refpective inftruments, the pofitive and
negative errors may be naturally expected to be nearly equal
toeach other : if, therefore, the declinations of one catalogue
fhould be all either greater or lefs than in the other, it would

indicate that the error was in the affumed latitude, which
enters as a common element of calculation, and not in the
obfervations themfelves, Now if fuch a correétion be applied
to the latitude of each obfervatory, as will make the fum of the
pofitive differences équal to the fum of the negative, the
latitudes thus corre¢ted will be much more accurately
determined than by any method that can be praétifed fe-
parately,

Examples of deducing the latitude from obfervations
4 the fun; taken from the Greenwich Obferyations of
1810,

° ‘ “

1810, June 18, ©’s L. L. zen. dift. 28 19 6.3
©’s U.L. - 27 47 34.1

2)56 6 40.4

Zenith diftance, ©’s centre - 28 3 20.2
Error of collimation - - - + 4.6
Error of divifion - - - + 1.0
Refraction - - - - + 30.0
Parallax - - - - - — 41
True zenith diftance - - 28 3 42.5
©’s declination - - - 23 24 56.0
Latitude deduced == - 2 51 28 38.5
1810, June 21, Z.D. ©’scentre - 28 o 38.8
Error of collimation - - - + 4.6
Error of divifion - - - - bas
Refraétion - - - . + 29.9
Parallax - - - - - — 41
True zenith diftance - - 28 1 1.0
©’s declination - . - 23 27 37.0
Latitude deduced == - - 51 28 38.0
1810, June 23, Z.D. ©’scentre - 28 0 58.9
Error of collimation - - - + 4.6
Error of divifion - - - - + 41.0
Refraction - - - - + 30.1
Parallax - - - - - — 4.1
True zenith diftance - - 23) Bi 21-3
©’s declination - - - 23 27 20.0
Latitude deduced = - - 51 28 41.3
1810, June 24, Z.D. ©’scentre - 28 1 42.8
Error of collimation - - - + 4.6
Error of divifion - - - - + 1.0
Refraétion - - - - + 30.0
Parallax e = = = = — ql
ee

True zenith diflance - : GOR 2 Co
©’s declination _ > > - 23 36 34.0
Latitude deduced > - - 51 28 30.1

Refults,

LATITUDE.

Refalts.
Juue 18 - - gr 28 38.5
2k. = - . - 38.0
23) unt : ; ; ae 2.3
24 05 of ; 7 39:3
356-9
Mean of 4 - - _- § 28 39.2

This method is fubje&t to whatever error may exift ip the
folar tables relative to the declination of the fun. The fol-

Redu€tion to

1753: |
Dec, | ©’s Longitude.) scinicial Point.

6.2
8.6
16.0
© 0 40.6
1 19 14.0
2 34 15-3
3 42 44-2
4 57 4r5
6-87 6.2

WWOWOUO DH wv

9 Mean.

Obf. Z.D. | Solfticial Z. D.

corrected for with

lowing method is, therefore, preferable, and is quite inde-
eH of the errors of the bar tables. a hg

Let the fun be obferved as often as poffible within ten or
twelve days of each folftice, and let each obfervation be
reduced to the folftice, either by Guerin’s tables or by di-
re&t calculation. Then, after the proper corre&tion for
nutation, parallax, and error of collimation has been duly
applied, let the folfticial zenith diftances be added together ;
half their fum will be the zenith diftance of the equator, or
the latitude of the place. 5

The following example is taken from Dr. Bradley’s Ob-
fervations, for the purpofe of determining the latitude of the
Royal Obfervatory at Greenwich.

Dr Bradley's

Refraction. Parallax. RefraGtion.

"

53:5 59-7
47-0 <
39-5

12.3

33-8

39-9

11.7

13-3

49:8

& We wWwWWwWWwWWwWw oO

Mean day, Dec. 17, long. ) §& 6 23° 39! Nutation +
Parallax —

With Dr Bradley’s refra€tion mean of thermometers 56 55-72

Additional correction for refraGtion

Winter folfticial zenith diftance

4:0
30.0
46.0
15.8
43-4

5.8
54-0
13-0

2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3

8 Mean.

Mean day, June 18, long. ) & 6° 14° o! Nutation

Additional correétion for refra&tion

Summer folfticial zenith diftance

Parallax

- 1.46
74 56 54.26

oo0o0o00o0o00

°

Winter

VAT IT UM:£.

74° 56! 54.26"
28 00 21.96

Winter folftice -
Summer folftice -

—

Sum pe 102 57 16.22

——

Half fum or latitude 51 28 38.11

By taking half the difference, the obliquity of the ecliptic
is determined at the fame time.

74°56! 54.26"

28 00 21.96

Sum - - 46 56 32.30
Half difference or obliquity

of the ecliptic for 1753 - 23 28 16.15

Notwithftanding this method appears fo unobjectionable
in theory, the uncertainty of refraction at the winter folftice
renders it lefs exaét than a feries of obfervations of the pole-
ftar, obferved conitantly above and below the pole.

» Example.—'The mean of 94 zenith diftances of the pole-
ftar at Greenwich above the pole, reduced to Jan. 1, 1749,
is, according to Dr. Bradley’s obfervations,
36° 20’ 4.83"

40) 35, 39-29

——

Mean of rcg° below the pole

77 2 44.12
Co-lat. - - 38 31 22.06
Or latitude of Greenwic 51 28 38
And polar diftance of « 2, ulFe2S

On the method of finding the latitude at fea.—The method
of finding the latitude at fea by a meridional obfervation of
the fun or itar, differs fo little from that above explained,

and is fo fully defcribed in books which mariners are never
unprovided with, that fearcely any thing need be added on
the fubjeét. Some of the nicer corrections ufed at land
may be omitted, and others will be neceffary ; fuch as the
correction for the depreffion of the horizon, and the index
error of the fextant, all which are to be found in every book
of navigation. (See Depression.) The latitude may be
found either by taking the meridian altitude of the fun,
moon, or fixed ftar. But it fometimes happens that, in the
winter feafon, a meridian altitude cannot be taken for many
days together: in that cafe, recourfe mult be had to two
altitudes of the fun taken at different times, the interval be-
tween the two dbfervations being fuppofed to be given by a
pocket chronometer.

Many able mathematicians have fuccefsfully laboured to
improve this problem, and to render it eafy to mariners.
Mr, Profeflor Lax of Cambridge prefented a very valuable
paper on this fubject to the Royal Society in 1799, in which
a methed is given of finding the latitude by a double ob-
fervation, with extreme precifion; and Dr. Brinkley like-
wife conftruéted a fet of very ufeful tables, which were for
fome time annually inferted in the Nautical Almanacs.

Problems relating to the finding the longitude and latitude of
the heavenly bodies, from their obferved paffage over thé meridian,
with their zenith diflance. .

We have already explained, under Deciination and
_Ricut Ascension, how thefe quantities are obtained. We
fhall now add an example of the calculation, by which the
longitude and latitude are deduced from an obferyed right
afcenfion and declination. \

Example —OGober 2, 1811. The right afcenfion of the
comet was obtained from obfervation 6° 23° 42! 13”, and
its declination 49° 31! 2! N.; required its longitude and
latitude.

Example.
Dec. 49° 31" ait t. 10.0687655
A.R. 65 23 42 13 {. 9.6042320 t. - = = -9.6425085
A. 7% 3 40 t. 10.4645335 — - : 10.4645335 :
Oblig. ofec. 23 27 41 Co. ar. cof. A. 0.0241707
; B. cof. - 8.8968049
t. 9.0280176 {3 23° 54! 42" longitude.
O+A=B = 94 31 21 t. 11.1018408
t. 9.0280176
Cof. 9.9975435 ;
4 a Ee eg lie Pe ay oy
Lat. - 53 17 9 t. 10.1274019 Latitude © 53 17 9g
Vide Introdu€tion to Taylor’s Logarithms.
Or thus, as a verification of the preceding method,
O. 23°27'41" - Co. ar. cof. 0.0374751 - - {. 9.600026¢
A.R. - - - t. 9.6425085
Aprox. long. 68 25° 34! 35!! t. 9.6799836 - - - {. 9.6351962
Eclipt. dec. 9 53 50 - - - f. 9.2352222
* declination 49 31 2 ' ———
59 24 52 — t. 0.22837 - - f. 9-9349377
oO - - {. 9.6000 - - cof. 9.9625249
A.R. - - Cof. 9.96172 Eclip. dec. ar. co. cof. 0.0065119
’ Te ENZO 5A: t. 9.79012 Latitude 53°17'9" f£. 9.9030745
~_ Long. = 5 23 54 41 q a
Vou. XX. Yy Example

LATITUDE.

Example 2.—December 2, 1811.
required its longitude and latitude.

The right afcenfion of the comet was 9* 25° 24! 32", declination 8° 55’ 48! N.

Dec. 8°55 48"
A.R. 9825 24 43
A. 9 52 “6.2

O.

23 27 41

———

B. 33 19 47-2

t. 9.1962655
f. 9.9558170

t. 9-2404485

t. 9.8179760
f. 9.9407458

t. 97587218

- t. 10.3232535
“C.a. cof. A. 0.0064938
cof. B. 9.9219578

10.2517151 {5° 29° 15! 15" longitude.

Latitude 29° 50! 42! N.

Or thus,

oO - - - Co. ar. cof. 0.0374751 f. 9.6000260
A.R. - - - ~ | t. 10.3232835
App. long. 95 23°32'43" - 10.3607586 f. 9.9622434
Ecliptic dec. 28 24 24 - - gt wi fae f. 9.5622744
Dec. - 28 55 48

30 20 12 - t. 9.76731 {. 9.7033602
O - - - {. 9.60003 cof. 9.9625249
AR. - - - cof. 9.63253 Ecl. dec. cof. 0.0310441

5 42 32 - t. 8.99987 f. 9.6969292
Long... '= 19) 205) ns ——— =

} When the moon’s longitude and latitude are to be de-
duced from its obferved right afcenfion and zenith diftance,
the procefs is much longer; and as the calculation is not
given at length in any author we are acquainted with, we
fhall add an example, with the method of comparing it with
the Nautical Almanac.

Firft, compute the mean time by Dr. Mafkelyne’s folio
tables, or other equivalent folar tables.. ‘To the mean time
of the tranfit thus found, apply the equation of time taken
eut of the Nautical Almanac with a contrary fign, and
this will be true or apparent folar time. From the moon’s
horizontal equatorial parallax, taken from the Nautical Al-
manac, fubtra& the correétion, page 75 of Mayer’s Lunar
Tables, (or, ftill more corretly, a quantity which will be
given in a table we propoje to annex to the article Pa-
RALLAX,) the remainder will be the moon's horizontal pa-
rallax. From the obferved zenith diftance of the )’s U L
or LL correGed for refraction, fubtra& the conitant quan-
tity 10'3", which is the angle the vertical makes with the
radius, (fee DeGrer and Figure of the Eantu,) and add
the log. fine of remainder to the log, fine of )’s horizontal
parallax, the fum will be the log, fine of )’s parallax in
zenith diftance; which fubtraéted from the obferved zenith
diftance,gives the corre€ted zenith diltance. Tothis add ) ’s
horizontal femidiameter, (taken from Nautical Almanac, ) if
UL was obferved; or fubtra&, if LL; and thus tke
corre&t zenith diltance of the )’s centre will be obtained.
The difference of this quantity, and the latitude of the
place, + error of collimation, will give the required de-
clination north or fouth, as the firft is greater or lefs than
the fecond.

But if the )’s zenith diftance was not obferved exatly at
the time of the tranfit of the preceding or fubfequent en-
lightened limb, this declination muft be corrected by the
following proportion

Lat. 29 50 42

—

As 12 hours is to the interval of time between the two
obfervations, fo is the variation of declination on 12 hours
by the ephemeris to the corre€tion required, and which muft
be thus applied :

)’s declination increafing,.

)’s zenith diftance obferved add.
before tranfit of limb, D's declination decreafing,
fubtra&.
)’s declination increafing,
)’s zenith diftance obferved fubtract.
after tranfit of limb, )’s declination decreafing, .
add. :

Thus the true declination will be obtained from obfery-
ation.

From log. fine of }’s horizontal femidiameter, fubtra&.
log. cofine of )’s true declination, the remainder will be-
log. fine of )’s femidiameter in A.R., which add, if pre--
ceding limb was obferved, numely, before the full; or fub-
traét, if )’s fubfequent limb was obferved after the full, .
to or from A. R. of limb; and this will give the true A.R,
of )’s centre.

Next with the apparent time previoufly found, compute -
the )’s longitude and latitude by proportion from the
Nautical Almanac, and apply the correétions for a fecond
difference (from Taylor’s Sexagefimal. Tabies). N. B..
Compute the proportional part of the moon’s motions in:
longitude doubly by the rule of practice, by changing the
fecond and third terms of the proportion for each other, for
greater certainty. :

Then from the true A. R. and declination found above, .
and the appzrent obliquity of the ecliptic, compute the-
longitude and latitude by Dr. Mafkelyne’s rules, annexed
to the precepts prefixed to Taylor’s Logarithms, .and the
difference between this and the longitude and latitude, found
as. above by proportioning from the. Nautical. Almanac,

8

gives

LATUNUDE.: *

fhort of that found. And as much as the true declination
is north or fouth of that affumed, fo much the true latitude
may be north or fouth of that found; which correé&t ac-

gives the error of the tables, N. B, Compute the longitude
and latitude from A.R. and declination affiumed to the
neareft fecond over or under; and after the operation, cor-
reét it, that is, as much as the true A. R. exceeds or falls

cordingly.

Example of the calculation of the moon’s longitude and latitude, January 6, 1811, and compared with the Nautical
Almanac.

TE MRS
1811, - - - 18 37 0.24
January 6 - - + © 23 39.30
Equat. of equinoxes at *2 is 0.00

19) 9.3954
A.R. )’s rf L. - 4 55 15.60

9 54 36.06
Table 21 - - = I 37.42
Mean time - - 9 52 58.64
Equation of time - — 6 10.39
Apparent time - 9 46 48.25
d’s L. L. + - 34° 29! 53.3"
Refraction - + © 41-4
Errer quad, = + 0.7
Z.D. li. Li. - aaa acd.

Z radius of © with vertical — 10 3

34 18 32.4

Parallax - -_ = 31 4.9
Z.D. L.L. - 34 28 35.4
= Z.D. corre€tion for Eras 33 57 30-5
)’s femidiameter _ 15 3.7
Z.D. centre - — 33 42 26.8
Lat. + error of collimation = 51 28 44.6
Declination N. - = 17 46 17.8

i

)’s femidiameter in A.R. + 15 49.0
A.R, )’s 1f L. - 2°13 48 54.0

A.R. centre - 214 4 43.0

Tab. sl
Dr. Mafkelyne’s folio Tables.
14.
= 2° 13°48! 54.0!
)’s femidiameter - cia
Equatorial parallax - yee
ReduGion - - — 8.6
Horizontal parallax - = 55 8.6

Horizontal parallax fin. + 8.20521

- fins y=, '9.7 510%

fine = 7.95622

_—_—— ——

)’s femidiameter fin. - 7.64160
- - - = \eol, - 9 97876
7.66284

For the )’s longitude and latitude by Dr. Mafkelyne’s rule.

Declination 08 17° 46! 18" tan. 9.5058544

Penopiea 2eiA 4. 42 fin. 9.9830121 tan. - 10.5447574
A - 18 26 0.6 tan. 9.5228423 Co. ar. cof. A. 0.0228751
19) - 23 27 40-7 Cof. B. - 99983258
B - 5 1 40-1 tan. 8.9443726 Tan. longitude 10.5659583

Long, fin. 9.9845374 (ides t= Sens 14° 48! 4".6
Latitude S. = 4 51 10.1 tan. Hieasaiee Rid Saas
Cor, for decl. > -2 ; =—_

True latitude 4 51 10.3 S.

—

Wey, 2

Second

LATITUDE.
Second Method.

of 23° 27! 40.7!

Obtiquity :
BR.

Approx. longitude 2 15 20 8.7

Ecliptic declination _ 22 39 13-8

) 's declination 17 46 18.0
Approx. latitude 4 52 55-5
Obliquity = =
Fcliptic decfination co, ar. cof. = «
ASRS - .
Corrreétion - 32! 4.0"

Approx. longitude 2° 15°20 8.7

Longitude - 21448 4.7

Latitude north

Moon's longitude by Nautical Almanac.

Co. ar. cof. 0.0374748 - - fin. 9.6000245
tan. 10.5447574
tan. 10.5822322 - - fin. 9.9856179
- - fin. 9.5856424
tan. 8.93153 - - - fin. 8.9299574
fin. 9.60002 - - - cof. 9.9525252
= 2 - - - 0.0348692
cof. 9.43825
tan. 7.@@980
4°51 10.1"! S. fin. 8.9273518
a 2 pins a

——

4 51 10.3

Moon's latitude by Nautical Almanac.

sin ae asl) ext Dat. Mean, of 2d : Rein 77 1ft Diff. | Mean of 2d
Jan. 5. Mid. 2 3 29 2 Ate OM Gi Difference. Jan. 5. Mid. 4 30 39 1 « | Difference.
6. Noon 2 9 44 19 | 6 14 51 6. Noon 4 43 2 + 12 47
6. Mid. 2 15 56 43 | 6 12 24 —2! arl.5 6. Mid. 4 52 47 |] + 9 21 | —3! 2.%85
7. Noon 2 22 6 51| 6 10 08 7. Noon 4 58 37 | + 5 50
In the following examples the fecond and third terms of the proportion are reverfed by way of proof.
HA. Suita H. M. 8S. : tou H.M. §.
As 12 : 6 12 24 9 46 48.25 ASti2-%:Ti9lan gees 9 46 48.25
6) <3) 612.00 9. 6 41530 24-72 6 4 40.50 6 4 53-40
Fa 2 T 2) 4.60 6 4 53-40 af 2 I 33-50 { 2 1 37-80
I 31 2.00 LD 4 53-40 I 46.75 es 48.90
30 15 31.00 6 4-89 (3° 23-37 20 16.30
M.3 15 ¥ 45-50 " U18 14.67 ae 11.69 seg ge 0.52
I 31-03 I -78
39 15-5! aye +39
§. 415 7-75 S.< 15 +19
3 1.59 3 204
3 0.16 3
5 3 30-50 5 3 30-48 7 37:21 + 7 37-22
Equation of fecond difference + 10.68 Equation of fecond difference + 15.68
5. 3 41-16 f + 7 52.90
)’s longitude, January 6, noon 2 9 44 19 ) ’s latitude, January 6, noon 4 43 26
)’s longitude by Naut. Almanac 2 14 48 0.16 )’s latitude by Naut. Almanac 4 51 18.90
Ditto by obfervation - 2.14 48 4.60 Ditto by obfervation - 4 54 10,3
Error of Nautical Almanac = =) 4d Error of Tables - - + 8.6

On the fecular variation in Longitude and Latitude of the fixed
lars. 3
ff We have already explained, under Ecuipric, the caufe
of the change of pofitien in this circle, which produces a
fecular variation both in the longitude and latitude of the
fixed ftars. The following table by M. Zach is intended
to facilitate the calculation of this quantity, and has not yet
been publifhed in this country.

The formule ufed for the conftru&ion of thefe tables are,
Sec. var. north lat. = 52".6318 fin. (long * + 8 53/13")
Sec. diminut. in long. §2'.6318 cof. (long * + 8° 53' 13")
tang. lat. #. See PRECESSION.

Examples of the ufe of the following tables.

Let it be required to find the fecular variation in latitude
and longitude of Aldebaran for 1700—1800.
4 The

LATITUDE

‘The long. of Aldebaran for me Sater kG 0! Arg. lat. 5° 29'16", Table I. — angle « = 2° 29? 27! ol,
Vek kt. by cute ir. ‘ing ° 5 tf Fs oe This will give two ect with which enter Tab. IV.
Prop. part for 18! = + 0.070 Arg. I. = 26°18! + 2% 29°27!= 5° 5° 45! = + 253.75
ee ene eS AT ls a Ow Sind) BOER = 11 O51, = — 255.04
Sum » 50.882 —————
es — 1.29
But the latitude being fouth, the fign muft be changed : Sa
the fecular diminution of latitude is therefore — 50.882. Since the latitude is fouth, the fign muft be changed:
To find the fecular variation in longitude.—Firft find the therefore the fecular increafe of longitude of Aldebaran
fubfidiary angle «. is 1!',29.

Auxiliary Angle « for calculating the fecular Variation in Longitude.

iS)

os

LATITUDE.

Auxiliary Angle for calculating the fecular Variation in Longitude.

—_-——_ | —_—_____.

‘A TO. 37.2
20. bs 17 37-3
S7 5 17 59.0 89 10 16- 34.0-

22.9 |-—-——|————_.

87 20 17 36.1 89 II stanly io
87 25 Lai Die se 89 12 14 15.8
87 30 17 45.6 89 13 I2 59.8

9 |

87 35 16 17.7 89 14 Ir 38.6
ay 40 15 47.6 30.1
ns 25s

8 14 40-4
7 55 Iq 27
13 21.6 Ah

LATITUDE.

Secular Variation of Latitude of Northern Stars.

Argument, Longitude of the Star.

EE
If the Latitude is South change the Sign.

38.421 51-259 50.363
39-043 51.460 50.088

39-653 51.645 49-798 | 34-608 10.144
|

40.251 5i.814 49-493 | 33-911 9-242
40.837 51.968 49-173 | 33-204 8.337
41.410 52.105 48.838 | 32-486 7.429
41.971 2.227 48.489 31.758 6.518

| 42.519 52-333 48.124 31-021 5-605
43-053 52-42 47-745 30-274 4-691
43-574 52-496 47-351 29-518 3-776
44.083 52-554 | 46.943 28.753 2.859
44.578 52.590 46.520 27-979 1.941

—_

45.060 52.622 46.083 27-197 T.023
45-528 52.632 -| 45-633 26.406 0.105
45.982 52.626 45-169 25.608 0.814
46.422 52.603 44.690 24.802 1.732
46.847 52.505 44.198 23.988 2.650

47-259 | 5$2-5%1 43-692 23-166 3-567
47-657 52-441 43-173 22.338 4-483
48.039 52-354 42.641 21.503 5-398
48.407 F222 42.097 20.661 6.311
48.760 52.134 41.539 19.813 7.221
49.098 52.000 40.968 18.959 8.130

Vil Vills Ixs xs XIs

LATITUDE.

Secular Variation in Longitude.
f+ ow r —
Argument (Long. a, ) and (Long. * r) :

If the Declination is South change the Sign.

— + + uy +

O Is 1 Ie, | Ive ve

The fum or difference of the two quantities taken from this table by the two arguments, will
be the fecular variation in longitude, which, when the auxiliary angle @ is ufed, is to be
snultiplied by 10.

‘Oe Oe

Qatrruve of a Planet, is an angle, as PT R (Plate XVI.
Aftronomy, fig. 148.) under which a planet's diftance from
the ecliptic P R is feen on the earth.

The fun never has any latitude, but the planets have; for
which reafon, in the common f{phere, the zodiac has fome
breadth. The ancients only allowed fix degrees on each
fide the ecliptic, but the moderns have extended it to nine.

When they have no latitude, they are faid to be in the
nodes of the ecliptic, or in the interfection of their orbit
with that of the fun; and in this fituation it is that they
eclipfe, or are eclipfed by, the fun.

Larirups, Circle of, is a great circle, MS 'T m, paffing
through the poles of the ecliptic. See Circe.

Larirupe of the Moon, north afcending, is when fhe pro-
ceeds from the afcending node towards her northern limit,
or greatett elongation.

Latitupe, North defcending, is when the moon returns
from her northern limit to the defcending node.

LaritrupE, South defcending, is when fhe proceeds from
the defcending node to her fouthern limit.

Latitupk, South afcending, is when {he returns from her
fouthern limit to her afcending node.

And the fame holds good of the other planets. See
AscenpinG and Descenpinc.

Latitypr, Heliocentric, of a Planet, is its diftance from
the ecliptic, fuch as it is feen from the fun.

This, when the planet comes to the fame point of its orbit,
is always the fame, and unchangeable.

LatirupeE, Geocentric, of a Planet, is the diltance of the
planet from the ecliptic, as it is feen from the earth.

This, though the planet be in the fame point of its orbit,
yet is not conftantly the fame, but alters according to the
pofition of the earth, in refpe& to the planet. See Hetro-
CENTRic, and GEOCENTRIC.

Dr. Halley has fome confiderations, in the Philofophical

Traniactions, which make it probable, the latitudes of fome
of the principal fixed ftars, particularly Palilicium, Sirius,
and Arcturus, alter in time ; whence it may be argued, the-
reft likewife alter, though the variation may be lefs con-
{picuous in thefe, becaufe they are fuppofed at a greater
diftance from us. See STars.
' Laritupe, Difference of, is an arc of the meridian, or
the leaft diltance of the parallels of latitude of two places;
and it is found when thefe have the fame name, by fub-
traéting the lefler latitude from the greater ; and when they
have contrary names, by adding them together.

Laritupe, Parallax of. See PARALLAX.

Laritupe, Refraéion of. See Rerracrion.

LATITUDINARIAN, among Divines, denotes a per-
fon of moderation, with regard to religious opinions, who
believes there is a latitude in the road to heaven, which may
admit people of different perfuations. This name was given
by way of diltinétion to thofe excellent perfons in England,
who, about the middle and towards the clofe of the 17th
century, endeavoured to allay the conteits that prevailed
between the more violent Epifcopalians on the one hand, and
the more rigid Prefbyterians and Independents on the other,
with ref{pect to the forms of church government and public
worfhip, and alfo between the Arminians and Calvinitts,
with re{peét to certain religious tenets. Many of them were
zealoufly attached to the torms of ecclefiattical government®
and worfhip that were eftablifhed in the church of England,
and they recommended epifcopacy with all their eloquence ;
but they did not confider it as of divine inftitution, and ab-
folutely neceffary to the conttitution of a Chriftian church ;

and theretore they maintained that thofe who followed other
forms of government and worfhip were not, on that account,

Vox. XX.

LAT

to be excluded from their communion, or to forfeit the title
of brethren. Others had no great liking for the liturgy or
ceremonies, or, indeed, the government of this church, but
yet, for the fake of peace and order, conformed. As to the
do€irinal part of religion, they took the fyftem of the famous
Epifcopius for their model, and, like him, reduced the fun.
damental doétrines of Chrillianity, 7. ¢. thofe doéirines, the
belief of which is neceffary to falvation, to a few points,
By this manner of proceeding they fhewed that neither the
Epifcopalians, who, generally fpeaking, embraced the fen-
timents of the Arminians, nor the Prefbyterians and Inde-
pendents, who as generally adopted the do¢tirine of Calvin,
had any reafon to oppofe each other with fuch bitternefs
and animofity, fince the fubjeéts of their debate were mat-
ters of indifference with re{pe& to falvation, and might be
varioufly explained and underftood, without any prejudice
to their eternal interefts.

The chief leaders of thefe Latitudinarians were Hales
and Chillingworth: to them may be added the refpeétable
names of More, Cudworth, Gale, Whitchcot, Wilkins, and
Tillotfon. The firft fruits of their charitable zeal were the
odious appellations of Atheifts, Deilts, and Socinians, li-
berally beftowed upou them by the Roman Catholics, and
the more rigid of the Proteftant contending parties. How-
ever, they were afterwards raifed to the-tirit dignities of the
church, and defervedly held in general efteem. And at this
time the church of England is chiefly governed by Latitu-
dinarians of this kind; and the fpirit of moderation and
mutual charity has generally prevailed, with that of liberal
enquiry, among the various feéts and denominations of
Chriftians. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hift. vol. iv. and Birch’s Life
of Tillotfon, p. 407. See COMPREHENSION.

LATIUM, in Ancient Geography, a confiderable divifion
of Italy, which acquired importance from its having given
name tq the Latins, and from its having Rome for its capi-
tal. Some authors have thought that this was a denomina-
tion given to the whole of Italy, or at leaft to a more con-
fiderable extent of territory, than that to which it was after-
wards reftrained. Several of the ancients have fought the
etymology of Latium, in the verb Jatere, to conceal, and they
have imagined that this name was given to the country, be-~
caufe Saturn retired hither in order to fhelter himfelf from
the fury of his children. M. Gébelin, in his Oriental Alle.
gories, fuggefts, that the primitive /at lignifies to conceal,
and that ¢erra alfo alludes to the application of the foil, for the
concealment of the feed that was fown in it. Hence, he
fays, Latium might have fignified the country where feed
was fown, in contradiftinGion to that part which was moun-
tainous and uncultivated. The ancients diltinguifhed Latium
into ancient and modern, and under thefe appellations it
comprehended different territories. Ancient Latium ex-
tended from the Tiber to Circeii, and was eftimated at so
miles in length. Its inhabitants, in fucceffion, were the
Aborigenes, the Pelafgi; the Arcades, the Siculi, the
Arunci, and the Rutili; and befides thefe, the Circeii, the
Volfci, the Olci, and the Aufones; and by degrees the
name Latium extended as far as the river Liris. At the
firit, fays Strabo, the Latins had poffeffion of it, and were
not fubje& to the Romans; but when thefe had vanquifhed
the AEqui, Volfci, and Hernici, as well as the Rutili, the
Aborigenes, the Rocci, and the Argyruici, and alfo the
Privenates ; the whole country, thus fubdued, affumed the
name of Latium; and it afterwards extended to Campania,
and the country of the Samnites. Among the original in-
habitants we may reckon the Siculi; and it was afterwards
occupied by various tribes, which migrated thither at dif.
ferent periods; being at this time an inconfiderable terri-

Zz tory,

1 ie’. en &

tory, along the coaft of the Tufcan fea, fouth of the Tiber.
Under the Latin kings, it extended fouthward to the Pro-
montorium Circeum, as we have already ftated, which was
so miles beyond the Tiber. Under the confular govern-
ment, the territories of the Aqui, Volfei, and Hernici,
were annexed to this province, and the river Liris (Gari-
giiano) was held to be the fouthern boundary. At the
commencement of the Chriftian era, Sincuffa, now Sinope,
and the circumjacent territory noted for its baths, were
included in Latium ; fo that, in its greateft extent, it com-
prehended Campagna di Romagna, and a confiderable part
of Terra di Lavora. The principal rivers in this province
were the Zifer and Liris; which fee refpectively. The
chief cities and towns were Rome, Oftia, Laurentum, Lavi-
niam, Ardea, Tibur er Tivoli, Tufeulum or Frefcati, Ga-
bii, now extin@, between Rome and Przneftc, Prenette,
Alba Longa or Albano, Aricia near Alba Longa, on the
«\ppian way, &c.. See ray. :

LATMOS, or Lataus, a mountain of Afia Minor,
partly in Ionia and partly in Carta.

LATMUS, oriyinally a village of Afia, in Cilicia, on
the banks of a river of the fame name, which afterwards
became an epifcopal town of Ifauria. 'The river had its
fource in mount Latmus, and difcharged itfelf into the Lat-
mic gulf, near the town Heraclea. “(he Latmic gulf was a
gulf of Ionia» which commenced between the mountains
Latmus and Grius, and extended from thence towards the
N.W., communicating with another gulf at the mouth of
the Meander.—Alfo, a {mall ifland fituated to the S.E. of
the Latmic gulf, near to and W.N.W. of Heraclea.

LATOAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eatft
Indian fea, near the N. coalt of Borneo. N. lat. 7° 16'.
KE. long. 117° 21’.

LATOMIA, Aaropuia, derived from the Greek azs,
flonz, and rz, I cut, properly fignifies a quarry, or place
where ftones aredug. See Quarry. 4

Thefe were anciently ufed as gaols for criminals; Dio-
nyfius had a place of this kind dug in a rock near Syracufe,
where an infinite number of people were fhut up. Cicero
reproaches Verres with imprifoning Roman citizens in lato-
mie ; fo that latomia became a general name for a prifon;
fo ‘ne prifoners inclofed in them were called /atomarii.

Latomia, in Ancient Geography, the name of fix fmall
ilands in the Arabian gulf, according to Strabo.

LATONA, a town of Egypt, upon the Nile, which
was the capital of a nome called the Nomos Latopolites.
Ptolemy.

Larona, in Mythology, a goddefs of paganifm, whofe
hiltory is very obfeure. Heliod makes her the daughter of
Titan Coéus and Phebe, his fifter. The fable adds, that
Apcilo and Diana were her offspring by Jupiter, and that
they advanced her to the rank of celettial deities in fpite of
Juno. According to Herodotus, fhe was an Egyptian
deity, the nurfe, and not, as the Greeks reprefented her,
the mother of Apollo and Diana, and was worfhipped at
Buto, or Buthos, in Egypt. The inhabitants of Delos
erected a temple for her, pretending that Neptune, with a
biow of his trident, had made the ifland of Delos to rife
up from the bottom of the fea, to fecure to Latona, perfe-
cuted by Juno, a place where fhe might, without melefta-
tion, bring forth her children: bet that at Argos was the
moft magnificent, and celebrated for her ftatue, executed
by Praxiteles. Latona, Venus, and Diana, were the three

oddeffes molt in veneration arzong the Roman women.

LATOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography. See Esnzu.

LATOPOLITES Nowmos, a dilri& of Egypt, the
capital of which was dedicated to Latona, and fitnated on

LAT

the left of the Nile. This nome’ is mentioned both by
Strabo and Pliny.

Laroronites Nomos, or Hermonthites Nomos, another
diftriG of Egypt, the capital of which was called the town
of * Latonum,’’ according to Ptolemy. 4

LATORCZA, in Geography, a river of Hungary,
which rifes near the Carpathian mountains, and runs into
the Theyfs, near Tokay. ’

LATOUCHE’s Isranp, ‘an ifland in the North Pacific
ocean, at the entrance of Prince William’s found, 13 miles
long and three broad. N. lat. 60°. E. long. 212° 39).

LATOVICTI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Upper
Pannonia. 3

LATOUR, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Aurungabad; 25 mijes W. of Aurungabad. »

LATOWIC, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 18
miles E. of Czerfk.

LATRIA, Aazpac, in Theology, a religious worfhip,
due only to God. ;

The Romanilts fay, «* They honour God'with the wor-
fhip of /afria; and the faints with the worfhip of du/ia ;?’
but the terms, however diftin&, are ufually confounded.

The worfhip of latria, befides its inner charaéters, has
its external marks to diftinguifh it; the principal whereof
is facrifice, which cannot be offered to,any other but God
himfelf, as being a folemn acknowledgment, or recogni=
tion, of the fovereignty of God, and our dependence on
him. ui

M. Daillé feems to own, that fome of the fathers of th
fourth century aliowed the diftin@ion between latria and.
dulia. See AporaTion and WorsuiP.

.LATRIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Germany,
at the mouth of the Viftula. Pliny.

LATRONICA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Batilicata; 22 miles S.W. of ‘Vurfi.

LATSCHACH, a town of the duchy of Carinthia ;
14 miles S.W. of Clagenfurt. oa yy,

LATTANZIO, Gampara, in Biography, a painter
of hiltory and portraits. He was the fon of a® taylor at
Cremona; but being more inclined’to painting than the ufe
of the needle, he fpent his youthful days in covering the
walls and furniture of his father’s houfe with drawings in
charcoal, and thus drew upon himfelf the difpleafure of his
parents; who evinced their diffatisfaction by the unequi-
vocal teflimony of the fcourge.

Giulio Campo, an artift of fome celebrity, refiding at
Cremona, happened one day to pafs by when the taylor was
exerting his energies upon the back of his felf-willed fon
Lattanzio; hearing the caufe, he took the boy home with
him, and for fix years affiited and encouraged him in his
purfuit of the art of painting. Such was the fuccefs ac-
companying this aét of generofity, that according to Vafari,
Gambara became the belt painter of his time in Brefcia,
where he took up his refidence; and where many ingenious
artifts practifed painting in conjunction or competition with
hima.

His principal works are in frefco, and fome are ftill to be
feen at Brefcia, particularly the cloifter of Santa Euphemia,
wherein he painted a feries of {criptural and evangelical fub-
jets. Venice, Parma, and Cremona all poffefs teftimonials
of his fill, which adorn their churches and many of their
private houfes. His ftyle is very much like that of Porde-
none, an attempt to unite the colour of the Venetian with
the drawing and defign of the Florentine {ehool, but it is
not fo powerful. He married a daughter of Romanino, but
Gied at the early age of 32, by a fall from a feaffold while

painting

L AT

‘painting in the church of St. Lorenzo in Brefcia, about the
year 1570. Ridolfi. Vafari.

LATTIMO, in the Glafs Trade, a name fer a fine milk-
whiteglafs. There are feveral ways of making it, but the
belt of all is this: Take four hundred weight of cryftal frit,
and fixty pounds of calcined tin, and two pounds and a half
of prepared manganefe; mix thefe well with the frit, and
fet them in a pot in a furnace to melt and refine. At the
end of eighteen hours this will be purified ; then caft it into
‘water, purify it again afterwards in the furnace, and make
a proof of it. If it be too clear, add fifteen pounds more of
calcined tin; mix it well with the metal, and let it ftand one
day to purify ; it will then be of a whitenefs furpaffing even
that of {now, and is ft to work into veflels. Neri’s Art.
-of Glafs, p.g8. See Grass. i

LATTIN, or Latren, aname by which we ufed to
seall the plates of iron covered with tin, and now ufually
called tin, of which our mugs, and fuch other things, are
made. ‘The priacipal part of the work is to prepare the
leaves, beat out to a proper thinnefs, fo as that they fhall
readily receive the tin; for if there be but the fmalleit par-
ticle of duft on them, or only the flighteft ruft in any part,
the tin will never fix there.

This {moothing of the plates is effeGted by fleeping them
in acid water, tili the furface is a little preyed upon by it,
and then they are fcowered with fand, which makes them
very {mooth and fine. By this means a woman cleans more
plates in an hour, than the moft expert workman can do
otherwife in many days. M. Reaumur, to whom the world
owes the difcovery of this procefs, mentions feveral waters,
any one of which will fucceed, but the Germans themfelves
ufe nothing but commen water, made eager with rye. This
they make a great fecret of, but the preparation is very eafy,
After they have ground the rye grofsly, they leave it to fer-
ment in common water for fome time; and they are thus
fure of a fharp and eager menitruum, excellently fitted for
their purpofe. With this liquor they fill certain troughs, or
tuns, and into thefe they put feveral bundles of the plates
of iron: and to make the liquor more ezger, and to act the
better on them, they keep it in ftoves, where it has little air,
and is kept warm with {mall charcoal fires.

There are feveral other ways of making iron ruft, as
Keeping it in a moilt cellar, expofing it to the dew, {prink-
Jing 1t with imple water, or, which is flill better, with wa-
‘ter in which fal ammoniac has been diffolved, feveral times a
day : and in thofe countries where the pyrites is common,
the vitriolic waters, which partake of it, will do it very well.
‘This water may be prepared at little or no expence, only
by heaping up large quantities of the pyrites, and letting it
moulder in the air, then putting it into common waiter, and
making a lixivium of it. Whichever method of rufting the
plates be ufed, it is always neceflary to fcower them with
4and as foon as it is done ; and when they are thus cleaned,
they muit be immediately plunged into water, to prevent
their rufling again, and they are to be left in this water till
the initant in which they are to be tinned, or, in the language
of the workmen, dlanched. The people employed in this
part of the operation are called d/anchers; and the others,
who aflilt at the cleaning of the plates, the falers. The
blancher makes as great a fecret of his art, as the {caler does
of his; and it was with great difficulty that M. Reaumur
obtained it. The manner of doing it is this:

_. They fiux the tin in a large iron crucible, which has the
figure of an oblong pyramid with four faces, of which two
oppolite ones:are lefs than the two others. The crucible is
jheated only from below, its upper part being luted with the
furnace ali round. The crucible is always deeper than the

LAY

plates, which are to be tinned, are long; they always pnt
them in downright, and the tin ought to fwim over them.
To this purpofe artificers of different trades prepare plates
of different fhapes, but M. Reaumur thinks them all ex-
ceptionable. But the Germans ufe no fort of preparation
of the iron, to make it receive the tin, more than the

‘keeping it always fleeped in water tili the times only

when the tin is melted in the crucible, they cover it
with a layer of a fort of fuet, which is ufually two inches
thick, and the plate muft pafs through this before it can °
come to the meited tin. The firft ufe of this covering is to
keep the tin from’burning; as if any part fhould take fire,
the fuet would foon moiften it, and reduce it to its primitive
ftate again. ‘The blanchers fay, this fuet is a compounded
matter. It is indeed of a black colour, but M. Reaumur
fuppofed that to be only an artifice to make it a feeret,
and that it is only coloured with foot, or the {moke of a
chimney ; but he found it true fo far, that the common un-
prepared fuét was not fufficient ; for after fevera} attempts,
there was always fomething wanting to render the fuccefs of
the operation certain. The whole fecret of blanching,
therefore, was found to lie in the preparation of this fuet ;
and this he at length difcovered to confift only in the firit
frying and bufning it. ‘This fimple operation not only gives
it the colour, but puts it into a condition to give the iron a
difpofition to be tinned, which it does furpritingly,

The melted tin muft alfo have a certain degree of heat,
for if it is not hot enough, it will not ftick to the iron ; and
if itis too hot, it will cover it with too thin a coat, and the
plates will have feveral colours, as red, blue, and purple ;
and upon the whole will have a caft of yellow. To prevent
this, by knowing when the fire has a proper degree of heat,
they might try with {mall pieces of iron; but, in general,
ufe ‘teaches them to know the degree, and they put in the
iron when the tin is at a different ftandard of heat, accord-
ing as they would give it a thicker or thinner coat. Some=
times alfo they give the plates a double layer, as they would
have them very thickly covered. ‘This they do by dipping
them into the tin, when very hot, the firlt time, and when
lefs hot, the fecond. The tin, which is to give the fecond
coat, muit be frefh covered with fuet, and that with the
common fuet, not the prepared. Philof. Tranf. N° 406,
p- 634. See Tix.

LATTYPOUR, in Geography, a town of Bengal; 20
miles N. of Kifhenagur.

LATUS, in Jchibyology, the name of a fith of the cora-
cinus, or umbra kind, caught in the Nile, and in the Adriatic
and Mediterranean feas. It much refembles the common
coracinus,, but is larger, and has not the beard which hangs
from the chin in that fpecies ; and its body is fomewhat
rounder. It is efteemed a very delicate difh. Rondelet.
de Pifc. p. 130. .

Larus, in Anatomy, a name given by many authors te
one of the mufcies of the anus, now generaily called the
levator ani. ;

Larus Redum, in Conics, the fame with parameter.
Conic Sedions, and PARAMETER. ’

Latus Tranfverfum of the hyperbola, is a right line, in-
tercepted between the vertices of the two oppofite feétions 5
or that part of the common axis which is between the ver-
tices of the upper and lower cone. See Hyprrsoxa.

LATZKI, in Geography, a town of Auitrian Poland,
in Galicia; 80 miles W.S.W. of Lemberg.

LAVA. This word, in its ftri@ fenfe, denotes only
the fufed ftony fubftance which iffues from volcanoes during
the time of their-aétivity, and according to the degree of
fluidity it has acquired, and the quantity in which it 1s dif-

D2 “i charged,

See

x LAVA.

charged, either collects near the crater in amorphous
groups, or extends its courfe to various diftances. *But
much greater latitude (as we fhall fee hereafter) has
been given to the term /ava by feveral authors, for not
only other volcanic ejections, to which the above definition
cannot be applied, have been defcribed under that name,
but even fuch unaltered rocks as will be allowed by unbiaffed
obfervers to have fearcely any one character in common with
real volcanic productions.

Werner has divided lava into two varieties only; viz.
1. Scorious or flaggy lava (Schlackige lava), and 2. Foamy
lava (Schaumige lava.)

The colour of the /corious Java is greyifh-black, which
paifes into fmoke-grey, yellowith-grey, reddifh-grey, green--
ifh-grey, and through feveral fhades of this into greenifh-
black. Decompofition, fulphuric and other vapours, fre-
quently modify the principal colours, and often produce the
higher tints of yellow. ' :

It occurs more or lefs knotty and veficular, with velicles
of different fize, fometimes glazed over, and empty. _Inter-
nal lu{tre between glimmering and gliftening, feldom fhining.
Fracture imperfectly conchoidal, alfo fine-grained, uneven.
Is commonly opaque, fometimes faintly tranflucent on the
edges, It is femi-hard, brittle, eatily frangible, and not
particularly heavy.

The colour of the foamy Java is generally dark greenifh-
grey, approaching to greenifh-black. Its veficular ftruc-
ture, brittlenefs, and lightnefs are indicated by its name.

This the Wernerian fchool carefully ditinguifh from
pumice ; which fee.

Lava is often porphyritic, but the cryftals of hornblende,
augite, &c. are, according to Werner, wrapped up, not im-
bedded, in its bafis ; and when they occur in the hollows or
veficles of lava, are not in the form of drufes, but generally
part of the cryftals projeéts into the cavity, while the other
is included in the lava.

Though the Neptunifts profefs to find charaéters fuffici-
ently obvious to diftinguifh lava from unaltered rocks that
might be miftaken for it, fuch as the rough afpeé which
it prefents both internally and externally, &c.; yet their
decifion in dubious cafes is known to be chiefly regulated
by the mode of occurrence of the rock ; and fubftances, that
prefent regular ftrata, not feldom of very confiderable ex-
tent and comparative thicknefs, and frequently conformable
to all the finuofities of the older formations, can never be
expected to find a place in their catalogue of volcanic pro-
ductions.

The queftion, whether lava ever occurs 13 a compa@
ftate, involves the various controverfies with regard to the
origin of bafalt, which will be treated of at large in its
proper place. But as it is neceffary in this article briefly
to advert to the reafons that have induced Werner, and
other Neptunitts, to exclude compact lava from their fyftems,
we fhall extra& the excellent obfervations given on this
fubje& by Mr. Kirwan, in the fecond appendix to his
Mineralogy. ,

© By compaét lava,”’ fays this diftinguifhed mineralogift,
*¢ volcanic writers denote an earthy fubitance, which, after
having been fufed, but not vitrified, becomes, on ceoling,
compaét, clofe, and folid. ‘Whether this degree of folidity
is fuch as totally to exclude that evidently porous and ca-
vernous {tru€ture, which cellular lava prefents, is not per-
fe@tly agreed upon.

“© Thofe who are guided by obfervation on modern and un-
@ifputed volcanic torrents, allow that no lava, abfolutely
compact and deftitute of pores, in an extent of more than

a

afew {quare inches, is ever found. Thus Mr. Bergman de«
fines compaét lavas to be “ thofe which, though not abfolute-
ly deltitute of cavities, yet contain fo few, that they may be
cut into flabs with an almoit entire furface, and polifhed
like marble.” (3 Bergm. p. 201.) To this definition, Mr.
Dolomieu, in his notes on Bergman’s Differtation, makes no
objection ; from which we may conclude, that ina fmall ex-
tent, fuch as that of common marble flabs, they never exhi-
bit an uninterrupted furface. This laft mentioned philofo-
pher, indeed, having unfortunately wifhed to comprehend,
in his definition of compact lava, ftony maffes, not found in
modern and undifputed beds of lava, but in /uppofed ancient
currents, found himfelf much embarraffed: There is,
fays he, fuch uncertainty in the chara¢ters of compaét
lava, that, independently of local circumflances, the moft
experienced eye may be deceived. (Ifles Ponces, p. ee
Yet thefe circumftances, not properly attended to, are thofe
which have feduced him into the moft palpable miftakes.

«* Gioeni, though in many inftances mifled by Dolomieu,
yet acknowledges that lava, fo compaét as to be totally def-
titute of pores, is not found. (Lithol. Vefuv. p.85). Padre
Torre, who, independently of any fyftem, has candidly and
impartially examined the produéts of Vefuvius, exprefsly
denies the exittence of lava deftitute of pores, none other
but the porous being found in currents of modern date.
Galeani, in his catalogue of the lavas of Vefuvius, drawn
up in 1772, hardly mentions any compact lavas. Gioeni, in
his catalogue, entirely omits this diftin€tion; and Mr. Dolo- —
mieu acknowledges that not a fingle {pecimen of compa&
lava is to be found in the cabinet of prince Bifcari.

“¢ Thofe, on the other hand, who, guided by fy{ftem, beftow
the name of lava on flony maffes, which they /uppofe to have
anciently flowed, either from real ftill fubfilting, or imagi-.
nary ancient extiné, volcanoes, find compad lava entirely def-
titute of pores, very /carce indeed in the Suppofed currents .
from modern, but in great plenty in thofe which they afcribe
to their fictitious volcanoes now extin@, as well as in the very.
bowels of thofe volcanoes.

‘« Gioeni, after telling us, from Dolomieu, that compat:
lava occupies the centre of the beds of lava, and porous lava
the upper part, acknowledges that this gradation feldom.
takes place ; ‘ few, however, fays he, are the vifible currents.
of lava on Vetuvius, in which we meet this gradation”? It
feems, he fhould rather have faid, none ; for, fome lines after, .
he tells us, that modern volcanoes have loft the power
of producing any. (Lith. Vefuv. xlvii.) The detached:
mafles that pafs for compact lava, he acknowledges to have
been ejected in their folid form by the explofive power of
the volcano, and confequently are not real lavas, but rather -
natural ftones, torn from the fides of the mountain. (Lith. .
Vefuv. li.). Mr. Dolomieu tells us, that compa@ lavas are -
flones which, after having been melted, re-aflume their natural °
{tate and appearance without any change in their external:
or internal properties, or {carce any change ; and that fome
are perfectly compaét (that is, deititute of pores), namely, .
thofe that are buried under, not other lavas, but under an.
entire and immenfe volcano (De Prod. Volcan. p, 162. Ponces.
170. 179.) 3 he, therefore, gives up the idea of finding thefe -
not only inthe deds of modern, but even in thofe of extinct:
ancient volcanoes. Hence he tells us,. that they are much:
more common in extin& volcanoes ;. and that in AZtna they:
do not conttitute the -.-dth part of the whole; whereas
in Vivarais and Auvergne they form whole mountains. -
Now moft of thefe ancient volcanoes of the Vivarais appear -
to me and many others, to be mere creatures of imagination, .
and confequently, until the fubitances they eontain are proved -
to have been in fufion, no definition, grounded en the appear-

anecs .

LAVA.

ances of thefe fubflances, can pafs for that of real compact
lava.

«In beds, however, of real undifputed lava, fome parts are
found, that, having been prefled by the fuper-incumbent
weight, are more compact than common porous lava ; and
thefe, comparatively to the former, may be called compat ;
* but feareely more than a few f{quare inches of their fub{tance
is deftitute of vilible pores.

“ Their colour is brown, yellowifh, reddifh brown, bluifh,
er black, more rarely grey. Their luftre 0.1. Tranf-
parency 0.1. Their fracture earthy, or fine {plintery, more
rarely foliated, and prefents {mall internal pores, if of fuffi-
cient fize, in fome part of the fubftance. Hardnefs from
7 tog. Specific gravity 2.75 to 2.58.

« Much cireumfpetion is requilite in framing a defcription
of compact lava, froma view of the {pecimens brought to us
from volcanic countries, as they are all collected by perfons,
who take indifcriminately from real, and from fuppofed,
volcanic currents, even from mountains in which no volcano
ever exilted.

«To form a true idea of thefe lavas we fhould attend to the
following circumftances ; 1. That the heat of moft volcanoes
is exclude thofe that for the moft part produce only vitrified

ubitances) feldom reaches 100’ of Wedgwood ; the proof
of which is, that almoft all reallavas, whether cellular or
compact, are vitrifiable at that degree. Since, therefore,
they were not vitrified in the volcano, it is plain, that in it
they did not attain that degree; 90 or g5 degrees may then
be affumed as the average heat of moil volcanoes. 2. In this
heat many itones of the argillaceous genus, as trapps, horn-
blendes, and argillites, undergo a change; for they alter
their colour, become porous, affume a porcelain grain, and
confequently begin to vitrify, as I have found on repeated
trials; but they never flow in this heat, nor confequently
form a lava; but bitumen will flow in this heat, and even
in one much inferior, and be decompofed. If, therefore,
the argillaceous {tones be mixed with and dreuched in bitu-
men, they will be foftened by it, and flow with it; and
where the air, erupting both from them and the decompofing
bitumen has moft liberty to efcape, it will tumify, burit
through the liquid mafs, and form cellular lava; but, where
it is more compreffed, lefs of it will be difengaged, and the
lava will be compact, and refemble, in fome degree, the eri-
ginal {tone of which it is formed. 3. Stones of the filiceous
genus undergo no change in this heat, not even fhorls or
feld{par ;. and hence, though immerfed in the fiery torrent,
they cannot with propriety be called lavas, as they are not
even foftened by the mixture of bitumen, as ftones of the
argillaceous genus are. ,

« Between liliceous and argillaceous ftones there are many
gradations and various mixtures, which muft occafion cor-
refponding varieties in the effects which heat and various
other circumftances may produce. It is fufficient here to
eltablith the principles on which moft of them may be ex-
plained. Compa lavas abound in heterogeneous fubitances
which either have not been fufed,. or only partially fufed. or
fcorched, or decompofed by heat, as feldfpar, fhorls, garnets,
zeolites, &c. Every volcano has fome that are peculiar to
it.. Thus the lavas of Vefuvius abound in that called white
garnet, and which I call Vefuvian, thofe of /Etna abound
in feldfpar, &c.

« Hence we muft exclude from the rank of lavas all {tones
which do not appear, either from their external characters
or local circumitances, ever to have been foftened by-heat ;
and confequently, all thofe detached pieces which are ejected:
at the beginning of an eruption without fufion, and many
ethers which volcamic collectors enumerate among compact

lavas, merely from having found them in the vicinity of vol-
canoes. ‘Thus Mr. Dolomieu (Lipari p. 85.) reckons
among volcanic {tones one, in the interior of which he
diftinctly perceived a leaf of fea-weed. Few indeed are the
{tones contained in his catalogue which can be deemed really
volcanic.

«« All real lavas, except thofe of the vitreous kind, affeé&
the magnetic needle, unlefs the iron they contain be much
oxygenated, as it often is in thofe of a red colour; but even
thefe are frequently magnetic by reafon of the fhorls em-
bodied in them.

« The component ingredients of lavas are various, accord-
ing to the nature of the original {tones, and the accidents they
meet with in their liquified ftate. Mr. Dolomieu fonnd
them to contain from 40 to 65 per ct. of filex, from 16 to
3 of magnelia, from 5 to1 of calx, and from 2 to 25 of
iron.’ Ponces, p. 184.

Though the above, and feveral other remarks of the fame
tendency, which will be noticed under the articles TRapr-
FORMATION and VoLcano, have much contributed to inya-
lidate the teftimony of thofe who contend for the exiftence
of compact lava, and the igneous origin of many other fub-
{tances apparently. Neptunian, yet volcanifts continue to
claflify over and over again thofe fubftances which they con-
fider as belonging to their domain ; and it is neceflary to
be acquainted as well with their mode of viewing the fubjeét.
as with that of the oppofite party. .It is with this view
that we give the following abitract of the moft complete
arrangement of, fo called, volcanic rocks hitherto offered
to the world, namely, that of the celebrated Faujas de
Saint-Fond, which occupies nearly a whole volume of -his
« Effai de Géologie,” publifhed at Paris in 1809. It is.
almoit fuperfluous to obferve that this arrangement fhould-
be confulted cum grano falis; as of caurfe almoft all the
rocks belonging to the fletz-trapp formation of Werner are
introduced into it, as well as other fubftances, which,
although ejected, have probably not undergone any altera-
tion by the agency of the fire, and are therefore to be con-
fidered as intruders into an arrangement of lavas.

“Crass 1. Lavas confidered with regard to their form and
external modifications. ¥

Div. 1. Black, homogeneous, maffive, compad lava—
1. Fine-grained; from Otaheite, Staifa, the neighbourhood
of Rome, Darmitadt, the Euganean mountains, Auvergne,
&e. 2. Var. ofa coarfe grain, from Meiffner, the vicinity
of potsiagen Heffe Caffel, Rochemaure in Vivarais, &c:
3. Var. of a fealy texture; from Stolpe in Meiffen, the ifle
of Bourbon, Mont Meflin in Vivarais, &c.

Div. 2. Homogeneous compa lava in prifns, with from
three to nine fides (the latter rare).—1. Prifms without joints ;
Staffa, Expailly in Vivarais. 2. Var. with prifms tranf-
verfely divided or jointed; at the Pont de la Beaume in Vie-
varais, &c. 3. Var. with jointed prifms, joints concave at one
fide and convex at the other ; Giant’s Caufeway, Ireland, left
bank of the Volane, &c. 4. Var. with prifms laterally com-
prefiled; Rochemaure in Vivarais. 5. Var. with arched
prifms ; Staffa, ifle of Bourbon.

Div. 3. Prifmatic lava, with edges and planes Jo regular
as to appear the rejult of crvftallization.—In pyramids of four
fides, flattened, &c.; in Auvergne, &c.

Div. 4. Tabular lava.—i1. Var. in thick tables; from
Monts Meffin, Coneron, &c. in Vivarais. 2. Yar. in thin .
tables; Rochemaure in Vivarais, ifle of France, ifle of
Bourbon.

Div. 5. Globular-lava—1. Var. in folid balls; from
Teneriffe. 2. Yar. in hollow balls; ifleof Bourbon. 3. Var.
in .balls compofed..of.concentric layers ; from Vefuvius,

. Catftel

ELA VA,

Caktel-Gombeto near Vicenza, Montechio Precalcino, &c.
TYhefe lavas are the refult of a particular kind of decompofi-
tion, which takes place in extenfive beds of compaét ba-
faltic lavas, in which they appear as if implanted. Some
globular lavas owe their origin to the joints of bafaltic pillars,
whofe angles and edges decay, while the nucleus remains
found, and appears to iflue from out the prifm.

Div. 6. Tear-fbaped lava (laves en larmes).—Small ob-
long maffes, imitating more or lefs the form of tears, ‘They
occur from the fize of a hazle-nut to that of an egg, often
enclofing within their centre the fragment of a foreign body,
fuch as granite, olivine, &c, Found on Vefuvius, in the
crater of Mont-Bril, in Vivarais, Auverene,, &c.

Crass II. Porous lava.

Div. 1. Heavy porous lava.—t. Var. with large ob-
Tong pores; from: Vefuvius, Etna, Hecla, Vivarais, Av-
vergne, &c. 2. Var. with large irregular pores ; in all the
above places. 3. Var. with porcs lefs large, and generally
round; ina partly porous, partly compact lava; from the
Meiffner in Heffia. 4. Yar. with fmall, round, and oblong
pores; ina lava remarkable on account of its hollows or de-
preffions, which exhibit a regular ftruSture, and, on being
broken, convey the idea of parallelograms of different fizes,
arranged fide by fide, as well externally as on fhe internal
furface of the lava: fome of thefe.parallelograms are more
than an inch long, and the fourth part of an inch deep.
‘The origin of this lava, which occurs in the ifle of Bourbon,
is thus explained by M. Hubert: —A e¢reat eruption of the
volcano of that ifland gave origin to a valt itream of lava, which
in its progrefs came in contact with a plantation of palm
treés. The trees weie immediately fet on fire ; but being
foon covered by the lava, combultion ceafed, and the woed
became converted into charcoal. Incandefcence long time
continued, afterwards produced in the fibrous wood, thus
carbonized, contractions and clefts of a certain regularity.
The lava next entering the clefts formed by contraétion,
and moulding itfelf-over the nucleus of the coal, produced
the hollows cbfervable, as often as the coal is purpofely de-
tached, or deftroyed by fome accidental caufe. 5. Var. of
prifmatic triangular form, with oblong and irregular pores ;
from the neighbourhood of Rochefauve, in Vivarais.

Div. 2. Light porous lava.—1. With round pores;
from Vivarais, Auvergne, ifle of Bourbon, Tunis, &c.
Desfontaines has gathered at ‘l'unis {pecimens of fuch a lava,
which the natives employ in the preparation cf their woollen
fluffs, in preference to the fullers’ thillle ufed in other coun-
tries. 2. Var. with oblong pores; from Vefuvius, Etna,
Hecla, from Vivarais, Auvergne, &c. 3. Var. with irre-
gular curved or twitted pores; from Veluvius, the ifle of
Bourhon, Teneriffe, Stromboli, WVulcano, Vivarais, &c.
4. Var. with decuffated pores; from the ifle of Bourbon,
Veluvius, &c. 5. Var. with ftreaked pores; from Vefu-
vius, Etna, ifle of Bourbon, and Mount Hecla.

The light ‘riated lavas, appearing in the fhape of cables,
ribbands, &c. aifo belong to this clafs. In general, the
porous lavas are nothing but the refult of the more or lefs
a€tive or continued developement of eafes produced by the
peculiar nature of the lavas, and by the more or lefs violent
action of fubterraneous fire.

Crass IIT. Scorified lavas.

A particular modification of porous lavas, produced when,
under certain circum{tances, the matter of which thefe con-
fift undergoes the firft degrees of vitrification, and becomes
eovered with a kind of fhining varnifh, which diftinguifhes
them from ordinary porous lavas. "Thefe feorified lavas are
found, 1, twifted ; 2, cable-fhaped ; 3, ribband-fhaped 5 4, in
bunches, with round or oblong grains; 5, {talactitical,

fhort elongated knobs, feparated or united. Ali thefe va-
ricties of forms are found at Vefuvius, Etna, Hecla, in
Teneriffe, the ifle of Bourbon, &e. ‘

Crass TV. Lavas confidered with regard to their component
parts, or to the different rocks from which they originated.

Div. 1. Granitoid lava.—Thefe lavas, which, according
to Faujas? fyftem, mult have been elaborated at a great depth
in the bowels of the earth, owe their origin to rocks analogous
to our granite, except that quartz does not enter into their
compolition ; the fubftance formerly confidered by Faujas
and others as quartz, having proved to be feld{par.

A. Coarfe-grained granitoid lava. —a1. With bafe of a

whitifh-grey colour, compofed of irregular whitifh grains of.

feldfpar, of a quartzy appearance, but eafily fufed before.
the blowpipe : a great numberof minute, thin, and hexagoral
laminz of black mica, diffeminated among the grains of feld-
fpar, and large cryttals of this {ubflance, of a pearly white
and parallelopipedic form, are imbedded in this quartzlefs
granite. The grains of feldfpar have fuffered a little by
the fire, and the cryftals are flightly calcined. Some: of
them are even diffolved into capillary feparations, and pals
into a fubftance like pumice. ‘This lava, which is ftrongly
attracted by the magnet, is found at Mont-d’Or; but.a fimi-
lar variety occurs in the ifles of Ponza and Lipari; at Santa
Fiora, in Tufeany, &c. 2, Var. with bafe of whitifh gra-
nular feldfpar, fpotted with dots of black mica, and horn-
blende of the fame colour, and in fmall cryltals with dull
furface ; from the Euganean hills, &c. 3. Var. with large
lamin of a fhining bronze culoured mica, fome of more

than an inch in diameter, ina rough uneven purplifh black

mafs, which is melted without being glafly, and is pervaded
by large pores. Itis‘flightly attracted by the magnet. Found
near Andernach.
feld{par ftreaked like pumice, and of white flightly cal-
cined feld{par eryttals, with fome hexagonal laminz of browa

mica, minute reddifh garnets, which are partly fufed, and

a black glaffy fubltance appearing to be hornblende; it is
faintly attracted by the magnet. From Santa Fiora, in
Tufcany. §. Yar. with bafe of white feld{par, in irregular
rather {caly grains, with a great quantity of needles of black
hornblende, and altered garne‘s of a purplifh hue. Very
Obedient to the magnet. From Tenenifie. .6. Var. of a
white colour inclining to grey, compoled of a multitude of

very {mall and clofe grains‘of white feldfpar; and of much:

larger grains of fhining fealy feldipar, wich rather pearly
luttre, fome of which grains fhow a tendency to cryltallizz-
tion. Blackith, dull dots, beitig common hornblende al-

tered by the fire, are difleminated in the feldfpar. Faujas men-,

tions a fpecimen of this variety, from the Cantal, which is
traverfed by a bar of black and white granite, formed of
{mall grains of very pure feldfpar, and of fmall grains of
black hornblende, unaltered by the ation of the fire.
4. Var. with blueifh-black. bafe, having {mall brilliant points
proceeding from the fealy particles of a white ttony fubltanve,
with dull fracture ; purplifh red, femi-tranfparent garnets,
partly flawed, partly fufed, are indiftinélly imbedded both
in the black and white fubftances. ‘The former of theie,
which is compaét, and fufes before the blowpipe into
a black glafs, has all the characiers of hornblende ; the latter
is compact feldfpar. From the Cape de Gatte, in Spain.
B. Fine-grained granitoid lava.—8. Var, formed by a
mixture of {mall, irregular, cloie grains of hornblende, and
fmall grains and feales of white, rather pearly feld{par. ‘The
hornblende being predominant in this mals, it exhibitsa black
furface on being broken, or cut by afaw, in which cafe it ree
fembles bafalt ; but when polifhed, fmall white dots and lines
appear, which, though delicate, are {lid fufficiently vitible on,

4. Var. with bafe of reddifh granular,

r

LAV A

the black ground of the mafs ; found om the fummit of mount
Mezin, where, by the action of the atmofphere, it undergoes a
ftriking alteration ; for while the particles of feldfpar at the
furface become corroded and difappear, the hornblende re-
mains unaltered and frefh, prajecting over the relt as black
granular particles. Lavas fimilar to this, fome of them
prifmatic, Mr. Faujas pretends to have feen in the neigh-
bourhood of Caffel, and near Gottingen. 9. Var. com-
ofed of white feldfpar in {mall grains, rather mealy at the
Ficface, and of a black fubftance diffeminated as dots in
the mafs: the latter appears to be altered hornblende. In
this mixture are alfo imbedded large white feld{par cryftals
* with pearly luftre. Occurs on the right bank of the
Rhine, at the foot of the Seven Mountains, nearly oppofite
Goderberg. to. Var. with white grains of feld{par, harder,
frefher, and of clofer texture than thofe of the preceding
variety, mixed with black hornblende, difpofed in dots,
lineaments, and even as {mall prifmatic cryttals, more abun-
dant, and lels altered, than the hornblende of No.g. Alfo
garnet cry (tals are diffeminated in it, but cannot be feen with-
out the affittance of a high magnifier. This variety is attracted
by the magnet. It takes a good polifh, and is ufed for
building. It is, together with the preceding, found at the
foot of the Seven Mountains, where it is quarried. Large
feld{par cryftals have not been found init. 11. Var. com-
pofed of fmall irregular white cryftals, difpofed in diftiné
lines appearing fcaly, fhining, and as rather calcined when
viewed through a lens; their lengthis about 4th, their width
2th of an inch: they are interfected by other prifmatic inde-
terminable cryftals of the fame dimenfions, of an intenfe black
colour, vitreous, almoft metallic external luftre, but rather
dull on the furface of frafture. Alfo particles of iron mica,
(for cligilte of Haiiy,) and of magnetic ircn-ftone, are
found in this mafs. Faujas has analyzed thefe two ores of
iron; according to him they are combined with titanium,
and the white cryftals belong to the fpecies of the latter,
called Sphene or Titane filiceo-calcaire. This variety was found,
in infulated blocks, near the top of the Meiffner, in Heffia.
12. Var. differing from the preceding only by the fer oligiffe
it contains being in large laminz, marked with lines, the ye-
neral difpofizion cf which produces fmall hexahedral laminz.
The fphene, which forms the bafe of this mafs, is harder,
white, inclining to yellowith; it confilts of cry ftalline tranf-
lucid particles ; the magnetic iron interfets the fphene in all
direétions, while the iron-mica is only difleminated here and
there; both thefe iron ores are, like the preceding, com-
bined with titanium. This variety is found near the extin&
volcano of Beaulieu, in the ci-devant Provence. Mr. Faujas
remarks, that no fimilar rock is known to occur, that may
be confidered as the original of this, and the preceding vol-
eanic fubftances. He denominates them granitic, becaufe
-they have much the appearance of fuch a compound.

C. Schiflofe granitoid lava.—13. Var. compoled of mi-
nute, reddith-brown grains of feld{par, much larger, angular
grains of white feldfpar, and a great quantity of {mall
fix-fided lamine of -{hining mica, difpofed in a fimilat man-
ner as in gneifs. ‘The white feld{par is eafily feparated into
Jamin in the direction of parallel lines cbfervable onit, and
which are produced by the aétion of the fire. Sometimes
fome dots of /hornblende are feen in the mafs; but they are
of rareoccurrence. ‘This is found in Lipari under the pu-
mice deferibed by Dolomieu. 14. Var. with yeilowifh-grey,
granular, dull feldfpar, intermixed with white vitreous grains
of feldfpar, and much black hornblende in fmall, flender
cryitais, difpofed in horizontal lines, reprefenting thin
layers, and giving this fubitance a fille appearance. From

_ Vulcano. -

Crass V. . Porphyroid lava.

Faujas’ vulcanic porphyries are compofed of a fufible
pafte or bafe, in which more or lef’ regular cryftals of feld=
{par are imbedded, often accompanied by grains of qnartz;
hornblende, augite, &c. The bafe itfelf he confiders analo-
gous to the “ trapps of the Swedes.’’ He fubdivides them
as follows.

A. Porphyroid lava with feldfpar cryflals —1. Var. with
black, hard, and heavy, though rather porous, bafe, and with
white feld{par cry tals of loofe texture. Strongly attraéted by
the magnet. From mount Etna. 2. Var. with more compaét
bafe, of a deep violet brown colour, with a great quantity
of {mall greyifh-white, rhomboidal, and parallelopipedic
cryftals, and alfo grains of feld{par. It is very maguetic,
and takes a good polifh. Found by Dolomieu in the Ife
des Salenes, near the village Amalfa, where, according to
this geologift, it appears in the form of fteps of flairs. Fatjas
adds that a fimilar rock is found in Auvergne, in thin tables;
which are ufed in fome villages for roafing. 3. Var. with
purplifh brown bafe, including white irregular teld{par cry{f-
tals, without Juftre. From Trizac, in the canton of Mauriac,
Auvergne. 4. Var. with rather purplith bafe, abounding
with more or lefs regular feldfpar c1yitals ofa white colour.
Though rather decompofed, it affects the magnetic needle.
From Mauriac and fome other parts of Auvergne..

B, Porphyroid lava with feldfpar and mica—s: Vare
with rather purplith grey bafe, very white irregu'ar feld-
fpar cryitals, aud fmall fometimes fix-fided lamine of an
intenfely black mica. It fometimes contains fall cryltals of
filiceo-calcareous titanium. From Leorens, part of the Cantal
mountains. The bafe of this-has quite a compact feldfpar
appearance. 6. Var. with grey bafe, including white feld-
fpar cryftals and black mica, but lefs abundant than in
the preceding. From Mont d’Or; occurs alfo in the ifles
of Ponza and Lipari, &c.

C. Porphyroid lava with feldfpar and pyroxene—7. Var:
of a deep grey bafe, with dots, lineaments and cryitals of
white feld{par and black pyroxene, in fmall cryftals. Suf-
ceptib’e of a good polifh. From the extin@ volcanoes of
Campania, the neighbourhood of Rome, Santa Fiora, &c.

D. Porphyroid lava with cruflals of black pyroxene and
Jmall grains of green pyroxene.—8. Var. with deep grey,
containing a great number of cryftals of black pyroxene,
and irregular dots of greenifh pyroxene. From Chimboraza,
where it_ was found by Humboldt at the height of 1840
toifes. Faujas fo completely miftakes Humboldt, that he
imagines the ftratum of this fubftance has 1840 toifes in
thicknefs! The fame is found near Puzzuoli; and in the
ancient lavas of Vefuvius. 9. Var. with the fame bafe as
the preceding, and, like it, fufceptible of taking a good
polifh, with angular grains, needles, and regular cryttals of
green pyroxene. Found among the ancient lavas-of Vefu-
vius.

E.\ Porphyroid lava with hornblende and’ feldfpar.—
to. Var. with purplifh bafe, with a prefufion of lineaments
and more or lefs regular cryftals of black- hornblende,
irregular grains of white feldfpar, fome of which have
penetrated into the hornblende cryftal. Found at Santa
Fiora in Tufcany.

F. Porphyroid lava: with’ hornblende only.—11. Var. of
a blackith-grey colour, with large eryftals of very black
and fhining hornblende. From Mas de Puiffanton, near
Chauimerac, ia Vivarais. 12. Var. of deep reddifh-brown
colour, with a profuficn of brilliant needles and crytftals of
hornblende. From the Peak of Teneriffe.

G. Porphyrsid lava with hornblende and olivine: —13. Var.
im,which the hornblende, in irregular fragments, conitit tes.

6 more

LAVA.

more than double the weight of the mafs, in which fome pores
are obfervable. The grains of olivine which it includes are
iridefcent. From the Peak of Teneriffe.

H. Porphyroid lava with leucite cryflals.—14. Var. with
opaque white leucites, with rather pearly luftre, the largeft
of which have from three to five lines in diameter; they
exhibit, when pieces of the lava are cut and polifhed, mi-
nute rents. “The bafe in which they are imbedded is black,
compact, hard, very obedient to the magnet, fufible before
the blowpipe into a black, opaque glafs; it takes a fine
polifh. From Capo di Bove, Caprarola, and the neigh-
bourhood of Naples. 15. Var. with large leucites of a
dull white colour, fome of them tranfparent, lamellar, and
here and there fufed and vitrified. The enveloping lava is
of a greyifh-black colour; it is dry, rough to the feel, full
of irregular pores, and attraéted by the magnet. From the
ancient lavas of Vefuvius. 16. Var. with white, opaque,
dull cryftals, which, though they are fo friable as to be
ealily reduced to powder by the preffure of the nail, have
+ftill preferved their original form; they are large and clofely
grouped together. The lava which includes them is of
.a dull black colour, inclining to grey; it has loft part of
its hardnefs, but {till affects the magnet. In the midit of
thefe decompofed cryftals are feen black lineaments and
grains of a fubftance which appears to be that of the lava
itfelf, and which was perhaps forcibly introduced into the
body of the cryftals, through the rents that were produced
when the mafs was {till in a fluid ftate.- Found in abundance
in the vicinity of Viterbo. 17. Var. with white opaque
leucites, having fome black points in their centre, and with
irregular cryftals of black pyroxene difleminated in the
lava. It is black, hard, fufceptible of a good polifh, at-
traGted by the magnet, and fufible into a black brilliant
glafs. Found in large mafles, and fometimes in prifms, at
Bolfena. A fimilar variety occurs at Civita-Caftellana, and
another at Aquapendente, which latter, however, includes
pyroxenes of a yellowifh-green colour. 18. Var. with
tran{parent, hard, leucite cryitals, of a yellow:fh-white colour,
accompanied with black hornblende. ‘Lhe including lava is
black, compat, hard, and attra€ted by the magnet. Found
at Borghetto, Bolfena, Aquapendente, and Albano. 19. Var.
with very fmall white opaque leucite cryftals, clofely
grouped together, and accompanied by much larger, irregu-
lar cryftals of black hornblende ; in a black, hard, compact
and very magnetic lava, from. Tivoli and Aquapendente.
20. Var. with almoft microfcopic white, tranflucid leucite
cryftals, fo clofely grouped together as to appear to be in
contact with each other, intermixed with irregular black
hornblende cryftals. Found abundantly at Bolfena, in
the neighbourhood of Civita-Caftellana and of Viterbo.
21. Var. with very {mall, pellucid, white, leucite cryftals, and
irregular hornblende cryittals, of a greenifh colour. In a
purplifh, not very hard, lava, the iron of which has acquired
a degree of oxydation, whence it fhews no effect on the mag-
netic needle. From Viterbo. 22. Var. with large, white,
-pellucid leucité cryftals, which are generally of a fealy nature
and full of minute flaws, and fometimes with fmall linea-
ments of a very beautiful fky-blue colour, of a cryftalline
appearance. ‘Chis fubftance, comparable to blue fapphire,
or, more aptly, to lazulite, appears to be of contemporary
formation with the re!t. The fame fubftance in minute par-
ticles is difcriminated alfo in the pafte of the lava, which is
compaét and of a blackifh-grey colour. Befides thefe, alfo
black fhining dots are obfervable in this lava; they have the
appearance of having been fufed, and may perhaps be grains
of pyroxene, or biack garnets. Some grains of arfenical
pyrites are likewife obfervable in it. From Albano. Some-

times the leucite cryflals, in the lavas of this divifion, are ac-
companied by fome mica in {mall fcales; and in the neigh-
bourhood of Rome large nodules are found, fometimes of
the thicknefs of a man’s fift, and entirely compofed of black
cryttallized mica and leucite; the latter are clofely enve-
loped by the former, and both appear to have acquired their
cryflalline form at the fame period. This is not confidered
by Faujas as a true volcanic fubftance.

Cuass VI. Variolitic lavas.

The patte is the fame as that of the porphyritic lavas, but
inflead of cryftals, it includes globules of feld{par.

A. Var. with pafte of a greenifh-grey colour, with nu-
merous blackifh-grey globules, of the fize of a pea, and of
a finer and harder texture than the bafe ; both of them fufi-
ble. When the pafte is decompofed by the aétion of the
atmofphere, the round {pots exhibit themfelves as proje@ting
globules. From Teneriffe. 2. Var. with grey pate, and
very {mall round {pots of a darker grey colour. ‘This va-
riety, which attraéts the magnet, is, like the preceding, com-
pact, and takes a fine polifh. It has a tendency to feparate
into thin lamine when ftruck with a hammer. From Ve-
drine, in Auvergne. 3. Var. with grey pafte, inclining to
greenifh; {pots like thofe of No. 1, but fouir times {maller.
Is ftrongly attraéted by the magnet. From Pui en Velai.
4. Var. with white orbicular {pots on a grey ground ; at-
tracted by the magnet. From Pas-de-Compain, Auvergne.
5. Var. like No. 4, but with much fmaller {pots, grouped
clofer together, and lefs regularly orbicular. From Puy-
Creux, Auvergne. 6. Var. of a blueifh colour, with very
fmall pores, and numerous white orbicular {pots of about
two lines in diameter. From the crater of Mon-Bril, in
Vivarais, where it often occurs in large irregular balls,
which feparate into concentric layers when ftruck with a
hammer.

Crass VII. Feldfpar lavas ; or lavas with bafe of com-
pad feldfpar.

Faujas remarks, after Dolomieu, that there are fometimes
in the fame lava two different kimds of feldf{par, one of
which is ¢ompaét-and fufible, and ferves as bafe to the
other, which is more or lefs regularly cryftallized and refrae-
tory, fo that the bafe may have been in complete fufion,
while the cryftals remained in'their original ftate.

1. Var. Feldf{par lava of a black colour, opaque, of a
very fitie grain and conchoidal fracture; it fufes into a
white tranflucid glafs, and is ftrong!y attra¢ted' by the mag-
net. From Catajo in the Euganean mountains, and from
Vulcano. 2. Var. of a light grey colour, inclining to flefh
red, of a fine grain, tranflueid at the edges; fufible before
the blowpipe, and faintly attrated by the magnet.
one of the Ponzaifles. 3. Var. of a white colour, heavy,
partly vitrified. From the Euganean mountains. 4. Var.
of the fame colour, but fhining ; rather glafly ; compofed of
fmall, rather ftreaked, and fometimes {welled fcales ; and,
therefore, lighter than the pregeding. Is not attracted by
the magnet; but is fufible before the blowpipe. From
Milo, aniflandin the Archipelago. 5. Var. of greyifh-white
colour, here and there with a flight fhade. of red, with nu-
merous fhining fcales of mica ; feldfpar rather calcined. Is
not attraGted by the magnet; but fufible into a femi-trani-
parent glafs. From the ifle of Ponza, and from Puy-de-
Dome, in Auvergne. 6. Var. white, with feales of brown
fhining mica, and pellucid grains of feldfpar, more cryflal-
line than the bafe in which they are included. From Mont ~
d'Or, in Auvergne ; fimilar varieties are found in the Euga-
nean mountain, and another from Mont Mezin, in Velai.

Crass VIII. Amygdaloid lavas, with bafe of trapp.

Thefe are confidered, by Faujas, as having originally be-

longed

From

5

LA

Jonged to rocks, whefe baft is generally the fame as that of
the porphyries ; and whofe globules and nodules of calca-
reous {par, zeolite, calcedony, &c. donot owe their exiftence
as fuch, to infiltration, but are of a contemporaneous origin
with the bafe. ‘The volcanic fire. which opezated on fuch
amygdaloid rocks, though it has rendered them foft and
fiuid, has but little changed their character ; but all, in the
opinion of that flrenuous volcanift, bear clearly the ftamp of
igneous origin. They are fubdivided as follows :

A. Amygdaleid lava with calcareous globules —1. Var.
with globules of tranflucid calcareous {par of a yellowish
colour, of the fize of a pea; ina black, compact mafs ;
attraéted by the magnet. From Vivarais ; alfo from Vi-
cenza. 2. Var. with white, tranflucid, fpathofe globules,
fome witha thin, fhining, reddifh-brown, others with a iteel-
grey coating of the fame kind, ina fimilar mafs, affecting
a triangular-prifmatic form. From near Rechefauve, in
Vivarais. 3. Var. with white, compact, lenticular grains,
tranflucid on the edges, the largett of them .of the fize of
acommon lertil; in a black compa& mafs, of a very fine
grain. From the ifle of Afcenfion. 4. Var. with white, {phe-
rical globules ; fometimes two, three, or four of them toge-
ther ; fometimes fingle in cells that are partly empty : bafe
like that of the preceding variety. Trom the valley of
Ronca, in the Veronefe territory, 5. Var. with fimilar,
very {mall globules, grouped clofely together, and taking up
the whole of the cell; in a reddifh-brown, hard, compact
mafs, attracted by the magnet. From the fame place.
6. Var. with {mall, perfeGly orbicular, globules of equal
fize, in a deep-grey, compaét, foft mafs,. containing nu-
merous grains of olivine, with oxydized ochrey furface.
From Vivarais. 7. Var. with white, tranflucid, fhining,
radiated glebules of arragonite; in a black, hard, com-
pact lava; obedientto the magnet. From the ifle of Afcen-
tion. A fimilar one, but with larger globules, fram near
Roche-Sauve, in Vivarais. 8. Var. with the fame glo-
bules, but accompanied by grains and inde:erminable cryttals
of black hornblende ; in a brownifh compact mafs. From

‘near Bais, in Vivarais. 9. Var. with radiated globules,
and irregular grains of arragonite, intermixed with grains
of olivine. From the ifle of Bourboa.

B. Amygdaloid lava with globules of mefotype—1. Var.
with folid globules of a white filky zeolite, compofed of
needles radiating from the centre ; in a black, compaét,
hard mafs, attrafied by the magnet; including alfo grains
of black hornblende. Between Roche-Maure and Meyfle,
in Vivarais. A fimilar variety from Staffa, and the ifle of
Mull. 2. Var. with very {mall folid globules, of a fnow-
white zeolite, and irregular, almoft microfcopic grains of
the fame fublflance, fo numerous as to conttitute half of the
whole ma{s; the bafe like that of the preceding variety.
From the valley of Ronca, in theVeronefe territory. A
fimilar one is found near Rome, in which grains of horn-
blende “are lodged in the very fubftance of the zeolite.
3. Var. with numerous, white, pellucid, zcolitic grains, of
about the fize of a millet feed, and clofely grouped toge-
ther ; ina greyifh-black compaét lava. From Montecchio-
Maggiore, near Vicenza. Similar varieties occur in the
Lipari iflands, at mourt Vefuvius, &c. ’

_ C. Amygdaloid lava with fillite—1. With globules of

white pearly ftilbite, in a black compaé bafe, attra@ted by

the magnet. From Feroe. 2. Var. with fimilar glebules,

furrounded by a cruit of a green, rather friable, fubftance,

very like the green earth of Verona; in a greyifh-green

mafs, not attraéted by the magnet. From Feroe. 3. Var.
with white radiated ftilbite, on cry{tals of calcareous Spar 5 in
a black mafa, From Iceland. 4. Var. with white itilbite,
. Vou. XX.

VAA.

in indeterminably-fhaped nodules, in a friable, brownifh mals.
From Dumbarton.

D. Amygdaloid lava with analcime.—1. With irregular
globules of tranfparent analcime, partly cryttallized; in a
greyifh-black lava, attracted by the magnet. From Mount
Etna. 2. Var. with oblong globules of pellucid analcime 3
in a black compaét lava, ftrongly attracted by the magnet.
From one of the Cyclopic ifles. 3. Var. with globules
of white compact analciine; in a preyifh-black lava, ap-
pearing ratheraltered. I'rom Montecchio-Maggiore. 4. Var.
with hollow nodules of white, dull, and opaque analcime,
partly in.the form of trapezoidal cryftals ; in an altered lava,
as it is called by our author. From Dumbarton, Scotland.
5. Var. with fmall, infulated, femi-tran{parent, “greyith,
dodecahedral cryftals ; ina light grey lava refembling tri-
poli, and penetrated in ail parts by numerous, very {mall,
{pherical grains of anaicime, of a darker grey colour, and a
little tranflucent on the edges; intermixed alfo with fome
{mall cryftals of calcareous fpar. ,

E. Amygdaloid lava, with farcolite, (referred by Hatty to
analcime.)—1. Var. with globules, and fometimes irregular
nodules, of a reddifh ftony fubltance, fimilar to the farcolite
of Thompfon; in a greyifh, hard, porous, but heavy lava ;
the red globules accompanied by analcime, white .radiated
zeolite, cuboid crytta!s of calcareous {par. From Montec-
chio-Maggiore. 2. Var. with radiated zeolite, trapezoidal
analcime, cuboid calcareous fpar, and femi-tranfparent cry1-
talline celeftine, or fulphat of ftrontian, of a hght blue co-
lour, pafling, in fome {pecimens, into white. In a fimilar
mafs, from the fame place.

FE. Amygdaloid lava, with chabafie.—1. White chabafie,
in a porous, black, heavy mafs, with finall, blueih, elevated,
rather mamillary {pets, which are phofphate of iron. From
Val di Noto. <A fimilar fubflance is found at Clermont, in
Auvergne. 2. Kar. with {mall primitive eryftals of cha-
bafie, in the orbicular hollows of a biack, hard, heavy, and
compact mafs. From the Peak of ‘Teneriffe. 3. Var. with
{mall globules, and very minute cryftals of chabafie, in a
black heavy mafs, with fhining black hornblende, and nume-
rous grains of olivine, decompefed into a yellowifh earthy
fubftarce. From Teneriffe. 4. Var. with primitive cryttals
of chabafie, lining the orbicular hollows of a clofe black lava.
From Iceland.

G. Amygdaloid lava, with calcedony.—Uere M. Faujas
mentions jeven varieties of nodules of calcedony, fome of
them containing water, (known by the name of enhydros,)
others folid ; found principally in the decompofed lavas of
Monte Tondo, Monte Galdo, San Floriano, Mont-Main,
in the Vicentine territory. ‘TO thefe he adds, by way of
appendix, tome calcedomic and quartzy fubitances, which
he confiders as owing their origin to infiltration, and to which
he refers the hyalite of Francfort on the Mayne. In an-
other appendix the fame author places the mafles including
the granular peridot or olivine, and which he would confider
of porphyritic origin, were the olivines ever”found cryftal-
lized in them. He enumerates feveral varieties found in the
bafalts and lavas of Vivarais, Caffel, [fle of Bourbon.

Crass IX. Volcanic breccias and tuffes.

A. Volcanic breccias formed of more or lefs rounded fragments
of different kinds of lavas, feized and enveloped by other
lavas in a {tate of fufion.—1. Var. compofed of angular and
blunt fragments of black, hard, compaét lava, of rather
porous black lava, and of grains of white feld{par; the whole
intimately united by a brownifh lava, with itreaked pores.
Peak of St. Michael, in Velay ; as alfo near Roche Sauve,
in Vivarais. 2. Var. with irregular fragments of {coriform
femi-vitreous lavas of a fhining black colour, cemented by a

34 grey

LAV A

grey ftriated lava, approaching hard pumice. From Viva-
rais, and the ifle of Lipari. 3. Var. formed of numerous
angular fragments of black porous lava, and fome white
opaque feldfpar, cemented together by grey pumice with
{mall pores: from Lipari and Ifchia.* 4. Var. with frag-
ments of white, fometimes yellow and brownifh lime-{tone,
in a grey hard lava, mixed with white, tranfparent, flawed
eryltals and grains of; feldfpar, fome laminz’ ot black horn-
blende, filvery mica, and grains of green augite ; from the
vicinity of Albano, and other parts of the Roman territory.
5. Far. compofed of large fragments of white marble, fine-
grained yellowifh marble, and another hard ftony fubftance
formed of lime and filex ; ina grey lava, including much
black pyroxene ; from the vicinity of Rome, and from near
Vefuvius. 6. Var. compofed of fragments of white and
grey marble, and rounded pieces of black hornblende; others
of black fealy mica; in a grey lava, mixed with particles of
filvery mica, and numerous fragments of deep green py-
roxene. From I{chia. 7. Var. with large nodules of oli-
vine, of different colours ; fragments of black compaé lava,
of porous, almott {fcoriated lava, of the fame colour, cemented
by a grey mafs formed of more or lefs comminuted detritus
_of feveral kinds of lava. From the Ifle of Bourbon, of Afcen-
fion, &c.

B. Volcanic breccias formed by the fudden conta of fire and
of water greatly heated—1. Breccia formed of fragments of
brown porphyry, porphyry with red bafe, and cryftals of white
feld{par; ot fragments of white marble, marked at their points
of contaét with the lava, with black lineaments that appear
produced by an aqueous folution which intimately’ united all
parts of this breccia, the bafe of which is a grey lava,
mixed with melted grains of black pyroxene ; it is at-
tracted by the magnet. From the foot of Mount Etna.
2. Var. including angular fragments of black lava, with
conchoidal fra€ture; of grey feldfpar lava, with rough
furface (both attracted by the magnet) ; of glafly blueith-
green lava, fragments of afh-grey pumice, fragments of a
whitifh, femi-tranfparent, volcanic glafs, and a colourlefs
glafs ; the whole cemented by a bluei(h-grey, foftifh, coarfe-
grained lava. From the Lipari iflands. 3. Var. compofed
of fragments of black, rather porous, bafalt, including
grains of olivine, of large fragments of a yellowifh quartzy
fand-{tone with red ftripes, of fragments of grey or red in-
durated marle, and geodes of brown iron-{tone ; the whole
cemented together by a grey lava, compofed of the more or
lefs comminuted grains of the fubftances that form the brec-
cia, and of fome black pyroxene. From the Habichtf{wald.
4. Var. compofed of various fragments of black bafaltic
lava, intimately conneéted by white and fhining calcareous
fpar, fufficiently hard to allow the breccia to be cut and
polifhed ; fometimes the compa lava adopts the reddifh
eqlour of ochre. From Rochemaure, Vivarais; alfo from
Monte-Bolca. ~5. Var. formed of more or lefs large frag-
ments of intenfely black, fhining, volcanic glafs, cemented
by white calcareous {par, fufceptible of a good polifh. From
Val di Noto. 6. Var. compofed of very fmall fragments
of a compact, greenifh-black, decompoted lava, fome of
which include grains of black pyroxene; in a-hard filiceo-
calcareous pafte, which is but little foluble in nitric acid. ,

C. Vulcanic tuffas, properly fo called, formed by the de-
tritus of different {pecies of granular, pulverulent, or earthy
lavas. ‘They appear to owe their origin to various circum-
ftances. Firft, they may, according to Fgujas, be confider-
ed as the refult of the fudden contaét of water with volcanic
fire; when, at the time of great fubterraneous convulfions,
a communication is fuddenly opened between the fea and
the igneous gulf. Secondly, the projeéted pulverulent lavas,

which are fometimés carried to a great diftance, fuch as thofe’
which buried Herculaneum and Pompei, or thofe which ac-
cumulate at the bottom of the fea in the vicinity of volcanoes,
and may, in the progrefs of time, produce depofitions, and
even more or lefs regular ftrata, of tuffa. Lattly, under fome
circumftances, the tuffas that were already depofited in the
fea, may have been again deplaced by currents, and mixed
with fhells and other marine produétions, and fometimes
even with land produ€tions, {wept into the fea by rivers, &c.
the current may, at different intervals, have depolited thefe
tuffas, as more or lefs regular layers.

1. Volcanic tuffa, compofed of white and grey, very
light pumice, in fmall fragments, adhering to each other.
From Pleyth, near Andernach, where it covers the quarries:
of trafs. 2. Var. with bafe of pumice reduced to fo fine
a powder, as to appear like a clayey fubftance, ferving as a
cement to numerous grains of a very light pumice, but lefs
rough to the touch than that of the bafe, which, moreover,
includes {mall nodules of real porous lava, of a brown colour,
and fometimes colourlefs. From the fame place, where it
forms a kind of trafs. 3. Var. formed of pumice in grains,
and fmall angular fragments of black bafaltic lava, fealy
particles of a fomewhat micaceous f{chiftus, cemented by a
patte of pumice reduced to powder. From the fame place ;
where it forms another variety of trafs, being of greater
folidity, and forming beds of upwards of fifty feet thicknefs,
in which fometimes charred wood is found. 4. Var. formed
of very {mall grains of lava, which is partly {coriated, of fome
grains of black pyroxene, and other grains of rounded
yellowifh olivine, cemented by grey and black pulverulent
lava, refembling fand-ftone. Is fometimes found in beds at
Carlfberg, in Heffia. A fimilar tuffa, of a dark grey colour,
with white points, is found on an elevated part of the Cantal,
in Auvergne. 5. Var. of a purplifh-grey colour, and re-
fembling, at firft fight, a fand-{tone, but in reality compofed
of the detritus of a purplifh lava, of a lefs altered compact
lava, and fome grains of black pyroxene. Near Roches
fauve, in Vivarais, where it forms thick beds, refting on
other ,tuffas, and overlaid by bafalt. 6. Var. gold yellow,
dotted with white, grey, and black, compofed of fmall
fragments .of bafalt, yellowifh-brown friable lava, fome
grains of olivine, and {mall particles of black pyroxene ;
alfo yellow ochrey nodules are found in it. his tuffa
forms confiderable beds, one above 'the other, at Roche-
fauve, in Vivarais. 7. Var. of a purplifh-brown colour,
with yellow ochrey, white and blackifh dots, compofed of
fmall angular fragments of black compaé lava, which has
loft fome of its hardnefs ; of {mall fragments of a white
marle, mixed with fome iron ; of particles of porous altered
lavas of an ochrey-yellow colour ; of grains of fhining
black pyroxene, and fome olivine in grains. It is attraéted
by the magnet. Found at the preceding place, where it
forms confiderable ftrata, overlaid by vatt bafaltic caufe-
ways. Alfo, in this tuffa large nodules of ochre are found.
The tuffas of the vicinity of Roche-maure, in Vivarais, are
fimilar to this: as likewife thofe of the neighbourhood of
Rome, of Naples, Campania, of the Euganean mountains,
of feveral parts of the Vicentine territory, &c. .

M. Faujas enumerates, at the end of this feétion, the
various animal and vegetable fubftances, fhells, madrepores,
and carbonized {pecies of wood, that have been found im-
bedded in volcanic tuffas. A feGion is alfo fet apart-to
volcanic pitch-ftones, divided into three clafles, vis. wood,
converted into pechftein, by volcanic fire ; flint, which has
undergone-the fame change; and porphyries converted into
what Werner calls pitchitone porphyry. The places affigned
to the firft of thefe varieties are, Aiferitein, near pace

ani

LA Vi A.

and Upper Hungary; the locality of the fecond is prin-
- eipally Auvergne ; which is alfo that of the fpecimens of
volcanic pitch{tone porphyry, here enumerated. To the latt
of thefe fubftances Faujas refers molt of fuch /aves réfinites,
or réfiniformes of Dolomieu, as contain cryttals of feld-
fpar, and feveral of which are found at Vulcano. Thefe
are faid to form a tranfition into
» Crass X. Lnamels (émaux), obfidians, and other volcanic
glaffis.—The prototypes of thefe are the different varieties
of trapp, compact feldfpar, and porphyry, which, accord-
ing as they are more or lefs fufible by volcanic fire, are,
under circumttances favourable to vitrification, converted into
the feveral kinds of glaffes that are found among volcanic
productions,

A. Enamels.—1. Grey, with greyifh-white, or greenifh
zones, opaque ; fome poresare vifible in the pafte, and, with
the help of a lens, alfo cryftals of feldfpar, or traces of
them. From the ifle of Afcenfion. 2. Var. of dark-grey
eolour, befprinkled all over with {mall round fpots of a
much lighter grey, and produced by fmall globules in the
fubftance of the enamel, which, in fome places, difplays an
intenfe, vivid-black colour. This fubftance, which is from
the ifland of Vulcano, bears diltin@ly the characters of a
variolitic lava converted into enamel. 3. Var. of a blackith-
grey colour, hard, opaque, in which fome dots of fufed
black pyroxene are ftill vifible. From the ifle of Ponza.
4. Var. of an intenfe black colour, approaching obfidian,
but more opaque, and of a rather greafy afpe&t. Irom the
Peak of Teneriffe. This enamelis fometimes covered with
a ruft-coloured cruft. In fome fpecimens {carcely any fo-
reign body is obfervable, except fome traces of white feld-
fpar; in others the mafs is rather lefs intenfely black and
more marked with {pots of white feldf{par, melted together

"with: the enamel without having entirely loft their original
tint. ‘
- B.—Real obfidian, or volcanic glafs.—1. Obfidian of a
Black colour, of conchoidal fra¢ture, divifible into fharp
fragments, of deep black colour, and tranflucid on the edges ;
thinner fragments almoft completely tranfparent, with
fearcely any traces of a fuliginous tint. It is fufible be-
fore the blowpipe into a very white, fhining, tranflucid glafs,
with minute fupertficial velicles, From Mount Hecla, Tene-
riffe, Afcenfion, Vulcano, Lipari, Ponza, &c. 2. Vur.ofa
globular form, black, opaque, but fometimes tranfparent,
and faintly turbid or fmoky. From Cap de Gates. Faujas
refers this fubitance (which has been called luchs-fap-
phire by fome writers) to the homogeneous volcanic glafles,
becaufe it eafily melts before the blowpipe into a white
enamel, and becaufe the globules are fometimes found im-
bedded in a greyifh enamel, approaching to lamellar pu-
mice. Thefe globules are not always fpherical. Their
fize is from that ofa {mall pea to *that of a large hazle-
nut. They are very light, though not porous; their
external luftre is un&tuous. 3. Var. forming a very fine
black glafs, with well defined, conchoidal fra€ture ; and frag-
ments nearly tranfparent on the edges, and of a weak olive-
brown colour. In fome parts white points and fome fmall
hollows are feen, which latter are lined with a white fufed,
rather vitreous, fubftance, which appears to owe its origin
to fuch grains of feld{fpar as did not experience a fufficient
degree of fufion to amalgamate with the obfidian. From
Cerro de las Marejas, in Mexico, 4. Var. with inteniely
black ground, and well defined fracture,, yielding fharp-
edged fragments; the whole of the brilliant mafs is filled
with {mall, white, opaque, globular, and oblong {pots,
clofely grouped together, and appearing ltke melted enamel,
put rather unctuous. From the Lipariiflands. 5. Var. of

.

,

a black colour, inclining to olive-green, difpofed in more or
lefs elongated, rather flexible, capillary filaments, often ter~
minated by very fmall, round, or oblong globules ; fulible
before the blowpipe into globules of a greenifh-black,
From the ifle of Bourbon. Lavas with {mall filiform par-
ticles of volcanic glafs have alfo occurred in the ifland
Vulcano. ‘Thefe are by fome mineralogilts looked upon as
filiform cryftals of augite or pyroxene ; but M. Faujas fays
he has fubje¢ted them to clofer examination, and found them
to be volcanic glafs.

C. Pumice flones.—The true pumice, fays Faujas, which
we fhould be careful not to confound with the lighteft lavas,
keeps the midway between the volcanic glafles and the ena-
mels: it generally derives its origin from a peculiar kind
of vitrification ‘of compact feldfpar, and fome porphy-
ritic rocks. Thofe of Lipari and Vulcano are the only
known volcanoes that have produced pumice in confiderable
quantity: the ifle of Lipari, in particular, is the valt
magazine that furnifhes almoft the whole of the immenfe
flores of this fubftance, confumed for the purpofes of dif.
ferent arts, in almoft all parts of Europe. In {mall quan-
tity and in infulated fragments it ccurs in the neighbour-
hood of feveral other volcanoes.

1. Pumice of a white colour, porous, light, rough to the
touch, and fufible. From Campo-Bianco, the Lipari ifles,
Valle-del-Aqua, near Otto-Jano, &c. 2. Var. of a filky
appearance, fibrous, and with capillary lineaments. From
the fame place. 3. Var. of a dark grey or black, fome-
times greyifh-white colour, with twifted pores; fibrous,
including, among its fibres, more or lefs indeterminable
cryftals of white feld{par, which, in fome of the fpecimens,
are only feen on the rifts. From Ifchia, Procida, from
the neighbourhood of Naples. At Lipari, the varieties
of black pumice are found in the hillock of the tomb of
the Nafos. 4. Var. of a whitifh colour, f{caly, light, fil-
very, and femi-tranfparent. From Lipari. 5. Var. the
fame, but heavy. Jbid. 6. Var. of a grey colour, light,
fibrous, with blackifh, fhining, fometimes cryftallized, mica.
Ina pumice from Herculaneum, from the neighbourhood
of Naples, from Ifchia, Procida, &c. 7. Light, po-
rous, or fibrous variety, with more or lefs angular no-
dules, and grains of black volcanic glafs. From Lipari,
Stromboli, Capo di Monte, at Scutello, in’ the neighbour-
hood of Naples; from Teneriffe, &c. 8. Var. the fame,
but whiter, with {mall thin fragments of a filvery-grey
fhiftus. In the tuffa from Pleyth and other places in the
vicinity of Andernach. 9. Var. with very {mall angular
and irregular fragments of a vitreous, itony fubftance, of a
fky-blue colour (now called Latialite, or Hattyne). Among
the varieties of pumice from Pleyth, &c. 10. Var. of a
greyifh-white colour, light, with nodules of obfidian ef va+
rious fizes. From Teneriffe and Lipari. 11. Ver. of a
dark grey, fometimes rather brownifh colour, heavier than
the preceding variety; with veficles, all of which are elon-
gated in one and the fame direétion: gives out fome fparks
when ftruck with fteel. From Lipari. 12. Var. of af
filvery-white, compofed of {mall lamellz, or fcales. Found
among the other varieties at Lipari: it is rather lighter
than the common white pumice.

Crass XI. Sulphur, and various faline fubjtances, found
Sublimated in volcanoes and folfataras.

The falts are: Glauber falt, nitre, alum, Epfom falt, mi-
neral alkali, rock falt, eforefcent, in filaments and cubes, fal
ammoniac, inrhombic, or dodecahedral cryftals, generally
of a topaz-yellow colour. Alfo gypfum, and calcareous
{par ; muriate of copper, in {mall deliquefcent cryttals 5
red and yellow orpiment. as

z3Ag Crag

L-A V

‘Crass XII. Volcanic irony viz. titaniferous iron, as fand,
and in {mall o&ahedral cryitals, from various places ; fpe-
cular iron from feveral volcanoes in Italy and France ;
phofphate of iron, as powder in porous lavas from Capo di
Bove, Etna, Val di Noto: orin {mall lamine, from Bouiche,
in the department of Allier, &c. ; iron pyrites, in fine grains 5
oxyds of iron; muriate of iron, of a yellow colour, from
Vefuvius and Etna’; and iron-vitriol, found in volcanic
grottos, in the ifland of Vulcano, ~

Several interefling obfervations on the nature of lava, and
the various phenomena it prefents under different circum-
ftances, are given by tir William Hamilton, father della Torre,
Bolis, Vata, Breiflach, Buch, and others, which will be
more particularly noticed under the article VoLcAno.

The purpofes for which the lava of Vefuvius, Etna, and
other volcanoes is employed, are particularly thofe of build-
ing and paving. Alfo the ancients made ule of it for thefe
purpofes, as appears from the prefence of Vefuvian lava
in the archite¢tural remains and pavements found in Her-
culaneum and Pompei, That of Etna appears to be ftill
more generally ufed for building, fince, according to
Ferrari, there is not a houfe in its neighbourhood that is
not conftruted of it. The rapid progrefs in the rebuilding
of Catania was, ina great meafure, owing to the facility with
which the building materials were procured. Alfo mill-ftones
are made of the lava of Etna, many of which are exported
to Calabria and Malta; and it has even been manufactured
into cannon balls. :

LAUACA, in Geography, a {mall ifland near the S. coaft
of Sardinia. N. lat. 39? 4!. KE. long. 8° 36'. ;

LAVACRUM, in Botany, a name given by fome authors
to the common wild teafel, or dip/acus /ylvs/iris major, Ger.
Emic. Ind. 2. :

LAUADEROS. See Lavatory.

LAVAGNA, in Geography, a fea-port town of Genoa,
at the mouth of a river of the fame name, which rifes in
the Apennines ; 12 miles W.N.W. of Brugnato.

LAVAL, acity of Fratice, and capital of the department
ef the Mayenne, fituated-on the river Mayenne. The num-
ber of inhabitants is eftimated at 14,154; the eaftern divi-
fion containing 6658, and the canton 15,175, on a territory
of 14 kiliometres, in g communes; and the wettern divifion
comprehending 7496, and its canton 15,000, on a territory
of 1224 kiliometres, in 6 communes. In the town and.its
environs are manufactures of linen, which yield 2 confiderable
commerce. N. lat. 48° 5’. W. long.-o? qt!

LAVAMUND, a town of the duchy of Carinthia, on
the Drave; the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of the archbifhop
of Salzburg; 24 miles E. of Clagenfurt. N. lat. 46°

PAM PCa) sin le is

LAVANDULA, in Botany, Lavender; fo called from
the Latin word /avo, to wath or befprinkle, alluding to its
ancient ufe in baths or fomentations, or to that of its diftilled
water in more moderntimes. Linn. Gen. 290. Schreb. 386.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 60. Mart. Mill. Di&. v.53. Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3.382. Sm. Prodr. Fl. Grac. Sibth.
v. 1. 499. Juff. 113. Tourr. t.93. Lamarck Tiluftr.
t. 5oq. Gertn. t. 66. (Stachas; Tourn. t.o5.)—Clafs
and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate,
Linn. Labiate, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, ovate, ob-«
fcurely toothed at the orifice, fhort, permanent, with a
braciea at its bafe. Cor. of one petal, ringent, reverled ;
tube cylindrical, longer than the calyx ; limb fpreading ;
xs larger lip turned upwards, cloven, f{preading ; the other
cireed downwards, in three roundifh, nearly equal, ‘eg-
ments, Stam. Filaments four, within the tube of the corolla,

8

LAY

fhort, pointing downwards, two of them fhorter than tha
relt ; anthers Fnall, Pift, Germen four-cleft ; flyle thread«
fhaped, the length of the tube; ttigma of two obtufe co«
hering lobes. eric. none, except the calyx, which pro-
te&ts the feeds, its mouth being clofed. Seeds four, obovate.

Eff. Ch. Calyx ovate, ob{curely toothed, attended by a
braétea. Corolla reverfed. Stamens enclofed in the tube.

Obf. The Stechas of Tournefort differs from his Lavan-
dula, in having the flowers ranged in many rows on the
fpike, and the whole crowned with an ornamental tuft of
floral leaves.

Six {pecies are deferibed in the lateft edition of Linneus,
eight m Willdenow, all of them admitted inte the new
Hortus Kewenfis, but the laft in the lift erroneoufly. The
reft are for the moft part known and efteemed in every gar-
den or green-houfe. Ail are fhrubby, with blue or pur-
plifh, fragrant, fpiked flowers, and their foliage is likewife
aromatic, generally of a grey or hoary-green, narrow, eithér
fimple or compound, he fpike is fupported on a longifh,
naked, {quare ftalk.

1. L. Spica. Common Lavender, or Spike.
Pl. 800. Woody. Med. Bot. t. 55. (Lavandula; Ger.
em. 583, 584. f.1—3. Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 54. f. 1, 2.)
—Leaves linear-lanceolate. Spike interrupted, naked at
the fummit.— Native of the fouth of Europe, hardy with
us, and cultivated for the fake of its fcent when dried.
To be ‘laid up in lavender’? is become proverbial for any
thing ftored up with peculiar care. The’ effential oil and:
diftilled water are fo generally ufed in perfumery, as to be
no unimportant articles of commerce. "The compound {piri-
tuous tinture, or lavender drops, is a popular cordial, very-
commodious for thofe who with to indulge ina dram, under
the appearance of an elegant medicine. This plant varies in
the breadth of its /aves, from linear to lanceolate, inclining
to obovate; hence the old writers defcribe and figure two
kinds. ‘The flowers are occafionally white, which alfo they.
have not omitted to notice.

2. L. Stechas. French Lavender., Linn. Sp. Pl.
8co. (Stechas arabica; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 55. Stw
five Spica hortulana; Ger. em. 585.)— Leaves linear, revo-
lute, hoary. Spike clofe, crowned with a coloured leafy
tuft. Braéteas fomewhat three-lobed.— Native of Spain,
Greece, the fouth of France, and the north of Africa. It
will not bear our winters without the fhelter of a green-
houfe. The kaves are much fmaller than in the former,
more ftrongly revolute. Spikes. uninterrupted, fhort, and
thick, on but fhortifh ftalks, their brafteas more or Jefs dif-
tin@ly three-lobed, purplifh and woolly ; thofe which crown
the top of the {pike, greatly dilated, wavy, undivided, of a
beautiful purple, much paler than the flowers; rarely
wanting.

3. L. viridis. Madeira Lavender. L?Herit. Sert. Ang}.
1g. Ait. Hort. Kew. n.3. Hoffm. and Link Lufit. v. 1.
gt. t. 4.—Leaves linear, revolute, rugofe, villous, Spike
clofe, crowned with a leafy tuft. Braéteas undivided.—
Native of Madeira, from whence it was fent to Kew by
Mr. Maffon in 1777. It differs from the laft in its rngofe,
green and villous, not hoary, /eaves, its undivided bradeas,
and its green, not puryle, crown of the /pike.

a. L. dentata. Tooth-leaved Lavender. Linn. Sp. Pl.
8-0. Curt. Mag. goo. t. gor. (Stechas folio ferrato ;
Ger. em. 586.)—Leaves linear, finely pinnatifid, pectinate.
Spike clofe, witha leafy crown. - Native of Spain, the north
of Africa, and fome parts of the Levant, not of Greece.— ~
The very neatly-toothed /eaves diftinguifh this fpecies Its
Jpikes tand on long ftalks, and are crowded, pale, with all
the bradeas large, coloured, and fomewhat aims a

ew

Linn Sp.

LAVANDULA.

few at the top being rather the largeft, and ‘deftitute of
flowers, as in the two laft. The corolla is often white.
This is one of the fpecies that has been longelt cultivated
in England, having been preferved in the dwelling-houfe
before green-houfes or ftoves were invented.

5. L. pinnata. Pinnated Lavender. Linn. fil. Diff. g.
t.1. Am. Acad. v. ro. 52. t.2. Curt. Mag. gor. t. 400.
Jacq. Mifc. v 2. 318. Ic. Rar, t. 106.—Leaves deeply
pinnatifid ; their fegments wedge-fhaped, obtufe, nearly en-
tire. Spike linear, {emewhat branched.—Native of Madeira,
from whence Mr. Maffon fent it in 1777. The /eaves are
finely hoary, with little fcent, elegantly pinnatifid, and diftin-
guifhed by their obtufe wedge-like fegments. The /pikes
itand on very long ftalks, and are much more flender than
any of the former, often compound. ‘he éradeas are im-
bricated, uniform, ovato-lanceolate, pointed, coriaceous, not
membranous, flightly coloured, and there is no leafy crown
at the fommit. The corol/a is of a delicate blueifh-purple,
like the Common Lavender, but larger and more fhowy.

6. L. multifida. Cut-leaved Canary Lavender. Linn.
Sp. Pl. 800. (L. folio multifido; Rivin. Monop. Irr. t. 54.
f.3. Stechas multifida; Ger. em. 585.)—Leaves. doubly
pinnatifid, hoary. Spike ovate, moftly fimple. Bractteas
woolly, elliptical, with diftant ribs. - Native of Spain, Bar-
bary, and the Canary iflands. One of the fpecies longeit
cultivated in England, though it requires prote¢tion
in winter. The Hortus Kewenfis marks this plant as bien-
nial, and we have a French fpecimen marked anoual. It
has certainly more of an herbaceous than fhrubby appearance.
The Jeaves are hoary, doubly and very deeply pinnatifid,
with decurrent feements, whofe extremities are acute, and
in fome meafure elliptical. Spites rather ovate and thick,
very rarely, if ever, producing a {mall branch or two from
the bottom. Braéeas membranous, broadly elliptical, be-
{prinkled with wool, furnifhed with three ftrong ribs, equally
dittant from each other, and from the edge. ‘There are no
barren leafy bra€teas at the top.

7. L. abrotanides. SouthernWood-leaved Canary Laven-
der. Lamarck Did. v. 3. 429. Willd. n. 7. (LL. folio
longiori, tenumis ct elegantius difecto ; Tourn, Init. 198.
Comm. Rar. t. 27.)—Leaves doubly pinnatifid, with linear
fegments, nearly {mooth. Spike lmear, moftly branched
and interrupted. Bracteas finoothith, ovate, with approxi-
mated ribs.—Native of the Canaries, long known in gardens.
The flem is fhrubby. Leaves with finer, more linear, and
greener fegments than in the laft. The narrownefs and
branching nature of the /pites more accord with L. pinnata
than with muliifda, with which latter this fpecies has long
been confounded. The draéeas alfo molt refemble thofe of
pinnata, but are more membranous, and far lefshoary. Their
ribs generally three, fometimes five, are always clofer toge-
ther than in mu/tifida.

The eighth {pecies of Willdenow, L. carnofa, Linn. fil.
Diff. 9. t.2.. Am. Acad. v. 10.52. t. 3. (Katu-Kurka;
Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 10. 17g. t. 90.), found by Koenig on
dry walls and rocks at Sadrafs in the Eaft Indies, and fent to
Kew in 1788 by fir Jofeph Banks, where it is kept in the
ttove, being a tender biennial, is moft certainly not a Lavan-
dula, but a Pledranthus, ‘as its habit, and the large deflexed
upper fegment of its calyx, both evince. See PLecTRAN-
THUS.

Lavanputa, in Gardening, comprifes plants of the
fhrubby evergreen kind, of which the {pecies cultivated are,
the common lavender (L. fpica) ; the French lavender
(L. ftechas) ; the tooth-leaved lavender (L. dentata).; and
the Canary lavender (L. multifida).

' The firft fort has varieties with narrow leaves with blue

flowers, and with white flowers with broad leaves, and dwarf
lavender.

It may be remarked that this {pecies is the common la-
vender; but the narrow-leaved variety with blue flowers 1s
the fort cultivated for its flowers for medicinal purpofes.

And that the broad-leaved fort has much fhorter and
broader leaves, and the branches are fhorter, more compatt,
and fuller of leaves ; it continues feveral years without pro-
ducing flowers ; and when it does, the leaves on the fowering-
{talks approach nearer to thofe of the common lavender, but
are ftill broader; the ttalks grow taller, the {pikes are loofer
and larger, the flowers {maller, and appear a little later in
the featon.

The fecond kind has varieties with white flowers; and
with purple flowers.

The fourth {pecies has a variety which rifes with an up-
right, branching, fquare ftaik, four feet high; the leaves
longer, and cut into narrower fegments than the Spanith
plant ; they are of a lighter green, and almo{t {mooth ; the
naked flower-ftalk is alfo mach longer, and terminated with
a clutter of {pikes of blue flowers; at two or three inches
below thefe are two {mall fpikes, one on each fide ; the
flowers are fmaller than thofe of the firit fort.

Method of Culture. —AN\ the forts are readily increafed, by
planting flips or cuttings of their young fhoots in the {pring
With the firft two forts, a quantity of flips or cuttings
fhould be taken off in the early {pring, as March or April,
from three or four, to fix inches long, {tripping off the
under leaves, then planting them in a fhady border, four
inches afunder, giving a good watering, and repeating it oc-
cafionally in dry weather. When the plants are well rooted in
fummer, they fhould be tranfplanted into the places where
they are to grow early in autumn, as September or O€tober,
with balls of earth about their roots.

And where the firft fort is intended to produce flowers
for economical purpofes, it fhould be planted in rows, two
or three feet afunder, and about the fame diltance in the
rows, or ina fingle row one or t o feet afunder, along the
edges or divifions of garden-grounds, in a fort of edging or
dwarf hedge; in either of which modes the plants grow
freely, continuing in root, ftem, and branches feveral years,
and produce abundance of fpikes of flowers annually for
gathering in the latter end of fummer; the culture after-
wards is principally to cut down any remaining decayed:
flower-ftalks in autumn, pruning or cutting away any dif-
orderly out-growing branches at top and fides, and digging
the ground occationally in {pring or autumn: along the rows’
of plants.

In regard to the fecond fort, it may alfo often be raifed
from feeds, which fhould be fown in a bed of light earth in-
the early fpring, and raked in evenly with a light hand;
The plants rife in about a month, when, if there be dry
weather, water fhould be given; and after they are three’
inches high, they fhould be pricked out in beds, half a foot
apart, watering them as they require, until frefh rooted.
They fhould ttand here till the following {pring, and then:
be thinned out, and planted where they are to remain.

The third and fourth forts may be increafed by flips and
cuttings, planted in pots, in the early {pring months, and
placed under frames, due water, and fhade from the mid-
day fun, being given till they are rooted; when a little ad-
vanced in growth, tranfplanted into feparate {mall pots, and
managed as other green-houfe exotic plants.

The two firft forts are ufeful for their fine fpikes or
flowers, as well as ornamental in affemblage with other
fhrubby plants, in the borders and clumps of pleafure=
grounds ; and the two lait forts in the green-houfe apiaig

with.

LAY

avith other plants. Thofe defigned for fhrubberies or other
fimilar places, being previoufly raifed to fome tolerable bufhy
growth, and a foot high or more, fhould be planted either
in the early auttimn, or in the {pring, difpofing them fingly
at proper diftances in the fronts of the clumps, borders, &c.
Sde LAVENDER.

Lavanputa, Laverder, in the Materia Medica. The
common lavender, or lavandula fpica, was formerly confi-
dered, fays Woodville, as a {pecies of Nardus, and appears
to be the pfeudo-nardus of Matthiolus.and Pliny. This
plant, which grows fpontaneoufly in many of the fouthern
parts of Europe, appears from Turner to have been culti-
vated.in England previoufly to the year 1568. Thefragrant
{mell of the flowers is well known, and to moft perfons is
agreeable ; to the talte they are bitterifh, warm, and fome-
avhat pungent ; the leaves are weaker, and lefs grateful.

The flowers and fummits of the narrow-leaved or common
Javender are, in a very eminent degree, cephalic and nervine.
‘They are often employed as a perfume, and medicinally.as
mild ftimulants and corroborants, in palfies, vertigoes, le-
thargies, and tremors of the limbs, both internally and ex-
ternally.

The flowers are fometimes ufed in the form of a conferve,
into which they are reduced by beating them, while frefh,
with thrice their weight of double refined fugar. Water ex-
traGts by infufion nearly all the virtue both of the leaves and
flowers : in diftillation with water, the leaves yield a {mall
portion of effential oil; but the flowers, in their moft per-
fect mature itate, about one ounce from fixty. Woodville
obferves, that in order to obtain the largeft quantity of effen-
tial oil from thefe and molt other flowers of this kind, they
fhould be allowed to grow to their full maturity, and be
dried for fome time. This oil is of a bright yellow colour,
avery pungent tafte, and pofleffes, if carefully diftilled, the
fragrance of the lavender in perfection; it is given internally
from one drop to five, and employed in external applications
for {timulating paralytic limbs, and for dettroying cutaneous
infe&ts. It is alfo faid, that if fpongy paper be dipped in
this oil, and applied to the parts, it immediately kills the
pediculi inguinaics. Retified fpirit extras the virtue of
Javender more completely than water. .The fimple fpivit of
lavender, prepared by pouring a gallon of proof fpirit on
two pounds of the frefh gathered flowers, adding water fuf-
ficient to prevent empyreuma, macerating for 24 hours, and
diitillmg a gallon by a gentle fire, is richly impregnated with
the fragrance of the flowers.
which other aromatics are joined to the lavender, have been
diftinguifhed by the name of Englifh or palfy drops: the
college of London (1809) dire¢ts three pints of the fimple
{pirit of lavender, and one pint of f{pirits of rofemary, to be
digefted on half an ounce of cinnamon, half an ounce of
nutmegs, both bruifed, and an ounce of red fanders wood
fliced as a colouring ingredient, macerating for.14 days, and
then {training ; the college of Edinburgh, to the fame quan-
tity of both fpirits, orders one ounce of cinnamon, two
drams of cloves, half an ounce of nutmegs, and three drams
of red fanders. ‘Thefe preparations are taken internally on
fugar or in any convenient vehicle, from ten to one hundred
drops, and ufed externally in embrocations, &c.

The medicinal virtue of lavender refides in the effential oil,
which is fuppofed to be a gentle corroborant and _{timulant
of the aromatic kind; and is tecommended in nervous debi-
lities and various affections proceeding from a want of energy
in the animal functions. According to Dr. Cullen (Mat.
Med. vol. ii.) it is, “whether externally applied or given
internally, a powerful ftimulant to the nervous fyftem ; and
among the others of this order, named, cephalics, the la-

More compounded fpirits, in ,

“

ee ake W

vender has a very good and perhaps the beft title to it.’’
And he further fays, ‘¢it appears to me probable, that it
will {eldom go farther than exciting the energy of the brain
to a fuller impulfe of the nervous power into the nerves of
the animal funétions, and feldom into thofe of the vital. It
was, however, with great propriety, that profeflor Murray
diffuaded its ufe where there is any danger from a tt-
mulus applied to the fanguiferous fy{tem. It is however ftill
probable, that lavender commonly itimulates the nervous.
{y{tem only, and therefore may be more fafe in palfy than
the warmer aromatics, efpecially if the lavender be not
given in a {pirituous menftruum, or along with heating aro-
matics, which however is commonly done in the cafe of the
fpiritus lavendule compofitus.”? The officinal preparations
of lavender are the effential oil, a fimple f{pirit, and a com-
pound tin&ture, already mentioned.

The broad-leaved lavender, a variety of the former, to
which foreign writers have given the name of {pike, is
ftronger both in fmell and tafte than the other, and yields in
diftillation almoft thrice as much effential oil ; but the flavour
of the oil and of the plant itfelf is much lefs grateful: the
oil is likewife of a much darker colour, inclining to green.
This oil, mixed with Sths of retified {pirit, or oil of turpen-
tine, was the “‘ Oleum fpice,”’ formerly highly celebrated
as an application to indolent tumours, old {prains, dileafed
joints, Ke. See Oil of SPIKE. ;

LAVANGE, in Geography, one of the Virgin iflands in
the Welt Indies; three miles S.E. from the ifland of St.
Thomas. .

LAVANSAARI, an ifland of Ruffia, on the coaft of
Livonia, 80 miles from the capital, four miles and a half
long, and two broad, furrounded on the N.W. fide by iflets
and fhallows, having three tolerable harbours, and occupied
by about 40 families. Some patches of foil are cultivated,
and in the middle of the ifland is a {mall lake.

LAVANT Ses, a lake of Stiria; nine miles E: of Neu~
marck,

LAVARA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Hifpania,
inthe interior of Lufitania. Ptolemy. :

LAVARDAGC, in Geography, atown of France, in the
department of the Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftri&t of Nérac. The place contains 928, and
the canton 9482 inhabitants, on a territory of 1824 kilio-
metres, in 13 communes,

LAVARETUS, in Jchthyology, the name of a {mall fith
called by fome the gang-//h, and the rhingau, and by Mare-
grave the curimata. It feems of a middle nature, between
the trout and herring kind, and is caught in va{t quantities,
in the months of March and April, in feveral of the lakes:
in Germany, and is pickled, and fent to different parts of

the world. It feldom grows to more than four inches
long.
Lavaretus. See Satmo Lavaretus.

LAVATER, Joun Gasparp CurisTIAN, in Biogra-
ply, was born at Zurich in 1741. He was intended for
the Proteftant miniitry, and’entered upon holy orders in
1761. He acquired an early reputation by the eloquence of
his pulpit difcourfes, and the zeal and benevolence with
which he fulfilled the duties of his fun€tions. He felt an
early propenfity to read the human countenance, and fre-
quently exercifed the pencil in {ketching fuch features as had
made a particular impreffion on him, which he ftudied with
great attention. Accident led him to the ftudy of phy-
fiognomy ; ftanding at a window with Dr. Zimmerman, he
was led to make fome remarks on the fingular countenance
of a foldier that was pafling by, which induced the phyfician
to urge him to purfue and methodize his ideas. He accord~

ingly

L Av:

ingly began the purfuit, and in procefs of time, with the na-
tural progrefs of an enthufiaftical mind, acquired not only a
fondnefs for the ftudy, but a full conviétion of the reality
of the phyfiognomical fcience, and of his own great dif-
coveries in it. In 1776, he publifhed the firft fruits of his
labours in a quarto volume, entitled « Fragments.””? He
took in them a wide range of inquiry, and carried his ideas
of phyfiognomy beyond the obfervation of thofe parts of the
countenance which exhibit to a common eye the impreflions
of mental qualities and affections, and maintained, as a lead-
ing pofition, “ that the powers and faculties of the mind have
reprefentative figns in the folid parts of the countenance,”
‘Two more volumes appeared in fucceflion, which prefented
a mott extraordinary aflemblage of curious obfervations,
fubtle and refined reafoning, delicate feeling, and philan-
thropical and pious fentiment, together with a large admix-
ture of paradox, mytticifm, whim, and extravagance. ‘The
whole is illuftrated with a great number of engravings ; many
of which are highly finifhed and fingularly expreffive. The
work was foon tranflated into the French and Englihh lan-
guages, and fora time became the favourite topic of literary
difeuffion, The work now is rarely referred to except for
the plates; the fcience itfelf is gone into utter neglect.
Lavater is well known for a work entitled ‘* Aphorifms on
Man,” of which an Englifh tranflation was publifhed in
rSmo. in the year 1788. He was a zealous Chriltian, and
tranflated into the German language ‘ Bonnet’s Enquiry
into the Evidences of Chriftianity.’” His popularity as a
preacher and paftor was extremely great at Zurich, where
the people exhibited to him tokens of the higheft refpe¢t and
the molt affeCtionate veneration, and he was applied to by
perfons of all ranks as the arbiter of controverfies among
them. His moral charaéter was exemplary, and his ardent
zeal for doing good was fcarcely at any time furpafled. No
man was ever a more determined oppofer to tyranny and in-
tolerance in every fhape; he had the true Swifs zeal for li-
berty. This noble fpirit rendered him a friend to the French
revolution at the outfet, but when the republican rulers be-
gan to difplay a fyltem of rapine and extortion, and to ex-
tend this even to Switzerland, he was the boldelt of their
antagonilts. When Zurich was ftormed in 1797, he rufhed
into the ftreets, and received a fevere wound in the breatt from
a Swifs foldier, on whom he had conferred important benefits.
From the effe&ts of this he never entirely recovered; but
the activity of his mind was unfubdued till a fhort time be-
fore his death, which happened on the 2d of January 1801,
when he was in the fixtieth year of hisage. A warm defire
to promote the honour of God, and the good of his fellow
creatures, was the principal feature in his character, and
the leading motive of all he did. Next to thefe were an in-
defatigable placability, and an inexhauftible love for his
enemies. Monthly Mag. Ann. Regilter.
LAVATERA, in Botany, fo named by Tournefort, in
the Memoirs of the Academy of Paris for 1706, after Dr.
Lavater, a phyfician of Zurich, who is faid to have written
nothing on the fubjeét of botany, nor have we any informa-
tion concerning him, Linn. Gen. 354. Schreb. 465.
Willd. Sp. PI. v. 3. 793. Mart. Mill Di&. v. 3..Sm. Fi.
Brit. 742. Juff, 272. Cavan. Diff. 86. Lamarck. Illuftr:
t. 5S2. Gaertn. t. 136.—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Po-
lyandria. Nat. Ord. Columnifere, Linn. Malvaceae, Juff.
_ Gen. Ch. Cal. Periantn double ; the outer of one leaf,
three-cleft, obtufe, fhortelt, permanent ; inner of one leaf,
“eut half way down into five fegments, fharper and more
ereét, lkewife permanent. Cor. Petals five, inverfely
heart-fhaped, flat, fpreading, their lower parts attached to
the tube of the filaments. Sam. Filaments numerous, united

]

LAV

below into a tube, feparating loofely at its top and fides,
anthers kidney-fhaped. /Pi/?, Germen fuperior, orbicular
depreffed ; ftyle cylindrical, fhort ; ftigmas feveral, from
feven to fourteen, briftle-fhaped, as long as the ftyle. Peric.
Capfules numerous, equal in number to the {tigmas, of two
valves, opening inwards, ranged in a depreffed circle round
the columnar receptacle, at length deciduous, Seeds foli-
tary, kidney-fhaped.

Eff. Ch. Calyx double ; the outer three-cleft.
numerous, ranged in a circle, fingle-feeded.

One of the moft handfome of the malvaceous order, at
leaft of thofe found in Europe, to which quarter of the
world, and the north of Africa,the whole genus is confined ;
for the Linnean LZ. americana is no other than Sida abuti-
Ioides oF Jacquin, and Willdenow, n. 48. Eight {pecies, ex-
clufive of this, are detailed in Syft. Veg. ed. 14 ; Willdenow
has twelve, feven of which are fhrubby, five herbaceous
and-moftly annual.

Inthe firft fection are

L. arborea. Sea Tree-Mallow. Linn. Sp. PI. 972. Ca-
van. Diff. t. 139. f. 2. Engl. Bot. t- 841.—Stem arbore-
fcent. Leaves downy, plaited, with feven angles. Flower-
ftalks axillary, cluitered, fingle-flowered.—Found upon
rocky cliffs on the fouth-weft coaft of England and eaft
coaft of Scotland, as well as in other parts of Europe,
flowering in July and Auguft. It is naturally biennial,
though of a fhrubby habit and above fix feet high, for it blof-
foms but once, thoughic will, ina garden, fometimes furvive
many winters before that event takes place. ‘he /fem is
round and thick, branching at the top chiefly, where it
forms a leafy head. The /eaves are alternate, ftalked,
pliable and downy, of feven fhallow crenate lobes. H/owers
numerous, axillary, purple, very like thofe of the common
Malva fyveftris, but rather more handfome.

L. iriloba. Three-lobed Tree-Mallow. Linn. Sp. Pl. 972.
Jacq. Hort. Vind, y. 1. 30. t. 74.—Stem fhrubby. Leaves
rounded, crenate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, flightly three-
lobed. Stipulas heart-fhaped. Flower-ftalks aggregate, fingle-
flowered.—Found on the coatis of Spain and France. With
us it isa greenhoufe plant, not eafily kept nor much valued,
being far more beautiful on its native rocks, where the light
hoary green of its copious foliage, is prettily contrafted with
the large, very delicate, rofe-coloured flowers. ‘The broad

Jlpulas are remarkable. ;

L. maritima. Soft Single-flowered Tree-Mallow. Gouan.
Iluftr. 46. t. 21. f. 2. (Althea frutex Clufii; Ger.em. 933%);
—Stem fhrubby. Leaves rounded, crenate, bluntly angular,
foftand downy. Stalks axillary, folitary, lingle-flowered.—
Native of Spain andthe fouth of France. Linnzus did not
diftinguifh its fynonyms from the laft, though it differs
abundantly inthe much greater foftnefs of the aves, want
of flipulas, and the folitary flower-/lalks. Vhe flowers
are large and elegant, of alight.purple with dark claws.
We have feen this fpecies bloffeming in Mr. Angeritein’s,
fine confervatory at Blackheath, but it finds no place in the
ift edition of Hort. Kew. or the 5th of Hort. Cant.

Of the fecond feétion are

L: thuringiaca. Gteat-flowered Lavatera. Linn. Sp..
Pl.973. Jacq. Auftr. t. 311. Curt. Mag. t. 577.—Stem
herbaceous, downy. Leaves fomewhat downy ; the lower
ones angular ; the upper three-lobed. Flower-italks axillary,
fingle-flowered.—Native of Hungary, Tartary, Germany,
&c. about hedges; a hardy perennial in our gardens,
flowering from July to September, and propagated eiher
by root or by feed; yet as Curtis obferves “it is rarely
met, with in any ‘of our colle¢tions ;”’-poflibly becaufe the
trimeftris is preferred, The lems are few, erect, three or

: four

Capfules:

«

LAY

four feet high, clothed with fhort foft hairs. Leaves ftalked,
dependent, but flightly downy. Flowers on long folitary
ftalks, with large, pink, veiny petals, inverfely heart-fhaped,
their finufes « puckered’? as Curtis fays; but this is not re-
prefented by Jacquin in his wild plant, and is perhaps an in-
dication of luxuriance only.

L. cretica. Small-flowered Layatera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 973.
Jacq. Hort. Vind. v 1. 15. t. 41.—Stem herbaceous, rather
hairy. Leaves acutely five-lobed. Flower-(talks axillary,
aggregate.—Native of Crete, cultivated by Miller in 1768,
and we believe ttill preferved in Chelfea garden, coming up
{pontaneoufly from feed, the root being annual. ‘There is
nothing to recommend «it to general admiration, the flowers
being far lefs ornamental than the wild Malva fylveftris, which
the plant refembles in herbage. We have. a {pecimen from
the Goettingen garden named Lavatera /ylveftris of Link.

L. trimelris. Spanifh Annual Lavatera. Linn. Sp. Pl. 974.
Jacq. Hort. Vind, v. 1.29. t.72. Curt. Mag. t.199.—
Scem herbaceous, rough with deflexed hairs. Leaves
{moothi{h, heart-fhaped, angular ; the lower ones rounded.
Flower-ftalks folitary, fhorter than the leaves.—Native of
Spain, France, and the Levant, a hardy annual in our
gardens, where it is raifed without trouble, producing
abundance of large, pink or white, very fhowy bloffoms,
all fummer long. The Jjiem is branched, two feet high,
rough in the upper part efpecially, with fimple deflexed
haivs. ‘The /eaves are nearly fmooth on the upper fide,
more or lefs downy beneath, all heart-fhaped; the upper ones
moft angular, the lower more rounded, but {till rather lobed.
Flower-/lalks hairy, fhorter than the leaves.

L. punGata, Dotted-ltalked Lavatera. Allion, Au€uar.
26. Willd. n, 14. (Malva folio vario; Bauh. Prodr. 137.
t. 137-)—Stem herbaceous, rough with ftarry points.
Leaves downy ; the lower ones rounded, the upper haftate.
Flower-italks folitary, elongated —Native of the country
about Nice, according to Allioni, who firft, among modern
botanifts, determined this very diitiné fpecies, but did not
advert to Bauhin’s fynonym, which Linneus had referred
to the preceding, but which, from the excellent figure and
defcription, we have no hefitation in applying to this. Z.
pundata is an annual, diftinguifhed from the lait by its {tarry
pubefcence, much more downy foliage, and much fmaller
purple fowers, on longer and more flender ftalks. The
leaves alfo grow on long footftalks, and differ greatly. in
fhape, the lower ones being heart-fhaped, fhort and rounded,
fkghtly lobed; fome higher up deeply and fhar ply five-lobed ;
but molt of the upper ones haftate; all are crenate. The
calyx is foft and downy.

Lavarera, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
herbaceous perennial kinds, of which the fpecies moft ge-
nerally cultivated are the Cretan lavatera (L. cretiea); the
common annual Javatera (L. trimeftris) ; the great-flowered
lavatera (L. thuringiaca) ; the tree lavatera or mallow
(L. arborea) ; the downy-leaved lavatera (L. olbia) ; the
three-lobed Javatera (L. triloba) ; and the Portuguefe
lavatera, (L. lufitanica.)

The firtt fort varies with red flowers, with white flowers,
and with purple flowers.

The fecond kind has likewife feveral varieties.

Method of Culture—TVhe firft two, or annual forts, are
readily increafed, by fowing the feeds in a light foil in the
places where the plants are to remain, or in pots, in the
{pring feafon, as about the latter end of March, in patches
of four or five in each, giving them water occafionally when
the weather is dry. When the plants have attained a little
growth, they fhould be thinned out to cne or two of the
itrongeft plants. When any are to be removed to other

LAV

places, it fhould be done at this period, and with a little
earth about the roots, due water and fhade being given; but
they feldom fucceed well by tranfplanting.

All the other fhrubby perennial forts may likewife be in-
crealed by fowing the feeds, and managing the plants in
the fame manner. Molt of thefe forts will not laft more
than two years in this climate, unlefs the foil be dry, when
they continue three or four. é

They in general require a warm dry fituation, or to have
their roots covered by old tan, or the proteétion of the green-
houfe during the feverity of the winter feafon.

‘Thefe plants are highly ornamental in different parts of
pleafure-grounds. The annual forts have great beauty, in
their flowers being large, numerous, and con{picuous, and are
proper where large fhowy-flowering plants are required,
The perennial kinds are alfo fuitable for large borders and
fhrubbery. compartments, having large, ftraight, upright,
durable {tems, terminated by branchy bufhy heads, and very
large foft foliage; that form a variety in affemblage with
other plants, though their flowers are often hidden by their
large leaves. :

LAVATION, in Antiquity, a feaft of the Romans, in
honour of the mother of the gods, inflituted in memory of
the day when the worfhip of Cybele was transferred from
Phrygia to’ Rome, and celebrated on the twenty-fifth of
March. ; ;

LAVATORY, or Lavaneno, a name given to certain
places in Chili afd Peru, where gold is got out of earth by
wafhing. j

M, Frezier gives us the following defeription of the lava-
tories of Chili: they dig deep into the earth, in fuch places
as they have reafon to expect gold in; and, in order to fa-
cilitate this digging, they turn a ftream of water upon the
fpot, loofening the earth as much as poffible all the time, ~
that the current may have the greater effe€t, and tear up the
earth more ftrongly. When they are got to the earth they
want, they turn off the ftream, and dig dry.

The earth that they now get is carried on mules, and
difcharged into a bafon, made fomewhat in the manner of
a f{mith’s bellows, into which a little rivulet of water runs
with a great deal of rapidity, diffolving the parts of the
earth, and carrying every thing away with,it, excepting the
particles of gold, which, by their great weight, precipitate
to the bottom of the bafon, and mix with a fine black fand,
where they are almoft as much hidden as they were before
in the earth. See Hifcry of Gop. : i :

Sometimes they find very confiderable pieces in lavatories,
particularly fome pieces of 24 ounces each. There are
feveral lavatories where they find thefe pepitas, or pieces
of virgin gold, of a prodigious fize. Among others, they
tell of one that weighed 512 ounces, bought by the coun
de la Moncloa, viceroy of Peru.

Nine or ten leagues to the ealt of Coquimbo are the la-
vatories of Andacoll; the gold of which is 23 carats fine.
Their work here always turns to great profit, excepting
when the water fails them. The natives maintain that the
earth is creative (creatrix) ; that is, it roduces gold con-
tinua!ly ; becaufe, after having been wathed fixty or eighty
years, they find it impregnated afrefh, and draw almett as
much out of it as at firlt.

LAVATRIS, in Aacient Geography, a piace of Great
Britain, mentioned in Antonine’s 5th Iter, fituated between
Cataraétoni or Cataract, and Verteris or Bough, and fup-
pofed to be Bowes in Yorkhhire. ;

LAVAUR, in Geography, a town of France, and chief
place of a diftriét, in the department of the Tarn, before

the revolution the fee of a bifhop; 18 miles N.E. of ees
2 Jowfe,

L AU

ionfe. "The place contains 6237, and the canton 14,730 in-
habitants, on a territory of 2524 kiliometres, in 22 com-
munes. N. lat. 43° 4’. Je. long. 1° 53".
LAUBACH, a town of Germany, in the principality
‘ef Solms Laubach; 40 miles N.E. of Mentz. N, lat.
ova), , 2. long’, 8? sy!

LAUBAN, or Lrsan, a town of Lufatia, on the
river Qucifs, furrounded by a wall and fome baittions, The
trade of the place in cloth and linen is conliderable ; 13 miles
E S.E. of Gorlitz.

LAUCHA, a town of Saxony, in Thuringia, on the
Unitrutt; 32 miles N.E of Erfurt. N. lat. 517 14’. E.
long. 11° 47’.

LAUCHHEIM, a town of Germany, belonging to the
Teutonic knights; 10 miles W. of Nordlingen. N, lat.
45° 50'. E. long. 10° 14/.

LAUCHSTADT, a town of Saxony, in the territory
of Merfeburg; 4 miles W. of Merfeburg. N. lat. 51° 26’.
© long. 12° 1!:

LAUCKISSKEN, atown of Pruffia, in the circle of
Samland ; 25 miles E.N.E. of Konigfberg.

LAUD, Wir.14m; in Biography, archbifhop of Canter-
bury, the fon of a clothier of Reading, in Berkthire, was
born in Oftober 1572, and having received his grammar
learning at the fchool of that tewn, he was fent to the
univerfity of Oxford in 1589, where he was entered of St.
John’s college. Of this college he was admitted a fellow,
and at the proper periods he took his degrees. In early
life he was efteemed by all who knew him as a very forward,
confident, zealous perfon. He was ordained deacon in
1600, and in the following year he took prieft’s orders,
and read a divinity’ leGture in the college. It was about
this time that he maintained the conftant and perpetual vi-
fibility of the church of Chriit, derived from the apoitles
to the church of Rome, and continued in that church ‘till
the reformation, In 1603, he was chofen proctor of the
univerlity, and in the fame year he was appointed chaplain
to Charles Blount, earl of Devonfhire. In 1604, he took
lis degree of bachelor of divinity, and in the exercife which
he performed on this occafion he maintained the neceffity
of baptifm ; and that there could be no true church without
diocefan bifhops. From the drift of his difcourfe he was
fuppofed to be ftrongly inclined to popery. Dr. Abbot
had already been his antagonift, and on this occafion he
mgde no {cruple of charging him with being a Papiit in the
molt public manner, fo that it was fearcely fafe to be con-
fidered his friend and companion. In the’year 1605, Mr.
Laud married the earl of Devonfhire, his patron, to Pene-
lope, the late wife of lord Rich, who had been divorced
from him for adultery. In juitification of himfelf, he
contended that the innocent and guilty might lawfully marry
again, after a divorce had been obtained. The part which
the took in this affair expofed him to much cenfure from the
public, gave great offence to the fovereign, and made fo
‘deep an impreffion on the mind of Laud, that he ever after-
wards, obferved the anniverfary of the marriage as a day of
éaiting and humiliation. His firft preferment in the church
was to the vicarage of Stamford, in Northamptonfhire, in
the year 1607, which led to other fituations of more value
and importance. In 1611, he was elected prefident of St.
John’s college, and very foon after was appointed one of
his majelty’s chaplains. He had now great hopes of rifing
with rapidity to the higheft honours, but his expeCtations
were fo completely difappointed, that in the year 1614 he
had determined to withdraw from the court. By the per-
fuafion of Dr. Neile, bifhop of Lincoln, he was induced to
remain there another year ; to keep up his fpirits the pré-

Vout. XX.

LA U

late gave him a prebend in the church of Lincoln, and, in
the following year, the archdeaconry of Huntingdon. In
1616, the king prefented Dr. Laud to the deanery of
Gloucefter, and at the fame time required him to reform
and fet in order whatever was amifs in that cathedral.
He was diligent in obeying the royal mandate, and made
great alterations in the church, which being effeéted, he re-
commended, that the members of that church fhould make
their humble reverence to God not only at their firlt en-
trance into the choir, but at their approaches fo the holy
table, which he had removed from the middle of the church
to the eaft end of the choir. Thefe changes gave great
offence to many perfons on account of their fuperfliticus
tendency, particularly to Dr. Miles Smith, bifhop of
Gloucelter, who from that moment would never enter the
church again fo long as he lived. Laud now began to take
an active part again{t the Puritans ; and he was ajfo very de-
firous to bring the church of Scotland to an uniformity
with that of England: with this view he attended the king
in a journey to Scotland, but nothing was gained by the ex-
pentive tour, excepting that the king faw his commands
neglected, and his authority contemned. Upon his return
he was made a prebend of Wettminfter, and in the follow-
ing year he was nominated to the bifhopric of St. David’s,
chiefly through the intereft of the lord-keeper Williams,
at the inftigation of the favourite Buckingham, to whom
Laud had recommended himfelf. In the year 1622, bifhop
Laud held a conference with Fifher, a Jefuit, before the
marquis of Buckingham and his mother, in order to con-
firm them both in the Proteftant religion, with refpeé& to
which they were then wavering. From this time a clofe in-
timacy fubfifted between Laud and Buckingham, who made
the bifhop his confeffor and counfellor ; and when he went
with prince Charles into Spain, left him as his agent at
court, with whom he maintaimed a frequent correfpendence.
In the courfe. of this, he infinuated fome heavy charges
againit his friend, the lord-keeper Williams. This circum-
{tance occafioned a fettled enmity between the two bifhops,
Williams accufing Laud of the deepelt ingratitude on that
account. Laud correfponded with the duke of Bucking-
ham during his journey to France, to bring about a mer-
riage between the princefs Henrictta-Maria and king
Charles I. Supported by Buckingham’s favour, to whom
he is charged with having rendered himfelf too fubfervient,
bifhop Laud gained the confidence of the new king, and it
was faid that thefe two men {topped up both the king’s cars
from any other doétrines in church or ftate, but what was
infufed by them. Laud was defired by king Charles to
make out a lilt of the eminent divines with their principles
and qualifications, that from this hit he might felec& his
chaplains, and others for promotion in the church. Land
quickly gave in his lift, of whom his friends had the mark
O againit their names, for “ orthodox,’’ but thofe whom
he did not delight to henour, he branded with a P, fignify-
ing, that they were Puritans, and, as fuch, ought not
to be trufted with any power whatever. At the coronation
in 1626, Laud officiated as dean of Weftminiter, by the
king’s appointment, in the room of bifhop Williams, who
was in difgrace. Inthe fame year he was tranflated from
St. David’s to the bifhopric of Bath and Wells, and was
alfo appointed dean of the chapel royal. ‘ In 1627 he
was {worn a member of the privy council, and, in 1628,
tranflated to the fee of London. “By the advice of
Laud all ecclefiaftical”preferments* were given away, and
the whole country was almoft entirely governed. Upon
the affaffination of the duke of Buckingham he pre-
vailed on the king to fend to the judges for their opinion,

3B «* whether,

LAUD.

» “whether, by law, Felton might not be racked :’’? they re-
turned a decided opinion, ‘ that he could not be racked by
the laws of England.’”? Bifhop Laud was the moft active and
leading member of the high-commiffion court, the arbitrary
and fevere proceedings of which were juftly odious to the
nation. For an in{tance of the extreme rigour and cruelty
of their proceedings, we refer to the article LeicuTon, a
learned Scotch prelate, who was fentenced to ftand in the
pillory, and to have his ears cut off, and his nofe flit, and
then to be imprifoned-for life, on account of a book which
he had written. No fooner was the favage fentence pafled,
than bifhop Laud pulled off his cap, and gave God thanks
for it. Inthe year 1630, bifhop Laud was elected chancellor
of the univerfity of Oxford, to which he was a great benefac-
tor. Headorned it with many noble buildings, and enriched
it with books and curious MSS. ia almoft all the known
languages of the world, procured at an immenfe expence.
{n 1631, bifhop Laud undertook to repair and beautify St.
Paul’s cathedral, which he accomplithed in a very magni-
ficent ftyle; but to raife the money which was expended, he
reforted to fo many oppreffive and unjultifiable methods, that
it became the common proverb, that St. Paul's was repaired
with the fins of the people. Laud fhewed great zeal in ob-
taining the utmoft deference to all the external rites and
ceremonies of the church, and he caufed the feveral churches,
iu which he took an intereft, to be adorned with all kinds
of pictures, images, and altar-pieces, all which circumttances
led the people to fufpeét, that he was too much inclined to
the papal religion, if he were not already a Papitt in his
heart. This fufpicion was ilill ftrengthened by his declara-
tion, thatin the difpofal of all ecclefialtical preferments, he
fhou'd give a moft decided preference to fingle men, fup-
poling the abilities of the fingle and married to be otherwife
equal. In 1633, he attended the king in a journey to
Scotland, and was prefent at his coronation for that country,
which ceremony was performed in the abbey church of
Holyrood-houfe. While in Scotland, he took every oppor-
tunity of urging the clergy to conformity with the church
of England, but in this he was completely unfuccefsful.
Almott immediately after his return, Abbot, the archbifhop
of Canterbury, died, and Laud was in{tantly appointed his
fucceflor. He was, almoft at the fame moment, offered a
cardinal’s hat, which he declined, but upon what grounds
he refufed the honour is not known, though various motives
have been afligned. He now carried matters very high,
drove many of the French and Dutch Proteftants, to whofe
anceltors Edward VI. had given an afylum, out of the king-
dot ; and either imprifoned or filenced many worthy cler-
gymen, who refufed to read the king’s declaration for allow-
ing lawful forts on Sundays after divine fervice. He was
itill more fevere againit thofe who were any ways fufpected
of puritanical principles. Some of them, by an exertion of
arbitrary power, were fined, imprifoned, and even whipped,
and kept to hard labour. Laud was, in 1635, nominated to
other high offices, among which was the office of a com-
miffioner of the treafury. He now procured the lord trea-
furer’s ftaff for his friend Dr. Juxon, the bifhop of London,
which gave great offence to the people. (See Juxon.) We
cannot give any thing like a detail of the many profecutions
in which the archbifhop was almoft conftantly engaged, they
will be found in other articles of this work. (See BAsTWwicK,
Prynne, &c.) It is fufficient to fay in this place, that thefe
profecutions were cruel, illegal, and tyrannical; but they
were not borne ‘by the people without deep, though filent,
complaints. Never was man more hated, or more’defervedly
fo: there {till exifted in the country the ‘printing prefs, by
means of which his proceedings and charaéter, and the arbi-

trary meafures of the court, were expofed to the whole
nation, in a fecret manner. He accordingly procured a
decree to be made in the ftar-chamber, which ordained, that
the number of printers fhould be limited; and thofe who
were allowed to follow the profeffion, fhould not be allowed
to print any books of divinity, law, phyfic, philofophy, or
poetry, till they had been licenfed by the archbishop of
Canterbury, or the bifhop of London for the time being,
upon pain of very grievous penalties. ‘Thefe proceedings,
though they might be ufeful to the court for a fhort time,
created fo many enemies to the exifting {tate of things, that
there was great danger of fome fudden convulfion. Many
of the beft men in the country, to avoid perfecution, retired
to America for an afylum, and a multitude of others would
have followed their example, had not the archbifhop obtained
an ediét to prevent any one from leaving the kingdom without
a licence for that purpofe. This was a degree of feverity
fearcely paralleled in the Chriftian world, but it anfwered no
good end, for the people took a general difguft, and almott
the whole of England was filled with Puritans. Laud did not
confine his arbitrary meafures to England, but was equally
violent in his plans with regard to Scotland, fo that he drew
upon his head the hatred of that kingdom, and provoked
the refiftance which led to the renewal of the folemn league
and covenant, fubferibed by king James, and the whole
nation in the year 1590. The attempt made in 1637, to
force on the Scotch the new liturgy, was the firt ftep which
called forth the open oppofition of all ranks. ‘The king at
firft raifed a powerful army to reduce the covenanters to
fubmiflion, but when he had marched to the borders of
Scotland, he found the preparations made to receive him fo
ferious, and he knew that his Proteftant nobility and foldiers
were not zealoufly affeéted in his caufe, that he found him-
felf compelled to feek for a general pacification. It was
foon difcovered that the idea of war was not abandoned, but
only deferred, and that the Englith court were refolved to
fubdue the fpirit of the people in Scotland. Laud and
Strafford were the advifers of this refolution, and to raife
fupplies, application was made to the Englifh parliament,
which, after an interval of twelve years, was fummoned to
meet at Weltminiter for that purpofe. The commons not
only refufed to comply with the defires of the crown, but
appointed committees to confider the grievances under which
they laboured. The king wifhed them to commence with a
fubfidy bill, which they refufed ; he at, length diffoleed the
parliament, in great anger, before a fingle aét was pafled.
All the engines of arbitrary power were fet to work to raife
money for the war, and thofe who refufed to comply with
the demands made upon them were fined and imprifoned.
The greater part of the odium of thefe opprefiions fell upon
the archbifhop, of whom the populace exprefied their de-
teftation in the moft open way that they dared. On one
occafion, viz. on May gth, 1640, a paper was potted up, ex-
horting the London apprentices to attack the palace at
Lambeth, but the archbifhop having had timely notice of-
their intentions, fruftrated their defigns, and difperfed the
multitude, amounting to the number of soo perfons. One.
of them was taken in the act of breaking the windows, and
was cruelly put to death as a traitor, but this extreme
feverity only ferved to inflame the mob {till more again{t the
archbifhop. Another circumi{tance which contributed to
encreafe the number of the archbifhop’s enemies, was his,
continuing the convocation of the clergy after the diffolution
of the parliament, by which he obtained feveral fubfidies
granted by the clergy, which the Commons had refufed till,
their grievances were rédrefled. At length the neceflities
of the fate obliged the king to call a new parliament, and,’

7 as

LAU

“as foon as it met, the canons and conflitutions of the late
convocation came before the houfe of commons. Thefe,
being difcuffed, were declared “ to contain many matters con-
trary to the king’s prerogative, to the fundamental laws and
ftatutes of the realm, to the rights of parliament, to the
property and liberty of the ined and matters peer to
fedition, and of dangerous confequence.’’? In the courfe of
the debates the archbifhop’s chara&ter was warmly attacked,
and in fome of the {peeches he was charged with the trea-
fonable defign of fubverting the religion and laws of the
‘country. On the next day articles againft the archbifhop,
prefented by the Scotch commiflioners, were read in the
houfe of lords, and then reported to the houfe of com-
mons, ina conference between the two houfes. The refent-
ment of parliament broke out’ into a flame, and a motion
. was made and carried that he had been guilty of high
treafon. Upon this, Denzil Hollis, fon of the earl of
Clare, was immediately {ent up to the bar of the houfe of
lords, to impeach him in the name of the Commons of
England, to inform their lordfhips, that, in convenient time,
they would bring up the particulars of their charge, and to
reque(t, that in the mean time he might be committed to
fafe cuftody. His grace being now commanded to with-
draw, he requefted leave to fay “that he was heartily forry
for the offence taken againft him, but humbly defired their
lordfhips to look upon the whole courfe of his life, which
was fuch, that he was very fure not one man in the houfe
of commons did believe, in his heart, that he was a traitor.’’
He was now committed to the cuftody of the gentleman
ufher of the black rod; and on the 26th of February, four-
teen articles were brought up from the Commons by fir
Henry Vane, the younger. He was then committed to the
‘Tower, and in his paflage thither he had to undergo the
loud and deep curfes of an enraged populace. One of the
firft iteps taken again{ft him was levying upon his property
a fine of twenty thoufaud pounds, for his proceedings in the
convocation held in 1640. In June 1641, he refigned the
chancellorfhip of the univerfity of Oxford, and in the fol-
lowing O@ober, the houfe of lords fequeftered his archi-
epifcopal jurifdi€tion, His confinement in the Tower was very
fevere, aud he began to feel in his own perfon fuch fufferings
as mutt bring to his recolle€tion what he, in the day of his
power, had inflicted upon others. After an imprifonment
of nearly three years, he was brought to trial upon the
fourteen articles already mentioned, and upon ten additional
ones, which were now, for the firft time, brought forward.
Many of the charges were ill fupported, and much of the
evidence was trifling and irrelevant. It fufficiently appeared,
however, that he had laboured to extend the royal preroga-
tive and the ecclefiaftical power, to a degree that was ut-
terly incontiftent with the liberties of the people; that he
had been zealous in enforcing the illegal claim of fhip-
money; that he had committed perfons to prifon, and
punifhed them without law; and that he had been guilty of
many arbitrary, illegal, and cruel aétions. Archbifhop
Laud defended himfelf with uncommon {fpirit, eloquence,
and acutenefs, and with extraordinary prefence of mind.
His counfel in their defence endeavoured to fhew, that if
the charges were true, they did not amount to treafon by any
eftablifhed law of the kingdom. This juftification had its
weight, and the lords, who were ftaggered with the plea,
deferred giving judgment, till the Commons thought fit to
bring in a bill of attainder, which was, after much delay,
pafled. Lo ftop the confequence of this, the archbifhop
prefented the king’s pardon under the great feal, but it was
over-ruled by both houfes. By this bill the archbifhop was
condemned to fuffer death, as in cafes of high treafon, and

LAU

all the favour he could obtain was to have his fentencr
altered from hanging to decapitation. He met his death
with great firmnefs on ‘Tower hill, on the roth of January,
being then in the feventy-fecond year of his age. Mr.
Hume, in {peaking of the learning and morals of archbifhop
Laud, fays “he wes virtuous, if feverity of manners, and
abftinence from pleafure, could deferve that name. He was
learned, if polemical knowledge could entitle him to that
praife."’ In his government of the church, it has been
juftly obferved, he difplayed a total want of charity towards
thofe who made the leaft oppofition to the doétrines and
ceremonies eftablifhed by aujhority ; and under his counte-
nance, the ftar-chamber wore all the horrors, and exercifed
all the cruelties, of an inquifition. In ftate affeirs his coun-
{els were high and arbitrary, and he was very active in pro-
moting thofe meafures which ultimately proved his own ruiz,
and that of the king. He was in fome cafes generous and
munificent: befides what he did for Oxford in her buildings
and library, he founded an Arabic leGture, which began to
be read in 1636, and he invefted the univerfity with many
new privileges. He procured a charter for the town of
Reading, founded in it an hofpital, and endowed it with a
revenue of 200). per annum. ‘he archbifhop publifhed fome
fingle fermons, which have been reprinted fince in an oG@avo
volume. He printed a conference between himfelf and the
Jefuit Fifher. His diary has been printed fince his death;
and in the year 1700, was publifhed « An hiftorical Ac-
count of all the material TranfaGtions relating to the Uni-
verfity of Oxford,- from Archbifhop Laud’s being eleéted
Chancellor, to his Refignation of that Office ;’’ written by
himfelf. His letters to Gerard John Voflius were printed
in London in 1690, and fome others may be found at the
end of Dr. Parr's Life of archbifhop Uther. Biog. Brit.
Toulmin’s Edit. of Neal. Hume.

LAUDA, in Geography, a town of the duchy of Wurz-
burg, on the Tauber ; 28 miles $.S.W. of Wurzburg. —
Alfo, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 20 miles S.E, of
Gnefna. It is called Laudica.

LAUDAMNAT, a town of Bengal; 12 miles S. of
Nattore.

LAUDANUM, a name given by the chemitts to certain
preparations, chiefly extraéts of opium, on account of their
excellent qualities; the word being derived from /audare,
to praife.

The “ laudanum liquidum” of Sydenham, Thebaica tinc-
tura, or wine of opium of the London Pharmacopeia of
1809, is prepared by macerating for eight days 1 oz. of ex-
tract of opium, bruifed cinnamon bark and bruifed cloves, of
each a dram, in a pint of wine, and ftraining. It is ob-
ferved, that the degree of narcotic power of this preparation
is nearly the fame as that of the ordinary tin¢ture of opium,
from which it differs, in having the extraét for its balis, ia
the addition of aromatics, and in the vehicleemployed. The
extract of opium, it is fuppofed, produces lefs confequeut
affection of the brain and nervous fy {tem than crude opium,
and the fame effect feems to be further obviated by the aro-
matics which are joined to it. This is a compolition of the
fame articles, in different proportions, as the Tinétura thebai-
ca of P. L. 1745, andas the celebrated liquid laudanum of
Sydenham. This is ftill in ufe, and it poffefles fuch ad-
vantages by the modification of opium it affords, as to juiti-
fy being reftored to the Pharmacopeia. See Opium.

LAUDAVA, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm; 20 miles N.E. of Thorn.

LAUDER, a royal borough, in Berwickfhire, Scot-
land, is fituated on a river of the fame name, about 22 miles
to the fouth of Edinburgh, ee 24 from Berwick. Itis

3 now

LAU

now only a place of a mean appearance, and entirely defli-
tute of trade. Formerly, however, it was a place of very
confiderable note. It was conitituted a royal borough at a
very early period, and for many years was diltinguithed as
the refidence of royalty, and the feat of the Scottifh parlia-
ment. In the reign of king James EII., when the parhia-
ment was convened to confult upon the means of repelling
the Englifh invafion, the nobility were fo enraged at the
conduct of the favourite minilter, fir Robert Cochrane, that
they hung him and his affociates over Lauder bridge, in
prefence of the king and his army. ‘This town has five
tairs during the year. It joins.with Haddington, Salburgh,
Dunbar, and North Berwick, in fending a reprefentative
to parliament. Near the town, on the fide of the river, is
Lauderfort, built by Edward I. of England, and now the
principal feat of the earl of Lauderdale. In this manfion
are feveral noble apartments, rich in ftucco work. One of
them is very carefully preferved, asa curious example-of the
tilte of the age in which it was made. Many vettiges of an-
cient Pitifh camps can fill be diftinétly traced in this neigh-
bourhood. Several tumuli, alfo, are vilible on Lauder-Muir,
which has probably been the fcene of fome battles in ancient
times, as many fragments of fwords, bows and arrows, &c.
have been dug up from this place. On a rifing ground, not
far from the town, are the remains of a Roman {tation, in
which a number of coins of that people have been found at
different periods. Some ancient Spaniln, Englith, and
Scottifh coins have likewife been difcovered in different fields
in this vicinity. The foil in the parifh of Lauder is light
and fandy, and ina high ftate of cultivation. he coun-
try rifes gradually from the river, on both fides, to hills of a
moderate height, which afford excellent palture for fheep.
Copper ore has been difcovered in different fpots, but is not
rich enough to admit of being wrought with any profpeét of
advantage. Slate is alfoin plenty, but of an inferior quality.
Adderftones and arrowpoints of flint, commonly called e/f,
or fairy arrows, and feveral other tones of the moft fanciful
fhapes, are found here after heavy rains. The whole parith,
according to the parliamentary returns in 1800, contained
349 houles, inhabited by 1760 perfons. Sinclair's Ac-
count of Scotland, vol. i. by the Rev. Dr. James Ford.

LAUDI Sprrrirvatrt, /tal. the mott ancient melodies
that can be found in Italy, fet to Italiaa words. It was the
opinion of Father Menettrier (fur les Drames en Mutique)
that hymns, canticles, and mytteries, in the vulgar tongues
ef Europe, had their origin from the pilgrims who weut to
the Holy Land. St. Francis d’Affife, born 1182, is men-
tioned by Crefcimbeni, and other Italian writers, among the
firft pious perfons of that country who exercifed their genius
in compofing hymns and fpiritual fongs, called Laudi, in
the form of canzonets. Le Laudi, which were likewife
called Jalde, /odi, cantici, or canticles, are compofitions in
praife of God, the Virgin Mary, or the faints and martyrs.
They refemble hymns as to the fubje&, but not the cha-
racter and verlification: hymns having been originally con-
itructed on Greek and Roman models; but the laudi, or
{piritual fongs, are entirely of Italian invention.

A fociety for the performance of thefe religious poems
was inftituted at Florence fo early as the year 1310, the
members of which were called Jaudefi, and Liudifi. In the
fifteenth century this {pecies of facred poetry was very much
efteemed and praétifed, as is manifelt by the various collec-
tions that were made of them, one of which was printed
1485. It the next century feveral volumes of them were
publifhed, among which there are many poetical compofitions
on facred {ubjeéts by Politian, Bembo, Lodovico Martelli,
and other eminent poets. (Quadrio, Storia d’Ogni Poef

LA WU

vol, ii. p. 466.) In the 17th century, though their favour
was fomewhat diminithed, yct, befides a large volume com-
pofed by Serafino Razzi, and publifhed by the author, 1608,
there were many collections of thefe {piritual fongs printed.

Crefcimbeni tells us that the company of /audi/li of St.
Benedict, at Florence, went to Rome during the time of the
grand jubilee, in the year 1700, and fung through the flreets
in proceffion feveral Jandithat were written by the celebrated
FKiltcaia. In mott of the ancient collections, the melodies
were prefixed to each of thefe fongs. They were at firft
little more than chants, and without bafe. However, ac-
cording to the commentary on Boccaccio, by Sanfoyino,
publifhed at Venice, 1546, they were afterwards fung in
many different parts. ‘ ‘here are in Fiorence,"’ fays he,
* feveral {chools of artizans and mechanics, among which are
thofe of Orfanmichele, and Santa Maria Novella. Every
Saturday after nine o’clock thefe affemble in the church, and
there fing five or fix laudi, in four parts, the words of which
are by Lorenzo de Medici, Pulei, and Giambellari ; and at
every laud they change the fingers, and to the found of the
organ difcover a madonna, which finifhes the fettival. And
thefe fingers, who are called /aude/i, have a preceptor, whom
they denominate their captain or leader.”’

This company {till fublifted in 1770, when we frequently
heard them fing their hymns, through the tlreets, in three
parts, and likewife in their church, accompanied by an organ.
OFf the antiquity of this inilitution, asa MS. volume of
Landi Spirituali, which we found in the Magliabeechi library
at Florence, is an indifputable proof, the preface, and a {peci-
men of thofe ancient melodies, bearing date MCCCXXXVL.
have been inferted in the General Hiltory of Mutfic, vol. ii.

p.i327-

LAUDICOENI, among the Romans, formed of /aus,
praife, and cena, upper or entertainment, applauders, or perfons
who, fora reward, attended the rehearfal of plays and ora-
tions, in order to raife, or join in the acclamation, See Ac-
CLAMATION and APPLAUSE. '

LAUDON, Gipron Envest, baron, in Biography,
was defcended froma refpectable family, originally trom
Scotland, a, branch of which fettled in Livonia, and there
purchafed aneftate at Totzen, where the fubject of the fol-
lowing article was born in 1716. He difplayed, at an early
age, a {trong inclination fora military life, and being in-
ftructed with this view, he entered, at the age of fifteen,
into the Ruffian army as a cadet, and, in 1733, ve was at the
taking of Dantzic, where the king of Poiand had fought
refuge, in confequence of the diiturbances which then pre-
vailed in that country. He feryed three campaigns under
count Munich againfl the Turks, and was prefent at the
taking of Azof, Oczakow, and Chotzim. On the retlora-
tion of peace, he ftaid fome time at Peterfburgh, in hopes
of higher promotion, but being difappointed in his ex-
pectauiors, he went to Vienna, and was appointed by the
emprefs queen toa command in the corps of Pandours, then
raifed by baron Trenk, and with thefe he proceeded to Ba-
varia. While he belonged to this corps he was feverely
wounded, and taken prifoner by the Trench, but was rel-
cued by his own corps before his wound was healed. After
this he was engaged much in active fervice, but he employed
every leifure moment in the fludy of the military art, and
in preparing Inmfelf for the active fituation in which he was
afterwards placed in the feven years’? war. In 1754, he was.
employed to reduce to obedience the rebellious Croats, which
he did rather by his judicious conduét than by force of arms.
During the feven years’ war, which commenced in 1756, he
performed the molt noble exploits, which we cannot in this
place give in detail. Towards the clofe of that war, he de-

2 termined

LAU

termined to make an attack on Schweidnitz. The night ap-
pointed for the execution of this plan was the 30th of Sep-
tember. Every preparation being made, Laudon harangued
his foldiers, forbade them, under the fevereft penalties, to
plunder the town, and promifed, in cafe of their obedience,
to dillribute among them the fum of 100,000 rix-dollars.
The guards exclaimed with one voice, “ No, general, lead
us on to glory, we do not want money.’? At two in the
morning the ficnal was given, and the firft aflault made, and
in four hours Laudon was in poffeffion of the whole fortrefs.
Although this achievement had been undertaken without the
order of the Aulic council, the emprefs congratulated the
viétor in a letter written by her own hand, and fent him her
piture fet round with diamonds. On the conclufion of
peace in 1763, the general retired to his eftates in Bohemia,
but in 1766 the emprefs appointed him a member of the Aulic
council of war, and in the following year he was ele¢ted a
member of the equettrian order of the empire, and in 1769
he was made commander-in-chief in Moravia. In 1770,
when Frederic the Great paid a vilit to the emperor Jofeph
at Neuftadt, the principal officers were invited to dine with
the two monarchs. As the company were about to place
themfelves at table, his Pruffian majefty faid to Laudon,
“come general, and {it near me, I would rather have you
by my fide than oppofite to me.’’ Inthe war of Bavaria,
in 1778, he was promoted by the emperor to be ficld-mar-
fhal, and entrufted to the command of the Aultrian army,
which amounted to 50,000 men. The plans which he formed
to eounteract the defigns of the enemy were worthy the re-
putation which he had before acquired. After the peace,
Laudon again retired to his eftates, from whence he was again
called, on the breaking out of the Turkith war, in 1788,
He had the command of the grand army when it was re-
folved to reduce Belgrade; the archduke Francis was to be
prefent at the liege, and the emperor, ina letter to Laudon,
faid, that “ his nephew could not be in a better {chool than
under his Gideon.”? ~The attack commenced on the 15th of
September, and on the 30th it was determined that the place
fhould be carried by florm. | The affault began about nine
in the morning, and at one the outworks were in poffefiion
of the befiegers. The fortrefs {till refufed to capitulate ; but,
after a dreadful bombardment, by which motft of the ene-
my’s cannon were filenced, the place furrendered. In confe-
quence of this achievement, he was appointed generaliflimo
of the whole Auttrian army, an office which had been con-
ferred on no perfon fince the time of prince Eugene, and
which gave him an unlimited controul over all the Auftrian
generals, and even over the Aulic council of war. On his
return to Vienna, he was received with every mark of dif-
tinétion that his fovereign and the people, by whom he was
idolized, could beitow. After the death of the emperor
Jofeph, he was confirmed. in all his appoimtments by his fuc-
ceffor Leopold, who continued the war; foon after this he
was taken ill of afever, of which he recovered, but having
imprudently rode out, contrary to the advice of his phy-
ficians, he was feized witha fuppreffion of urine, which put
an end to his life in the month of June following. This
great general was beloved by his troops, who, under his
command, believed themfelves to be invincible. The molt
ftriking feature in the character of Laudon was that daunt-
lefs prefence of mind, combined with daring intrepidity, fo
effential to the hero, and whichcan turn to the bett advamage
any unexpected opportunity that occurs. Jofeph Il. had a
bult made of him, to be erected in the hall of the Aulic
council of war, with the following infeription, ‘¢ Gideonis
Laudoni, fummi cafrorum priefecti, femper ttrenui, fortis,
felicis militis, et civis optimi exemplum, quod duces mili-
teique imtantur, Jofephus I]. Ang. in ejus efligie proponi

|e A V

voluit, anne 1783." After the capture of Belgrade, the
emperor took from the family repofitory of the houfe of
Auttria the large ftar of the Vherefian order, and fent it to
Laudon, with permiflion for him to wear it on his breafts
though by the itatutes it could only be worn by the grand
maiter of the order. Gen. Biog.

LAUDS, Lavupes, the fecond part of the ordinary
office of the breviary, {aid after matins, though, heretofore,
it ended the office of the night,

The laudes confilt principally of pfalms, hymns, &¢.
whence they took their name, from daus, Jaucdis, praife.

LAVELANET, in Geography, a town of France, in
the departinent of the Arriege, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri€t of Foix ; 12 miles N.E. of Tarafcon. The
place contains 1200, and the canton 12,831 inhabitants, on
a territory of 3274 kiliometres, in feven communes. N.
lat. 42° 56! I. long. 1° 55/.

LAVELLO, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata, the fee of
a bifhop, fuffragan of Bari; fix miles N. of Venofa.

LAVEN, a fmall ifland near the E. coatt of Lugom
N. lat..14° 12’. E. long. 124° 6'.

LAUENAU, a town of Weitphalia, in the principality
of Calenberg ; 15 miles N. of Hameln.

LAUENBURG, a-town of Hinder Pomerania, and
chief town of a lordfhip of the fame name, fituated on the
Lehe; 36 miles W. of Dantzic.. N. lat. 54° 32!.°, Eq
long. 17° 42'\—Alfo, a town of Germany, in the duchy of
Saxe Lauenburg, on the right coaft of the Elbe, built by
Henry the Lion. Here is a toil on the Elbe ;: 30 miles
S.E. of Hamburgh. N. Jat. 53° 22'.). E- long. 10° 48’.
See SAxe-LAUENBUKG.

LAVENDER, in Agriculture, a {mall fhrubby plant,.
fometimes cultivated in fields near large towns for the fpikes
of flowers, which are either fold in {mall bundles, or dif.
tilled for lavender-water, and the effential oil of the plant.

The common {pike lavender is moitly employed with this
intention. According to fome the method of cultivating it
1s by planting the flips or cuttings of the young fhoots, after-
being itruck, in rich fhady borders or nurferies the preceding
f{pring, about September or Ottober, in rows, two, three,
or more feet diitance from each other, and about the fame
diftance apart in the rows, the ground being kept clean by
digging or hoeing in the {pring or autumn, and the plants
retained in order by proper pruning. And as they decay
from age or other accidents, they are replaced from the nur-
feries; the flips of fuch plants as are wearing out being
made ufe of for the purpofe. The {pikes of flowers begin
to get ripe and ready for gathering about the end of June-
or July, when it is collected by women and children by cut-
ting off the heads and tying them up in bundles, fo as.to be
fent to the itill-houfe, or other places, in proper bafkets.
When, for diililling, the lower parts of the ftems are then.
cut off and the heads put into the {tli

But this plant, when cultivated in the feld, fhould, ac--
cording to others, have the ground well prepared by diggingy.
or repeated ploughing and harrowing ; after which, in the
{pring feafon, as about March or beginning of April, a pro-
per quantity of flips or cuttings of the young fheots or-
branches fhould be provided, and planted at once by means
of a dibble, in rows of not more than two anda half or
three feet apart, and one and a half or two feet diftant in,
the rows, cloling the mould well about them. They after-
wards require to be-kept clean by means of the hoe, and
to have the mould brought up to them occafionally, parti-
cularly in the auturon, and the dead items. or leaves cleared
away.

They will moftly afford {pikes of flowers in plenty in the:
fecond fummer,, after. being thus. planted out.

Lavender,

1G A V

Lavender fucceds beft where the foil is rather of a dry
quality, and not too {liff. In fome parts of the fouthern
diftriéts near London, it is grown in the fields with much
srofit.

; In the Agricultural Survey of Berkshire, it is lated, that
the late field-marfhal Conway, about twenty years ago,
‘formed a large lavender plantation, and erected proper ap-
.paratus for its management at Park-place, near Henley.
«¢ There are about twenty acres planted with lavender, on
the fide, and at the bottom of a chalky hill, with a fouth-
wettern afpeét. The land at the bottom is very good, but
that on the flope has only a thin covering of mould over the
chalk, and the difference of foil is ftrongly marked by the
luxuriance of the plants they refpectively bear.”

It is of fuch importance to keep crops of this fort per-
feétly clean, that three men are conitantly employed in weed-
ing this plantation; who, occafionally, ufe {mall hand-hoes,
but not much, as they are liable, without great care, to break
and injure the plants. When the ftate of the weather will
not admit of this fort of butinefs being done, they go over
the plantation with large fhears, and clip off all the ftalks
which were left by the lavender cutters.

Hot fummers are very favourable to the produétivenefs of
‘plantations of this kind.

Lavenper, in Botany. See LAVANDULA,

Lavenper Cotton. See SANTOLINA.

Lavenper, French, See Casstpony.

LavENDER, Sea, Limonium. See STATICE.

LavenveER, Hollow-leaved Sea, or Side-faddle Flower.
See SaRRACENA.

LAUENFRED, in Geography, a town of Weltphalia,
in Calenberg, on the Wefer ; 15 miles N.W. of Gottingen.

LAVENHAM, a market-town and parifh in the hun-

dred of Babong, and county of Suffolk, England, was
formerly coniiderable for its manufacture of woollen cloths
-and calimancoes. The making of yarn from wool is now,
however, the principal employment of the inhabitants. The
market is held here on Tuefday, and there are two, fairs
during the year ; one for butter and cheefe on the roth of
»O&ober, and another for horfes on Shrove Tuefday. Six
capital burgeffes, chofen for life, conititute the governors of
the town, and by them all the inferior officers are appointed.
The land here is of that fort called Borough-Englihh, whereby
all heritable property defcends to the youngett fon, or, in
default of iffue, to the youngelt brother. Vhe town itfelf
is agreeably fituated on the banks of the river Brell, from
-which it rifes in a gentle acclivity, and confifts of nine ftreets
-or divifions, and a market-place, with a ftone crofs in the
centre. At the fouth end ftands the parifh-church, one of
the fineft {pecimens of ancient ecclefiaftical architeture in
the county. This noble building was probably founded
towards the clofe of the fifteenth century. Its walls are
-built of freeftone, interfperfed with very curious decorations
.of flint-work. On every fide they exhibit a variety of arms
of noble perfonages, who probably obtained that diftinction
by their benefadtions towards the ere€tion of the church.
The inner roof is very finely wrought in carved work ; and
there are two pews of fuch exquifite workmanship, as to vie
with any in Henry V1Ith’s chapel. This town has, like-
wife, a meeting-houfe for Diffenters, two charity-fchools,
and two Sunday-fchools, one of which is fupported by the
Diffenters. In the parliamentary returns for 1800, the
houfes are ftated to amount to 339 in number, and the inha-
‘bitants to 1776 perfons. ;

LAVENTIA, in Botany, a genus formed by the late Dr.
‘Solander, and adopted from his manufcripts by profeffor
Swartz, of the Cotula Verbefina, and Verbefina Lavenia of

LAV

their common preceptor Linneus. The name is of unknown
origin, and f{ufpected by profeffor Martyn to be vernacular
in Ceylon. It firlt appears in the fupplement to Ray's
FRfloria Plantarum, ¥. 3. 217, on the authority of Sherard,
for the fpecies lait mentioned, for which it was adopted by
Linneus as the trivial name. Whatever the derivation or
meaning of this word may be, its euphony may uphold it,
though, according to found principle, Swartz ought to have
preferred Adenoffemma, given to the fame plant by the claffical
Foriter, and conftructed of adm, a gland, and supe, a crown,
the feed being crowned with three glands inftead of the fea-
ther, hair or membrane apprepriated to other genera of this
family. Swartz. Prod. 112. Schreb. 544. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 1724. Mart. Mill. Diét. v. 3. (Adenoftemma; Forft,
Gen. t. 45. Juffl. 184.)—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-
gamia-aqualis. Nat. Ord. Compofite difcoidea, Linn, Corym-
bifere, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, fomewhat imbricated,
confifting of from 10 to rq lanceolate, equal, permanent.
{cales. Cor, compound, uniform, of from 15 to 20 equal
hermaphrodite florets, which are’ funnel-fhaped, dilated at
the bate, the limb in five regular {preading fegments. Stam.
Filaments five, thread-fhaped, fhorter than the tube ; anthers
oblong, flattifh, didymous, flightly cohering laterally. Pi.
Germen oblong ; ftyle thread-fhaped, longer than its own
corolla, deeply divided ; ftigmas flattifh, club-fhaped. Peric.
none, except the permanent {preading calyx. Seeds rather
club-fhaped, flightly rugged, vifcid with glands. Crown of
three awl-fhaped briftles, glandular at the tips. Recept.
naked.

Ef. Ch, Receptacle naked.
glandular at their tips.
Style divided.

Obf. Forfter defcribes the florets as bearded or downy
on their upper or inner furface.

1. L. decumbens. Decumbent Lavenia. (Cotula Verbe-
fina; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1258. Mant. 473. Chryfanthemum
fylvaticum repens minus, chamzdryos folio, flore luteo nudo,
femine roftrato ; Sloane Jam. v 1. 262. t. 155. f. 2. Tas
nacetum herbaceum ereGtum, foliis cordatis crenatis oppo-
fitis, capitulis paucioribus remotis terminalibus; Browne
Jam. 316. Herb. Linn.)—Stem decumbent. Leaves heart.
fhaped, obtafe, obtufely ferrated—Native of the inland
cool and fhady woods of Jamaica. Root annual. Stem de-
cumbent or proftrate, from nine to eighteen inches long,
throwing out roots from the lewer joints, fimple, except
now and then a fhort axillary fhoot or two, leafy, nearl
fmooth, bluntly quadrangular. Leaves oppofite, ftalked,
an inch or more in length and almoft as broad, heart-fhaped,
nearly fmooth, blunt, unequally and bluntly ferrated, three-
ribbed, often cut away clofe to the lateral ribs at the bafe.
Flowers few, terminal, convex, yellow, fearcely fo large
as a pea, on long, flender, in fome degree panicled, ftalks.

2. L. ereda. Upright Layenia. ( Adenoftemma vifcofa 5
Forft. Prodr. 54. Verbefina Lavenia; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1271.
Swartz. Obf. 312. Eupatoriophalacron {erophulariz aqua-
tice foliis oppofitis; Burm. Zeyl. 95. t. 42. Pu-tumba 5
Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 10. 125.t. 63.)—Stem ere&t, Leaves
elliptical, pointed, tharply ferrated; tapering and entire at
the bafe.—Native of Ceylon, the coaft of Malabar in fandy
ground, and the Society ifles. Root annual, of many pale
fibres. Stem a foot high, ereét, fomewhat branched, leafy,
{quare, rough with afcending briftles. Leaves ftalked, op-
pofite, the uppermoft lefs exaétly fo ; all of a broad ellip-
tical figure, tapering much at each end, three-ribbed, rough,
two or three inches long, entire at the bafe, broadly and
acutely ferrated upwards. Flowers on fhortifh, hifpid,
hoary, axillary ftalks, accompanied by linear Sraffeas, and

conlifting

Seed-down of three briftles,
Calyx ovate, flightly imbricated,

~

LAU

confifting of fewer florets than the preceding, of a palifh
blue colour, and externally downy.

LAVENSAR, in Geography. See LAvansant.

* LAVENSTEIN, or LorwenstTern,a town of Germany,
in the principality of Culmbach, near which is a copper-
mine; 12 miles S. of Saalfeld.—Alfo, a town of Wett-
phalia, in Calenberg; nime miles E. of Hameln.—Alfo,
a town of Saxony, in the margravate of Meiffen; 18 miles
S. of Drefden. N. lat. 50° 42. E. long. 13° 46’.

LAVENZA, a fea-port of Italy, in the department
of the Apennines, with a harbour at the mouth of a {mall
river ; feven miles S.E. of Sarzana. N. lat. 44° 3’. E.
long. 10° 1.

AVER, ih Botany, perhaps from the verb fo lave,
alluding to its being wathed up on the fhore. See Urva.

Laver Bread, a fort of food made of a fea-plant, other-
wife called the ciffer-green, or fea-liverwort. 1t is faid to
be ufed in the county of Glamorgan, and other parts of
Wales.

Laver, in Scripture Hiflory, a facred utenfil placed in
the court of the Jewifh tabernacle, confilting of a bafon,
whence they drew water by cocks, for wafhing the hands
and feet of the officiating prielts, and alfo the entrails and
legs of the victims.

LAVERNA, in Antiquity, the goddefs of thieves and
cheats among the Romans, who honoured her with public
worfhip, becaufe fhe was fuppofed to favour thofe who wifhed
that their defigns might uot be difcovered. Varro fays,
that fhe had an altar near one of the gates of Rome; hence
called Porta Lavernalis.

LAVERNICK, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the territory of Culm, on the Drebentz; 44 miles E. of
Culm.

LAVEZZO, a name given by the Italians to a
fteatitic ftone, of which veflels are made; called alfo Lapis
comenfis and Potstonet, which fee. f

LAUF, in Geography, a town of Germany, in the
territory of Nuremberg; 8 miles E.N.E. of Nuremberg.
N. lat. 49° S!. E. long. 11° 13’.

LAUFFEN, a town of the archbifhopric of Salzburg,
onthe Salza; 11 miles N.N.W. of Salzburg. N. lat. 47°
al ee slong 12°52";

Laveren, a village and caftle of Switzerland, which
gives name to a bailiwick, in the canton of Zurich, near
the Rhine, where is a celebrated cataraét; 2 miles below
Schaffhaufen. ’

Lavurren am Neckar, a town of Wurtemburg, on the
Neckar, formerly imperial; 16 miles N. of Stuttgart. N.
lat. 49° 5’. E. long. 9 18’.

Laurren, a town of Pruffia, in Natangen; 15 miles S. of
Bartenitein.—Alfo, a town of Auttria, where the diet was
held under Frederick I.; 18-miles S. of Gemunden.

LAUFFENBURG, a fortified town of Germany, and
one of the four forelt-towns of the late Aultrian Swabia,
fituated on both fides of the Rhine, over which is a bridge ;
and at this place there is a fall in the river; 26 miles W. of
Schaffhanfen. N. lat. 47° 36'. E. long. 8° 4!.

LAUFFON, a town of France, in the department. of
the Upper Rhine, and chief place of a cauton, in the dif-

tri& of Délémont, feated on the Barfch; 16 miles N. of.

Soleure. The place contains 740, and the canton 7513 in-
habitants, on a territery of 1724 kiliometres, in 21 com-
munes, N. lat. 47° 32’. E. long. 7° 201.

LAUGEON, a town of Meckley; 42 miles W. of
Munnypour.
. LAUGERIA, in Botany, named by Jacquin, in honour
ef Robert Laugier, profeffor of botany and chemiftry in the
univerfity of Vienna, whed the botanic garden there was

LAU

firft eltablithed. Jacq. Amer. 64. t. 177. f. 21. Linn.
Gen. 102. Schreb. 140. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 1081. Mart.
Mill. Dia. v. 3. Juff. 206. Clafs and order, Pentandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Rubiaceae, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, tubular,
finall, deciduous, unequal at the orifice. Cor. of one petal,
falver-fhaped ; tube very long; limb in five obovate feg-
ments. Stam. Filaments five, very fhott ; anthers linear,
long, within the tube. Pif?. Germen nearly ovate, inferior ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, rather longer than the tube ; ftigma ca-
pitate. Peric. Drupa roundifh, umbilicated with a fimal
depreffion. Seed. Nut roundifh, with five furrows, and
from two to five cells.

Eff. Ch. Corolla faliver-fhaped, five-cleft. Stamens
within the tube. Drupa inferior. Nut of five cells.

Obf. Vahl fuggetts that this genus might with propriety:
perhaps be united to Guettarda ; fee that article.

1. L. odorata. Linn. Sp. Pl. 276. Jacq. Amer. 64.
(Edechi; Loefl, It. 259. 271. 306.) — Leaves elliptic-lan-
ceolate, pointed, nearly fmooth. Stem fomewhat {pinous.
Clufters panicled. Nut with five cells.—Native of South
America; obferved by Jacquin in expofed bufhy places on
the fea fhore, about the Havanah and Carthagena. The’
Jlem is fhrubby, ten feet high, erect, branching, the branches
oppofite and widely fpreading. Leaves oppofite, on fhort
ftalks, from one to two inches, or more, in length, elliptic-
lanceolate inclining to obovate, pointed, entire, veiny, de-
{cribed by Jacquin as fmooth, but a young branch fent by
him to Linneus, from the Vienna garden, has numerous’
hairs on the leaves, efpecially at the rib and edges, and its
footflalks, like the twig itfelf, are very hairy. Stipulas axil-
lary, oppotite, lanceolate, recurved. Cluflers axillary,
panicled, lax, as long as the leaves. Flowers dirty red,
very fragrant at night. Fruit copious, larger than a pea,
very black, foft, when ripe falling off on the flighteft fhak--
ing of the bufh,

2. L. lucida. Swartz Ind. Occ. v. 1. 475. ° Vahl. Symb.
Vv. 3. 40. t. 57.—Leaves oblong, obtufe, membranous, fhin-
ing. Clufters forked. Nut with two cells.—Native of
bufhy places, in the warmer parts of Jamaica, as well as
in St. Lucia and Santa Cruz. A /brub with round, fmooth,
{preading branches.: Leaves two or three inches in length,
oblong, with a blunt point, fhining, fmooth on both fides.
Stipulas axillary, ovate, acute, deciduous. C/uffers from the
bofoms of the upper leaves, fo as to appear terminal, foli-
tary, rarely oppofite, the lengih of the leaves, either fimply
forked, or twice divided, widely fpreading. Mowers. nearly’
feffile in a fimple row on each branch cf the clutter, with a:
folitary intermediate one, whitifh, fragrant. Fruit black,.
its nut of two unequal cells. Dr. Swartz thinks this may
be the [pstaraguapin of Loefi. It. 270, with the defcription of -
which it agrees in many refpects, but he never obferved any:
fpines on his ZL. /ucida. We have, nevertheleds, no. doubt.
of their being one and the fame fpecies.

3. L. coriacea.. Vahl. Eclog. v. 1. 26.—** Leaves elliptic=-
ovate, rather coriaceous, fmooth on both fides, bluatifh.
Spikes twice: divided. Flowers tetrandrous.’?— Found on:
the fummits of mountains in the ifland of -Montferrat, where
it was probably found by Ven Rohr. A /brub.or tree, but’
we know nothing further concerning it.

4. L. refinofa. Vahl. Eclog. v. 1. 27.—“ Leaves: bread-:
lanceolate, {mooth; glauecus beneath.. Spikes» axillary,
cloven. » Branches refinous at the fummit.?’— Native of. lofty
mountains in Montferrat.

5. Li. tomemtofa. Swartz Ind. Occ. v.-1.477-—* Leaves.
ovate, acute ; downy beneath. Clufters forked. Nut. of~
two cells.’ — Native of fhrubby places in the weftern part
of Jamaica, A {mali tree, thrice the height-of a man,:with-

j ; {ubdivided...

LAU

fubdivided downy branches. Leaves fhining and fmooth
above, filky and foft beneath. Feqwers whitifh, It blof-
foms in autumn, and refembles a Yournefortia in habit and
inflorefcence. Swartz.

LAUGHER, a name given to a particular fpecies of
pigeon, called by Moore the columba ridens. It is about
the fize of the common pigeon, and much of the fame
make ; but it has a very bright pearl-colonred eye, almoft
white, and is a mottled red, or blue. They are faid to be
brought from Jerufalem, and the country thereabouts.
When the cock of this fpecies courts the hen, he has a
guttural cooing, not unlike the guggling of a bottle of
water, when poured out haltily; and after this he always
makes a noife not unlike laughing, from the fingularity of
which he has obtained his name. :

LAUGHI, Lx, in Geography, a fief of Piedmont, which
takes its name from a mountain; formerly held immediately
of the empire, ceded, ‘in 1746, to the king of Sardinia, or
duke of Savoy, and now annexed to France.

LAUGHTER, an action or paffion peculiar to man.

Authors attribute laughter to the fifth pair of nerves,
which fending branches to the eye, ear, lips, tongue, palate,
and mufcles of the cheek, parts of the mouth, pracordia,
&c. there hence arifes a fympathy, or confent, between all
thefe parts; fo that when one of them is a&ed upon, the
others are proportionably afected.

Hence a favoury thing feen or fimelt, affects the glands
and parts of the mouth, a thing feen or heard, that is {hame-
ful, affects the cheek with blufhes; on the contrary, if it
pleafe and tickle the fancy, it affeéts the pracordia and
mufeles of the mouth and face with laughter ; if it caufes
fadnefs and melancholy, it likewife affects the przcordia,
and demonttrates itfelf by cauting the glands of the eyes to
emit tears.

Laughter, according to Hobbes, is “a fudden glory,
arifing from a fudden conception of fome eminency in our-
felves, by comparifon with the infirmity of others, or with
our own formerly.’’ Dr. Campbell, on the contrary, main-
tains, that this emotion doth not refult from the contempt,
but folely from the perception of oddity, with which the
paflion is occafionally, not neceflarily, combined. See
RuipIcuLe.

L’AUGIER, Monsicxor, in Biography, principal phy-
fician to the imperial court at Vienna in 1772; the molt
intelligent and beit informed critic, among mujical dilettanti,
with whom we ever converfed. He had been in France,
Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Conftantinople, and was per-
fedtly well acquainted with national ftyles of mufic, and the
peculiar merits and defects of individual compofers through-
out Europe. This gentleman, in defpite of uncommon
corpulency, poffeffed a moft active and cultivated mind.
His houfe was the rendezvous of the firft people of Vienna,
both for rank and genius, and his converfation was as enter-
taining as his knowledge was extentive and profound. Amon
his other acquirements he had arrived at great {kill in practical
mufic, had a moft refined difcriminating tafle, and could give,
vocally, {pecimens of the national melody, which he had heard
with philofophical ears wherever he had been ; in fine, he
was a living hiftory of mufic. In Spain he had been inti-
mately acquainted with Dominico Scarlatti, who, at feventy-
three, compofed for him a great number of harpfichord
leffons, the chief of which had never been printed. The
book in which they had been tran{cribed contained forty-two
pieces, among which were feveral /fow movements, with
which, for want of foftinuto and expreffion, in the old
harpfichords, he feldom enriched his works. Thefe leffons
were compofed in 1756, when Scarlatti was too fat to crofs
his hands, as he ufed to do; fo that thefe are not fo difficult

LAU

as his more juvenile works, which were made for his pupil
and patronefs, the late queen of Spain, while fhe was
infanta of Portugal. M. L’Augier ufed to relate, that the
emprefs queen Therefa had been avery notable mufician,
and that fome years ago he had heard her fing very well.
In the year 1739, when fhe was only twenty-two years of
age, and very handfome, fhe fung a duo, with old Senefino,
at Florence, fo well, that by her voice, which was then a
very fine one, and graceful and fteady manner, fhe fo much
captivated the old man, that he could not proceed without
fhedding tears of fatisfaétion. Her imperial majefty had fo
long been a performer, that fhe one day, in pleafantry, told
the old Fauitina, the wife of Haffe, who was then upwards
of feventy, that fhe thought herfelf the firlt (meaning the
oldeit) virtuofa in Europe; for her father, at a rehearfal,
brought her on the court ftage at Wienna, when fhe was
only five years old, and made her fing a fong.

Metaftafio, in a letter to Farinelli, calls M. L’Augier
Monlignore ; the phyfician of the pope, and we fuppofe
the imperial phyfician is qualified with the title of Monfig-
nore, my lord. ‘The imperial Laurrat tells Farinelli, that
Monfignor L’Augier is charmed with him, with his heart,
and with his conduct. And {porting with his rotundity, he
fays, ‘‘he often vilits me, in {pite of his immeafurable cor-
pulency, and mounts to the altitude where I refide, with
the lightnefs of the moft flim dancer. TI thall, for your fake,
embrace as much as poflible of his majeltic circumference.”
This extraordinary perfonage, with a mind proportioned toe
his body, died at Vienna in 1774, to the great lofs of fo-
ciety in that city, and of found criticif{m and good tate.

LAVIANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; 27 miles E. of Salerno.

LAUJAR, a town of Spain, in Grenada; 18 miles
N.W. of Almeria.

LAVIGEN, a town of Norway, in the diocefe of Dron-
theim; 24 miles N. of Drontheim. ;

LAVIGNON, a name which the fifhermen of the vicinity
of Rochelle give to a fhell-fifh, which is ufed for food in
that place, and is probably a {pecies of Solen. It is common
on the ceaft of Poitou, and has a very thin pair of thells
for its covering, and which never can fhut clofe, in the
manner of the ciiter or mufcle, or other common bivalve
fhells: the fifh, therefore, always buries itfelf in the mud
by way of fecurity. The hells are very fmooth and
polifhed, efpectally on the infide, and they are naturally
white. This colour they always retain within, though their
outer furface is often tinged black by the mud.

They are often buried five or fix inches deep in the mud,
but it is always eafy to know where they are, beeaufe they
mult keep a free communication with the water above ; by
means of a round aperture, of about a tenth of an inch dia-
meter, which opens from the furface of the mud to every
fhell-fith. ~When the fhells of this fith are opened to their
utmoft width, it is eafy to fee a fort of arm with which each
is furnifhed, in the manner of the common mufcle, for its
progreffive motion. This part ferves them to bury them-
felves in the mud, and to raife themfelves out of it again,
when they are inclined to feek a new habitation ; into which
they hake their way in a more {peedy manner than would
eafily be thought.

When the creature is plunged to its proper depth under
ground, it receives the benefit of the water above, by means
of two pipes, or probofcides, which have each a double
aperture at their ends. Thefe take in water, and throw it
out again, alternately, for the ufes of the animal, and either
of the two is indifferently qualified to anfwer either purpofe.
The fifh has a power of lengthening, or fhortening thefe

. pipes

LAU

pipes at pleafure, and, when it pleafes, takes them wholly
into the fhell, Mem. Acad. Par.1710.

LAVIN, in Ornithology, a name given by the people
of the Philippine iflands to a fpecies of hawk, a bird of
great beauty, being variegated all over with yellow, black,
and white. They call it alfo ficud.

LAUINGEN, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the
principality of Neuburg, on the Danube, fuppofed to have
been a Romancolony ; fix miles above Hockitett. N. lat.
48° 32!.. E. long. 10° 22’.

LAVINGTON, East, or Market Lavington, a market-
town and parifh in the hundred of Swanborough, and county
of Wilts, England, is fituated at the northern termination
of Salifbury plain. It was formerly called Steeple, or
Staple, Lavington, and was a confiderable town ; having
acquired the name of Cheaping, or Market Lavington, from
its great corn market, which was eltablifhed early in the fif-
teenth century, but is now much decreafed, as the chief re-
fort of the dealers is to Devizes.
miles from London; the markets were on Monday and Wed-
nefday. The population, as returned to parliament in 1800,
was 918; the number of houfes 167. Bifhop Tanner, the
celebrated author of ,“* Notitia Monattica,’”? was born in this
town in 1674.

Weft, or Bifbop's Lavington, is a parifh within two miles
of the foregoing, but is fituate in the hundred of Whorlf-
don; it was returned, in 1800, as containing 214 houfes,
and 958 inhabitants. Britton’s Beauties of Wiltfhire, Svo.

LAVINIUM, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of La-
tium, exaétly S. of Rome, and eight miles S.E. of Lau-
rentum, near the fea-coaft, on the rivulet Numicus, between
the mouth of which, and the Tiber, /Eneas is fuppofed to
have landed. According to Strabo, he built this town after
the defeat of Turnus, king of Ardea; thus perpetuating his
victory and the name of his wife Lavinia, daughter of king
Latinus. According to the fame author, he ereéted here a
temple of Venus, the care of which he committed to the
Ardeates. But as this city was not {trong enough to refilt
the affaults of his enemies, who were jealous of his power, he
built another onan eminence, E. of the firft. See Lanu-
VIUM.

LAVINO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Mi-
Janefe; 18 miles W.N.W. of Como.—Allo, a town of
Naples, in the Molife; 24 miles N.E. of Molife.

LAVIS, a town of ‘fyrol, at the sunion of the rivers
Lavis and Adige; cight miles-‘N. of Trent.

LAVIT pr Lomacye, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gers, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri& of Lectoure ; 12 miles E. of Letoure. The place
contains 1330, and the canton 7696 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 195 kiliometres, in 15 communes. N. lat. 43° 57’.
E. long. 1°.

LAUKAS, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Wafa; 124 miles E.S.E. of Wafa.

LAUKOWITZ, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of
Boletlaw ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Jung-Buntzel.

LAUNAY, Pzver, in Biography, was born at Blois in
the year 1573, and having confiderable family intereit, he
obtained, in early life, a poft under government, and was
made fecretary to the king. Thefe honours he willingly re-
nounced, in order that he might devote his time to the ttudy
of the facred writings. His works prove how diligently he
followed his new profeffion. He acquired the refpeét and
efteem of the French Proteftants, and he was chofen deputy
to all the fynods of his province, and to almoft every national
fynod which was held in his time. He died in 1662, at the
age of eighty-nine years.. His warks are paraphrafes on the

Vou, XX,

Eatt Lavington is 8g

LAU

books of Proverbs, Ecclefiaftes, the prophet Daniel, all
the epiftles of St. Paul, and the Apocalypfe, which were
publithed at different periods. He publifhed likewife « Re-
marks on the Bible, or an Explanation of the different
Words, Phrafes, and Figures of the facred Writings ;’’ and
« A ‘Treatife on the Lord’s Supper.”
LAUNCE, in Ichthyology. See AmMMopy'Es.
LAUNCEGAYS, in our Old Writers, a kind of offen-
five weapons now difufed, and prohibited by the ftatute
7 Rich. IL. cap. 13. Many of the commentators on our
ancient laws profefs themfelves unable to explain what kind
of weapons thefe were. Grofe fuggelts, that the term
launcegay may be a corruption of the words lance aigue, a
fharp or pointed lance ; and if the intention of the aéts be
confidered, it will jultify, in a,degree, this fuppofition ; as
they were evidently framed to prevent thofe violent affrays
that frequently arofe among the gentry of that time, com-
monly attended by a numerous fuite, who, if armed with
mifchievous weapons, might have fpilt much blood. A
lance fit for war was, perhaps, termed fharp, or pointed, in
oppolition to a blunt or tilting lance. See Lance.
LAUNCESTON, in Geography, a populous borough
and market-town in the hundred of Eait, and county of
Cornwall, England, is fituated on an eminence, at the dif-
tance of one mile from the river Tamer, near the central
part of the eaftern fide of the county. Its ancient name
was Dunheved, the Swelling Hill; but the prefent appella-
tion, according to Borlafe, fignifies the “Church of the
Caftle.’’ The caflle is the moft important objeét in the
town, to which, in all probability, it gave origin. Its
mouldering walls furround and cover a confiderable extent of
ground, and prove it to have been a fortrefs of great ftrength.
and importance. The principal entrance was from the
fouth-welt, through a fortified paflage upwards of an hun-
dred feet in length, and ten in breadth. At the end of this
flood the great gate, the arch of which was pointed, but is
now in ruins. This led to a {maller gate, witha round arch,
opening into the bafe court, which formed a fquare of 136
yards, furrounded by thick walls and fortified with a deep
ditch. At the fouth-weft angle was a very ftrong round:
tower, whence a terrace extended to the keep or citadel at:
the fouth-eaft angle of the court.. This confifted of an im-
menfe artificial hill, nearly ninety feet in perpendicular
height, about 300 feet diameter at its bafe, and Q3 at its
fummit. The afcent to this keep originally commenced at a
femi-circular tower, and continued to the top through a
covered way, feven teet wide, now in ruins, ‘The keep con-
fifts of three wards, and is furrounded by a circular wall.
The thicknefs of the outer wall, or parapet, is about three
feet ; the fecond wall is fix feet from the former, nearly four
times the thicknefs, and confiderably higher. About eight
feet within this wall is another, ten fect thick, and thirty-
two feet high from the floor of the inclofed area, the diameter
of which is about eighteen-feet. In the bafe court formerly
ftood the county gaol, a f{pacious-affize court, a chapel, and
other buildings ; but thefe haveall-been taken down ,except the
aol, which retains its fituation near the bottom of the hill.
The building of this caftle has been generally attributed
to William, earl of Moreton and Cornwall, in the time of
William the Conqueror ; but this opinion is probably erro-
neous, as the ftyle of workmanfhip exhibited in feveral parts.
of the remains, is apparently of a much earlier date. The
walls of the keep, in particular, have every appearance of
being confiderably more ancient ;. and from: a retrofpeétive
view of events that have occurred in this county, the con-
jecture appears to be fully warranted that the foundation of
the caftle is as remote as the io of the Britons... The era
3. iB

LAU

in which the town was founded, or, at Jeaft, began to af-
fume a regular form, is better determined ; this was about
the year 900. Noremains of the original buildings are now
extant. On the north fide of the townawas a priory of Au-
guftine monks, faid to have been eftablifhed by Warlewatt,
bifhop of Exeter. As thistown was a principal refidence
of the earls of Cornwall for many years after its foundation,
its confequence contiaually increafed, and many liberties
and privileges were granted to its inhabitants. Soon after
the conquett a weekly market was eftablifhed op Sunday ; in
the reign of king John, the townfmen paid Ave marks for
the removal of the market to Thurfday, but it has fince been
changed to Saturday. In the reign of Henry IIT, Laun-
cefton was made a free borough by the king’s brother,
Richard, earl of PoiGtiers and Cornwall ; he alfo granted the
inhabitants fome additional immunities, which were con-
firmed by feveral fubfequent charters; and in the reign of
Rtthard II. the affizes were ordered to be held at Laun-
cefton, and ‘no where elfe.”” This regulation was obferved
till the firft year of George I. when an aét was pailed em-
powering the lord chancellor to appoint any other place in
the county. Since that period’ the winter aflizes only have
been held here; thofe of the fummer having been removed to
Bodmin. By a charter of Philip and Mary, granted in
31555, which enumerates and confirms the various prior
charters, the government is velted in a mayor, recorder, and
eight aldermen, who, with the free burgefles, have the right
of eleéting the parliamentary reprefentatives. The whole
number of voters is about twenty. ‘This borough made its
firft return in the twenty-third of Edward I. and had a
anayor as early as the time of Edward IV. Near the centre
of the town is the church of St. Mary Magdalen, a hand-
fome fabric, built with fquare blocks of granite, molt of
which are enriched with carved ornaments, executed ina
very fingular manner. At the weth end is a lofty tower ;
anda figure of the Magdalen, in a recumbent pofture, is
placed in a niche at the ealt end. ‘This church was originally
only a chantry chapel; in the reign of Henry IV. it was
re-edified and confiderably enlarged ; in Henry VI.th’s reign
it was conftituted a parifh church, and was again rebuilt in
the time of Henry VIII. The town was formerly fur-
rounded by a wall, of which fome parts ftill remain. The
ftreets are narrow; but the houfes are well built; on the
fouth fide is a fortified gateway, containing an apartment
ufed as the town gaol. The children of- the poor are edu-
cated in two charity-fchools maintained by voluntary {ub-
fcription ; and a free-fchool founded and endowed by queen
Elizabeth. Launcelton is diftant from London 213 miles ;
has a-weekly market on Wednefday, befides that on Satur-
day already mentioned, and fix annual fairs; the return to
parliament in the year 1801 ftated the population to be 1483,
the number of houfes 226. The honfes of this town are
connected with thofe of Newport, which is a borough,
though apparently only part ef Launceiton. See New-
port.

About two miles north of this town is Werrington, a feat
of the duke of Northumberland. Polwhele’s Hiltory of
Co.nwall, 4to. Beauties of England and Wales, vol. ii,

LAUNCH, in Ship Building, is the flip or defcent
whereon the fhip is built, alfo the whole machinery ufed in
launching.

To facilitate the operation of launching, the fhip, when
fhe is firft built, is fupported by ftrong platforms, laid with
a gradual inclination to the water, on the oppolite fides of
her keel, to which they are parallel, Upon the furface of
this declivity are placed two correfponding ranges of planks,
which compole the bafe of a frame, called the cradle, whofe

LAU

upper part envelops the fhip’s bottom, to which it is fecurely
attached. Thus, the lower furface of the cradle, conform-
ing exactly to that of the frame below, lies flat upon it,
lengthways, under the oppofite fides of the fhip’s bottom ;)
and as the former is intended to flide downwards upon
the latter, carrying the fhip along with it, the planes ‘or’
faces of both are well daubed with foap and tallow. The
neceflary preparations for the launch being made, all the’

locks and wedges by which the fhip was formerly fupported,
are driven out from under her keel, till the whole weight
gradually fubfides upon the platforms, which are accordingly
called the ways. The fhores and ftanchions, by which fhe 1s!
retained upon the ftocks till the time of Jaunching, are at
length cut away, and the ferews applied to move her, if ne-
ceflary. The motion ufually begins at the inftant when the
fhores are cut, and the fhip flides downward along the ways,
which are generally prolonged under the furface of the water
to a fufficient depth, to float her as foon as fhe arrives at the
fartheit end thereof. Whena ‘hip is to be launched, the
enfign, jack, and pendant, are always hoifted, the laft being
difplayed from a ftaff erected in the middle of the fhip:
Ships of the firft rate are commonly conftruéted in dry docks,
and afterwards floated out, by throwing open the flood-gates, _
and fuffering the tide to enter, as foon as they are finifhed!
Falconer.

LAUNCHING, the act of conveying the fhip into the
water after fhe is built.

Launcuine-Draft of Water, the depreffion of the thip,
when firft launched below the water’s furface.

Launcuinc-Planks, form the upper furface of the plat-
form on each fide the fhip, whereon the buldgeways flide ia
the act of launching the fhip.

LAUNDER, in Mineralogy, a name given in Devonhhire,
and other places, to a long and {hallow trough, which receives
the powdered ore, after it comes out of the box, or coffer,
which is a fort of mortar, in which it is powdered with iron
pettles. !

~The powdered ore, which is wafhed into the launder by
the water from the coffer, is always fineft neareft the grate,
and coarfer all the way down. See Buppie and Dreffing of
Ore.

LAUNDRY, asif Lavantlerie, Fr. the room in which
clothes are wafhed; or, in a more reftrited and appro-
priate fenfe, as the term is ufed in the fubfequent article,
it denotes the -place where clothes are mangled, dried,
and ironed. Under this head we fhall include the wefh-boafes
as it is neceflarily conneéted with the laundry. afhing
and getting up linen are employments of great importance
in moft families, and they have engaged the attention of
many ingenious mechanics, who have contrived various
wafhing-machines for the abridgment of labour and expenceé
in this department of domeitic economy. Mott of the ma-
chines hitherto ufed are objetionable on many accounts, but
principally becaufe they operate by fridion, inttead of pref-
fare. When the linen is properly prepared for wathing, it
may be thoroughly cleanfed by prefure only. Rubbing it
with the hands, or by any machine that operates by friétion,
injures it more than the wear it fultains in aétual ufe. Hence
it follows that the beft method of cleanfing foul Tinen is, firft,
to prepare it for the operation by foaping 1t where neceflary,
and putting it into foak for at leatt twelve hours. This will
loofen the filth, and decompofe the greafe and other matter
with which it is foiled, and it will then be readily re-
moved by alternately foaking, and fqueezing or prefling.
The defideratum, therefore, is, to conftruét a machine that
would, bya rotative motion, or an up-and-down’ ftroke,
{like pumping) alternately prefs and faturate the huen with

6 ‘ the

LAUNDRY.

the fuds, and laitly with clear water. The machine that
comes neareft to this, of any that has fallen under our notice,
is one invented by Mr. Gould.

We hall now defcribe a wafh-houfe and laundry, con-
ftru ted upon f{cientific principles by John Bentley, efq. the
pref:nt pofleffor of Highbury Houfe, near London, being
the completeft of the kind we have met with.

The wath-houfe is 24 feet long, nine feet broad, and eight
feethigh. It is furnifhed with a filtering machine, a eiftern
for filtered water, two coppers, a copper cullender, a jack
with pullies, fix wafhing tubs, a ftone fink, a table, a wring-
ing machine, and a pump of hard water.

The floor is rouzh York thire-ftone, laid upon a fharp cur-
rent. Over two-thirds of the roof is a lead ciftern contain-
ing 40 hogtheads of rain water, fupplied from the adjoining
buildmgs. The other third of the roof is conical, fur-
mounted with a cylinder for a fleam-vent, which opens and
fhuts at pleafure. When open, befides emitting the iteam, it
admits both light and air. The ciftern for “filtered water
holds 200 gallons, and fupplies, by pipes and cocks, the
copper tubs and fink.

The firft copper is fixed fo that the top of it is level with
the bottom of the ciftern, and the bottom of it is level with
the top of the other copper, and the tops of the tubs and
fink, all which it fupphes with hot water. The tubs, cop-
pers, and fink, are fupplied with cold water from the ciftern.
Each of ‘the tubs has a brafs plug at bottom, to difcharge
the foul water. A nine-inch board runs along the front of
the tubs and fink on the ground, to prevent the fplafhing of
the water when difcharged. Lach tub is furnifhed with a
{mall wooden ttrainer for foap.

The fecond copper-is for boiling the linen, and has a copper
cullender to hold the linen, which is drawn up by the jack
and pullies. The jack hasa paul and ratchet wheel to keep
the cullender fufpended over the copper till the water is
drained from the linen into the copper, which can then be
turned out altogether into the rinfing-tub. By this contri-
vance, the ufual mode of poking the linen out witha ftick
(which frequently damages it) is avoided. At the bottom
of this copper is a large brafs cock for difcharging the fuds
when they are done with.

Though the fix tubs are fupplied with both hot and cold
water, there are only fix cocks to the whole, one cock fup-
plying two tubs, by means of a ferew-joint in the nozzle,
which turns at pleafure toecither tub. There is alfo a fcrew-
jomt between the key and pipe in each cock, by which
means it can at any time be repaired without the afliltance of
the plumber.
~ The filtering machine performs its operation by afcent.
It has three cocks in one pipe: The uppermott is for regu-
lating the quantity of water to be filtered, which can be va-
ried at pleafure from 50 to 500 gallons ina day. The other
is for cleanfing the machine when faturated with filth, which
is accomplifhed by only turning the cock, and will, ina few
minutes, be as clean as it was at firlt, the mud, &c. being
difcharged at the third or middle cock, which alfo ferves to
draw unfiltered water when required. Under the ciftern is
a receptacle for coals, and under the filtering machine a
place for pails and mops. Both cifterns havea furplus wa-
ter-pipe to prevent running over, and in which are alio plugs
to dilcharge all the water when needful.

The table hangs to the wall, and may be put up and
down at pleafure. It is for forting and foaping the foul
linen, &e. *

The laundry adjoining the wath-houfe is 18 feet {quare, and
11 feet in height. It has two windows in front. ‘The floor
is level, of subbed Yorkfhire-itone, laid upon brick piers,

to keep it perfectly free from damp. ft is furnifhed with
one of Baker's large mangles ; an ironing-board 12 feet by
three feet, with four large drawers for the ironing-cloth,
iron-holders, &c. with room for the clothes-bafkets under-
neath ; a ftove or drying-clofet, eight feet by fix feet; a
furnace for heating the clofet and the irons, anda place for
coals under the floor, clofe by the furnace. The clofet
contains four wooden horfes, each with five rails or bars.
Each horfe runs in and out of the clofet upon two fmall iron
wheels, upon an iron rail-eway. One horfe holds fix flirts,
or a proportionable quantity of other linen, and the whole
will dry off as much and as {peedily as fix women can waflt
in fucceffion.. It hardens the linen after being ironed, and
isalfo ufeful for airing feather beds, &e. ‘The linen, whilft
drying, is kept free from fmoke ard dult, and there never
can be any fteam in the room.

The furnace for heating it is fimilar to thofe under coppers
or in a hot-houfe, immediately over which, before it enters
the flue to the clofet,. is an iron oven for heating the irons.
The flue is continued round the bottom of the clofet, and
carried up’ the end of the building. The top of the hori-
zontal part of the flue is of catt-iron plates; iron being a
good, and brick a bad conductor of heat. A few inches
above thefe iron plates, the iron rail-way before mentioned
is laid, between which and the flue there is a flooring of wire
work. This prevents any accident from the cafual falling
of linen upon the fines, but does not impede the afcent of
warm air. Level withthe rail-way, infide the clofet, there
is an opening 15 inches {quare, communicating with the ex-
ternal air. ‘The cieling cf the clofet isin the form of ahop-
per, terminating in a funnel of the fame diameter (15 inches)
as the external air-vent. Both thefe vents are furnifhed with
a fliding door, which opens and fhuts, as required, by pulley
cords. ~

The principle upon which it a€ts is by heating it to a de-
gree fuflictent to excite a {trong evaporation from the wet
hnen, and carrying off the meilture by means of the two
vents. During the time of its acquiring this heat, both the
vents, and alfo the horfes, are kept clolely fhut, fo that the
clofet is nearly air-tight. As foon as the proper degree of
heat is obtained, both the vents are to be opened, whena
{trong current of air rufhes in at the lowell, carrying up alk
the vapour from the linen through the upper vent or funnel,
when the dryiig will be very fpeedily completed. The
linen is then removed, a frefh f{upply put in, and the opera-
tion repeated as before, beginning by clofely fhutting
all up.

Betides the difpatch and economy attending this wafh-houfe
and laundry, the health and comtort of thofe employed in
them are greatly promoted, by being entirely free from the
pernicious effects of damp vapour, and in not being incom-
moded by any extra heat in hot weather.

Since this article was written, the gentleman above men-
tioned has-made a confiderable improvement in the wath-
houfe. He has cenftruéted an apparatus for performing the
operation by /leam. Although it is not yet (December
1511) quite completed, it is fufficiently fo to have afcer«
tained by experiment, that every fpecies of white linen may
be better cleanfed this way than it 1s poffible to doit by the
hands, or any machine hitherto invented. —We fay white
linen, becaufe the operation proves to be fo powerful, that
it difcharges the colour from all dyed and, printed articles
that have been tried with it.

At the end of the wafh-houfe a ftrong iron-boiler is fixed,
three feet fix inches long, one foot eight inches wide, and
two feet nine inches deep, with fittings up the fame as thofe
for {team-:ngines, viz. a feeding-pipe with regulator, a

3Cz mercury

‘by this method.

5 Oe a

mercury gauge-tube, a three-inch fteam-tube, two obferva-
tion cocks, a fafety valve, and a difcharging pipe. From
the {team-tube, a pipe of 14 inch bore is continued the
whole length of the building ; and from this main fteam-pipe,
others of {maller dimenfions, from } to 4 inch diameter, are
laid on the different fteaming veflels. hefe may be either
of wood, tin, or copper; but the latter is certainly belt,
for the aétion of {team is fo powerful, that it will foon ren-
der both wood and tin ufelefs. They mutt be fitted with a
loofe grating infide, about two inches from the bottom; a
cock at one end, to admit the fteam; and another at the
other ead, quite at the bottom, to difcharge the foul water.
The procefs is as follows: Soap the linen where it is very
dirty, and put it to foak; then place the linen upon the
grating in the fteam veffel; cover it up, and turn on the
tteam. The difcharging cock mult be occafionally opened,
to draw off the condenfed fteam; and when it is found to
come off perfeétly-clear, which it will do in half an hour, or
lefs, the operation is finifhed, and the articles will come out
perfeétly clean, and mott beautifully white.

By this fimple and eafy procefs, the drudgery of wafhing
is entirely done away; and the faving in time, foap, and
other expences, is greater than can well be conceived. ‘The
faving of water in many fituations is a matter of confe-
quence ; but what is of {till more importance, the linen will
laft double the time it otherwife would do: for as there is

neither preflure nor friction, it cannot -be injured in this

procefs.

Wathing by fteam has been praétifed, but never before
The way it has been done has been by
fteaming the linen in the /uds. Hence it is evident that the

filth that is forced out of the linen is mixed with the fuds,
-and is again difperfed equally all through the linen; fo that

repeated changes of foap and water mult be had recourfe to,
before the linen is made thoroughly clean. But by this new
procefs, the linen being put into the {teaming veflels, with-

‘out any other liquor than it retains on being taken out of
‘the foaking tubs, every particle of matter which is diflodged

from it inltantly fubfides to the bottom of the veffel, and
never can again come in contact with the linen. Our readers
mutt excufe the prolixity of this article, on account of its
great importance and ufefulnefs in domestic economy to
every family.

Note.—The boiler above defcribed alfo heats an hot-houfe
in an adjoining garden, befides boiling a copper, and thus

-does the work of fix fires.

LAUNOY, Jouy ve, in Biography, was born at Val-
‘defie, a village of Lower Normandy, in 1603. He received
ithe early part of his education at Conftance, whence he was
fent to the univerfity of Paris, where he purfued his ftudies
-with great diligence for five or fix years. In 1636 he was
ordained prieft, and foon after was admitted to the degree
-of doctor of divinity at the college of Navarre. For the
fake of improvement he travelled to Rome, and became ac-

‘-quainted with the moft eminent characters ; but on his re-

s

‘turn to Paris, he applied with great intenfenefs to his
ftudies, and compofed a vaft variety of works on fubjects
relating to hiltory, criticif{m, and eccletiaftical difcipline.
At his own houfe he formed a kind of literary {chool, for
the difcuflion of topics that tended to the improvement of
the mind. He was an able defender of the rights of the
Gallican church, in oppofition to the pretenfions of Rome.
He attacked feveral falfe traditions with great intrepidity ;
-and he contended fo forcibly for expunging the names of {e-
veral falfe faints from the calendar, that he was called the
anifher of faints. It was faid of him, that “ he was a ter-
aible critic, formidable both to heaven and earth; that he

LAV

had-expelled a greater number of faints from paradife than
ten popes have canonized. He fufpeéted the whole mar-
tyrology ; and he examined all the faints one after another,
in the fame manner as they do the nobility in France:’? By
the freedom which he exercifed in his writings, he provoked
againtt him an holt of enemies; and he was obliged, at the
intimation of the king, to difcontinue his aflemblies, which
were held at his own apartments. He met with an excellent
friend in the abbe d’Etlrees, who prefented him with a very
valuable preferment in the church, which he foon refigned,
choofing to live contented on a {mall income rather than en-
dure the cares of bulinefs. He faid that it was much more
difficult for a Chriftian to make a right ufe of riches, than
to live without them. He died in his 75th year, in 1675.
His works are very numerous, and have been collected and
publifhed in ten volumes, folio. Of one of his pieces, viz.
“ De Auctoritate negantis Argumenti,”’ Bayle fays, had
he publifhed nothing elfe, he would have eftablifhed his fame
as a benefactor to the republic of letters, by a thoufand fine
hints which it contains for dillinguifhing truth from falfehood
in hiftorical matters. He was a perfon of great fimplicity,
a good friend, difinterefted, and laborious; an enemy to
vice, void of ambition, charitable and beneficent; and ever
obferving the fame tenor of life. Bayle. Moreri.
LAUNY, or Lawn, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Saatz, on the Egra, on the road from
Leipfic to Prague; g miles E.N.I. of Saatz. N. lat. 50”
Zo/s Ee longepnar sal. j
LAVOISIER, Anruoxy Lawrence, in Biography,
a diltinguilhed chemical philofopher, was born at Paris, on
the 13th of Auguft 1743. His father, who was a man of
opulence, {pared no expence in beltowing upon him the ad-
vantages of a liberal education; and he difplayed very Garly
proofs of the extent and fuccefs of his {tudies, efpecially in
the circle of the phylical {ciences. In the year 1764, the
French government propofed a prize queftion, relative to
the belt method of lighting the ftreets of a large city. La-
voifier prefented a diflertation on the fubje€t, which he dif-
cuffed upon the moft enlarged and philofophical views.
This was not only highly approved, and printed at the ex-
pence of the Academy of Sciences, but obtained for him the
prefent of a gold medal from the king, which was delivered
to him by the prefident of the Academy, at a public fitting,
in April 1766. Two years afterwards, he was admitted a
member of that learned body, of which he was conftantly
one of the molt aétive and ufeful affociates. About the fame
time, he was occupied in experimental refearches ona variety
of fubje&s ; fuch as the analyfis of the gypfum found in the
neighbourhood of Paris; the cryftallization of falt; the pro-
perties of water ; and in exploring the phenomena of thun-
der, and of the aurora borealis : and he diltinguifhed himfelf
by feveral differtations on thefe and other topics, praétical
and {peculative, which appeared in different periodical works.
In the Memoirs of the Academy for 1770 were publifhed
his obfervations on the nature of water, and cn the experi-
ments which had béen fuppofed to prove the poflibility of its
converfion into earth. He proved, by a careful repetition
of thefe experiments, that the earthy depofit, left after re-
peated diftillations of water, proceeded folely from an abra-
fion of the veffels employed. Lavoifier performed feveral
journies into various parts of France, in company with M.
Guettard; in the courfe of which he colleéted a ftore of
materials for a lithological and mineralogical hiltory of that
kingdom, which he ingenioufly arranged in the form of a
chart. Thefe materials were the bafis of a great work on
the revolutions of the globe, and on the formation of the
flrata of the earth: two interefting {ketches of which were
printed

LA VOISIER.

printed in the Memoirs of the Academy for the years 1772
and 1787. 4

In faét, M. Lavoifier devoted his whole time and fortune
to the cultivation of the {ciences, the boundaries of which
he feemed, by fuch an union of zeal, talent, and wealth,
-deftined to extend. About this period, a new mine of ex-
perimental refearch, which promifed the moift curious and
interetling refults, had been opened out by the genius of
Dr. Black, and already purfued with much fagacity and in-
duftry by Dr, Prieftley.—We allude to the difcovery of the
properties of certain acriform fubftances, gafes, or (as they
have been called) factitious airs, which had hitherto efcaped
the attention of chemical inquirers. M. Lavoitier, {truck
with the beauty and importance of thefe difcoveries, entered
into the fame field of refearch with all the f{eientific ardour
by which he was charaéterized: and here the advantage of
his ample wealth was manifelt ; for he conducted his experi-
ments upon a large {cale, with coftly initruments of the molt
improved conftruction. ‘The refult of this courfe of ex-
perimental inquiry he gave to the world in 1774, in his
*¢ Opufcules Chymiques,”’ which contained not only a clear
and elegant view of all that had hitherto been done, in regard
to gafeous or aériform fluids, but alfo feveral original ex-
periments, remarkable for their ingenuity and accuracy.

The exiftence of a gafeous body, ina fixed or folid fate,
in the mild alkalies and alkaline earths, which, when ex-
pelled from thefe fubitances, aflumed an aérial form, and
left them in a caultic ftate, as well as its production during
the combu'tion of fuel, had been demonttrated by Dr.
Black ; and Bergman had fhewn that this air poffefied acid
properties. Dr. Prieftley had allo fubmitted it to various
experiments in the year 1767; but no progrefs had been
made in afcertaining the real conftituent parts of this azid
gas, or fixable air. ‘The honour of this difcovery was left
for Lavoilier; who, in 1772, by expofing a piece of char-
coal, inclofed in a glafs veffel, to the action of a lens, dif-
covered that part of the charcoal was confumed, that a di-
minution of air had taken place in the receiver, and that the
refidue poffeffed the properties of the fixable air :—whence
he concluded that charcoal was one of the conftituent parts
of this gas. ‘The combuttible nature of the diamond having
been already proved by Macquer, d’Arcet, and others, La-
voilier was induced to fubmit this fub{tance to the fame
treatment as the charcoal in the former experiment ; and he
found that precifely the fame refults took place: whence he
inferred, that there exifted a great analogy between charcoal
and diamond, Both thefe conclufions have been amply con-
firmed by fubfequent experiments: they were in every re-
{pect important; and feem, together with the facts pre-
vioufly known, of the production of acids by the combultion
of fulphur and phofphorus, to have given the firlt hint to
Lavorfier of his fubfequent general theory of the formation
of acids. ;

Lavoifier now turned his experimental refearches to the
fubjeét of the calcination (as it was then termed, from its
apparent fimilarity to the procefs of making /ime) of metals.
It had already been fhewn by Rey and Homberg, that
metals acquire an augmentation of weight during calcination.
This additional weight was attrisuted by the latter to the
fixation of heat and light ; but was fuppefed by the former
to proceed from the fixation of a part of the air. M. La-
voitier publifhed the refult of his inveitigation of this curious
fubje&t in 1774, in a memoir on the calcination of tin in
clofe veflels, 11 which he demonitrated the following very
important facts. He fhewed, 1, that a given quantity of
air was requilite for the caleination of a given quantity of
tin; 2, that a part of the air is abforbed during this pro-

2

cefs, by which not only the bulk, but the weight of the air
is diminifhed; 3, that the weight of the tin is increafed
during the fame procefs ; and, 4, that the weight acquired
by the tin is exactly equal to that which is loft by the air.
Thus by a few fimple, accurate, and well-chofen experi-
ments, Lavoifier had apparently arrived at the legitimate
inference, that during the procefs of the formation of acids,
whether with carbonaceous matter, fulphur, or phofphorus,
and alfo during that of the calcination of metals, an abforp-
tion and fixation of air take place, and thus he gained a
glimpfe of principles, in the view of which his fingular fa-
gacity in deviling experiments, and his accuracy in executing
them, would in all probability have alone conducted him to
thofe brilliant refults, to which the ative genivs of -Dr.
Pricitley fo materially contributed. The fynthetic proofs
only of this union of air with the bafe had been as yet a{cer-
tained: but Dr. Priefley firlt furnithed the analytic proof,
by diflevering the cembination ; a difcovery which at once
advanced the naicent theory of Lavoifier, and, in his hands,
became the fource of more than one important conclufion.
In Auguit 1774, Dr. Prieitley difeovered, that by heating
certain metallic calces, efpecially the calcined mercury, (the
precipitate per fe, as it was then called,) a quantity of air
was feparated, while the mercury refumed its metallic form ;
and this air, which he found was much purer than that of
the atmofphere, he called, from the theory of the time,
dephlogiflicated air. The fucceeding winter he {pent at Paris,
and communicated to Lavoifier, and the other philofophers
there, his recent difeovery : and the importance of this in-
telligence to the views of Lavoifier was manifeft ina memoir
publithed by him in the following year, 1775, on the nature
of the principle which combines with metals during their
calcination. In this paper he fhewed, in conformity with
the experiments of Dr. Prieftley, that. the mercurial pre-
cipitate per fe, by being heated in a retort, gives out a
highly refpirable air, (ince called oxygen,) and is itfelf re-
duced to the metallic ftate; that combultible bodies burn
in this air with increafed brilliancy ; and that the fame mer-
curial calx, if heated with charcoal, gives out not the pure
air, but fixed air:—whence he concluded that fixed air is
compofed of charcoal and the pure air. It has, therefore,
fince been called carbonic acid. on
A fecond very important confequence of Dr. Prieftley’s
difcovery of the pure or vital air, was the analyfis of the air
of the atmofphere: which was accomplifhed by Lavoifer
inthe following manner. He included fome mercury ina
clofe veflel, together with a known quantity of atmofpheric
air, and kept it for fome days ina boiling ftate : by degrees
a {mall quantity of the red calx was formed upon the furface
of the metal ; and when this ceafed to be preduced, the con-
tents of the veflel were examined. The air was found to be
diminifhed both in bulk and weight, and to have been ren-
dered altogether incapable of fupporting combuftion or ani-
mal life; part of the mercury was found converted into the
red calx, or precipitate per fe; and, which was extremely
fatisfactory, the united weight of the mercury and the pre-
cipitate exceeded the weight of the original mercury, by
precifely the fame amount as the air had loft. To complete
the demonftration, the precipitate was then heated, accord-
ing to Dr. Prieltley’s firft experiment, and decompofed into
fluid mercury and an air, which had all the properties
of vital air; and this air, when mixed with the unrefpirable
refidue of the original air of the receiver, compofed an
elaitic fluid poifefling the fame properties as atmofpherical
air. The vital air was afterwards made the fubjeG of va-
rious experiments in refpeét to the calcination of metals, te
the combuttion and convertion of fulphur and phofphorus into
. acids,

LAVOISIER.

acids, &c. in which proceffes it was found to be the chief
agent. Hence it was named by Lavoifier oxygen (or gene-
rator of acids), and the unrefpirable refidue of the atmo-
{phere was called azot, (i. e. incapable of fupporting /ife. )

The new theory thus acquired farther fupport and con-
fiftency : oxygen appeared to be one of the moft ative and
important agents of chemi(try and of nature; combuttion,
acidification, and calcination, (or, as it was now called,
exydation, the calces being alfo termed oxyds, i. e. fomething
approaching to, or.refembling acids, ) were proved to be pro-

-cefies ftrikingly analogous to each other ; all according in
thefe points, that they produced a decompofition of the at-
moipheric air, and & fixation of the oxygenous portion in the
fubifance acidified or calcined.

Time alone feemed now requilite to eftablith thefe ‘dec-
trines, by exemplifying them in other departments of che-
mical refearch. In the year 1777, fix memoirs were com-
municated to the Academy of Sciences by Lavoifier, in
which his former experiments were confirmed, and new ad-
vances were made to a confiderable extent. Our country-
men, Black and Crawford, in their refearches refpeéting
latent heat, and the different capacities of bodies under dif-
ferent circumitances, had laid a folid foundation, on which
the doétrines of combuttion, refulting from the foregoing
experiments, might be perfeéted, and the caufé of the light
and heat conneéted with it might be explained. The firft
mentioned philofopher, Dr. Black, had thewn, that a folid,
when it is made to affume a liquid form, anda liquid,- when
it afumes the form of vapour, abforts or combines with,
and renders latent, a large portion of heat, which is again
parted with, becomes free and cognizable by the fenfe of feel-
ing, and by the thermometer, when the vapour is again con-
denfed into a liquid, and the liquid becomes folid. In like
manner, it was now faid by Lavoifier, during the procefs of
sombuttion, the oxygen, which was previoufly in a gafeous
ttate, is fuddenly combined with the fubftance burnt into a
liquid orfolid. Hence all the latent heat, which was effen-
tial to its gafeous flate, being inftantaneoufly liberated in
large quantity, produces flame, which is nothing more than
wery condenfed free heat. About the fame time, the analogy
of the operation and neceffity of oxygen in the function of
refpiration, with the preceding hypwthefis of combuttion,
was pcinted out by Lavoifier. In the procefs of refpira-
‘tion, it was found that, although atmofpheric air is inhaled,
carbome acid and azot are expired. This animal operation,
faid Lavoifier, is a {pecies of flow combuttion: the oxygen
of the air unites with the fuperfluous carbon of the venous
‘blood, and produces carbonic acid, while the latent or com-
bined caloric (the matter of heat) is fet free, and thus fup-
plies the animat heat. Ingenious and beautiful, however,
as this extenfion of the analogy appeared, the fubje€t of ani-
mal temperature is {till under many obfcurities and diffi-
culties.

The phenomena of chemiftry, however, were now expli-
eable upon principles more fimple, confiftent, and fatisfa€tory
than by the aid of any former theory ; and the Lavoifierian
dotirines were every where gaining ground. But there yet
remained a formidable obje€tion to them, which was derived
from a circumftance attending the folution of metals in acids ;
to wit, the production of a confiderab’e quantity of inflam-
mable air. If fulphuric acid (formerly called vitriolic acid,
or oil of vitriol) confifts only of fulphur and oxygen, it was
faid, and bar iron is nothing more than this metal ma fimple
ftate, how does it happen, that when thefe two fubftances,
with alittle water, come in contaét, they fhould produce a
large quantity of inflammable air during their re-a€tion ?
This objection was unan{werable, and appeared to be fatal

to the whole theory : but it was moft opportunely. converted
into an ‘argument in its favour, by the great difcoyery of the
decompolition of water, made by Mr. Cavendifh; who re-
folved that element, as it was formerly efteemed, into cxy-
gen and inflammable air. The latter has fince, therefore, .
been called Aydrogen, or generator of water. This experi-
ment was repeated with full fuccefs by Lavoifier and his affo-
ciates in 1783; and the difcovery was farther eltablifhed by
afuccefsful experiment of the fame chemilts, carried on upon
a grand feale, in which, by combining the oxygen with
hydrogen, they produced water, and thus adding fynthefis
to analyfis, brought the fat to demonftration.

This new view of chemical phenomena, together with the
immenfe acceflion of new compounds and fubitances, whick
the labours of modern experimentaliits had brought to light,
appeared to demand a correfpondent alteration in the nomen-
clature. Accordingly, a committee of fome of the ableft
of the French chemiits, of whom Lavoifier was the moft
confpicuous, undertook the arduous tafk, and produced a
regular fyitem of nomenclature, derived from the Greek
language, which, although far from being faultlefs, and
notwithltanding much oppofition with which it was at firft
treated, has become the univerfal language of chemical
{cience, and has been adopted even in pharmacy and medicine.
His work, entitled «* Elemens de Chymie,’? which was
publithed in 1789, wasa meadel of {cientific compofition.

We have hitherto viewed M. Lavoifier principally as a
chemical philofopher, in which charaGter he has tounded his
great claims to the refpe¢t and admiration of potterity. But
the other arts and feiences are indebted to him for confi-
derable fervices which he rendered them, both in a public
and private capacity. In Frasce, more than in any other
country, men of fcience have been confulted ia matters of
public concern 3 and the reputation of Lavoifier caufed him
to be applied to, in 1776, to fuperintend the manufaéture of
gunpowder, by the enlightened miniller Thurgot. By the
application of his chemical knowledge to this manufaéture,
he was enabled to increafe the explofive force of the powder
by one fourth ; and while he fupprefled the troublefome re-
gulations for the collection of its materials from private
houfes, previoufly adopted, he quintupled the produce.
The Academy of Sciences received many fervices from his
hands. Jn addition to the communication of forty papers,
relative to many of the moft important fubjeéts of philefo-
phical chemiftry, which were printed in the twenty volumes
of Memoirs, from 1772 to 1793, he molt aétively promoted
all its ufeful plans and refearches, being a member of its ©
board of confultation, and, when appointed to the office of
treafurer, he introduced order into its accounts, and econo-
my into its expenditure. When thenew fy{tem of meafures
was propofed, he contributed fume new and accurate experi-
ments on the expanfion of metals: The national convention
confulted him with advantage concerning the beft method of
manufacturing affignats, and of fecuring them againft forgery.
Agriculture early engaged his attention, and he allotted a
confiderable traét of land on his eftate in the Vendome, for
the purpofe of experimental farming. The committee of
the conttituent affembly of 1791, appointed to form an
improved fyftem of taxation, claimed the affiflance of his
extenfive knowledge ; and he drew up, for their information,
an extract of a large work on the different productions ef
the country and their confumption, for which he had been
long collecting materials. This was printed by order of the
affembly, under the title of «* Richeffés Territoriales de la
France,” and was efteemed the moft valuable memoir on the
fubje&. In the fame year, he was appointed one of the
commiffioners of the national treafury ; and he introduced

into

DAV

into that department fuch order and regularity, that the
proportion between the income and the expenditure, in all
the branches of government, could be feen at a fingle view
every evening. This fpirit of fyltematic and lucid arrange-
ment was, indeed, the quality by which he was peculiarly
diftinguifhed, and its happy influence appeared in every fub-
je& which occupied his attention.

The private life of this diftinguifhed perfon was equally
eftimable with his public and plilofophical charafter. He
was extremely liberal in his patronage of the arts, and en-
couraged young men of talents in the purfuit of fcience.
His houfe became a vaft laboratory, where philofophical ex-
periments were inceflantly carrying on, and where he held
converfaziones twice a week, at which all the votaries of learn-
ing and {cience, foreigners as well as Frenchmen, afflembled,
Inhis manners M. Lavoifier was mild, affable, and obliging ;
a faithful friend and hufband, a kind relation, and charita-
ble to the poor upon his eltates ; in a word equally claiming
efteem for his moral qualities, as for thofe of his underftand-
ing.

aThe time was arrived, however, when diltin€tion even by
his talents and worth was fo far from fecuring public refpeé&,
amid the tumults of the revolution, that it became a fource
of danger, and, whe joined with wealth, was almolt certainly
fatal. All thofe efpecially, who had held any fituation under
the old adminiftration, particularly in the financial depart-
ments, were facrificed during the murderous reign of Ro-
befpierre, to the popular odium. Lavoifier was leized and
thrown into prifon, upon fome charges fabricated againit
himfelf and twenty-feven other farmers-general. During his
confinement he forefaw that he fhould be {tripped of all his
property ; butconfoled himfelf with the expectation that he
sould be able to maintain himfelf by the pra@tice of phar~
macy. Buta more fevere fait awaited him: he was capi-
tally condemned, and dragged to the guillotine, on the 8th
of May, 1794.

The name of Lavoifier will always be ranked among the
moft illuitrious chemilts of the prefent age, when it is con-
fidered what an extenfive and beneficial influence his labours
have had over the whole fecience. It has been faid, indeed,
that if he be eftimated on the {core of his aétual difcoveries,
not only Scheele and Prieftley, and Cavendifh, but many
more, will {tand before him, But, he poffeffed in a high de-
gree that rare talent of difcernment, by which he deteéted
analogies, which others overlooked, even in their own difco-
weries, and a fagacity in devifing and an accuracy in com-
pleting his experiments, for the purpofe of elucidating every
fuggettion which he thus acquired, fuch as few philofophers
have pofleffled, No one who did fo much, probably ever
made fo few unfuccefsful or random experiments. It was
the fingular perfpicuity, fimplicity and order to which he
reduced the phenomena of chemiltry, that claimed for his theo-
ry the general reception which it met with, and occafioned the
abandonment of thofe doétrines which prejudice and habit
confpired to fupport. Subfequent difcoveries, however,
and snore efpecially thofe numerous fa&ts which the genius
of Mr. Davy has lately brought to light, through the me-
dium of that moft powerful agent of decompotition, gal-
vanifm, have rendered feveral modifications of the Lavoi-
erian theory neceffary, and bid fair to produce a more ge-
neral revolution in the language and doGrines of chemiftry.

M. Lavoifier married, in 1771, the daughter of a farmer-
general, alady of pleafing manners and confiderable talents,
who partook of her hufband’s zeal for philofophical inquiry,
and cultivated chemiftry with much fuccefs. She engraved
svith her own hand the copper plates for his laft work. Mad.
Lavoifier has fince given her hand to another eminent philo-

LAU

fopher, count Rumford. Gen. Biog.
Med.

LAVONIA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Ca-
labria Citra; 8 miles W.S.W. of Roffano.—Alfo, a town
of Calabria Ultra; 14 miles W. of Squillace.

LAVORA, or Terra pr Lavora, a fertile and de-
lightful province of Naples, diverlified with hills and plains,
lying between 40° 36! and 41° 45! N, lat.; anciently Terra
Laboria, Campania, and Campus Laboricus, and in the
middle ages the Caftellany of Capua. It received its pre-
fent name in 109i from Richard II., prince of Capua, on
account of the fitnefs of the foil for every kind of cultiva-
tion. This province is populous, and abounds in corn, wine,
oil, and other productions of Italy. It is bounded on the
N.W. by Campagna di Roma, on the N. and E. by
Abruzzo Citra and Contado di Molife, on the S.E. and
S. by Principato Ultra and Principato Citra, and on the W.
by the Mediterranean ; being go miles from N.W. to S.E,
and 30—45 in breadth ; and in 1779 it contained 1,210,989
inhabitants. It is watered by the rivers Garigliano and Voi-
turno; the former, which is a placid ftream, rifes in
Abruzzo Ultra, and falls into the fea below Trajetto; the
latter defcends from the Apennines, pafles by Capua, and
lofes itfelf in the gulf of Gxta. The capital of this pro-
vince is Naples.

LAUPEN, a town of Switzerland, in the canton of

erne, and chief place of a bailiwick: it is fituated at the
conflux of the Sannen and Senfe; 5 miles S.W. of Berne.
It was once imperial.

LAUQUEN, called Villarica by the Spaniards, a lake
of Chili, about 72 miles in circuit, with a beautiful conic
hill in the centre. From this hill fprings the river Tolten,
which joins the Pacific ocean.

LAUR, a town of Perfia, in, Chufiftan; 50 miles
E. of Toftar.

LAURA, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Mofcow ; 36 miles N.E. of Mofcow.

Laura, a town of Hindooitan, in the circar of Nagore ;
20 miles W. of Catchwana,

Laura, Aavpz, primarily fignifying village, firect, or
hamlet, a name given to the refidence of the ancient monks.
Authors cannot agree about the difference between a laura
and a monaftery : fome pretend, that a laura was a monaf-
tery, wherein there lived at leaft a thoufand monks; but
this is nowife credible. The more natural opinion is, that
the ancient monatteries were the fame with the modern, con-
fifting of large buildings divided into halls, chapels, and
cells, poffefled by the menks, each of whom had his apart
ment ; but the laure were a kind of villages, whereof each
houfe was inhabited by one or two monks at the moit ; fo
that the houfes of the Chartreux feem, in fome meafure,
to reprefent the ancient laure, and thofe of the other monks
proper monafteries., The term laura was only underftood
of the religious places in Egypt, and the Eaft, where their
houfes ftood apart from each other, and were not joined by
any common cloifter, the monks that inhabited them only
meeting in public once a week.

LAURADIO, in Geography, a town of Portugal, is
the province of Eftramadura, on the S. fide of the Tagus ;
6 miles S.S.E. of Lifbon.

LAURAGAIS, the name, before the revolution, of a
fmall country of France, in Upper Languedoc, of which
Caftelnaudary was the capital.

LAURANA, a fea-port of Iftria, With a imall harbout,
in the gulf of Quarnero; 8 miles §. af Caflua. N. lat.
45° 28’, E. long. 14° 17’. ;

. Shen a LAURE,

Hutchinfon's Biog.

LAV

LAURE, a town of Portugal, in the province of Alan-
tejo; 30 miles W.N.W. of Evora.

LAUREAT, Poet, is a well known office in the king's
houfhold. Sir John Hawkins obferves, that there are no
records which afcertain the origin of the inftitution of the
office in this kingdom, though there are many that recog-
nize it. It appears that as early as the reign 6f Henry IIL.
there was a court poet, named Henry de Avranches, who
is fuppofed to have had an appointment of a hundred
fhillings a year, by way of falary or ttipend. In 1341
Petrarch was crowned with laurel in the Capitol by the
fenate of Rome; afterwards T'rederic ILL. emperor of
Germany, gave the laurel to Conradus Celtes; and ever
fince the counts palatine of the empire have claimed the
privilege of folemnly invelting poets with the bays. Chau-
cer, who was contemporary with Petrarch, and acquainted
with him, when abroad, affumed the title oF poet-laureat
on his return to England ; and in the rath year of Richard
II. obtained a grant of an annual allowance of wine. We
read of perfons under the fame title in the reigns of Ed-
ward LV. Henry VII. and VIII. and of James I. who,
in 1615, granted to his laureat an annual penfion of roo
marks. Inthe year 1630, this penfion was augmented, by
letters patent of Charies I. to rook per annum, with an
additional grant of one terfe of Canary Spanith wine, to
be taken out of the king’s ttore of wines yearly. Haw-
kin’s Hilt. of Mutic, vol. iv. p. 13. ,

LAUREATION, a term in the Scottifh univerfities,
ufed for the act of taking up the degree of a matter of
arts, to which the fludents are admitted after four years’
ftudy in the univerfities.

LAUREL, in Botany and Gardening.
and Prunus.

Lavuret, Common or Cherry, Prunus’ laurocerafus, in
the Materia Medica, is a native ef the Levant, and has
been long cultivated in Britain. The leaves have a bitter
ityptic tafte, accompanied with a flavour refembling that of
bitter almonds. The flowers alfo have a fimilar flavour.
The powdered leaves, applicd to the noitrils, excite {neezing,
but lefs powerfully than tobacco. The kernel-like flavour of
the leaves has caufed them to be ufed for culinary purpofes,
efpecially in cuftards, puddings, blanc-mange, &c. andas the
proportion to the quantity of milk is inconfiderable, this has
been done without any noxious eifect. However, as the
poifonous quality of this laurel is now indubitably proved,
the public fhould be cautioned againit its internal ufe.
The firit and principal proofs of the deleterious effects of
this vegetable upon mankind were communicated to the
Royal Society by Dr. Madden of Dublin, in a * letter
giving an account of two women being poifoned by the
fimple diftilled water of laurcl-leaves, and of feveral ex-
periments upon dogs, by which it appears that this laurel is
one of the moit dangerous poifons hitherto known,”’ He
mentions alfo the cafe of a gentleman, who by miitake drank
a quantity of this laurel water, and died ina few minutes,
complaining of a violent diforder in his ttomach. (See
Phil. Tranf. N° 418. 426. vol. xxxvii.) The cafe of fir
Theodofius Boughton is more recent. His death in 1780
was afcribed by an Englifh jury to this poifon. In this
cafe the ative principle of the laurocerafus was concen-
trated by repeated diitillations, and given to the quantity of
an ounce. It has been found by the experiments of Mad-
den, Mortimer, Nicholls, Langrifh, Vater, Fontana, and
others, that to brute animals ‘this poifon is almoft inftanta-
neoufly mortal. ‘Thefe experiments alfo fhew, that the laurel-
water is deftructive to animal life, not only when taken
dato the flomach, but alfo on being injeéted into the intef-

See Laurus

LAU

tines, or applied externally to different organs of the body.
The moft volatile is the moft aétive part of the laurocerafus ;
and from its fenfible qualitiés we may be led to judge, that
an analogous principle feems to pervade many other vege-
table fubftances, efpecially the kernels of drupaceous fruits ;
and in various fpecies of the Amygdalus, this fapid prin-
ciple extends to the flowers and leaves. It is obfervable,
that it is much lefs powerful in its ation upon human fub-
jects than upon dogs, rabbits, pigeons, and reptiles. To
poifon man, the effential oi] of the laurocerafus muit be fe-
parated by diltillation, as in the fpirituous or common
laurel water ; and unlefs this is flrongly imbued with the
oil, or given in a large dofe, it proves innocent. Dr. Cul-
len remarks, that the fedative power of the laurocerafus aéts
upon the nervous fyitem in a different manner from opium and
other narcotic fubttances, whofe primary action is upon the
animal functions; for the laurocerafus does not accafion
fleep, nor does it produce local inflammation, but feems to
aét direétly upon the vital powers. « Although this vege-
table feems to have occupied the notice of Stoerck, its me-
dicinal ufe has its advocates. From Linneus we learn,
that in Switzerland it is commonly and fuccefsfully ufed in
pulmonary complaints. Langrifh mentions its efficacy in
agues; and as Bergius found bitter almonds to haye this
effeét, we may from analogy conclude, that this power of
the laurocerafus is well etlablifhed. Baylies found that it
pofleffed a remarkable power of diluting the blood, and
from experience, recommended it in all cafes of difeafe fup-

pofed to proceed from too denfe a ftate of that fluid; ad-

ducing particular inllances of its efficacy in rheumatifm,
afthma, and in {chirrous affections. Nor does this author:
feem to have been much afraid of the deleterious quality of
the laurocerafus, as he orders a pound of its leaves to be
macerated in a pint of water, of which he gives from 30
to 40 drops. three or four times a day.’? Woodville’s:
Med. Bot.

Launet, Alexandrian, in Botany. See Ruscus.

Laurer, Dwarf, of America. See Kapmia.

Lauren, Sea-fide. See Puyrranriwus.

Laurer, Spruce, or Spurge. See Darin.

Lauren Mountains, in Geography, a range of mountains:
W. ot the Alleghany ridge, and part of the Alleghany
mountains ; extending from Pennfylvania to North Carolina, :
and giving rife to feveral branches of the Ohio river. The:
Great Kanhaway breaks through the Laurel ridge in its.
way to the Ohio. . N. lat. 38’ 30’. W. long. 81° 19/.°
About lat. 36, in a {pur of this mountain, is a {pring of
water 50 feet deep, very cold, and, as it is faid, blue as
indigo. The lands, within a {mall diftance of the Laurek
mountains, through which the Youghiogang river runs, are
in many places broken and itony, but rich and well tim-
bered ; and in fome places, and particularly on Laurel ereek.:
they are rocky and mountainous. From the Laurel moun-.
tain to Monongaheia, the lands for the firkt feven miles are
good, level, and fit for farming, interfperfed with fine mea-.
dows : the timber, white-oak, chefnut, hickory, &c. Morfe.

Laure. River, a rivery dE Kentucky, which runs into:
the Cumberland, N. lat. 36° 34’. W.iong. 83° 50’.

‘* LAURELS, pieces of gold coined in the year 1619, with:
the king’s head-laureated, which gave them the name of:
laurels; the twenty-fhilling pieces of which were marked:
with XX, the ten fhillings X, and, the fiverfhilling pieces.
with V.

LAUREMBERG, Pevrer, in Biography, a learned:
phyfician, was born at Roitock, where his father was pro-.
feflor of medicine and mathematics. Peter took the degree
of dogtor in the univerlity of his native place, and afterwards

travelled:

LAU

travelled into France, and fettled for fome time at Mon-
tauban, where he taught philofophy in 1611. In 1614,
however, he was at Hamburgh, and was profeffor of natural
philofophy there until 1620 ; when he returned to Roftock,
and was appointed profeffor of poetry in 1624. He died
in this city on the 13th of May, 1639, at the age of 54.
He left feveral works; thofe on anatomy, however, were
_ efteemed by Riolan as of very indifferent worth. They are,
* Difputationes Phyfice,’’ Roftock, 1616. * Lfagoges
Anatomice Grece Interpretatio,”” Hamburgh, 1616. *Pro-
ceftria Anatomica,” ibid. 1619. ‘* Laurus Delphica, feu,
Confilium quo defcribitur Methodus perfacilis ad Medi-
cinam,”’ Leyden, 1621. ‘In Synopfin Aphorifmorum
Chymiatricorum Angeli Sale, Vicentini, Note et Animad-
verliones,” Roftock, 1624. Porticus Efculapii, feu, ge-
ralis Artis Medice Conftitutio,”’ ibid. 1630. ‘* Apparatus
Plantarius primus, &c.’”? Francfort, 1632. ‘* Palicompfe
nova, id eft, delineatio Pulchritudinis,”’ Leipfic, 1634.
*¢ Anatomia corporis humani, five Collegium Anatomicum
duodecim difputationibus comprehenfum,” Roft. 1636.

William Lauremberg, the father of the preceding, who
died in 1612, left an ‘“* Effay onthe malignant, petechial
Fever,’ Roftock, 1605; and the following pofthumous
works: ‘ De Curatione Calculi,’”? Leyden, 1619. ‘¢ Bota-
notheca, five Modus conficiendi Herbarium vivum,” 1626:
and “ Hiitoria Defcriptionis Aelitis, five Lapidis A quilz,’’
1627. His younger fon, John Lauremberg, likewife was
a phyfician, and author of feveral works, on the antiquities
of Greece, algebra, and arithmetic, &c. Eloy. Dict. Hilt.
de la Méd.

LAUREMBERGIA, in Botany, fo named by Bergius
in honour of Peter Lauremberg, formerly an excellent gar-
dener, who publifhed a work on horticulture at Francfort
in 1632, which is faid to have led the way to the modern
improvements in that art. Berg. Cap. 350. t. 5. f. 10.
See Sexpicuta, to which the fynonym of Bergius un-
doubtedly belongs, though cited with hefitation in Schreb.
Gen. 628. Lamarck’s figure of Serpicula, t.758, is in
fa&t a copy of that of Bergius.

LAURENCE, Canons of St., an order of regular ca-
nons, fo called from the monaftery of St. Laurence d’Oulx,
in Dauphiné. :

This congregation is faid to have been founded by St.
Benedi@. It was deftroyed by the Vandals, and contmued
uninhabited till the middle of the 11th century. In 1057,
Odo, count of Savoy, gave it to one Gerard, and his canons.
‘This donation was confirmed in 1065; by Cunibert, bifhop
of Turin, who added to it above forty other churches; by
which means a very confiderable congregation was formed.

to whom the fucceeding popes, and counts of Savoy, granted’

a great many privileges.

It had thirty priories ; the chief, who is, the prior of the
congregation, bears the title of provoit, and exercifes a
fpiritual jurifdition throughout his provoftfhip.
~ Laurence, Bay of St.; in Geography, a bay on the E.
coaft of Ruffia, at the entrance of Beering’s ftraits. N, lat.
63° 47'. E. long. 188° 15’.

Laurence Creek, a river of Kentucky, which runs into
the Ohio, N. lat. 38°30'. W. long. 83° 36’.

Lavrence J/land, a {mall ifland in the gulf of Florida,
near the coaft of Eaft Florida. N. lat. 25° 36’. W. long.
80° 22!.

Laurence J/land, an ifland in the Pacific ocean, on the
coaft of Ruffia, near Tfchukotfkoi Nofs; about three
leagues in circuit. N. lat. 63° 47’. E. long, 188? 15’. °

sAURENCE, Gulf of St., a part of the North Aclantic
ocean, fituated between the ifland of Newfoundland, Labra-

Vou, XX.

LAU

dor, Canada, Nova Scotia, and the ifland of Cape Breton;
miles in length, and 150 in breadth. This is the eltuary of
the river of the fame name, and is generally frozen from
December to April. This noble gulf is clofed by the ifland
of Newfoundland, and by numerous fand-banks, particularly
hy that which is called the Great Bank. N. lat. 47° 51/.
W. long. 57° to 65°.

Laurence, Harbour of St.. a bay onthe S. coaft of
Newfoundland, fituated N.W. of the entrance into Placentia
bay.
Banttade Key, a {mall ifland in the bay of Honduras,
near the coaft of Mexico. N. lat. 16’. W. long. 89°
48".
Laurence Kirk, a town of Scotland, in the county of
Kincardine, in which have been lately ettablifhed manufac-
tures of lawns, cambric, &c. In 1799 it was erected into
a burgh of barony, with the privilege of a market. The
population in 1So1 was 12153 7 miles W. of Bervie.

Laurence, or Lawrence, River of St., the largeft, or at
lea{t the fecond, river in North America, being not lefs than
go miles wide at its mouth, and navigable for fhips of the
line as far as Quebec, a diftance of 400 miles from the fea.
Near Quebec it is five miles wide ; at Montreal, 560 miles
from its mouth, from two to four miles broad. To this
place it is navigable with perfeét fafety for fhips drawing
fourteen feet water. During the whole of its courfe to

350

‘Kingfton on lake Ontario, 743 miles from its mouth, it is

navigable for batteaux of two tons burden, except merely at
the rapids above Montreal, at the Fall of the Thicket, and
at the Long Fall, where it is neceflary to lighten the batteaux,
if heavily laden. Mr. Weld fuggetts, that at each of thefe
places it is poffible to conftruét canals, fo as to prevent the
trouble of unlading any part of the cargoes of the batteaux 5
and that, at a future day, when the country becomes rich,
fuch canals will, without doubt, be made. The fource of.
this river is not precifely afcertained ; but the name is gene-
rally appropriated to the ftream that iffues from lake On-
tario, From Ontario to Montreal it has the name of Iro-
quois, and afterwards it affumes the name of St. Laurence.
This river cannot, conformably to geographical ufage, be
traced beyond lake Ontario, to lake Superior ;. much lefs,
with Mr. Weld, to lake Winipic, which, according to the
beft maps, has‘no. communication with the fea of Canada,
or the conneéted lakes Superior, Michigan, and Huron,
The length of the St. Laurence may be reckoned about 700
Britifh miles, its chief charaéteriftic being its breadth. Mr.-
Weld has made feveral obfervations on the importance
of this river to the commerce of North America. The
time required to afcend this river, from Montreal to Kingf-
ton, is commonly found to be feven days, but with a {trong
and favourable wind the voyage may be performed in lefs
time, and with an adverfe wind it will of courfe require long-
ertime. The paflage downwards is performed in four or-
five days, according to the wind. ‘The current is fo itrong,
that a contrary wind feldom lengthens the paflage in this
direGtion more-than a day. The channel of this river, in-
ftead of having been impaired by time, like thofe of many
others, and that of the Miffifippi in particular, is found to
‘be confiderably better now than when it was firft difcovered ;
and there is reafon to imagine that it will improve {till more
in procefs of time, as the clear water from lake Ontario
comes down with fuch impetuofity during the floods in the
{pring of the year, as frequently to remove banks of ground
and of loofe ftones in the river, and thus to deepen its bed.
To this purpofe, it is obferved, that the channel on the
N. fide of the ifland of Orleans, immediately below Qnebec,

which, in the year 1720, was not deep enough to:admit a
D fhallop_

LAU

fuallop of {mall fize, except at the time of high tides, is at
prefent of fufficient depth for the largett veflels, and is the
channel moft generally ufed. This river, inits courfe, forms
a great variety of bays, harbours, and iflands, which are not
eal fertile and pleafant, but favourable for the purpotes of
commerce. It appears by a comparifon of the St. Laurence
with other rivers, conneéting the lakes with the Atlantic ocean,
that this river opens a fhorter paflage than any of the others,
and that the portages are fhorter than in any of the other
routes ; they are allo fewer, and goods may be tranfported
in the fame boats the whole way from Montreal to the lakes.
Befides, the St. Laurence witl, on another account, be found
a more commodious channel than any other for the carrying
on of trade between the ocean and the lakes. Being con-
ftantly fupplied from that immenfe refervoir of water, lake
Ontario, it is never fo low, even in the drieft feafon, as not
to be fufficiently deep to float laden batteaux.

The fcenery along various parts of this river is very fine,
as it winds for hundreds of miles through a rich country,

diverfified with rifing grounds, weodlands, and cultivated’

plains. The attention, in going down the river, is particu-
Jarly attracted by the beautiful difpofition of the towns and
villages onits banks. All the houfes have a neat appearance
at a diftance ; and in each village, however fmall, there is a
church : the churches are kept in good repair, and moft of
them are covered, according to the cuftom of the country,
with tin, which, from the manner in which it is put on,
never becomes rufty.

LAURENS, Anprew pv, or Laurentivus, in Bio-
graphy, a French phyfician, was born at Arles, He wasa
difciple of Lewis Duret, at Paris; but after having taken
his degree of do€tor of medicine, he fettled in a provineial
town. He was induced, however, to accompany a lady of
quality to court, and through her intereft was appointed
chancellor of the univerfity of Montpellier, phyfician to the
queen, and ultimately (in 1606) firft phyfician to the king,
Henry IV. Hedied in 1609. He left feveral works, the
principal of which were upon anatomical fubjeéts, and were
more remarkable for elegance of ftyle, than corre€tnefs in
the detail of faéis. His ‘* Hiftoria Humani Corporis et
fingularum ejus partium anatomica,’’ folio, 1600, was often
reprinted, and tranflated into French by Heliot, in 1741.
The figures of this work are chiefly copied from Vefalius.
He publifhed alfo “* Difcours de la Vue, des Maladies me-
Jancholiques, des Catarrhes, et de la Vieillefle,’’ 1596, which
was tranflated both into Latin and Englifh. Gen. Biog.
Hutchinfon Biog. Med.

Laurens, in Geography, a diftri&t of South Carolina,
lying between Enoree and Saluda rivers; about 31 miles
long and 22 broad, containing 12,809 inhabitants, of whom
Igig are flaves.

Laurens Court-houfe, a place in the above county, 20
miles from Buth-river, 32 from Newbury, and 40 from
Greenville ; in which is a poft-office.

Laurens, S¢., a {mall ifland in the Indian fea.
35'. E. long. 52°.

LAURENT, St., a town of Hifpaniola, on the Ozema ;
feven miles N. of St. Domingo.—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Vendée; feven miles S.E. of Mor-
tagne.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Jura; 12 miles N. of St. Claude—Alfo, a town of France,
in the department of the Lower Seine ; feven miles N. of
Rouen.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
Ande ; four miles E. of La Graffe.—Alfo, an ifland in the

Pacific ocean, near the coalt of Peru, at the entrance of the
harbour ef Callao.

S. lat. 9°

LAU

Laurent d’ Aigouze, St., a town of France, in the des
partment of the Gard; 15 miles S. of Nifmes. \

Laurent d’ Arce, St., a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Gironde; eight miles S,E. of Bourg. ;

Laurent de Cerdans, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ealtern Pyrenées ; nine miles S. W. of
Cerat,

Laurent de Chamoufft, St., atown of France, in the
department of the Rhone, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri&t of Lyons ; 15 miles W. of Lyons. The place
contains 1255, and the canton 10,978 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1824 kiliometres, in 14 communes.

Lavurent-/ur-Gorre, St.. a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftri&t of Rochechouart; 15 miles W.S.W. of
Limoges. The place contains 2313, and the canton 13,519
inhabitants, on a territory of 265 kiliometres, in nine com-
munes.

Laurent de Médoc, S!., atown of France, in the de-
partment of the Gironde, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftrié&t of Lefparre; 50 miles from Lefparre. The
place contaius 549, and the canton 3706 inhabitants, on a
territory of 6574 kiliometres, in fix communes,

Laurent /e Minier, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Gard; fix miles S.E. of Le Vigan.

Laurent du Mottay, St.,a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Mayne and Loire ; nine miles 8. E. of St.
Florent. '

Laurent des Mures, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Ifere ; nine miles S.E. of Lyons.

Laurent fur Othais, St., a town of France, in the de
partment of the Meufe ; 12 miles N. of Eftain.

Laurent de la Pluine, St., a town of France, in the
department of the Mayne and Loire; three miles S.W. of
Chalonne.

Laurent du Pont, St.,a town of France, in the ccna
ment of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét
of Grenoble; 12 miles N. of Grenoble. The place con-
tains 3339, and the canton 11,551 inhabitants, on a territory
of 1824 kiliometres, in eight comimunes.

Laurent de Rividol, St., a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Aveiron ; nine miles N..of Severac.

Laurent de la Salaque, St., a town of France, in the
department of the Eaitern Pyrenées ; feven miles N.E. of
Perpignan.

LAURENTALIA, or Larenratra, called alfo La-
rentinalia, Laurentales, and Larentales, feafts celebrated
among the Romans on the tenth of the calends of January,
or twenty-third of December, in memory of Acca Lauren-
tia, wife of the fhepherd Fauitulus, and nurfe of Romulus
and Remus.

Acca Laurentia, from whom the folemnity took its name,
is reprefented as no lefs remarkable for the beauty of her per-
fon, than her lafcivioufnefs ; on account of which, fhe was
nick-named by her neighbours, /upa, /he-wolf ; which is faid
to have given rife to the tradition of Romulus and Remus
being fuckled by a wolf. She afterwards married a very
rich man, who brought her great wealth; which, at her
death, fhe left to the Roman people; in confideration of which
they performed her thefe honours ; though others reprefent
the feaft as held ia honour of Jupiter Latiaris. See LAREN-
TINALIA and Lares. ;

LAURENTEVA, in Geography, a bay or gulf of the
Frozen fea, on the W. coaft of Nova Zembia. N. lat.

2°15'. E. long. 53° 14!.

LAURENTIA, in Botany, Mich. Gen. 18. t. 145 re-
ceived its appellation from Micheli, in compliment Ek

ar

L&'u
Mark Anthony Laurenti, a phyfician and profeffor at Bo-

logna, whofe ‘botanical merits have not been tranfmitted to
potterity, and the name is now funk in that of Lobelia, to
which article we refer the reader.

LAURENTUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy,
in Latium, of which it was for fome time the capital ; and
fuppofed to have been the refidence of king Latinus ;
fituated upon the fea-coait, about eight miles S. of the
capital.

LAUREOLA, in Botany, Spurge Laurel.
Darunr.

LAURI, Fitrepo, in Biography, painter of figures and
landicapes. He was fon of Baldaflare Lauri of Antwerp,
a Jandfcape-painter of note, who fettled at Rome, and died
there in 1641.

Filippo was born in 1623; and became celebrated for
eabinet pictures in the Flemith ftyle of colour, but with a
much more correét and refined talte of form than prevailed
in that fchool ; which moft probably he acquired by refid-
ing with his fatherin Rome. His pictures are agreeably
compofed, touched with great {pirit and freedom, of good
colour and picturefque effe&t. Claude Lorraine paid him
the compliment to employ him frequently to put figures in
the fore-grounds of his land{capes ; and in fome of his beft
pictures, the hand of Lauri is difcernible in the better pro~
portion and beauty of touch with which the figures are
wrought than in thofe completed by Claude’s own hand.

The fubje&ts he generally feleted were thofe of nymphs,
gods, and goddeffes, and the like; where he could, with
propriety, introduce much of the nude. To thefe he gave
great eafe in their aGtions, and compofed them in a very
agreeable manner. He died in 1694, at the age of 71.

Lauri, in Botany, a natural order of plants, to which
Laurus, one of the number, gives its name; (the Laurine
of Ventenat and Brown ; fee Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1.401.)
—This is the 27th order of Juffieu’s fyftem, the fourth of
his fixth clafs. There is nothing equivalent to it among the
Ordines Naturales of Linneus.

The characters of Juffieu’s fixth clafs are—Cotyledons
two; petals none; itamens inferted into the calyx.—The
ealyx is of one leaf, either fuperior or inferior, entire or
divided. Corolla wanting, but there are fometimes little
feales, refembling petals, borne by the calyx. Stamens pe-
rigynous, or inferted into the calyx, definite or indefinite,
both filaments and anthers diftinét. _Germen fuperior or
inferior, or only invefled with the calyx, fimple,,or rarely
ieveral in a definite number ; {ftyle either folitary, or feveral
in a definite number, or wanting; ftigma fimple or mani-
fold. Seed naked, fuperior, or pericarp fuperior or inferior;
often containing a fingle feed, rarely feveral. The fituation
of the embryo is various. Sometimes the flowers are of
feparate fexes.—The orders of this clafs are fix; Eleagni,
Thymelee, Protee, Lauri, Polygonee, and Atriplices. It is
one of thofe in which botaniits differ moft with refpe& to
the application of the terms calyx and corolla. In the two
firft orders Linnzan botanifts ufe the term calyx for what
in the third and fourth is called corolla, and in the fifth and
fixth again calyx. The analogy of one clals, if truly nar
tural, ought certainly to prefcribe the ufe of the fame term
throughout, for the fame part ; but a que‘tion will but too
frequently arife how far any clafs is really natural, or out
of the reach of all exception; for, in every fyftem, the
leading feions, or clafles, muft be regulated by technical
characters,

The order of Lauri is thus characterized :

Calyx. divided into fix parts, permanent. Stamens fix,
inferted into the lower part of each fegment, or double that

See

LAU

number, fix of them being interior ; anthers combined with

the filament, opening from the bafe upwards. Germen
fuperior ; ftyle one; ftigma fimple or divided. Drupa or
berry of one cell, containing a nut with one feed. Embryo

deititute of albnmen. Stemarborefcent or fhrubby. Leaves
alternate, rarely oppofite.

The genera are Laurus, Poroftema, Schreb, and Doug-
laffia, Schreb. to which Mr. Brown has added Lndiandray,
Cryptocarya, Tetanthera, and the Linnean genus Caffytha—
Genera fubjoined by Juffieu as allied to the Lauri are My-=
rifica, Virola of Aublet, which Schreber properly reduces
to Myriflica, and Hernandia ; to which lift Mr. Brown adds.
Gyrocarpus ; fee that article. The excellent author laft
mentioned, aceuftomed, as has been faid of Jortinand Gold-
{mith, to enrich every fubje& which he touches, has made
the curious difcovery of the cotyledons of the Lauri being
peltate near their bafe. He has alfo remarked a ftrange
inadvertence of Gertner, who takes the cotyledons of Ca/-
Jytha for albumen, and the plumula for cotyledons, Thefe
parts, being rightly underitood, admirably prove the true
affinity of the genus, notwithilandiug its parafitical and leaf-
lefs habit.

Lavnt, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Lavora; two
miles S.W. of Sezza.

LAURIA, a town of Naples, in Bafilicata ; 17 miles E.
of Policaftro.

LAURICAUCHA, a mountain of Peru, abounding in
filver ore; fix miles N. of Pafeo.—Alfo, a lake of Peru;
80 miles N. of Lima.

LAURIERE, a town of France, in the department of
the Upper Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the dif-
trict of Bellac; 18 miles E. of Bellac. The place con-
tains 1407, and the canton 6502 inhabitants, on a territory
of 145 kiliometres, in feven communes.

LAURINGEN, atown of the duchy of Wurzburg, on
the Laur; 30 miles N.E. of Wurzburg. N. lat. 50° 13'
E. long. ro” 32’.

LAURINO, a town of Naples, in Principato Citra; g
miles W.N.W. of Policaftro.

LAURINUM. See DaruneLxon.

LAURISTAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Irak, on the Zenderoud ; go miles W. of
If{pahan.

LAURO, a town of Portugal, on ariver of the fame
name, in the province of /lentejo; 27 miles W.N.W. of
Evora.

LAUROCERASUS, in Botany, the Cherry-laurel, fo
called, from the laurel-like appearance of its leaves, as well
as from the fruit ;, which is truly a cherry, and, though not
wholefome, eatable, notwithftanding the very dangerous
qualities of the reft of the plant. See Prunusand Lauren.

LAUROTAXA, a name ufed by Columna, and fome
other authors, for the narrow-leaved kind of ru/cus, or but-
cher’s broom, called by others biflingua.

LAUROW, in Geography, a town of. Hindooftan, in.
Bahar ; 10 miles S.S.W. of Gayah..

LAURUS, in Botany, the ancient Latin name of the
Bay-tree, for which it is retained by modern botanifls, and
along with which it now. comprehends a. great number of
fpecies, conftituting one of the nobleft genera in the whole
vegetable kingdom. The origin of the word is loft in the
obicurity of antiquity ;. and. whether etymologifts derive it
from Java, to wath, or. from /aus, praife or honour, they
give us little more fatisfation in one cafe than the other.—
Linn. Gen. 200.. Schreb. 270. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 4775
Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed 2. v. 2. 427.
Sm. Prodr, Fl. Grac. Sibth. v. 3, 268. Jufl. 8o.. Tourn.

3D2 ts.3676

LAURUS.

+367. “Lamarck, Illuftr. t. 321. Gaertn. t. 92.—(Borbo-
nia; Plum, Gen. 3. t.2. Perfea; ibid. 44. t.20.) Clafs and
order, Enneandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Holeracee, Linn.
Lauri, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. none, unlefs the corolla be taken for fuch.
Cor. in fix deep, ovate, pointed, concave, erect, alternately
external fegments. Nectary confilting of three pointed
coloured tubercles, each terminating in two briftles, fur-
rounding the germen. Sam. Filaments nine, fhorter than
» the corolla, compreffed, obtufe, three in each row; anthers
attached to the edges of each filament, in the upper part,
at each fide. There are two globular glands, ona very
fhort {talk, attached to every filament of the innermott row,
near its bafe. Pi. Germen fuperior, nearly ovate ; ftyle
fimple, of equal thicknefs throughout, the length of the
tkamens; ftigma obtufe, oblique.- Peric. Drupa oval,
pointed, of one cell, contained within the corolla. Seed,
“Nut ovate, pointed, with a kernel of the fame fhape.

Obf. Moft of the fpecies, including the Cinnamon and
Camphor, have united, or hermaphrodite, flowers ; feveral
are dioecious, as Z.. nobilis, the Sweet Bay, which has moftly
from 8 to 14 {ftamens, and a deeply four-cleft corolla.
The glandular bodies attached to fome of the filaments,
afford a diferiminating charater.

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla calyx-like, in fix deep
fegments. Nectary of three glands, bearing two briltles,
and furrounding the germen. Innermoft filaments bearing
glands. Drupa with one feed.

Linneus’s 14th edition of Syft. Veg. has 16 fpecies,
Willdenow has 34, the increafe being chiefly from the works
of Swartz and Thunberg. Several ftill nondefeript are in

‘the hands of moft colleftors of tropical plants. ‘The genus
3s extremely interelting on account of feveral fine and valua-
ble aromatic fpecies, as the Cinnamon, Caffia, Camphor,
Saffafras, &c. The habit of the whole is arborefcent.
Leaves ftalked, almoft without exception alternate, undi-
vided, entire, fmooth and evergreen, more or lefs ovate or
-elliptical. F/oqwers moftly panicled, fmall, pale or greemifh,
not ornamental, but very curious in ftru€ture. Fruit large
an proportion to the bloffom. Mr. Brown exprefles an in-
tention of feparating Cinnamomum, as a diltin& genus from
Laurus, as indeed it originally ftood, till Linnezus united
them. It is extremely probable that other fpecies require
more accurate generic inveftigation than they have hitherto
received, in which predicament we fufpeét is the Safafras of
North America, a tree with deciduous and partly lobed
deaves. ‘There appears alfo to be an oriental Saffafras wood,
of a much more permanent though fimilar flavour to the
American, of which we formerly procured a fpecimen at
Venice, but of the tree that produces it we know nothing.

The following may fuffice for examples of Laurus as the
genus at prefent ftands.

L. Cinnamomum. Cinnamon-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 528.
(Cinnamomum foliis latis ovatis frugiferum; Burm. Zeyl.62.
t.27. Caflia cinnamomea, five Cinnamomum ; Herm. Lug-
duno-Bot ; 129. t. 655, 656.) —Leaves triply-ribbed near
the bafe, ovate; lateral ribs vanifhing near the top. Pani-
cles repeatedly compound. Native of Ceylon, where, as
well as in Amboyna, its importance as an object of cultiva-
ttion, for the fake of its precious bark, is univerfally known.
(See Cinnamon.) Concerning the botanical determination of
the prefent {pecies, there has always been fome doubt, Lin-
meus having defined it foliis trinerviis, that is, with three
ribs diftinét ar the bafe, which is only fo far true, that they
are united to the mid-rib at a much lefs diftance above the
bafe, which is rounded, than thofe of LZ. Caffa.. It feems
gnoreover that this Cinnamon, like other cultivated plants,

is liable to many varieties, not only in quality, but in ex-
ternal configuration, and it may very poffibly have originated
from the Ca/ffa, like apples from the wild crab. For along
while the true Cinnamon was fearcely to be feen in the her-
bariums of Europe, but we have a {pecimen from Amboyna,
by favour of the late Mr. Chriftopher Smith, in which the
panicles ave copious, longer than the leaves, repeatedly fub-
divided, and fomewhat umbellate. The flowers are filky
externally, and rather fmall. Linneus fays they are dioe-
-cious. Another fpecimen, from the garden at the Mauri-
tius, has narrower /eaves, and much fmaller panicles. The
true Cinnamon is now not rare in the ftoves of curious col-
lectors. The bifhop of Winchefter, many years fince, raifed
it from feeds ripened in his own garden. A

L. Caffa. Caffia-bark-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 528. (Carua;
Rheede Hort. Mal. v. t. 107. t. 57.)—Leaves triply-ribbed
far above the elongated bafe, elliptic-lanceolate; lateral ribs
vanifhing beyond the middle. Panicles corymbofe.—Native of
Malabar, Sumatra, Java, &c. The narrower leaves, taper-
ing at each end, and the very different qualities of the bark,
which is more mucilaginous and far lefs gratefully aromatic,
diftinguith this from the preceding, whether it be a {pecies,
or only a variety, Rheede fays, the bark of the root yields
camphor.

L. Camphora. Japanefe Camphor-tree.
528. Jacq. Coll. v. 4. 221. t.3.f. 2. Kampf. Amoen.
770. t. 771. (Arbor camphorifera japonica; Commel.
Hort. Amit. v. 1. 185. t. 95.)—Leaves elliptical, pointed,
triply-ribbed far above the elongated bafe. Clufters axil-
lary, fomewhat compound, fhorter than the leaves. Native
of Japan, often to be feen flowering in the Englifh ftoves.
The curious ftru€ture of the 4/offoms may be feen in Jacquin.
The Japanefe camphor is believed to be obtained by diftilla-
tion from this tree, that of Borneo and Sumatra being the
produce of one of a different fpecies, if not genus, of whofe
botanical charaéters little is known. This latter is errorie-
oufly called Laurus Camphora in our article CAMPHOR, to
which we refer the reader. :

L. zobilis. Common Bay-tree. Linn. Sp. Pl. 529.
(Laurus ; Camer. Epit. 60. Ger.em. 1407. )—Leaves lan-
ceolate, veiny, finely reticulated, evergreen. Flowers four-
cleft, dioecious, in fhort axillary clufters. Native of Italy
and Greece, almoft perfectly hardy in our climate, being
one of the moft defirable evergreens we have, though of flow
growth. The aves are of a rich deep green, highly and
pleafantly aromatic. /owers born by old trees only, pale
yellow. Fruit black, the fize of an unripe olive, ftrongly
aromatic, never, as far as we know, perfected in England,
but plentiful in Italy. ‘This is certainly the d2Qvn of Diof-
corides, and confequently the claffical laurel, It is ftill
called by the fame name among the modern Greeks. There
is a broad-leaved variety, called dadom wausvrepx in Diof-
corides.

L. eflivalis, Benzoin and Saffafras, three North American:
{pecies, have deciduous leaves. The true Benjamin tree,
or Gum Benzoin (fee thofe articles) is not, as Ray fup-
pofed, this Laurus Benzoin, but a fpecies of Styrax, as
was firft fhown by the late Mr. Dryander in the Philofo-
phical TranfaCtions for 1787, p. 307. t. 12. See STYRAX,

Laurus, in Gardening, compriles plants of the evergreen
and deciduous tree kinds, for borders, green-houfe, and
ftove, of which the fpecies cultivated are the common
{weet bay (L. nobilis) ; the willow-leaved bay (L. efti-
valis) ; the common benjamin-tree (L. ao ; the faffa-
fras-tree (L. faffafras); the royal bay, or Indian laurel
(L. indica) ; the broad-leaved Carolina bay, or red bay
(L. borbonia) ; the camphor, or camphire-tree (LL. cam-

phora) ;

Linn. Sp. Pl.

LAURUS.

phora) ; the cinnamon-tree (L. cinnamomum) ; the caffia, or
wild cinnamon-tree (L, caflia); and the alligator pear
(L. perfea).

The firft fort has feveral varieties, as the broad-leaved,
which is almoft too tender for the open air in this climate,
with leaves much broader and {moother than thofe of the
common fort: the common, which is feldom hurt in this
climate, except in very fevere winters, of which there are
two fubyarieties, one with plain leaves, the other with leaves
waved on the edges: the narrow-leaved, with very long
narrow leaves, not fo thick as thofe of the preceding two
forts, and of a light green, the branches covered with a
purplifh bark, and the male flowers come out in fmall cluf-
ters from the axils of the leaves, fitting clofe to the branches ;
of which there are fubvarieties in the nurferies with varie-
gated leaves. What is now called bay, was formerly
called laurel, which has introduced fome confufion.

It may be noticed, that the chief of the camphor ufed in
Europe is prepared from this tree in Japan, by fplitting the
wood into {mall pieces, and fubliming or diftilling it with
water in an iron retort, covered with an earthen or wooden
head, in the hollow of which they faften hay or ftraw, to
which the camphor, as it rifes, adheres. This camphor is
brownifh or white, but in very {mall femi-pellucid grains.
It is packed up in wooden cafks, and thus fent to India
and Europe, where it is purified by a fecond fublimation,
and reduced into the folid mafs as found inthe fhops. Na-
tive camphor, or the Capeor Baroos of the Malays, is a
production obtained in Sumatra and Borneo, by cutting
down the trees, and {plitting them with wedges into {mall
pieces, the camphor being found inthe inter{tices in the
ftate of a concrete cryftallization. Some have afferted that
it is from the old trees alene that this fubftance is procured,
and that in the young trees, if it is ina fluid ftate, it is called
Meenio Capoor, or camphor oil; but this is a miftake: the
fame fort of tree that produces the fluid does not produce
the dry, tranfparent, flaky fubftance, nor ever would.
They are readily diftinguifhed by the natives. Many of
the trees, however, produce neither the one nor the other.
The traders ufually diftinguifh three degrees of quality, by
the names of head, belly, and foot, according to its purity
and whitenefs. Some add a fourth fort, of extraordinary
finenefs, of which a few pounds only are imported to Can-
ton, 4 fell there at the rate of two thoufand dollars the
pecul.

The common camphor will evaporate till it wholly dif-
appears; while that of Sumatra and Borneo, called native
camphor, though fubjeé& to fome decreafe, does not appear
to lofe much in quantity from being kept.

Camphor oil is obtained by the Sumatrans by making a
traafverfe incifion into the tree, to the depth of fome inches,
and then cutting flopingly downwards from above the notch,
till a flat horizontal furface be left. This they hollow out,
till it is of a capacity to receive a quart: then put into the
hollow a bit of lighted reed, and let it remain for about
ten minutes, which aéting as a ftimulus, draws the fluid to
that part. In the fpace of a night the liquor fills the re-
ceptacle previoufly made. The trees are foon exhaufted.

The eighth fort has feveral varieties ; but it is the Ceylon
cinnamon that is chiefly ufed as a fpice.

Method of Culture.—The firft fort may be increafed by
feed, layers, and fuckers. The feed fhould be fown foon after
the berries are ripe, or early in the {pring, either in beds, cover-
ing them with earth near an inch deep, or in drills half a foot
afunder, the fame depth. When the plants are come up,
they fhould be fupplied with frequent waterings during the
fummer, and in winter defended from fevere froft by the

7

fhelter of mats, or fome other covering, being tender while
young ; and after having two fummers’ growth in the feed-
bed, in the {pring following the ftrongetft fhould be removed.
into nurfery rows, one or two feet afunder, and a foot apart
in each row, giving water in dry weather, till they have
taken goed root, and keeping them clear fram weeds.
When they are half a yard, or two or three feet high, they
are-of proper growth for tranfplanting into the fhrubbery
in autumn or fpring. The berries may alfo be fown in pets,
and plunged into a hot-bed in fpring, which brings the plants
forwarder, being careful to inure them to the full air in the
fummer feafon.

In the layer, fome of the lower branches that are well
furnifhed with young fhoots, may be laid down in the early
{pring, or in Auguft, but the latter is the belt feafon ; each
fhoot being flit-layed; they become rooted in one year,
when in {pring following they may be taken off, and planted
in the nurfery, in the manner directed for the feedlings.

Where fuckers are had recourfe to, they fhould be taken
up with good roots in autumn or {pring, and be planted in
the nurfery like the feedlings and layers.

This fort is alfo capable of growing by cuttings, planted
in the beginning of April on a moderate hot-bed of tanners?
bark covered eight inches deep with rich loofe frefh earth,
five inches deep, and eight or nine afunder, rubbing off
their leaves, and watering them gently every evening while
the bed continues warm, covering the glafles with mats
during the heat of the day. When the cuttings have fhot
roots, they fhould receive all mild gentle fhowers, and the
evening dews. In the beginning of Auguit, the glafles
may be taken off, being replaced when the weather begins
to be frofty ; keeping them open every mild day. In the
beginning of the April following, or as foon as the weather
becomes temperate, both glaffes and frames fhould be re-
moved, continuing frequent and plentiful waterings during
the fummer months, as the weather may require ; and in the
fucceeding April the plants will be ftrong, well rooted, and
fit for planting out.

At the period when the plants raifed in thefe ways are re-
moved to the nurfery, they fhould have their fuperfluous
roots and branches cut away, encouraging the leading fhoots ;
planting them in a well fheltered quarter of light mould.
The ground fhould be dug over in autumn and {pring, keep-
ing it clean, loofe, and mellow m fummer, and the plants be
annually pruned in April.

The gold-ftriped variety is tender, being commenly kept
in pots, and houfed with hardy green-houfe plants. When
it ftands in the open ground, it is fometimes much imjured in
fevere winters. The method of increafing it is by budding
it on the plain fort.

And the broad-leaved and narrow-leaved varieties are not
fo hardy as the common fort, being fcarcely able to live
abroad whilft young, in common winters, without fhelter.
As in fevere winters the old trees are frequently killed, or at
leaft the branches much injured, the plants are frequently
kept in tubs, and houfed in the winter feafon.

The fecond, third, and fourth forts may be increafed by
feed, by layers, and fometimes by fuckers and cuttings.
The feeds or berries procured from America, and preferved
in fand, fhould be fown, as foon after they arrive as poflible,
in a bed of light earth an inch deep, or in largifh pots the
fame depth, plunging them in mould, in an eaftern border,
up to their rims, till the {pring following ; when they fhould
be placed in a hor-bed, which greatly forwards the germina-
tion of the feed, and foon brings up the plants. They muft
be timely inured to the full air. The plants raifed by either

method fhould, while young, be ‘watered during se
an

LAU

and fheltered from the froft in winter, and when two years
old be planted out in nurfery rows, as directed for the other
plants. They may alfo be increafed by layers and fuckers
in the fame manner as directed for the firlt fort; but it is
fometimes long before the layers are rooted.

They are likewife fometimes capable of being increafed
by cuttings, by the aid of a good hot-bed.

And the fifth, fixth, and feventh forts may be increafed
by layers, but they are fometimes two years before they are
fufficiently rooted. They may alfo be raifed from feeds,
procured from the places of their natural growth, fowing
them in pots, and plunging themina hot or bark-bed; but
without this aid they do not always grow freely the firlt
feafon ; in which cafe they fhould be placed in the open air
in fummer, and ina frame, or in the green-houfe, near the
windows, in winter: and in {pring the pots be plunged ina
hot-bed, which will bring up the plants, giving air daily,
and frequent’ waterings, and inuring them by degrees to the
epen air as the fummer advances ; placing them in fhelter in
winter, and in the following fpring planting them out in fe-
parate fmall pots, managing them as other green-houfe
fhrubs.

The eighth, ninth, and tenth forts are alfo raifed by layers
and feed, fown and managed as above, generally affilted by
the bark-bed of the ftove; the plants being planted off into
feparate pots, and managed afterwards as other hot-houfe
plants.

It may be noticed that the firft, fecond, third, and fourth
forts are highly ornamental in the borders and clumps of
pleafure grounds; the three following in green-houfe col-
le€tions ; and the three la{t among other {love plants.

LAURUSTINE, a name often given to a fine evergreen
flowering fhrub. See Visurnum Zinus.

LAUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Italy, in the ter-
ritory of the Laconians; founded by the Sybarites, but
afterwards taken poffeflion of by the Lycaonians, a colony
of the Samnites.

Laus Pompeia, a town of Gallia Tranfpadana towards
the S.E.; founded by the Boii, and afterwards belonging
to the Infubrians. 1t was a Roman colony and municipal.

Laus Kaurens, in Geography, a peninfula of Vinmark,
in the Frozen fea. N. lat. 70° 45'. E. long. 30° 24/.

LAUSANNE, a city of Switzerland, in the canton of
Berne, and the largeft town in the Pays de Vaud, and by
the French divifion of 1798 the capital of the department and
canton of Leman, is beautifully fituated on the declivities of
three hills, and in the intermediate vallies, environed by an
old wall, and diftant two miles from the lake of Geneva, and
37 miles N.E. from Geneva itfelf. The diftri&t to which it
gives name was once a republic itfelf, but afterwards annexed
to the canton of Berne, and is a confiderable traét, lying
below the border of Vevay and Venoge, about 13 miles in
length and five in breadth. The afcent upon which the
town is built is fo fteep, that in fome places the horfes can-
not, without great difficulty, draw up a carriage, and foot
paffengers afcend to the upper part of the town by fteps.
‘Thefe inconveniences, however, are amply compenfated by
the fublimeft views in nature, commanding the lake of Ge-
neva, the Pays de Vaud, and the rugged coat of Chablais.
The church is a magnificent Gothic building, having been
formerly a cathedral, while the Pays de Vaud was fubje& to
the houfe of Savoy. It ftands on the mott elevated part of
the town; and contains, among many other fepulchres, the
tomb of Amadeus VIII. duke of Savoy, {tyled the Solo-
snon of his age, but more known by the name of the anti-
pope Felix V., who exhibited a fingular inftance in the an-
nals of Europe of a perfonage twice abdicating the pomp of

LAU

fovereignty, and ¢wice retiring to.a private flation. The
number of inhabitants, acoording to Coxe, is about 7o00 5
Pinkerten ftates them at gooo. In the year 1536, when
part of the Pays de Vaud was conquered from the houfe of
Savoy, the bifhop of Laufanne retired from the town, and
the inhabjtants put themfelves under the dire@tion and fove-
reignty of the canton of Berne, which granted to it new
privileges, in addition to thofe which it had formerly pol-
feffed. The reformation was introduced by Pierre du Viret in —
the fame year. ‘The bifhop’s diocefe formerly comprehended
the greater part of the cantors of Berne, Soleure, and Fri-
burg, the Pays de Vaud, the principality of Neufchatel,
Bienne and its territory, and the country of Erguel, and ex-
tended almoft to Franche Comté. Since the reformation, it
has been reduced to little more than the canton of Friburg
and a part of that of Soleure. Laufanne choofes its owm
magiltraey, which confifts of a burgomatter, five bannerets,
the town council, the council of fixteen, and the great
council, An academy was eltablifhed here in 1537, anda
college in 1540. Profeffors in every fcience are appointed
by government, and there is a tolerable library for the ufe
of the public. The bailiwick of Laufanne is extenfive ; the
bailiff, who is chofen every fix years, fucceeded to the
bifhop, and has equal jurifdiction. The air of Laufanne is
very pure and healthy ; and it has plenty of excellent water,
with every neceflary of life in the greateit abundance. Lau-
fanne is not only governed by its own magiltrates, and has
its own courts of jultice; but the burghers, who poflefs
houfes in the principal ftreet, enjoy the right of pronouncing
fentence in criminal caufes. The criminal is tried by the
civil power; if he is found, and acknowledges himfelf
guilty, one of the magiftrates pleads in defence of the
prifoner, and another againft him; the court of juttice
gives an opinion upon the point of law, and the majority of
the burghers above-mentioned determine the penalty. If
the punifhment is capital, there is, according to the letter of
the law, no pardon, unlefs obtained within twenty-four hours
from the fovereign council of Berne, although it generally
happens that eight days are granted for that purpofe. When
the criminal is feized within the jurifdiGtion of the town, the
fa&t is tried, and the burghers pronounce fentence in the
town-hall ; in this cafe there is no appeal. But when he is
taken within the diftri€t of the bailiff, they affemble in his:
houfe, and an appeal lies from their determination to Berne.
Laufanne is 41 miles S.W. of Berne. N. lat. 46° 33’. E,
long. 6° 28’. Coxe’s Travels in Switzerland, vol, ii.
LAUSSIG, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Leip-
fic; 14 miles S.E. of Leipfic. N. lat. 51° 7’. E. long.
{22 30%
LAUSSNITZ, a town of Saxony, in the margravate ©
of Meiffen; 13 miles N. of Drefden,
LAUSZA, a town of Samogitia; 44 miles N.W. of
Miedniki.
LAUT. See Puto Laut.
LAUTAKARI, a {mall ifland in the N. part of the
ulf of Bothnia. N. lat.65° 35’. E. long. 24° 34’.
LAUTENBURG, a town of Pruffia, in the territory
of Culm; 48 miles E. of Culm.

LAUTER, a town of Germany, in the county of
Henneberg ; 11 miles N.E. of Meinungen. q

LAUTERBACH, a town of Bohemia, 1m the circle of
Saatz; 65 miles W. of Prague. N, lat. 50° 2!. E. long.
12° 45'.—Alfo, a town of Upper Hefle; 13 miles N.W. of
Fulda.—Alfo, a town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzges
birg; five miles N.W. of Zwickau.

LAUTERBERG, a town of Weltphalia, in. the

Hartz

LAU

“Hartz forelt, near which are mines and forges of copper and
tron; 14 miles S. of Goflar.

LAUTERBOURG, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Wiflembourg, fituated on the Lauter. The
place contains 1941, and the canton 9782 inhabitants, on a
territory of 180 kiliometyes, in 10 communes; 29 miles
N.N.E. of Strafburg. N. lat. 49’. E. long. 8? 14’.

LAUTERBRUENNEN, a valley of Switzerland, in
the canton of Berne ; fix miles S. of Interlachen, and about
15 miles in circuit, embofomed in tlie midit of the Alps,
aud celebrated for its pi€turefque and romantic fcenery.
The weftern boundary, from which the Staubbach falls,
forming a cataraSt, would, in any other country, be called
an enormous mountain; it here appears only a trifling hill, in
comparifon with the oppofite chain, of which the highelt
point is the beautiful Jungfrau-horn, that ftretches in a femi-
circular direétion, and, towering above the adjacent peaks,
rifes toa ftupendous height. At the extremity of the vale,
there are fome noble points of view, and glaciers which
ftretch from the foot of the Breithorn and Grofs-horn. In
this delightful valley, many ftreams of the cleareft water gufh
from the earth like {mall rivers, and numberlefs torrents pre-
cipitate themfelves from the mountain:. From this circum-
ftance the valley derives its name ; Lauterbruennen fignifying,
in German, many /prings. One of the peaks, adjoining to
this valley, which is called the Grofs-horn, is of a pyramidal
fhape, and capped with frozen fnow ; another, the Breithorn,
is conical, and feems crowned with an enormous mafs of
tranf{parent ice, from which the refleétion of the fun-beams
is inexpreflibly beautiful. But the moft elevated and the
moft majeftic of the whole group, is the Jungfrau-horn.
(See Junerrav.) The hollows between the mountains are
filled with large vallies of ice, broken into various fhapes,
and feveral torrents, burfting from the fnow, and uniting in
their courfe, form the Weits-Lutchine, a river which rolls
rapidly through the valley of Lauterbruennen, joins the
Schwartz-Lutchine, which flows from Grindewald. and
{fwellsthe Aar. This valley is bordered by calcareous rocks
to its furtheft extremity. Wengenalp is the laft of a group
of calcareous and fchiftous mountains between, Lauterbru-
ennen and Grindewald, which there joins the Jungfrau, the
fummits of which appear to be of granite. Coxe’s Travels,
vols. i. and ii.

LAUTEREKEN, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of Mont Tonnerre, and chief place of. a canton, in the
diftrié of Kaiferflautern; 24 miles N. of Deux Ponts. The

place contains 627, and the canton 4594, inhabitants, in 21.

communes. N. lat. 49° 39'. E. long. 7° 35!.

LAUTERHOFEN, a town of Bavaria; 12 miles S.W.
of Sulzbach. ;

LAUTERN, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Ermeland; 14 miles 8.S.E. of Heilfberg.

LAUTERSHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the
principality of Anfpach, on the Altmuhl ; eight miles W.
of Anfpach. ~

LAUTERSTEIN, atown of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgeberg ; 17 miles $.S.W. of Freyberg.

LAUTREC, a town of France, in the department of
the Tarn, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of Caf-
tres; 12 miles N.N.W. of Caftres. The place contains 3238,
and the canton 7548 inhabitants, on a territory of 1474 kili-
ometres, in 12 communes.

LAUTTE, a town of Proffia, in Oberland; 16 miles
E.S.E. of Marienwarder.

LAVUNS, a townof France, in the department of the
Lower Pyreneés; 15 miles S.E. of Oleron.

LAW

LAUZERTE, atown of France, in the department of
the Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrié of
Montauban; 17 miles N.W. of Montauban. The place
contains 3608, and the canton 12,176 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 232% kiliometres, in 16 communes. N. lat. 44° 15/.
E. long. 1° 13!.

LAUZES, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri€t of Cahorn,
The place contains 444, and the canton 7139 inhabitants,
ona territory of 237% kiliometres, in 1x communes.

LAUZET, Le, atown of France, in the department of
the Lower Alps, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét
of Barcelonnette; 10 miles W. of Barcelonnette. The place
contains 857, and the canton 5038 inhabitants, ona territory
of 295 kiliometres, in feven communes.

LAUZUN, a town of France, in the department of the
Lot and Garonne, and chief place of a canton, in the diitriét
of Marmande; 14 miles N.E.of Marmande. The place
contains 1089, and the canton 12,852 inhabitants, on a
territory of 220 kiliometres, in 17 communes, N. lat. 44°
38") E- long. 0° 32!.

LAW, Epmounp, in Biography, a learned Englifh pre-
late, the fon of a clergyman, in the neighbourhood of Cart-
mel, in Lancafhire, was born in the year 1703. He received
the greater part of his claffical learning at the free grammar
{chool of Kendal, from which place he was fent to St.
John’s college, Cambridge. He was admitted to the de-
gree of B. A. in 1723, and foon afterwards was elected fel-
low of Chrift’s college. During his refidence in this college,
he became known to the public by a tranflation of archbifhop
King’s “ Effay upon the Origin of Evil,” with notes.
To this work was prefixed ‘A preliminary di‘Tertation,’”
by the Rev. Mr. Gay of Sidney college. In the contro-
verfy which took place in confequence of Dr. Clarke’s
© Demonttration of the Being and Attributes of God,”
Mr. Law took a part, and among other things publifhed
his “¢ Enquiry into the Ideas of Space, Time, &c.’’ In
the year 1735, a new and improved edition of Robert
Stephens’ ‘* Thefaurus Lingue Latinz” was given to the
public, and in the preparation of this valuable work, Mr.
Law had a confiderable fhare. In 1737, he was prefented
by the univerfity to the living of Grayitock, in the county
of Cumberland, worth about 300/. per annum. In 17435
he was promoted by fir George Flemming, bifhop of Car-
lifle, to the archdeaeonry of that diocefe, and, in 1746, went
from Grayftock to refide at Salkeld, a pleafant village
upon the baaks of the river Eden, the rectory of which
is annexed to the archdeaconry. During his refidence at
this place, he publithed his ‘* Confiderations on the Theory
of Religion ;”? to which he fubjoined “* Refle&tions on the
Life and CharaG@ter of Chrift;’”” and an appendix con-
cerning the ufe of the words ‘* Soul and Spirit.”’ In
1749, Mr. Law proceeded doéor of divinity ; in his public
exercife for which degree, he defended the doétrine of what
is ufually denominated ‘* The fleep of the foul.” In 1754,
he was elected matter of Peter-houfe, in Cambridge, and in
the following year appointed head librarian of the univerfity 5
a finecure place, with a falary of fifty poundsa-year. He
received almoft every year fome additional preferments,
which were rather honourable expreflions of regard from his
friends, than of much advantage to himfelf: in 1767, he
obtained a ftall in the church of Durham, and in 1769, on
the recommendation of the duke of Grafton, he was nomi-
nated bifhop of Carlifle, and was permitted to hold, in con-
ne¢tion with the bifhopric, the mafterfhip of Peter-houfe,
and the retory of Grayltock. In 1774, he publifhed a very
valuable tra, entitled * Confiderations on the Theory of

2 Religion,”

LAW

Religion,”? which has pafled through at leait eight editions.
The obje& of this work was to fhew that arts and fciences,
natural and revealed religion, have upon the whole been pro-
greflive, from the creation of the world to the prefent time ;
as alfo that they have been fuited to each other, as well as
to the circumitances of ‘mankind, during each eminent
period of this their progreflion. In 1777, Dr. Law gave the
public a handfome edition, in four vols. gto. of the works
of Mr. Locke, with a life of the author, and a preface.
In the edition of the ‘* Confiderations,’? publifhed at Car-
lifle in 1784, he made fuch alterations as fhewed that he
had given up the doétrine of the pre-exiftence of Chrift,
a fact which he noticed to a friend in pretty ftrong lan-
guage. Dr. Law died in Auguft 1787, in the 84th
year of his age. The life of Dr. Law was a life of inceffant
reading and thought, almoft entirely devoted to metaphy-
fical and religious enquiries. The leading peculiarity of his
religious fentiments is, that “ Jefus Chrift will, at his

fecond coming, by an att of his power, reftore to life and~

confcioufnefs the dead of the human fpecies, who, by their
own nature, and without his interpofition, would remain in
the {tate of infenfibility, to which the death, brought on man-
kind by the fin of Adam, had reduced them.’’ Dr. Law
pubiifhed, befides the'articles already mentioned, fome fingle
fermons ; a tract on “* The Nature and Neceflity of Cate-
chiling 5”? “A Defence of Mr. Locke’s Opinion concerning
perfonal Identity ;’’ and “* Obfervations occafioned by the
Contelt about literary Property.’’ See life prefixed to an
edition of his RefleGtions printed by Johnfon in 1803.
Law, Jouy, a famous projector, the fon of a goldf{mith
in Edinburgh, was born about the year 1681. It appears
that he was not brought up to any profeffion, but having a
turn for calculation, he made himfalf a proficient in numbers,
and in the fpeculations depending upon them. He obtained,
while very young, the confidence of the king's minifters for
Scotland, and was employed by them to arrange the revenue
accounts, which were at that time in great diforder. To
remedy the want of a circulating medium he propofed the
eftablifhment of a bank, which, according to his plan, might
iffue paper-money to the amount of the value of all the
lands in the kingdom, This was not adopted. At the
death of his father he fucceeded to a {mall eftate, and com-
. menced the fine gentleman, fupplying the deficiency’of his
income by gaming. In confequence of a duel, in which he
killed his antagonift, he was obliged to leave the country.
He vifited Venice and Genoa, from which cities he was ba-
nifhed as a fharper ; he wandered through Italy, fupporting
himfelf by his wits, chiefly by the fuccefs of fingular wagers,
in which, by his {kill in calculation, he always took care that
the chances fhould be in his favour. He propofed his finan-
cial fcheme to Louis XIV. who liftened to his plans. A
bank was eftablifhed, compofed of 1200 fhares of 3000 livres
each; to this was annexed a Miffifippi company, who had
grants of land in Louifiana, and was expected to realize an
immenfe fum by planting and commerce. To this were af-
terwards joined the trade of Senegal, and the privilege of
the old Eaft India company. In 1718, it was declared a
royal bank ; andby anumber of advantages arbitrarily con-
ferred upon it, fuch were the extent of its bufinefs, and the
magnitude of its funds, that its fhares rofe to twenty times
their original value. All France was feized with the rage of
gambling in the funds. Money and valuables of all kinds
were breught to the market and invetted in bank paper, and
thofe thought themfelves truly happy who could itrip them-
{elves of every thing for a participation in this imaginary
wealth. In 1720, Law was made comptroller-general of the
finances. Regarded as the Plutus of the kingdom, he faw

LAW

at his levee dukes, peers, and marfhals of France. Aft
length the bafelefs fabric of this profperity began to give
way: the fhares funk daily in value, and the ruin of the
fy{tem feemed to be inevitable. He was obliged to refign
his poft, after holding it only five months ; and loaded with
the public execrations, retired firft to an eftate in the country,
and then, for further fafety, quitted the kingdom. He
now pafled the remainder of his days in obfcurity, occupied,
however, with his projects, fully convinced of the folidity
of his fyftem, the failure of which he attributed to the op-
polition it met with. He died at Venice in 1729.

Law, Wirxiam, a learned and pious divine of the
church of England, was born at King’s-Cliffé, Northamp-
tonfhire, in 1686, and educated at Oxford, where he took
his degrees. He entered into holy orders, but it does not
appear that he ever had the eure of fouls, owing probably
to his adherence to non-juring principles, which he maintained
to the clofe of his life. He was fome time’a private tutor ina
gentleman’s family at Putney, after whichhe chiefly refided
in a very retired way at the houfe of Mrs. Hefter Gibbon,
aunt of the celebrated hiftorian, in Northamptonfhire, where
he died in 1761. He was author of a great many theologi-
cal publications, of which the moft important is ‘ The fe-
rious Call to a devout and holy Life, adapted to the State
and Condition of all Orders of Chriftians.’’ His “ Pra&ti-
cal Treatife on Chriftian PerfeGtion” was likewife very much
elteemed. He entered the lifts againft bifhop Hoadley ;
and was a zealous difciple of the doctrines of Jacob Behmen,
whofe works he publifhed.

Law, in its moft general and comprehenfive fenfe, figni-
fies a rule of aétion; and is applied indifcriminately to
all kinds of a€tion; whether animate or inanimate, rati-
onal or irrational ; in which fenfe it is ufed when we fay,
the laws of motion, of gravitation, of optics, or mechanics,
as well as the laws of nature and of nations. Accordingly
law is a command or precept, conftituting a rule of aétion,
and coming from fome fuperior authority, which an inferior
is obliged to obey; or, according to fome, law is a command,
or mandate of fome perfon, or power, whofe precept car--
ries with it the reafon of obedience: or, it is a vot of action,
that obliges by virtue of its being the will of afuperior. See
OBLIGATION.

The word is formed fromthe Saxon /ah, Jaga, which fig+
nifies the fame.

Thus, the commands of God with refpe& to men, of a
city with refpeét to the citizens, and univerfally of all
powerful beings in refpeét to thofe who cannot refilt, are
called their laws.

The nature of a law will be moft clearly difcovered by
fhewing wherein it differs from covenant, coun/el, and right or.
equity ; with all whichit is frequently confounded.

Law is confounded with covenant, or compaét, by thofe-
who take laws to be nothing elfe but ojodcynuzlx, or forms
of living determined by the confent of mankind: among.
whom is Ariftotle, who defines a law, “ a declaration deter-
mined by the common confent of a city, fhewing in what
manner things are to be done:’’ which is not fo much the
definition of a law, as of a civil law ; nor yet properly of a
civil law ; for this common confent is ne more than a mutual
covenant, which does not obligeany perfon, and confequently
is not any law, till {ome fupreme power be conftituted with
a power to compel, and to make it penal to tranfgrefs it.
Here then the covenant is confounded with the law,
which leads into abfurdities ; for a covenant or compact is a .
promife proceeding from us; a law, a command dire&ted

fo Us The.

LA W.

The difference between a counfel and a law is this :

A counfel is a precept, wherein the reafon of obedience
is taken from the thing itfelf prefcribed; a command is a
precept, wherein the reafon of obedience depends on the
will of the prefcriber ; for we cannot properly fay, fic volo,

fic jubeo, unlefs fet pro ratione voluntas. A law comes from
a perfon who has a power over thofe whom he commands ;
a counfel, from him who has no fuch power. ‘To do what
isenjoined by a law, is an a& of duty; what by a counfel,
an act of choice, or freewill. Counfel is only matter of
perfuafion, law is matter of injunétion ; counfel aéts only
upon the willing, law upon the unwilling alfo.

Law is confounded with right or equity, by thofe who
perfift in doing what is permitted by the divinelaw, though
prohibited by the laws of the country. What is prohibited
by the divine law, cannot be permitted by the civil law ;
nor what is commanded by the divine law, be prohibited
by the civillaw; but what is permitted by the divine law,
may, notwithitanding, be prohibited by the civil law:
for the inferior laws have a power ef reftraining the liberty
left by the fuperior laws, though they cannot enlarge it.
Now right or equity is a natural liberty, not conftituted by
laws, but free of them; for take away laws and liberty is
complete.

This liberty is firft reftrained by the natural and the divine
law, the reft reitrained by the civil laws; and what remains
unreftrained by the civil law, may be again reftrained by the
conftitution of particular cities and focieties. There is a
great difference, therefore, between law and right, kx &
gus; for law is a chain; but right a liberty; and they dif-
fer as two contraries. See Civil or Municipal Law, infra.

Law may be divided, with refpeét to its different original,
into divine and human.

Law, Divine, may be confidered as twofold, with refpe&
to the two different manners in which God notifies or an-
nounces his will to man ; viz. natural (or moral), and fpofitive.

Law, Natural,is that which he has made known to all
mankind, by an innate light, called natural reafon.

Natural law may be divided into that natural law of men,
which, in a peculiar fenfe, is called the Law of nature; and
the natural law of countries, commonly called the Law of
nations. (See each of thefe articles.) The precepts are the
fame in both thefe; but becaufe, when focieties are once
inftituted, certain perfonal properties become vetted in men;
that law, which, when we {peak of the duties of men f{eve-
rally, we call the aafural law, when transferred to cities or

\countries, we call the /aw of nations.

M. Regis fays, that the laws of nature are the ditates of
right reafon, which teach every man how he is to ufe his
natural right; and the laws of nations, the ditates, in like
manner, of right reafon, which teach every ftate how to act
and behave themfelves toward others,

Law, Pofitive, is that which God has revealed by his pro-
phets, or by perfons fupernaturally commiffioned and infpired
and found only in the holy {criptures: fuch are thofe laws
delivered to the Jews, relating to the diving worfhip and
polity, which may be called divine civil laws, as being pecu-
liarly direGted to that people. As the matter of natural
laws is fomething in its own nature good and neceflary,
thefe laws are founded in the immutable natures and relations

of things, carry with them their own recommendation, and
if it were not for the depravity of mankind, would not need
a fupernatural light for the difcovery of their reafonablenefs
and obligation. Whereas pofitive laws differ from the
former, both with regard to the matter of them, as well as
the manner of their publication. Thefe may be diltinguifhed
into fuch as are purely pofitive, or partly fo. The matter of
Vou, XX.

purely pofitive laws is indifferent ; fo that the pofitive decree
of the legiflator alone makes them to be laws, mere reafon
being then filent. Such were the ceremonial laws of the
Jews, and fuch are the facraments of the Chriftian religion.
Neverthelefs, every pofitive law is founded in reafon, though
reafon may not be able, antecedently to their promulgation,
to difcover their fitnefs and utility. But the reafons that
recommend them, when they are attually promulged, would
not give them the authority and fanction of a law, without
the exprefs inftitution of the f{upreme lawgiver. Laws that
are partly politive may be refolved into the law of nature,
or the moral law as revived, improved, and enforced by re-
velation. Several particulars of this law derive a greater
degree of evidence from this new mode of promulgation,
and alfo a flronger enforcement. ‘The law concerning the
fabbath is in a peculiar fenfe a law of this kind, the matter
of it being of a mixed nature. That fome part of our time
fhou'd be confecrated to the worfhip of our creator, the
light of nature di€tates; but that it fhould be a feventh
part rather than any other, or the laft feventh rather than
the firft, or the third, is not natural but pofitive.

Law of Nature, as it refpeéts intelligent, moral, and ac-
countable beings, is the will of God, relating to human
aCtions, grounded in the moral differences of things; and
becaufe it is, in fome meafure, difcoveragle by natural right,
it is obligatory upon all mankind. Itis thus defined by
Cicero (De Legibus, lib. i.) “* Lex eft ratio fumma infita
in natura que jubet ea que facienda funt, prohibetque con-
traria.’’? It is called the law of nature, on account of the
manner of its promulgation, which is by natural reafon
on account alfo of its fource or foundation, this law refult-
ing from the refpeCtive natures of beings and things, of
beings, as God and man, and of things or actions, as
morally good or evil, and having different phyfical effects 5
and, moreover, becaufe it is the law of God. Nature is
but a fictitious perfon ; and all that is faid of the wifdom
of her defigns and operations, of her power, or of her laws,
is to be afcribed to him who is the author of nature.
“¢ Quid enim eft aliud natura, quam Deus et divina Ratio,
toti mundo, et partibus ejus inferta?’’ Seneca de Benef.
l. vi. c. 7. The demonfration of this law of nature has
been attempted by feveral learned men, who commonly urge
the confent of the more civilized nations, as a good argu-
ment for the exiftence of this law. ‘Omni autem in re
confenfio omnium gentium lex natura putanda eft,’ fays
Cicero ; i.e. ‘*asto any point, the agreement of ail nations in
it is to be efteemed a law of nature.’? Others have errone-
oufly alleged, as a proof of the law of nature, innate ideas
or praGical principles. impreffed on the foul of man by its
creator: but of fuch ideas and principles we have no-evidence.
A more dire& and conclufive demonftration of the law of
nature may be deduced from the confideration both of the
divine and human nature; which beheld in one view and in
the relation they bear to each other fupply unequivocal evi-
dence of the exiftence and obligation of this law. To this
purpofe we fhall avail ourfelves of fome appropriate reflec-
tions and reafonings of the learned judge Blackftone in
immediate conneGtion with this fubje@. “ As God,” fays
this learned writer, “ when he created matter, and endued
it with a principle of mobility, eftablifhed certain rules
for the perpetual diretion of that motion; fo, when he
created man, {and endued him with freewill to condué&
himfelf in all parts of life, he laid down certain immutable
laws of human nature, whereby that freewill is in fome de-
gree regulated and reftrained, and gave him allo the faculty
of reafon to difcover the purport of thofe laws.”

Confidering the Creator only as a being of infinite <<

gE

LA

he was able unqueftionably to have prefcribed whatever laws
he pleated to his creature, man, however unjuft or fevere.
But as he is alfo a being of infinite qwi/dom, he has laid down
only juch laws as were founded in thofe relations of juttice,
that exifted in the nature of things antecedent to any pofi-
tive precept. Thefe are the eternal, immutable laws of
good and evil, to which the Creator himfelf in all his dif-
penfations conforms; and which he has enabled human
reafon to difcover, fo far as they are neceflary for the con-
duct of human aétions. Such among others are thefe prin-
ciples: that we fhould live honeftly, fhould hurt nobody,
and fhould render to every one his due; to which three
general precepts Juftinian has reduced the whole doétrine
of law.

_ But if the difcovery of thefe firft principles of the law of
nature depended only upon the due exertion of right reafon,
and could not otherwife be obtained than by a chain of me-
taphyfical difquifitions, mankind would have wanted fome
inducement to have quickened their inquiries, and the greater
part of the world would have refted content in mental indo-
lence, and ignorance its infeparable companion. As there-
fore the Creator is a being, not only of infinite power, and
wifdom, but alfo of infinite goodne/s, he has been pleafed fo
to contrive the conftitution and frame of humanity, that we
fhould want no ae prompter to inquire after and purfue
the rule of right, But only our own felf-love, that univerfal
principle of aétion. For he has fo intimately conneéted, fo
infeparably interwoven the laws of eternal juftice with the
happinefs of each individual, that the latter cannot be at-
tained but by obferving the former; and, if the former be
punctually obeyed, it cannot but induce the latter. In con-
fequence of which mutual conneGtion of juftice and human
felicity, he has not perplexed the law of nature with a mul-
titude of abftracted rules and precepts, referring merely to
the fitnefs or unfitnefs of things, as fome have vainly fur-
mifed ; but has gracioufly reduced the rule of obedience to
this one paternal precept, ‘ that man fhould purfue his own
true and fubftantial happinefs.’’ This is the foundation of
what we call ethics, or natural law. For the feveral arti-
cles into which it is branched in our. fyftems, amount to no
more than demonftrating, that this-or that aGtion tends to
man’s real happinefs, and therefore very jultly concluding
that the performance of it is a part of the law of nature; or,
on the ‘other hand, that this or that ation is deftructive of
man’s real happinefs, and therefore that the law of nature
forbids it.

This law of nature, being coeval with mankind and
diftated by God himfelf, is of courfe fuperior in obligation
to any other. It is binding over all the globe in all coun-
tries, and at all times: no human laws.are of any validity,
if contrary to this; and fuch of them as are valid derive all
their force, and all their authority, mediately or immediately,
from this original. :

But in order to apply this to the particular exigencies of
each individual, it is itill neceffary to have recourfe to reafon:
whole office it is to difcover, as was before obferved, what
the law of nature direéts in every circumftance of life ; by
confidering, what method will tend the moft effeGtually to
our own fubftantial happinefs. And if our reafon were al-
ways, as in our firft anceftor before his tranfgreffion, clear
and perfe&t, unruffled by paffions, unclouded by prejudice,
unimpaired by difeafe or intemperance, the tafk would be
pleafant and eafy ; we fhould need no other guide but this.
But every man now finds the contrary in his own experience;
that his reafon is corrupt, and his underftanding full of ig-
norance and error.

This has given manifold occafion for the benign interpofi-

W.

tion of divine providence; which, in compaffion to the

frailty, the imperfeétion, and the blindnefs of human reafon,

hath been pleafed, at fundry times and in divers manners,
to difcover and enforce its laws by an immediate and dire’
revelation. ‘The doétrines thus delivered we call the re-

vealed or divine law, and they are to be found only in the

holy fcriptures. 'Thefe precepts, when revealed, are found

upon comparifon to be really a part of the original law of
nature, as they tend in all their confequences to man’s feli-
city. But we are not from thence to conclude that the

knowledge of thefe truths was attainable by reafon, in its
prefent corrupted ftate ; fince we find that, until they were
revealed, they were hid from the wifdom of ages. As then
the moral precepts of this law are indeed of the fame ori-
ginal with thofe of the law of nature, fo their intrinfic obli-
gation is of equal ftrength and perpetuity. Yet undoubtedly
the revealed law is of infinitely more authenticity than that
moral fyftem, which is framed by ethical writers, and deno-
minated the natural law. Becaufe one is the law of nature,
exprefsly declared fo to be by God himfelf; the other is
only what, by the affiftance of human reafon, we imagine
to be that law. If we could be as certain of the latter as
we are of the former, both would have an equal authority :

but, till then, they can never be put in any competition
together.

Upon thefe two foundations, the law of nature and the
law of revelation, depend all human laws ; that is to fay, ne
human laws fhould be fuffered to contradi& thefe. There
are, it is true, a great number of indifferent points, in which
both the divine law and the natural leave a man at his own
liberty ; but which are found neceffary for the benefit of
fociety to be reftrained within certain limits. And herein it
is that human laws have their greateft force and efficacy :
for, with regard to fuch points as are not indifferent, human
laws are only declaratory of, and a in fubordination to,
the former. To inftance in the cafe of murder: this is ex-
prefsly forbidden by the divine, and demonftrably by the
natural law ; and from thefe prohibitions arifes the true un-
lawfulnefs of this crime. Thofe human laws that annex a
punifhment to it, do not at all increafe its moral guilt, or
fuperadd any frefh obligation in foro confcientie to abftain
from its perpetration. Nay, if any human law fhould allow
or injoin us to commit it, we are bound to tranfgrefs that
human law, or elfe we mutt offend both the natural and the
divine. But with regard to matters that are in themfelves
indifferent, and are not commanded or forbidden by thofe
fuperior laws; fuch, for inftance, as exporting of wool into
foreign countries; here the inferior legiflature has fcope and
opportunity to interpofe, and to make that action unlawful
which before was not fo.

We might further add, that, as there is a natural and
neceilary difference between virtue and vice, and the’ feve-
ral aétions and difpofitions which are denoted by thefe
two oppofite terms, natural reafon difcovers it to be the
will of God, that every man fhould look upon this dif-
ference in the nature of things and actions, as a law or
rule, which he is religioufly to obferve, under pain of his
Maker’s difpleafure. Among thofe writers who have alleged
arguments in proof of the law of nature, fome have founded
it upon the reafon and fitnefs of things, others, on our moral
fenfe, and focial affeCtions ; and others, again, on the good
effe€ts of virtue, and evil effeéts and confequences of vice ;
but, however they may differ in the principles upon which
they have founded their reafoning, they have ultimately ar-
rived at the fame conclufion. Thefe principles are illuftrated
under they proper heads in the courfe of this work. The
names and works-of the different writers are cited by Grove,

Io in

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in his «¢ Syftem of Moral Philofophy,’’ vol. II. p. ii. n. 5.
The law of nature, fays the author laft cited, is eternal
_and neceflary ; fo that it always did, and always could not
but exift. It is univerfal, infomuch that all mankind are
‘ born the fubje&ts and objeéts of this law, notwithftanding
the difference of climate, of government, of language, and,
of opinions and cultoms that have prevailed in different parts
of the world. Moreover, the law of nature is immutable,
for the divine nature is immutable. The firft principle, or
law of nature, according to Hobbes, is felf-prefervation.
Thomafius will have in to be our own happinefs, which falls
in at laft with the fentiment of Hobbes. Puffendorf main-
‘tains it to be fociality. Valentine Alberti, the belief that
we are the image of God. Henry and Samuel Cocceius,
the will of God. Grotius, right reafon, WVelthemius, the
Antrinfic decency or turpitude of ations. Strimefius and
Janus, that we are to love God, ourfelves, and our neigh-
bour.

Laws, Human, comprehend all thofe rules of condué,
which originate in the wifdom of man, individually or col-
leGtively confidered, and which are defigned to regulate their
behaviour to one another in more limited or more enlarged
focieties, and which are enforced by human authority and
worldly fanétions. Human laws are neceffary as a remedy,
partly to the generality, and partly to the inefficacy of the
divine. The laws of God are too general to afcertain all
the duties of fociety, without fome additional interpreta-
tions of men. That no man by fraud or violence injure ano-
ther, and take his property, isa divine law ; which notwith-
ftanding, human laws are in many cafes needful to fettle the
bounds of property, and aflign every member of the com-
munity his rights and duties; what he may expect from
others, and what he is to do to them. « Salus populi fuprema
lex efto.”’ ‘To fecure the welfare of the fociety be the fu-
preme law” is really a divine precept; but the geniufes
and interefts of nations are fo various, yea, fo liable to
change are the interefts and circumftances of the fame peo-
ple, that different laws are neceflary to fuit this diverfity of
tempers, occafions, and emergencies. Nor is it any reproach
‘to the divine law that it is no more particular; fince it muft
be infinite to reach all the particular circumftances of man-
kind: and God hath given men reafon, by which they may
build upon the foundation that he hath laid fuch further laws
and conititutions, as the courfe and pofture of human affairs
fhall require. Nor is the inefficacy of the law of God,
which is the other thing that makes human laws neceflary,
any more a difhonour to it. For what is the caufe of this
inefficacy, but the wilful corruption of men? It was moft
fit, that the chief rewards and punifhments annexed to the
divine laws fhould be unfeen and future; that the trial of
human virtue might be more confpicuous. And were not
mankind funk into an extreme degeneracy, the profpe& of
an eternal world would make all other confiderations ufelefs.
But: as it is now, the torments of an after-life are not a bri-
dle ftrong enough upon the lufts and paffions of men. It
is therefore neceflary, that every fociety, to fecure its own
peace, fhould infert as much of the divine law into their re-
{petive conftitutions, as concerns the welfare of the body
politic ; and inforce thefe laws, not as divine, but as laws
of the ftate, with civil fan€itons; that they who will not be
made honeft by the fear of God, may be fo by the fear of
the laws of their country. - The difference between the phi-
lofophers and others was faid to be this, Mover roseouy execiws
% ToweI axovles ob Aosta, SS that they praétifed from choice
that honefty and virtue, which others obferved through fear
of the laws ;”? agreeably to that of the apoftle, ‘¢ that the
law is not made for a righteous man, but for the lawlefs and

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difobedient.’? All human laws are of the nature of thofe
called civil; and thefe, with regard to the difference of
their fubje& matter, may be fub-divided into the law of
nations, civil law, and canon law.

Law of Nations, Jus Gentium, is that rule, or meafure,
which all or feyeral nations, either by a tacit or expres agree-
ment, are obliged to obferve towards one another, whether
in peace or war. If, indeed, men were to live in a {tate of
nature, unconneéted with other individuals, there would be
no occafion for any other laws, than the law of nature, and
the law of God. Neither could any other law poffibly
exift: for a law always fuppofes fome fuperior who is to
make it; and in a ftate of nature we are all equal, without
any other fuperior but him who is the author of our being
But man was formed for fociety; and, as is demonftrated
by the writers on this fubje€, is neither capable of living
alone, nor indeed has the courage to do it. However, as
it is impoffible for the whole race of mankind to be united
in one great fociety, they muft neceflarily divide into many ;
and form feparate ftates, conimonwealths, and nations, en-
tirely independent of each other, and yet liable to a mu-
tual intercourfe. Hence arifes a third kind of law, to
regulate this mutual intercourfe, called the law of na-
tions :”? which, as none of thefe ftates will acknowledge a
fuperiority in the other, cannot be diftated by any ; but de-
pends entirely upon the rules of natiffal law, or upon mu-
tual compaéts, treaties, leagues, and agreements between
thefe feveral communities: in the conftruction alfo of which
compaéts we have no other rule to refort to, but the law of
nature; being the only one to which all the communities are
equally fubje&t: and therefore the civil law very juftly ob-
ferves, that ‘* quod naturalis ratio inter omnes homines con-
ftituit, vocatur jus gentium.”’

Law, Civil or Municipal, is the rule by which particular
diftri&ts, communities, or nations are governed; being thus
defined by Juftinian, (Inft. 1. 2. 1.) “ Jus civile eft quod
quifque fibi populus conftituit.”” Judge Blackftone calls it
“¢ municipal”? law, in compliance with common fpeech ; for
though, itri@ly fpeaking, that expreffion denotes the par-
ticular cuftoms of one fingle municipium, or free town, yet
it may with fufficient propriety be applied to any one ftate
or nation, which is governed by the fame laws and cuftoms.
Accordingly, municipal law, thus underftood, is properly
defined to be ‘a rule of condu& prefcribed by the fupreme
power in a ftate,. commanding what is right and prohibiting
what is wrong.”’ It is a “ rule;”? not a tranfient order
from a fuperior to or concerning a particular perfon, but
fomething permanent, uniform, and univerfal. It is thus
diftinguifhed from advice or counfel, and alfo from a com-
pact or agreement. (See the beginning of the article Law.)
It is arule of * civil condu@,’’ by which it is diftinguifhed
from the natural or revealed law. .(See Law of Nature.)
The municipal or civil law regards man as a citizen, and
bound to other duties towards his neighbour than thofe ot
mere nature and religion; duties in which he has engaged,
in confequence of enjoying the benefits of the common
union ; and which amount to no more than that he do con-
tribute, on his part, to the fubfiftence and peace of the fo-
ciety.” It is likewife a rule “ prefcribed,”’ becaufe a bare
refolution, confined in the breatt of the legiflator, without
manifefting itfelf by. fome external fign, can never be pro-
perlyalaw. This refolution muft be notified to the people
who are to-obey it. This may be done by univerfal tradi-
tion and long praCtice, which fuppofe a previous publication,
and is the cafe of the commonslaw of England. It may be
notified, viva voce, by officers appointed for that purpofe,
as is done with regard to proclamations, and fuch a¢ts of
gE 2 parliament

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parliament as are appointed to be publicly read in churches
and other affemblies. And, laitly, it may be notified by
writing, printing, or the like; which is the genéral courfe
taken with all our aéts of parliament. This notification,
‘ however, fhould be made in the moft public and perfpicuous
manner; and not like the mafk of Caligula, who (according
to Dion Caffius) wrote his laws in a very {mall character,
and hung them up upon high pillars, the more efletually to
enfnare the people. ‘That, without doubt, can never bea
rule to any perfon, which is not liable to his cognizance, or
which he neither does nor can know. Agreeably to this
circumftance, fome have derived * lex”? @ legendo ; becaufe
the law was to be publicly read, that it might be known to
all and obferved by all. The matter of divine laws being
ufually of great importance, and the author a fovereign
who has an abfolute propriety in us, and on that ground an
unquettionable right to the moft entire devotednefs, and
zealous concern to pleafe him; we ought to ufe all the means
in our power to come at the knowledge of his will. But as
Auman laws proceed from the will of thofe who, by nature,
are upon a level with the re{t of mankind, and have the con-
fent of others to govern them purely for their temporal or
political good ; fuch a provifion ought to be made for their
publication, that by an ordinary care, and without taking
up much of their time and thoughts, which are to be {pent
in their private callifigs, people may be able to know the
pleafure of their governors. ‘There is another cireumitance,
which is worfe than the non-promulgation of a law; and
that is the making of laws “ ex poft facto:” when after an
action (indifferent in itfelf) is committed, the legiflator then
for the firft time declares it to have been a crime, and inflicts
a punifhment upon the perfon who has committed it. All
laws fhould be made to commence “in futuro,’’ and be
notified before their commencement. When the laws or
rules of condué& are properly notified or preferibed, it is the
bufinefs of the fubje& to be thoroughly acquainted with
them: for if ignorance, of what he might know, were ad-
mitted as a legitimate excufe, the laws would be of no ef-
fe&, but might always be eluded with impunity. On this
head we fhall only add, that it is requifite to the very effence
of a law, that it be made by the fupreme power. Sove-
reignty and legiflature are convertible terms; one cannot
fubfit without the other. That the law may anfwer the
purpofe of a complete rule, ‘ commanding what is might
and prohibiting what is wrong,” it 1s neceflary that the
boundaries of right and wrong be eftablifhed and afcertained
by law: and it is then the bufinefs of the law, confidered as
a rule of civil condué, to enforce thefe rights, and to re-
drefs thefe wrongs. For this purpofe every law may be
faid to confit of feveral parts: one, declaratory, whereby
the rights to be obferved, and the wrongs to be efchewed,
are clearly'defined and laid down ; another, direGory, where-
by the fubject is inftru&ed and enjoined to obferve thofe
rights, and to ab{tain from the commiflion of thofe wrongs ;
a third, remedial, whereby a method is pointed out to re-
cover a man’s private rights, or redrefs his private wrongs ;
to which may be added a fourth, ufually termed the fandton,
or vindicatory branch of the law, whereby it‘is figmified what
evil or penalty fhalk be incurred by fuch as commit any
public wrongs, and tranfgrefs or negle& their duty.
(Blackft. Comm. book i.) For the interpretation of the
law, fee INTERPRETATION.

- Civil laws, confidered with regard to the two offices of
the legiflator, viz. to judge and to compel, may be divided
into two branches; the one difributive, the other vindidive
and penal. ! ‘

Law, Difributive, is that by which Aa man has his

W.

right ; or, it is that which conflitutes the rules and meafures
of things, whereby we know what belongs to us, and what
to others; fo as we may not difturb or interrupt others in
the enjoyment of their own, nor be interrupted by them ;
and what each man may lawfully do or not do,

Law, Vindidive, is that branch by which the punifh-
ments to be inflited on thofe who violate the laws, are de-
termined.

The diftributive and vindictive are not two fpecies of laws,
but two parts of the fame law. Fer if a law fay no more
than * Whatever you catch in your net, in the fea, fhall be
your’s,"’ it is in vain; for though another take from you
what you have caught, it is ftill your’s; in regard, in the
ftate of nature, where all things are common, your’s and
another's are the fame thing. So that what the law defines
to be your’s, was your's before that law, and will be your’s
after it, though pofleffed by another—A law, therefore, is
but an empty found, unlefs it determine the thing to be
your’s in fuch a fenfe as to forbid every body elle from dif-
turbing you in the poffeffion of it. But fuch prohibition
will be vain, unlefs there be a penalty annexed to it. A
law, therefore, muft contain both thefe parts, that which
prohibits, and that which punifhes. The firft whereof,
which is called diffributive, is prohibitory, and fpeaks to all ;
the latter, catled vindidive or penal, is mandatory, and {peaks
only to the public officers. Whence it follows, that to all
civil laws there is annexed a penalty, either implicitly or
explicitly ; and where that punifhment is not afcertained,
either by writing or by example, it is fuppofed to be arbi-
trary, and to depend on the pleafure of the legiflator: for ~
that is no law, which may be violated impune.

Civil laws, confidered with regard to the different manners
of promulgating them, are of two kinds; /cripte and non
feripte, or written and unwritten.

Laws, Wriiten, are thofe which require either the voice,
or fome other fign of the legiflator’s will to become laws.
The written laws of England confift of ftatutes, a€ts, or
edicts, made by the king’s majeity, by and with the advice
and confent of the lords fpiritual and temporal, and com-
mons, in parliament affembled. ‘The oldeft of thefe now
extant is the famous ‘* magna charta,”’ as contained in par-
liament 9 Hen. IIT. See*Macna Charta and Sratutrs.

Laws, Unwritten, are fuch as need no other promulga-
tion befides the voice of nature, or natural reafon; of which
kind are all natural laws.

Hence it appears, that though the natural laws be de-
fcribed in the writings of the philofophers, they are not
therefore to be called written laws; nor are the writings of
lawyers, laws, for want of the fupreme authority ; nor the
refponfa prudentum, or opinions of judges, laws, except-
ing fo far as they are allowed by the fupreme power to pafs
into ufe; and then they are called /eges /cripte, written
laws; not becaufe of their ufe, but becaufe of the will of
the fupreme power, which is argued from their pafling
into ufe.

The unwritten law of England includes not only ‘ general
cuftoms,” as the common law, properly fo called; but alfo
the “ particular cuftoms”? of certain parts of the kingdom ;
and likewife thofe ‘ particular laws,” that are by cu/fom
obferved only in certain courts and jurifdiGions. When
thefe parts of the municipal law of England are called “leges
non icripte,’’ we are not to underftand that thefe laws are
at prefent merely oral, or communicated from the former
ages to the prefent folely by word of mouth. Indeed,
during an age of profound ignorance of letters, all laws were
entirely traditional, becaufe the nations among which they
prevailed had but little idea of writing. Thus the Britifa

as

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as well as the Gallic Druids committed all their laws, as
well as learning, to memory ; and it is faid of the primitive
Saxons here, as well as their brethren on the continent, that
leges fola memoria et ufu retinebant.” But with us, at
prefent, the monuments and evidences of our legal cuftoms
are contained in the records of the feveral courts of juttice,
in books of reports and judicial decifions, and in the treatifes
of the learned fages of the profeffion, preferved and handed
down to us from the times of higheft antiquity. But thefe
parts of our law may be fitly ftyled “ leges non {cripte,”’
becaufe their original inftitution and authority are not fet
down in writing, as acts of parliament are, but they receive
their binding power, and the force of laws, by long and im-
memorial ufage, and by their univerfal reception throughout
the kingdom. In like manner as Aulus Gellius defines the
¢€ jus non fcriptum’’ to be that, which is * tacito et illi-
terato hominum confenfu ct moribus exprefilum.” See Com-
mon Law and Custom.

Having confidered the civi/ law in its more general ac-
ceptation, as denoting the itatutes and ordinances of every
ftate for its own good government, we fhall refer for the
ftatement of its more fpecial acceptation to the article
Civit Law.

Laws, Canon or Ecclefiaftical, in a more extenfive fenfe,
denote laws relating to the worlhip, difcipline, and govern-
ment of the church. For an account of that which is by
way of eminence called canon law, fee Canon Law.

There is another divifion of the law of England befides
that which we have above ftated, more large and particular ;
as into the prerogative or crown law; the law and cuftom
of parliament ; the common law ; the ftatute law ; reafon-
able cuftoms ; the law of arms, war, and chivalry ; eccle-
fiaftical or canon law ; civil law, in certain courts and cafes ;
foreft law ; the law of marque and reprifal; the law of mer-
chants; the law and privilege of the flannaries, &c. But
this large divifion may be reduced to the common divifion ;
ard all is founded on the law of nature or reafon, and the
revealed law of God, as all other laws ought to be. 1 Co.
Inft. 11.

Law is alfo applied to the feveral policies of ftates and
people, or the maxims and rules they have agreed upon, or
received from their magiltrates, whereby to live in peace and
mutual fociety. :

The laws of the twelve tables were the ancient laws of
the Romans, for which the Decemviri were fent into Greece,
and which ferved them for the ground-work of ali their
jurifprudence. :

The celebrated laws of the more modern days, are thofe
of the Angli, the Werini, or Thuringi; ef the Boii, or Ba-
varians ; thofe ot the Burgundi, Germans, Danes, and Nor-
wegians; of the Franks, the Frifons, the Lombards, the
Gothic laws, the Martina, or Mercian law; the laws of the
Saxons, Scots, Sicilians, Vifigoths; the laws of Oleron, the
Moimuzin law, and the Salic law.

Law, Lex, among the firtt Romans properly fignified an
ordinance of the people, made at the requett of a magiftrate,
particularly a conful.

Thefe ordinances differed from the plebifcita and fenatus
confulta, and even from other ordinances made at the requeft

of any other magiltrate befide a conful, though thofe too”

bore the name of laws.

Thus, though Aquilius and Falcidius were only tribunes
when they made their requeit, yet we ftill fay, the Aguilian
law, the Falcidianlaw, &c.

The feveral laws of the Romans are diftinguifhed, 1. By
the name of him at whofe requeft they were paffed ; as the
Cornelian Taw, the Julian law, &c. 2. By the matter or

LAW

fubje& of the law ; and hence came the terms, teflamentary
laws, as the Furian, Voconian, &c. judiciary laws, Agrarian
laws, &c.

3. Sometimes by the crimes againit which they were
made. For inftance : the laws touching poi/oning, parricides,
&c. the laws of concuffion, peculate, &e.

The Codex and Authenticz are the laws and conttitutions
of the Roman emperors ; and the Digett is a compilation,
made by the emperor Juttinian’s order, of the feveral opi-
nions and judgments of the moft learned in the Roman law ;
to which he gave the fanétion of laws, as appears by the
epiftle prefixed to the work; and it is this that properly
conititutes the Koman law. See Civiz Law,

The lex talionis, or law of like for like, is the moft
ancient and equitable law in the world. It was obferved by
the Hebrews.

Law has alfo a more fpecial fignification, wherein it is
taken for that which is lawful with us, and not elfewhere :
as ‘tenant, by the courtefy of England.”

Thus we alfo fay, to wage law (vadiare legem), and to
make or do law ( facere legem). See WaceER, and Make.

Law of Arms, is that law which gives precep:s how
rightly to proclaim war, to.make and obferve leagues, to
attack the enemy, and to punifh offenders in the camp.

Common things concerning arms and war are under
the cognizance of the con{table and marfhal of England.
13 R. II.

Law, Affgnee by. See AssiGNee.

Law, Covenant of. See Covenant.

Laws of Eftates, {uch a&ts and regulations as relate to their
natures and managements. See Esrarr, and Farm.

Law, Fore. See Forest.

Law, Frank. See Frank.

Law of Honour, denotes a fyftem of rules, conftru@ted
by people of fafhion, and calculated to facilitate their inter-
courfe with one another; and for no other purpofe. No-
thing is adverted to by the law of honour but what tends
to incommode this intercourfe ; and hence it only prefcribes
and regulates the duties betwixt equals, omitting fuch as
relate to the Supreme Being, 2s well as thofe which we owe
to our inferiors. For which reafon, profanenefs, negle& of
public worfhip or private devotion, cruelty to fervants, ri-
gorous treatment of tenants or other dependants, want of
charity to the poor, injuries done to tradefmen by infolvency
or delay of payment, with numberlefs examples of the fame
kind, are accounted no breaches of honour; becaufe a man
is not a lefs agreeable companion for thefe vices, nor the
worfe to deal with, in thofe concerns which are ufually tranf-
aéted between one gentleman and another. Again, the law
of honour, being conttituted by men occupied in the pur-
fuit of pleafure, and for the mutual conveniency of fuch:
men, vill be found, as might be expe€ted from the cha-
raéter and defign of the law-makers, to be, in moft in-
itances, fayourab!e to the licentious indulgence of the natural
paflions. Thus it allows of fornication, adultery, drunken-
nefs, prodigality, duelling, and of revenge in the extreme ;
and lays no ftrefs upon the virtues oppofite to thefe. Paley’s
Principles of Moral and Political Philofophy, vol. i.

Law, Infurance of. See INSURANCE. '

Law, Intendment of. See INTENDMENT.

Law Language was formerly, in this kingdom, Norman
or law French ; and in this barbarous diale& were all public
proceedings written andrecorded. Nothing could bea more
humiliating and ignominious badge of tyranny and foreign
fervitude ; being introduced under the aufpices of William
the Norman, and his fons ; and thus the ironical obfervation
of the Roman fatirit came to be literally verified, that

“ Gallia

LAW

« Gallia caufidicos docuit facunda Britannos.’? (Juven. xv.
111.) This continued till the reign of Edward ILL., when
by itat. 36 Ed. IIL. c. 15, it was enacted, that for the future
all pleas, &c. fhould be conducted in the Englifh tongue ;
but entered and enrolled in Latin, The practifers, how-
ever, being ufed to the Norman language, which was more
familiar to them, continued to take their notes in law French ;
and when thefe notes were publifhed, under the denomination
of reports, they were printed im that barbarous dialect ;
which, joined to the additional terror of a Gothic black letter,
has occafioned many ftudents to throw away their Plowden
and Littleton, without venturing to attack a page of them.
But in reality, fays Blackftone, on a nearer acquaintance,
they would have found nothing formidable in the language ;
which differs in its grammar and orthography as much from
the modern French, as the di€tion of Chaucer and Gower
does from that of Addifon and Pope. Befides, as the Eng-
lifh and Norman languages were concurrently ufed by our
ancettors for feveral centuries, the two idioms have naturally
affimilated, and aGtually borrowed from each other ; for
which reafon the grammatical conftruction of each is fo very
much the fame, that an Englifhman (with a week’s pre-
paration) would underftand the laws of Normandy, collected
in their “ grand couftumier,’’ as well, if not better, than a
Frenchman bred within the walls of Paris.

The Latin, which fucceeded the French for the entry and
enrolment of pleas, and which continued in ufe for four
centuries, anfwers fo nearly to the Englifh, that it has been
generally imagined to be totally fabricated at home, with
little more art or trouble than by adding Roman termina-
tions to Englifh words. Whereas, in reality, it is a very
univerfal dialect {pread throughout all Europe at the irrup-
tion of the northern nations, and particularly accommodated
and moulded to anfwer all the purpofes of the lawyers with
a peculiar exaétnefs and precifion. Thefe northern nations,
or rather their legiflators, though they refolved to promulge
their laws in the Latin tongue, have frequently intermixed
in it fome words of a Gothic original ; which is more or
lefs the cafe in every country of Europe, and ought not,
therefore, to be imputed as any peculiar blemifh in our
Englifh legal Latinity. The truth is, that which is ge-
nerally denominated law Latin, is in reality a mere technical
language, calculated for eternal duration, and eafy to be
comprehended both in prefent and future times ; and on thofe
accounts beft fuited to preferve thofe memorials which are
intended for perpetual rules of ation. As to the objec-
tion of locking up the law in a ftrange and unknown
tongue, this is of little weight with regard to records,
which few have occafion to read, but fuch as do, or ought
to, underftand the rudiments of Latin. The learned Black-
ftone fuggeits, that the terms of the ‘ law are not more
numerous, more uncouth, or more difficult to be explained
by a teacher, than thofe of logic, phytics, and the whole
circle of Ariftoile’s philofophy, nay even of the politer arts
of archite@ture and its kindred ftudies, or the fcience of
rhetoric itfelf.”? The technical Latin continued in ufe from
the time of its firft introduction til the time of the fub-
verfion of our ancient conftitution under Cromwell, when,
among many other innovations in the law, the language of
our records was altered and turned into Englifh. ~ But,
at the reftoration of king Charles, this novelty was no
longer continued ; the pra¢tifers finding it very difficult to
exprefs themfelves fo concifely or fignificantly in any other
language but the Latin.. Thus it continued without any fen-
fible inconvenience till about the year 1730, when it was
again thought proper that the proceedings at law fhould
be done into Englifh; and: it was accordingly fo ordered

LAW

by ftatute 4 Geo. II. c. 26. This provifion was made,
according to the preamble of the ftatute, that the common
people might know and underftand what was alleged or
done for and againft them, in the precefs and pleadings,
the judgment and entries in a caufe. Several incon-
yeniences arofe from this alteration; fo that in two years
it was found neceflary to make a new a&, 6 Geo. II. c. 14,
which allows all technical words to continue in the ufual
language, and has thereby almoft defeated every beneficial
purpofe of the former ftatute. Black{t. Com. b. ili.

Law, Marine, denotes that law which ferves to regulate
the interefts of navigation and maritime commerce. (See
NavicaTion, and Commerce.) This law has undergone
various alterations and improvements, in confequence of the
extenfion of naval intercourfe between different nations for
the purpofes of commerce, Several codes have been formed
by different ftates primarily for the regulations of navi-
gation, and for defining the authority of the majfters and
other officers of fhips, and the duty and rights of the
feamen ; and afterwards for the regulation of maritime con-
traéts. The earlieft fyftem of marine law, which ye

records, was that compiled by the Rhodians, after they had,

by their commerce and naval victories, obtained the fove-
reignty of the fea, about goo years before the Chriftian era.
Thefe laws exift at prefent only in a detached and imperfe&
ftate, as they have been preferved and incorporated in other
fubfequent inftitutions of a fimilar nature. It has been fup-
pofed by fome that the Rhodian laws were adopted by the
Romans during the firft Punic war, when they firft became a
naval power ; but others affirm that they were incorporated
with the Roman law by Juftinian and others. As for the Phee-
nicians, Carthaginians, Athenians, Corinthians, and other
maritime ftates of antiquity, it does not appear whether the
had any marine laws of their own inftitution. If they had
any, they have not been tranfmitted to our times. The
firft code of modern fea-laws was compiled, fays ferjeant
Marfhall, about the time of the firft crufade, towards the end
of the 11th century, by the people of Amalfi, who had then
become confiderable for their commerce and maritime power.
It is not improbable that the code confifted principally of
the Rhodian inftitutions, which were found ftill in force in
the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean ; and being
colleG@ed into one regular fyftem, were generally received,
for a confiderable time, as law in thofe countries. In pro-
cefs of time, other ftates, as they acquired importance
and diftin@tion, formed new colleétions of marine laws, in
which the old inftitutions were altered and modified to {uit
the improvements of the times, or their own particular in-
terelt. But when inconveniences were found to arife from a
diverfity of rules pertaining to a fubje& that had been
long regulated by one general fyftem, which was regarded
as part of the law of nations, it became neceflary for the
different maritime ftates to form a new code out of ail thefe
difcordant materials, which was done, as Grotius informs us,
(De Jure Bell. 1. iii. c. 1. § 5. n. 6.), by the authority of
almoft all the fovereigns of Europe. This new digeft was
denominated ‘ Confolato del Mare.”? It was firft publifhed,
by order of the ancient kings of Aragon, in the Catalan
tongue, and therefore probably compofed at Barcelona, the
capital of Aragon. In the 13th century this code was
revived as law in Italy, the Greek empire, France, and Ger-
many ; and Vinnius fays, that moft of the marine laws in
Spain, Italy, France, and England are borrowed from it,
It feems to have been confidered as a branch of the public
law, and its regulations are ftill of very high anthority in
every maritime ftate of Europe. The next collection of fea,
laws in point of time, as well as of celebrity, is that of
Oleron,

LAW

Oleron. (See Orrron.) This was fucceeded by a col-
le&tion of the ordinances made by the ‘ Merchants and
“matters of the magnificent city of Wifbuy, in the ifland of
Gothland, formerly very famous for its commerce, but now
‘reduced to an obfcure and inconfiderable town.’ Many of
‘the regulations contained in this code of laws are precifely
“the fame with thofe of Oleron. Thefe laws were for fome
ages, and indeed {till remain, in great authority in the north-
‘ern parts of Europe. In 1597, the deputies of the Han-
featic league, in a general aflembly at Lubeck, drew up a
fyftem of laws relating to navigation, for the ufe of their
confederacy, to which, in 1614, they added feveral new ordi-
nances. But the moft complete and comprehenfive fyftem

‘of this kind is the famous ordinance of the marine of
Louis XIV. publifhed in 1681. This excellent code wa’
compiled and arranged by a very malterly hand, under the

infpe&tion of Colbert, the celebrated minifter of that prince,

upon an attentive revifion of all the ancient fea-laws of
France and other countries, with the affiftance of the moft

learned men of the time, and upon confultation with the dif-

ferent parliaments, the courts of admiralty, and the chambers

of commerce in France. It forms a fyftem of whatever ex-

perience and the wifdom of ages had pronounced to be moft

juft and-convenient in the marine inftitutions of the maritime

ftates of Europe. Notwi:hftanding new regulations, fug-

geited by motives of national intereft, it has hitherto been

efteethed a code of great authority upon all queftions of
maritime law. From this ordinance, and from the ‘elaborate

and ufeful commentary of Valin, lord Mansfield is faid to

have derived much of his extenfive and accurate acquaintance

with the principles of marine. Marfhall’s Law of Infurance,

vol. i. See INSURANCE.

> Law of Marque, a law by which thofe who are driven to

make ufe of it, take the goods, or fhipping of the party that
has done them wrong, and of whom they cannot get ordinary

juftice, whenever they can take him within their own bounds

or precinéts. 27 Edw. IIJ. cap. 17.

Law, Martial. . See MarrTiau.

Law Merchant, a fummary fort of law, originally dif-
fering from the common law, though now adopted, and
become a part of the laws of the kingdom. This decides
the caufes of merchants on the general rules which obtain in
all commercial countries ; and that often, in matters relating
to domeftic trade, as, for inftance, with regard to the draw-
ing, the acceptance, and the transfer, of inland bills of ex-
change. (Co. Litt. 172. Lord Raym. 181. 1562.) One
point of it confifts in this, that if there be two joint merchants
of wares, and one of them dies, his executor fhall have the
moiety ; which is not allowed it the cafe of others, not
merchants. See Cusrom.

The law of merchants not being founded in the particular
inftitutions, or local cuftoms of any particular country, but
confifting of certain principles which general convenience
has eftablifhed to regulate the dealings of merchants with
each other in all countries, may be confidered as a branch of
public law.

Laws of Molmutius. See Motmutin Laws.

Laws of Oleren. See OLERON.

Law of Parliament. See PARLIAMENT.

Law, Poynings’. See Poynrna.

Law, Releafe in. See RELEASE.

Law, Salicv See Sauic.

Law, Spiritual, is the ecclefiaftical or canon law, allowed
and authorized in this realm, fo far as it is not again{ft the
common law, nor againft the ftatutes and cuftoms of the
kingdom. And according to fuch ecclefiaftical laws, the

LAW

ordinary and other ecclefiaftical judges proceed in cafes
within their cognizance.

Law Staple, the fame with law merchant.

Law Suit. See Sur.

Law, Sumptuary. See Sumpruary.

Law, Surrender in. See SURRENDER.

Laws, By. See By-Laws.

Laws, Cockpit. See Cockpit.

Laws of the Stage. See STace.

Law is alfo ufed figuratively in {peaking of the rules or
order wherein any thing is performed.

Thus we fay, the laws of motion, the laws of mechanics,
the laws of fluids, the laws of chance, of a game, &c. laws
of friétion, of refiftance, of defcent of bodies, &c. laws of
elafticity, rarefaction, reflexion, refraétion, &c.; all which
fee under their proper heads.

Law, in Scripture Hiftory, one of the three divifions of
the Old Teftament, comprehending Genefis, Exodus, Levi-
ticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy. See CAnon.

Law-Day, Lagedayum, in our old Law Writers, was any
day of open court, and commonly uted for che courts of a
county or hundred. It is alfo called view of frank-pledge,
or court-leet. ‘* Et quieti fint de fe€tis comitatuum & hun-
dredorum noftrorum, de vifu franci plegii & laudavorum, &c.”’

LAWA, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Borneo,
fituated on a river of the fame name. N, lat. o° go’. E.
long. 110° 42'.

LAWEND, in the military language of the Ottoman
empire, the appellation of cavalry, called alfo Delibaches.
(See Detrsacues.) From Lawend we have formed La-
venti. Their arms are fhort fabres, piftols, mufkets, and
lances. They wear a kind of cap, which is a long cylinder
of black felt, nine or ten inches high, and without any pro-
jeGting rim. Their faddles are made in the Englifh manner,
of a fingle {kin, ftretched upon a wooden tree ; in the reft of
their. accoutrements and clothing, they refemble the Mam-
louks. Their ragged clothes, their rufty arms, and their”
horfes of different fizes, give them the appearance of banditti
more than of foldiers; and, in reality, they have firft diftin-
guifhed themfelves under the former character, nor have
they much changed their habits by adopting their fecond
occupation. Almoft all the cavalry in Syria are Turkmans,
Curds, or Caramanians ; who, after exercifing the trade of
robbers in their own country, feek employment, as well as
an afylum, near the perfon of the pacha. Throughout the
empire, their troops are, in like manner, formed of plunderers,
who roam from place to: place. From want of difcipline,
they retain their former manners, and are the fcourge of the
country, which they lay wafte, and of the peafants, whom
they often pillage by open force. Volney’s Travels,
vol. ii. ‘

LAWER Kirk, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in
the county of Perth; 15 miles S.E. of George Town.

LAWES, Witttam, in Biography, the eldeit fon of
Thomas Lawes, a vicar-choral of the cathedral church of
Salifbury, and a native of that city, was placed early in life
under (Coperario, for his mufical education, at the expence
of the earl of Hertford. His firft preferment was in the
choir of Chichefter, but he was foon called to London,
where, in 1602, he was {worn a gentleman of the chapel
royal; which place, however, herrefigned in 1611, and be-
came one of the private, or chamber-muficians, to Charles,
then prince, and afterwards*king. Fuller fays, “ he was
refpeéted and beloved of all fuch perfons as cait any looks
towards virtue and honour ;”? and he feems well entitled to
this praife. He manifeited his gratitude and loyalty to his
royal after by taking up arms in his caufe againft ae par=

iament.

LAWES.

liament. And though, to exempt him from danger, lord
Gerrard, the king's general, made him a commiffary in the
royal army, yet the activity of his fpirit difdaining this in-
tended fecurity, at the fiege of Cheiter, 1645, he loft his
life by an accidental fhot. The king is faid, by Fuller, to
have been fo affected at his lofs, that though he was already
in mourning for his kinfman lord Bernard Stuart, killed at
the fame fiege, his majelty put “ on particular mourning for
his dear fervant William Lawes, whom he commonly called
the father of mufic.”’

His chief compofitions were fantafias for viols, and fongs
and fymphonies for mafques. Though his brother Henry,
in the preface to the Choice Pfalmes for three voices, which
they publifhed jointly, boafts that ‘he compofed more than
thirty feveral forts of mufic for voices and inftruments, and
that there was not any inftrument in ufe in his time but he
compolfed for it as aptly as if he had only ftudied that.”
In Dr. Aldrich’s Colleétion, Chrift-church, Oxon, there is
a work of his called Mr. William Lawes’s Great Con-
fort, ‘“‘ wherein are fix fetts of muficke, fix books.”? His
Royal Confort for two treble viols, two viol da gambas, and
a thorough-bafe, which was always mentioned with reverence
by his admirers in the 17th century, is one of the moft dry,
aukward, and unmeaning compofitions we ever remember to
have had the trouble of fcoring. It mult, however, have
been produced early in his life, as there are no bars, and the
paflages are chiefly fuch as were ufed in queen Elizabeth’s
time. In the mufic-fchool at Oxford are two large manu-
{cript volumes of his works in f{core, for various inftruments ;
one of which includes his original compofitions for mafques,
performed before the king, and at the inns of court.

His anthem for four voices, in Dr. Boyce’s fecond volume,
is the beft and moft folid compofition that we have feen of
this author; though it is thin and confufed in many places,
with little melody, and a harmony in the chorus, p. 201,
which we are as unable to underftand, or reconcile to rule, or
to our own ears. He muft have been confiderably older
than his brother Henry, though they frequently compofed
in conjunGtion.| We are, however, unable to clear up this
point of primogeniture: Henry’s name is placed firft in the
title to Choice Pfalmes, publifhed in 1648, in the preface to
which he fays, “as to that, which is my part in this compo-
fition, it fakes precedence of order only, not of worth.”’
And yet he fays of his own tunes jult before, “ they had
their birth at the fame time as his.”? DBefides the pfalms at
the end of fir Wiliiam Davenant’s mafque, called ‘ The
Triumphs of the Prince d’Amour,"’ 1635, it is faid, that
«the mufick of the fongs and fymphonies were excellently
compofed by Mr. William and Mr. Henry Lawes, his
majeity’s fervants.””

Several of the fongs of William Lawes occur in the col-
leGtions of the time, particularly in John Playford’s Mufical
Companion, part the fecond, confilting of dialogues, glees,
ballads, and airs, the words of which are in general coarfe
and licentious. The dialogue part, which he furnifhed to
this kook, is a f{pecies of recitative, wholly without accom-
paniment : and the duet at laft, which is called a chorus, is
infipid m melody, and ordinary in counterpoint. His
boalted canons, publifhed by his brother Henry at the end
of their pfalms, as proofs of his great abilitics in harmony,
when feored, appear fo tar from finifhed compofitions, thet
there is not one of them totally free from objections, or that
bears the ftamp of a great matter.

Lawes, Henry, the brother of William, was likewife a
difciple of Coperario. By the cheque-book of the chapel
royal, it appears that he was {worn in Pifteller, in January,
2625, and, in November followiag, gentleman of the ehapel ;

after this, he was appointed clerk of the Cheque, and one of
the public and private muficians to Charles I. William and
Henry Lawes were at this time in fuch general favour, that
though the kingdom was divided into factions, and were not
only varied more in their principles, but difputed them with
more violence than at any other period of our hiftory, there
was but one opinion concerning the abilities of thele mufi-
cians. Yet as the reputation of Henry was ftill higher, and
more firmly eftablifhed than that of his brother, it feems to
require more ample difcuffion. We have examined with
care and candour all the works which we ccald find of this
compofer, which are ftill very numerous, and are obliged to
own ourfelves unable, by their excellence, to account for the
great reputation which he acquired, and the numerous pane-
zyrics beftowed on him by the greateft poets and muficians of
his time. His temper and converfation mutt certainly have
endeared him to his acquaintance, and rendered them partial
to his produétions ; and the praife of fuch writers as Milton
and Waller is durable fame. ‘Tallis, Bird, or Gibbons, who
were all infinitely fuperior to Lawes, never had their abili-
ties blazoned by contemporary poets or hiftorians of eminence.
Fenton, the editor of Waller’s works, tells us, that * the
bett poets of his time were ambitious of having their verfes
fet to mufic by this admirable artift ;’’? and, indeed, he not
only fet fome of the works of almoft every poet of eminence
in Charles I.’s reign, but of young noblemen and gentlemen
who feem only to haye tried their ftrength on the lyre for
his ufe, and of whofe talents for poetry no other evidence re-
mains than what is to be found in Lawes’s publications,

Waller has more than once bettowed his fragrant incenfe
on this mufician. Peck fays, that ‘* Milton wrote his
Mafque at the requeft of Lawes ;’’ but whether Milton chofe
Lawes, or Lawes Milton for a colleague in Comus, it
equally manifefts the high rank in which he ftood with the
greateit poets of his time. It would be illiberal to cherifh
fuch an idea; but it does fometimes feem as if the twin-
fifters, Poetry and Mufic, were mutually jealous of each
other's glory: ‘the lefs interefting my iifter's offspring
may be,’’ fays Poetry, “* the more admiration will my own
obtain.”? Upon afking fome years ago, why a certain great
prince continued to honour with fuch peculiar marks of
favour an old performer on the flute, when he had fo many
muficians of fuperior abilities about him? We were an-
{wered, “ becaufe he plays wor/e than himfelf.”” And who
knows whether Milton and Waller were not fecretly in-
fluenced by fome fuch confideration? and were not more
pleafed with Lawes for not pretending to embellith or en-
force the fentiments of their fongs, but fetting them to
founds lefs captivating than the fenfe.

But bad as the mulic of Lawes appears to us, it feems to
have been fincerely admired by his contemporaries in general.
It is not meant to infinuate that it was pleafing to poets caly,
but that it was more praifed by them than any other mulic
of the fame time. Though that of Laniere, Hilten, Simon
Ives, Dr. Child, and others, feems preferable ; und the poets,
whofe praife is fame, perhaps taught others to admire.

The time was now come for fimplifying harmony and
purifying melody in England, as well as in Italy ; and the
beginning of chis enterprize was not fortunate here any more
than in that country: harmony and contrivance were relin-
quifhed without a compenifation. Simplicity, indeed, was
attained ; but devoid of accent, grace, or invention, And
this accounts for the fuperiority of church mufic over fecular
at this period in every part of Europe, where canon, tugue,
rich harmony, and contrivance, were ftill cultivated ; while
the firft attempts at air and recitative were aukward, and the
bafes thin and unmeaning. Indeed, the compofers of Pe

in

LAW

kind of mufic had the fingle merit to boaft of affording the
finger an opportunity of letting the words be perfeétly well
underftood ; as their melodies, in general, confifted of no
more notes than fyllables, while the treble accompaniment,
if it fubfitted, being in unifon with the voice-part, could oc-
cafion no embarraflment or confufion.

But there feems as little reafon for facrificing mufic to

poetry, as poetry to mufic ; and when the fentiments of the ,

poem are neither enforced nor embellifhed by the melody, it
feems as if the words might be {till better articulated and
underftood by being read or declaimed, than when drawled
out in fuch pfalmodic ayres as thofe of Henry Lawes and
his contemporaries. It has, however, been afked * who-
ever reads the words of a fong but the author ?”? And there
are certainly many favourite fongs, which nothing but good
mufic and good finging could ever bring into notice. There
are, however, poems, we will not call them fongs, on fub-
jects of wit and fcience, which mutt ever be enfeebled by
mufic ; while others, truly lyric, and confined to paffion and
fentiment, travel quicker to the heart, and penetrate more
deeply to the foul by the vehicle of melody, than by that of
declamation. But we want not to fet up one art againtt
another, or to give a preference to finging over declamation ;
but to affign to each its due place and praife. There are
paflages in our beft plays which could never be fung by the
fineft performer that ever exifted, to fo much effe& as they
have been fpoken by a Garrick or a Siddons; while in Me-
taftafio’s charming dramas, there are lines and flanzas, by
which an audience has been often more comoletely enrapt,
when well fet and well fung by a mellifluous and touching
voice, than by the moft exquifite declamation of the greatelt
aGtors that ever exilted. Though Henry Lawes feverely
cenfures the admirers of Italian mufic in his preface, yet his
firft cantata, ** Thefeus and Ariadne,” is both in poetry and
mufic, an imitation of the famous fcene in Monteverde’s opera
of « Arianna,"’ which was afterwards formed into a fingle he-
roic fong, entirely like this, in ftilo recitativo, without any,
air from beginning to end. After the operas of Rinuccini,
which had been fet by Jacopo Peri, Giulio Caccini, and
Monteverde, in that manner, at the beginning of the 17th
century, had met with fuch univerfal applaufe in Italy, from
the lovers of poetry and fimplicity, and enemies to madrigals
and mufic of many parts, this kind of compofition had many
imitators, not only in Italy, but throughout Europe. All
the melodies of Henry Lawes remind us of recitative or
pfalmody, and fearce any thing like an air caz be found in his
whole book of Ayres. As to his knowledge and refources in
counterpoint, we are certain that they were neither great nor
profound. His works were chiefly publifhed under the title
of “ Ayres and Dialogues,’ of which he printed three fe-

_-veral books, the firft in 1653 ; the fecond in 1655; and the

third in 1658. Befides thefe, many of his fongs and dia-
logues were publifhed by Playford in colleGtions, entitled
« Sele& Muficai Ayres and Dialogues,” by Dr. Wilfon,
Dr. Char'es Colman, Nicholas Laniere, and others. Though
moft of the productions of this celebrated’ mufician are lan-
guid and infipid, and equally devoid of learning and genius,
we fhall point out one-or two of them that feem the molt
meritorious.

Book the Firfl, p. 11.

Carelefs of
Vou. XX.

love, and free from fears, &c,

LA W

is one of the moft pleafing airs that we have feen bf this
author. We fhould infert another of his fongs entire, in
the mufical plates, had we room; “ A Lover once I did
e{py ;”' not fo much on account of the beauty of the melody
and harmony, though it is one of the beft in thofe particulars,
as for the fingularity of the meafure, which is fuch as feldom
occurs. Harry Carey’s ballad « Of all the girls that are fo
fmart, &c.’? which is a flower kind of hornpipe, refembles it
the molt of any air which we can recolleét. « Little love
ferves my turn," p. 18. of the fame collection, is the gay-
eft air which we have feen of H. Lawes. His other moft.
pleafing ballads are thofe beginning, «* If whem the fun,’’
p. 18, and Ben Johnfon’s fong, “ Still to be neat, {till to be
drefled ;”? fee Playford’s Colic&tion. But the bett of all his
fonss feems ** Come from the dungeon to the throne,”
p- 167. of Playfair’s fecond part; and * Amid{t the myrtles
as I walk,” is pleafing pfalmody.

The tunes which he fet to Sandys’s excellent verfion of
the pfalms, as well as thofe.to the Choice Pfalmes of the.
fame paraphrafe, which were compofed by Henry Lawes and
his brother, in a kind of anthem or motet {tyle, though
ufhered into the world, in 1648, by fuch innumerable pane-
gyrics in rhyme, are fo far from being fuperior to the
fyllabic pfalmody of their predeceffors evho clothed Stern-
hold and Hopkins in Narcotig ftrains, that they feem to pof-
fefs not only lefs pleafing melodfy, but lefs learned harmony,
than may be found in anterior publications of the fame kind.
And this feems to be the opinion of the public: as they
were never adopted by any vociferous fraternity, or admitted
into the pale of a fingle country church, that we have been
able to difcover, fince they were firft printed. One of thefe,
firft publithed by Henry, to the feventy-fecond pfalm, has,
indeed, long had the honour of being jingled by the chimes
of St. Lawrence Jewry, fix times in the four-and-twenty hours,
ina kind of Laus perpetua, {ach as was eftablifhed in Pfalmody
ifland, mentioned in the General Hiflory of Mulic, vol.ii. p.g.

During the civil war, Henry Lawes fupported himfelf by
teaching ladies to fing ; however, he retained his place in
the chapel royal, and, at the Reftoration, compofed the
coronation anthem. Yet he did not long furvive this event,
for, in OGober, 1662, he died, and was buried in Weftmin-
fter Abbey.

LAWFUL. See Untawrut.

Lawrut Naam. See Naam.

LAWING of Dogs, a phrafe ufed in“our ancient Jaw-
writers. Thus, maftiffs mutt be lawed every three years,
Crompton ‘Jurifd. fol. 163, that is, three claws of the fore-
foot fhall be cut off by the fin, or the ball of the fore-foot
cut out. See ExprprraTion.

LAWLESS Court, a court held on King’s bill at
Rochford in Effex, every Wednefday morning next after
Michaelmas day, at cock-crowing ; at which court they
whifper, and have no candle, nor any pen and ink, but a
coal. He that owes fuit of fervice there, forfeits double
his rent every hour he is miffing.

This court is called lawlefs, becaufe held at an unlawful
hour ; or, perhaps, guia didta fine lege ; becaufe opened with-
out any form. It is mentioned by Camden ; who fays, this
fervile attendance was impofed on the tenants, for conipiring,
at the like unfeafonable time, to raife a commotion.

Lawterss Map, ex-lex. See OuTLaw.

LAWN, in Gardening, an open {pace of fhort grafs-
ground, in the front of a refidence, or in a garden, park, or
other pleafure-ground. Thefe, when extended in the prin-
cipal fronts of habitations, add confiderably to the neatnefs
and grandeur of their appearance, by laying them open, and
admitting more extenfive profpeéts. Where there is a fufli-

ar cient

LAW

ecient Ycope of ground, they fhould be as large as the nature
of the fituation will admit, always being planned in the moft
confpicuous parts immediately joining th= houfes, and ex-
tended outward as far as convenient, allowing width in pro-
portion; having each fide or verge bounded by elegant
fhrubbery compartments in a varied order, feparated in {ome
parts by intervening {paces of grafs-ground, of varied di-
menfions, and ferpentine gravel-walks, gently winding be-
tween and through the plantations, for occafional fhady,
fheltered, and priyate walking; or fimilar walks carried
along the fronts of the boundary plantations, and immediately
joining the lawns, for more open and airy walking in; and
in fome concave {weeps of the plantations there may be re-
cefles and open {paces both of grafs and gravel, of different
forms and dimentions, made as places of retirement, fhade,
&c.

Thongh the ufual fituations of lawns are thofe juft men-
tioned ; yet if the nature of the ground admit, or in cafes
where there is a good {cope of ground, they may be continued
more or lefs each way ; but always the mot confiderable on
the principal fronts, which, if they be to the fouth, or any
of the foutherly points, they are the moft defirable for the
purpofe.

With refpe& to,the dimenfions, they may be froma quar-
ter of an acre, or lefs, to fix or eight acres, or more, ac-
eording to the extent and fituation of the ground. Some-
times lawns are extended over ha-has, to ten, twenty, or
even to fifty or fixty acres, or more. But in thefe cafes they
are not kept mown, but eaten down by live itock.

The form mutt be direéted by the nature of the fituation ;

_but it is commonly oblong, {quare, oval, or circular. But
in whatever figure they are deligned, they fhould widen gra-
dually from the houfe outward to the furthelt extremity, to
have the greater advantage of profpeét ; and by having that
part of them within the limits of the pleafure-ground,
bounded on each fide by plantations of ornamental trees and
fhrubs, they may be continued gradually near towards each
wing of the habitation, in order to be fooner in the walks
of the plantations, under fhade, fhelter, and retirement.
‘The terminations at the farther ends may be either by ha-has
to extend the profpe&, or by a fhrubbery or plantation of
ftately trees, arranged in {weeps and concave curves. But
where they extend towards any great road, or diftant agree-
able profpe@, it is more in charatter to have the utmoft verge
open, fo as to admit of a grand view from and to the main
refidence.

But the fide-boundary verges fhould have the plantations
rurally formed, airy, and elegant, by being planted with
different forts of the moft ornamental trees and fhrubs, not
in one continued clofe plantation, but in diftin@ feparated
compartments and clumps, varied larger or {maller, and dif-
ferently formed, in a fomewhat natural imitation, being
fometimes feparated and detached lefs or more, by intervening
breaks, and open fpaces of fhort grafs, communicating both
with the lawns and interior diftri€@s ; and generally varied in
moderate {weeps and curves, efpecially towards the lawns,
to avoid ftiff, formal appearances, both in the figure of the
lawns and plantations. In planting the trees and fhrubs,
which fhould’be both of the deciduous and evergreen kinds,
where intended to plant in diftin& clumps, either introduce
the deciduous and evergreens alternately in feparate parts, or
have fome of both interfperfed in afflemblage ; in either me-
thod, placing the lower growth of fhrubs towards the front,
and the taller backwards, in proportion to their feveral fta-
tures, fo as to exhibit a regular gradation of height, that
the different forts may appear confpicuous from the main
Jawns. They may be continued backwards to a confiderable

LAW

depth, being backed with trees and fhrubs of more lofty
growth. ‘The internal parts of the plantations may have
gravel or fand. walks, fome fhady, others open ; with here
and there fome {pacious fhort grafs cpenings, of different
dimentions and forms.

It is feldom that extenfive lawns in parks or paddocks,
&c. have any boundary plantations clofe to what may be con-
fidered as a continuation of them beyond the pleafare-ground,
but are fometimes dotted with noble trees, difperfed in va-
rious parts, at great diftances, fo as not to ob{truct the view ;
fome placed fingly, others in groups by twos, threes, fives,
&e. and fome placed irregularly, in triangles, f{weeps,
itraight lines, and other aifferent figures, to caufe the greater
variety and effect, each group being diverfified with different
forts of trees, all fuffered to take their natural growth.
Where {mall, thefe kinds of openings fhould always be kept
perfectly neat, by being often poled, rolled, and mown, but
where they are of large extent, this is {carcely ever the
cafe. See Grass, Grounp, and TurFING.

Lawns, in Commerce. See CAMBRIC. Y

LAWOROW, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland,
in Galicia; 24 miles W. of Lemberg. .

LAWRENCE, Perer Josern, in Biography, an en-
gineer, was born in Flanders in the year 1715. He diflin~
guifhed himfelf, when he was only eight years old, by a
confiderable turn for mechanics. Cardinal Polignac being
fhewn a machine that he had at that early age conitru€ted,
prediéted that he would one day arrive at eminence in the
{cience of practical mathematics. Before he had attained to
manhood, he had executed drains in different parts of Flan-
ders and Hainault, which till that time had been deemed im-
practicable. He conftruf@ed many curious and very in-
genious fluices and locks for rivers and eanals; and he in-
vented machines that were found of great utility in fortifica-
tion, and a carriage on which the coloffal ftatue of Lewis XV.
was brought to Paris with great eafe. He contrived en-
gines, which at once cleared mines of their water, and, at
the fame time, raifed the metallic ores. He formed a junc-
tion of the Scheldt and the Somme, which he effeéted by a
fubterraneous canal, three leagues in length, the level of
which was 45 feet above the fource of the Scheldt, and 15
feet below the bed of the Somme. .The various mechanical
inventions and undertakings of M. Lawrence have been cele-
brated in a poem by Delile, intitled, «* The Treafury of
Parnaflus.”’

LAWSONIA, in Botany, dedicated by Linneus to the
honour of John Lawfon, a native of North Britain, who
vifited Carolina, and publifhed an account of his voyage,
with much information concerning the plants of that coun-
try, at London in 1709, in quarto.—Linn. Gen. 191.
Schreb. 257. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 344. Mart. Mill. Dig.
v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2.354. Juffl. 331. La-
marck. Illuftr.t. 296. (Alcanna; Gertn. t. 110.)—Clafs
and order, OGandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calycantheme,
Linn. Salicarie, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, four-cleft, fmall, per-
manent. Cor. Petals four, ovato-lanceolate, flat, {preading.
Stam. Filaments eight, thread-fhaped, the length of the
petals, and ftanding in pairs between them ; anthers roundifh,
Pift. Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle fimple, as long as
the ftamens, permanent; ftigma capitate. eric. Berry
dry, globofe, pointed, of four cells. Seeds numerous, ar-
gular, with a fpongy coat. a

Obf. Gertner, who juftly efteems the fruit to be rather
a dry berry than a capfule, chufes to call the genus A/canna,.
a word corrupted from .4/ Henna, the Arabian appellation of
the firit {pecies,

Ef.

LAW
Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft.

mens approaching each other in four pairs.
perior, of four cells, with many feeds.

1. L. inermis. JHenna, or Smooth Lawfonia. Linn.

Sp. Pl. 498. Suppl. 219. (L. alba; Lamarck. Dia.
v. 3. 106. LL. fpinofa; Haflelq. It. 464. Alhenna, five
Henna Arabum; Walth. Hort. 3.t.4. Rauwolf. It. 60.
t. 7-)—Thorns none. Leaves obovate, acute. Segments
of the calyx as long as its bafe—Native of various parts of
the Levant. Miller is faid in the Hortus Kewenfis to have
cultivated it in 1759, but it is never preferved long, even in
a ftove, by our gardeners. ‘The writer of this article ob-
tained feeds in 1787 at Paris, from M. Desfontaines, who
had brought them from Barbary. Thefe vegetated at
Chelfea, and in fome other gardens, producing fhrubby
plants of a humble ftature, which in the enfuing autumn and
winter were laden with flowers, whofe delicate afpeét, and
exquifite fcent, attra€ted the admiration of all who faw them.
‘The habit of this {pecies is not unlike Privet, but the eaves
are more obovate, and of a lighter green. The fowers are
yellowifh-white, with purplifh ftamens, and grow in oppofite
clufters about the tops ef the branches. Haffelquitt in his
travels, Englifh edition 246, fays, ‘the leaves are pul-
verized, and made into a pafte with (hot) water. They (the
Egyptians) bind this pafte on the nails of their hands and
(foles of their) feet, keeping it on all night. This gives
them a deep yellow, which is greatly admired by the eaftern
nations. The colour lafts for three or four weeks, before
there is occafion to renew it. ‘The cuftom is fo ancient in
Egypt, that I have feen the nails of the mummies dyed in
this manner. The powder is exported in large quantities
yearly, and may really be reckoned a valuable commodity.
‘The Arabians call it Chenna. The dried flowers afford a
fragrant fmell, which women who have conceived cannot
bear.” .
2. L. fpinofa. Prickly Lawfonia. Linn. Sp. Pl. 408.
(Cyprus, Alcanna; Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 42. t. 17.
Mail-anfchi; Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 1. 73. t. 40. Pluk.
Phyt. t. 220. f. 1.) —Branches becoming fpinous. Leaves
obovate, with afmall point. Segments of the calyx as long
as its bafe.—Native of the Eaft Indies. It differs from the
former, of which many have not unjuftly thought it a va-
riety, in having the permanent lateral branches hardened
into a {pine at their extremities. The fruit anfwers to
Gertner’s defcription of a dry berry rather than a valvular
capfule. The /eaves feem to vary in fhape. Rumphius
fays they are ufed to dye the nails in the ifland of Celebes,
&c., and that the Malay women are particularly fond of the
flowers, with which they deck their perfons and ftrew their
beds. Haffelquift’s own fpecimen, called in his travels, by
Linnzus, ZL. /pinofa, proves not to be this plant but the
former. Indeed, as we have before hinted, they are mott
probably but one fpecies.

3- L. coccinea. Scarlet Lawfonia. Branches becoming
{pinous. Leaves elliptic-obovate, acute. Segments of the
ealyx twice as long as its bafe——Sent from Banda by the
late Mr. Chriftopher Smith, as “*a Law/onia with {carlet
flowers.”?. It is very nearly related to the laft, and we find
nothing to difcriminate this, our fpecimen being but imper-
fe&, except a difference in the relative proportions of the
parts of the calyx, of the certainty or conftancy of which
we have fome doubt.

_ One might fuppofe this plant to be the L. purpurea, La-
marck, Dict. v. 3. 107, Willdenow’s n. 2; but on turning
to the Poutaletsje, Rheede Hort. Mal. v. 4. 117. t. 57, cited
for it, which Linnus very erroneoufly quotes for L. in-

ermis, the plant of Rheede will be found widely different

Petals four, regular. Sta-
Berry dry, fu-

Li AX

from every Law/onia, as Jufficu well obferves, p. 332.
The flowers are monopetalous and tetrandrous, with an in-
ferior germen, and this great French botanilt fufpeéts it may
bea Petia. OF its belonging to his order of Rubiacee there
can be little doubt. The L. purpurea, therefore, of which
Lamarck had {een only leaves, and Willdenow nothing, falls
to the ground.

. L.? Acronychia. Broad-leaved Lawfonia? Linn.
Suppl. 219. Forftr. Prodr. 27. (Acronychia - levis;
Forlt. Gen. 27. t. 27.)—Leaves obovate, on long ftalks.
Petals inflexed at the point. Stamens fringed.—Gathered
by the Forfters in New Caledonia. A fmooth /brub, with
round branches. Leaves oppofite, an inch or two long,
obovate, obtufe, broad, entire, flightly revolute, veiny,
fmooth. Footflalks half an inch long, ftraight, channelled,
{mooth, united to the leaf by a joint. Sib axillary,
forked, much fhorter than the leaves. Calyx with very
{mall, rounded, pale-edged fegments. Petals linear-oblong,
hooked inward at the point. Stamens fringed at the bale,
fearcely fo long as the corolla. he fruit is pofitively de-
{cribed by Foriter as * an inflated capfule of four valves.’?
This charaGter, and the totally different form of the petals
and calyx, perfuade us that the fpecies in queflion ought to
ftand asa genus by itfelf, as Forfter originally made it.

LawsontA, in Gardening, contains plants of the exotic
tree kind for the ftove, of which the f{pecies are the {mooth
Lawfonia (L. inermis), and the prickly Lawfonia (L.
{pinofa).

Method of Culture.—Thefe two plants may be raifed by
fowing the feeds in pots of light mould, in the early fpring,
and jee them in the bark bed of the ftove. When
the plants have acquired a few inches growth, they fhould
be removed into feparate {mall pots filled with light fandy
earth, replunging them in the bark-bed, and giving a little
water, with proper fhade. They afterwards may be placed
fo as to have pretty free air, but be conftantly kept in the
ftove at all feafons.

They afford a variety among other ftove plants.

LAWYER, (“giffa, legifperitus, jurifconfultus,) by the

axons called Jahman, isa counfellor, or one learned in the

‘law; and lawyers, fuch as counfellors, attornies, &c. are

within the a@ 3 Jac. I. againft extortion; but it has been
held only to extend to officers. See CounsELLor, At-
TORNEY, &c.

LAX, in Geography, a town of Switzerland, in the Va-
lais ; 33 miles E. of Sion.

LAXA, a town of the ifland of Lewis, fituated on a
bay, on the eaft coalt; 9 miles S.S.W. of Stornamay.—
Alfo, a town of Peru, in the diocefe of La Paz; 20 miles
S.W. of La Paz.

LAXATIVE Menpicrnes, are thofe purgative or ca-
thartic fubftances, which operate gently, without producing
any cgnfiderable. difcharge from the mucous glands and ex-
halants of the inteftines ; fuch as manna, magnefia, rhubarb,
the neutral falts in fmall dofes, fulphur, eletuary of fenna,
&c. For an account of the operation and ufe of thefe medi-
cines, fee CATHARTICS.

LAXATOR, in Anatomy, a name applied to two mufcles
of the officula auditus. he /axaior tympani major is the
externus mallei of Albinus; the Jaxator miaor is fimply
laxator tympani of that anatomift. The exiftence of the
latter mufcle is doubted by fome. See the article Ear,
where they are defcribed by the names of Albinus.

LAXEMBURG, in Geography, a town of Autftria;

miles S. of Vienna.

LAXEY Bay, a bay on the ealt coaft of the Ifle of
Man, in the Irifh fea, which affords a fhelter from wetfterly

= te oie winds,

LA ¥
winds, in about 7 to 10 fathom water. The cape at the
fouthern extremity is called “ Laxey Point.”

LAXIOR Toca. See ToGa.

LAXMANNIA, in Botany, a name originally given by
Forfter, in his Genera, t. 47, to a fyngenefious tree of St.
Helena, which Solander confidered as a Bidens, but which
George Forlter in his Plante Atlantice, 56, fubfequently
referred to Spilanthus. We have not difcovered it in Will-
denow, nor can we afcertain what Schreber decided con-
cerning this plant; but the latter has adopted the name for
ano: her genus, of which we are now to fpeak, It is- de-
figned to commemorate the Rev. Eric Laxmann, a native of
Finland, Profeffor at Peterfburg, who made many botanical
difcoveries in Siberia, and died in 1796.—Schreb. 800.
Mart. Mill. Diet. v. 3. (Cuminofma; Gertn. t. 58.) —
Clafs and order, Hewvandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Au-
rantia ; Jufl. :

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, very fmall, of one leaf,
bell-fhaped, in four roundifh fegments, permanent. Cor.
Petals four, longer than the calyx, linear, coriaceous, equal,
{preading, inflexed at the point, marked on the upper fide
with a triply villous line. Stam. Filaments fix, linear in
their lower part, awl-fhaped upwards, ftraight, fpreading,
rather fhorter than the corolla ; anthers roundifh, incumbent.
Piff. Germen fuperior, roundifh, very hairy ; ftyle fhorter
than the ftamens, thick, angular; itigma fimple, obtufe,
furrowed. eric. Berry nearly globofe, of four cells lined
with a membrane. Sceds folitary, oblong, comprefied.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Petals four, linear,

’

downy on the upper fide. Berry with four cells. Seeds
folitary.
1. L. Cuminofma. Globofe Ankenda. (Cuminofma

Ankenda; Gertn. Sem. v. 280. t. 58. f. a—H.) —Fruit
globofe, flightly depreffed. | Petals twice the length of the
calyx. —Native of Ceylon. Of this we know nothing but
from Gertner, who confounds its fynonyms with the fol-
lowing, though he diitinguifhes it asa fpecies by the fhape
of the fruit, and relative proportions of the calyw and
petals.

2. L. Ankenda. Pointed Ankenda. (Cuminofma bac-
cis ovato-acuminatis; Gertn. v. 1. 281. Jambolifera;
Linn. Zeyl. 58, excluding the fynonyms. Ankenda;
Herm. Maf. Zeyl. 23. Perin-Panel; Rheede Hort. Mal.
v. 5. 29. t. 15.)—Fruit ovate, pointed. Petals many times
longer than the calyx.—Native of Ceylon and Malabar. A
Sorub about four feet high, with round, fmooth, leafy
branches. Leaves oppotite, without ftipulas, talked, four
or five inches long, and nearly two in breadth, obovate, en-
tire, veiny, fmooth and fhinieg, full of pellucid dots.
Panicles axillary, ftalked, repeatedly three-cleft, corymbofe.
Flowers greenith-white. Berry ovate, pointed, dark-green,
with an aromatic flavour of Cumin.

Mr. Dryander in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 2. 232, has well
illuitrated the fynonymy of this plant, which Linneus Had
confounded with the Jambolana, or Jamboloins of Acotta,
a {pecies of Calyptranthes ; fee that article. This miftake is
fuppofed to have arifen from the tickets of Madan and An-
Renda in Hermann’s herbarium having been changed.

LAY, Axrcamet, or Alampou, in Geography, a town of
Africa, in the kingdom of Ningo, on the Gold Coat.

Lay, or Lai, the title of the moft ancient kind of fongs
in the French language. It was not till the reign of Philip
Auguftus that fongs became common in that country.
Gautier de Coincy, an ecclefiaftic of St. Medard de Soif-
fons, compofed a confiderable number, which are {till pre-
ferved in MS. among his other writings. ‘ Lays were a

kind of elegies,’’ fays M, ? Eveque de la Ravaliere, (An-

« complaints.

LAY

cienté des Chanfons, tom. i. p. 225.) “ filled with amorous
The origin of this fpecies of compofition is
fuch as rendered it neceffarily plaintive: as the word /ai is
imagined to have been derived from Aus, Latin, which fig-
nifies complaints and lamentations. However there are
fome lays which defcribe moments of joy and pleafure more
than forrow or pain; and others upon facred fubjeéts.
Chaucer, who frequently ufes the word lay, confines it_

wholly to fongs. of complaint and forrow :

«© And ina lettre wrote he all his forwe
In manere of a complaint or a lay,
Unto his faire frefhe lady May.”
Cant. Tales, v. 9754+
“ He was difpeired, nothing dorit he fay,
Sauf in his fonges fomwhat wold he wray
His wo, asin a general complaining ;
He faid, he loved, and was belovea nothing.
Of f{wiche matere made he many layes,
Songes, complaintes, roundels, virelays—”’
Tran. t. 11255«
«« Thus end I this complaining or this lay.”
Tbid.
Tn. Spencer’s time, however, its acceptation was more

general, and as frequently applied to fongs of joy as for-
TOW:

** To the maiden’s founding timbrels fung ~
In well attuned notes, a joyous lay.’’
Fairy Queen.

Shakfpeare and Milton ufe it likewife indifcriminately for
every kind of fong.

Lai feems a word purely Francic and Saxon: it is neither ~
to be found in the Armoric language, nor in the dialeét of
Provence. The French poetefs Marie, who in the time of
St. Louis, about the middle of the thirteenth century, tranf-
lated feveral tales from the Armoric language of Bretagne,
calls them lais; but the term is of much higher antiquity.
After its adoption by the Englifh poets, it foon became a
generical term in poetry for every {pecies of verfe, as fong is
now: but both thefe words {till retain their particular ac-
ceptation as well as generical; for by a fong is underftood
a fhort poem fet to a tune, and this was the particular
meaning of lay, in the lait century, among our mufical
writers.

Tales and fongs, fays the editor of ancient Fabliaux et
Contes Frangois, were the mo{ft common and ancient fpecies
of poetry. The French, naturally gay, chearful, and
{portive, were more attached to this fpecies of compofition
than any other nation, and communicated this love for lyric
poetry to their neighbours. They muit have been in pof-
feflion of a great number of thefe fongs and tales, becaufe in
all focial meetings the cuftom was for every one prefent
either to fing a fong or tella ftory, as appears by the end of

the fable of the prielt, “* quiot Mere a force,” where we.
read thefe verfes ;

se A ceft mots fenift cis fabliaux -
Que nous avons en rime mis, pi
Pour conter devant nos amis.”

And according to John li Chapelain, in his ditty of the
Sacriftain of Clugny, it was cuftomary fora bard to pay his .
reckoning with a {tory or-a fong. 5

« Ufage eft en Normandie,
Que qui hebergiez eft, qu’il die.
Fable

LA Y

Fable ou chanfon a fon ofte
Cefte coftume pas n’en ofte
Sire Jehans li Chapelains.’’

« In Normandy a fong or tale
Is current coin for wine or ale ;
Nor does the friendly hoft require
For bed and board a better hire.’’

In the thirteenth century, the fongs in vogue were of
various kinds; moral, merry, and amorous: and at that
time, melody feems to have been little more than plain-fong,
or chanting. ‘The notes were {quare, and written on four
lines only, like thofe of the Romifh church, in the clef of C,
without any marks for time. ‘The movement and embellifh-
ments of the air depended on the abilities of the finger,
The compafs of modern mufic is much extended fince by the
cultivation of the voice; for it was not till towards the end
of St. Lewis’s reign that the fifth line began to be added to
the ftave. The finger always accompanied himfelf on an in-
f{trument in unifon. Poefie du Roi de Navarre, tom. ii.

Lay, in Agriculture, a term applied to fuch land as is in
the ftate of grafs, or fward. This fort of ground is fre-
quently diftinguifhed into fuch as has been long in the ftate
of fward, and fuch as is newly laid down to grafs, or into
old and new lays. The proper method of managing the
latter is of great importance to the farmer, and which, Mr.
Young thinks, fhould be by keeping them perfe@ly free
from ail forts of ftock for the following autumn and winter
after their being laid down, when, in the fpring, they will
afford a flow of young grafs highly valuable for fheep, with
which they fhould only be well ttocked, and kept down then,
and during the whole of the fumnier: ‘ nothing,” in his
opinion, ** being more pernicious than mowing a new lay,
as direGted by certain authors. They may,” he fuppofes,
<* have fucceeded in fpite of fuch bad management, but never
by it.” The moit fuitable method of managing thefe new
lays, under different circumftances, will be defcribed in
{peaking of laying lands down te the ftate of {ward or
grafs. See Lavine down to Gra/s.

It may be obferved, that the treatment neceflary for old
lays muft vary much, according to their nature and the parti-
cular circumilances under which they are placed, as will be
fhewn under the management of meadow and patture lands,
as well as in confidering the nature of grafs. See Grass-
Ground, MrApow, and Pasture.

It has alfo been obferved, that, on many farms, there are
often “ tracts of barren lays, from mofs, poverty, negled,
and bad herbage, upon which a very great improvement may
be made by a fingle ploughing in Auguft. For this pur-
pofe, a ftrong four-horfe plough mutt be ufed with a fkim-
coulter; then going over it twice, in different direétions,
with the fearifier, fo as not to dilturb the flag ; harrowing it
once, and immediately fowing a quarter of a peck of cole-
feed, two bufhels of cock’s foot, and one buthel of York-
fhire white per acre ; adding fome of whatever feeds may be
procured at the moment cheaply.’’ It is then advifed to be
left “ unfed and untouched till the March following ; in
which month, and through April, it fhould be loaded well
with fheep : the ufe will then be very great. Keeping fheep
feeding it heavily through the year, the cole will be killed,
and you will have a pafture worth treble what it was before.
“The expence is faid to be {malt, and the improvement rapid.”
Various modes of improving land, in the ftates here de-
fcribed, will be explained under, the heads above men-
tioned. i

And the fame writer alfo thinks, that, by December, old
lays will be wet enovgh to begin to break them up; “a

LAT

work that fhould not be done while the land is dry ; for it
will not then turn up in clean well-cut furrows. Ploughing
grafs-land is, it is faid, a very good piece of hufbandry,
when they are worn out and over-run with mofs and other
rubbifh, or hide-bound. To keep land under fuch unpro-
fitable turf is bad management. It fhould, by all means,
be broken up, and kept ina cburfe of tillage for three or
four years, and then laid down again: by which condué,
four times the profit will arife that could be gained from
keeping it in lay.’

Lay-Brother, among the Romani/ls, a pious, but illiterate
perfon, who devotes himfelf, in fome convent, to the fervice
of the religious.

The lay-brother wears a habit different from that of the
religious, nor ever enters into the choir, or the chapter.
He is not in any orders, nor does he make any vow, ex-
cepting of conftancy and obedience.

Thefe lay-brothers make the three vows of religion,

Jn the nunneries are alfo lay-fitters, who never enter the
choir, &c. and who are only retained for the fervice of the
convent.

The inftitution of lay-brothers began in the eleventh cen-
tury. The perfons on whom this title was conferred were
fuch as were too ignorant to become clerks, and who there-
fore applied themfelves wholly to bodily Jabour.

Tt feems to have taken its rife from hence, that the laity
in thofe days had not, for the generality, the leaft tin@ure
of learning ; whence alfo thofe came to be called clerks, by
way of diltin@tion, who had ftudied a little, and were able
to read.

In fome orders they are only retained by a civil contra, -
which, however, binds them for life; in other orders they
are to pafs through four years of probation, as among the
Jacobins; or feven, as among the Feuillants: The Ca-
puchins admit none before nineteen years of age. The-
Jefuits call them coadjutors. ’

Lay-Canons. See Canon.

Lay-Communities. See Community.

Lay-Corporation. See Corporation. ,

Lay-Fee, feodum laicum, land held in fee from a lay-lord,
by the common fervices to which military tenure was fubject,> .
as diftinguifhed from the ecclefiaftical holding in frank-
almoign, difcharged from thofe burdens. -

Lay the land, in Sea Language. See Lanp.

Lay-patronage. See ParRonaGe.

Lays, fide. See Sipe-lays.

Lay, vaunt. See Vaunt-lay.

LAYAU, in Geography, a town of the ifland of St.
Vincent, on the W. coait, in a bay at the mouth of a river,
to both of which it gives name. N. lat. 13° 8’. W. long.
61° 18!.

LAYBACH, atownand capital of Carniola, ona navi-
gable river of the fame name, dividing it in fuch a manner,
that part of the town lies in Upper, and the other in Lower
Carniola. The citadel is ancient and has a church ; ‘it is in-
habited by a conftable, who has the title of burggrave, and
12 foldiers. Laybach is the fee of a bifhop, who-1sa prince
of the empire. The town contains; befides the cathedral,
feveral churches, and about 500 houfes; 28 miles N.E. of
Triefte. N. lat. 46° 12'. E. long.’14° 30%.

LAYCOCK, or Lacock, a parifh, formerly a market-
town of Wiltfhire, England, is feated in a fine, fertile valley,
on the weftern bank of the river Avon, three miles from
Chippenham, and g5 weft of London. In the year 1800
this place contained 147 houfes, and 1408 inhabitants... Here
was formerly an abbey of large extent, and rich endowment.
A large pile of the old buildings ftill remains in their former °

monattic :

LAY

monattic ftyle; particularly the cloifter, kitchen, cellars,

allery, &c. ; with the fifh-ponds and terrace walk. At
a S.E. angle of the building is a tower, which contains,
among other records, an original copy of the Magna: Charta.

See Blackftone’s ‘ Differtation on Magna Charta,’’ &c. ,

Some account of the abbey, with a view of the cloifters, is
publifhed in « The Architeural Antiquities of Great Bri-
tain,’’ vol. ii; anda full defeription of the place, and other
objects in the vicinity, will be found in Britton's “ Beauties
of Wiltthire.””

LAYDE', a town of Africa, in the country of the
Foulis, on the Senegal ; 45 miles S.E. of Goumel.

LAYER, in Building: See Course.

Laven, in Gardening, the young fhoot or branch of fuch
trees as are capable of being raifed by being laid into the
ground. Itis the part which is placed in the earth in order
to {trike root, and from the new plant layers are made from
different kinds of fhoots and young branches, according to
their natures and habits of growth.

LAYERING, the a& of placing layers into the ground.
This is performed in different ways, as may be feen under
the proper head See Lavine.

LAYES, or Leyes, a term ufed in many parts of Eng-
land for fuch pafture ground as has been formerly tilled and
fown.

LAYING, in Gardening, the procefs or operation of
placing layers in the foil. It is a method adapted to moft
forts of trees and fhrubs, and many herbaceous plants. It
is effeGted by laying branches and young fhoots of trees and
plants in the earth, from two or three to five or fix inches
deep, leaving their tops out, that the part laid in the earth
-may emit rocts,and becomea plant. The layers, when well
rooted, fhould be feparated from the parent, and planted in
the nurfery, or other proper place, to acquire due ftrength
and fize, for the purpofes for which they are defigned. And
they require different lengths of time for becoming rooted,
from a few months to two or more years.

There are great numbers of fhrubs and trees that are
eapable of ee increafed by layers, but the practice is
more particularly applicable to the fhrubby kind; as their
branches grow near the ground, convenient for being laid
down. It may, however, be praCtifed with fuccefs on fruit-
trees and foreit-trees, when their branches are fituated low
enough for being laid, though the varieties of many fruit-
trees are better propagated by grafting and inoculation.
The vine and fig, however, often admit of being increafed
by layers; and foreft-trees, for the continuance of varieties ;
as the plants raifed in this method continue exaétly the fame
as the parent plant from whence they were raifed. This is a
certain method to continue any approved variety, as well as to
increafe fuch fhrubs or trees as do not produce feeds here, and
which cannot be eafily obtained. It is likewife an expedi-
tious and eafy mode of propagation; as by it many new plants
are often raifed in a few months, which would take two or
three years to bring them to the fame fize from feed. In
many forts it is fo eafy that all the fhoots of any branch fitu-
ated near the ground, or convenient for laying down, may
be made diftiné plants.

It may be noticed that, for all forts of the tree or fhrub
kinds, it is generally performed on the young fhoots of the
preceding fummer, which fhould be laid down in fpring or
autumn ; but fometimes on fhoots of the fame year, in
fummer, efpecially in the hard-wooded evergreen trees and
Shrubs, that do not ftrike root readily in the older wood.
Many forts of trees that have their wood of a loofe foft tex-
ture often grow pretty freely by layers of them, of two or
Several years growth.

LAY

But in herbaceous plants capable of being propagated by
layers, fuch as carnations, pinks, double fweet-williams,
&c. the young fhoots of the fame year, laid down in June
and July, are commonly the moft fuccefsful.

Tn regard to the feafon for performing this fort of work,
in moft forts of trees aad fhrubs, it is autumn and fpring,
though it may be performed at almoft any time of the
year.

Many kinds of under-fhrubby and herbaceous plants alfo
fucceed, if layed any time in {pring or fummer till the end
of June; though that and the following month are the moft
fuccefsful for the herbaceous tribe, as carnations and others
ufually propagated by laying, as they then root the fame
feafon in from three or four to five or fix weeks, fo as to be
proper for tran{fplanting.

When it is intended to lay trees or fhrubs that naturally
run up to ftems, without furnifhing any confiderable quantity
of lower branches for laying, a fufficient number of ftrong
plants fhould be fet in the nurfery, at proper diftances, and
headed down in the autumn or fpring after, within a few
inches of the ground, that they may throw outa good quan-
tity of young fhoots the following fummer, near the earth,
fo as to be convenient for laying down in the fucceeding au-
tumr ; or, by waiting another year many more fhoots for
thé purpofe of layers will be provided, by the firlt fhoots
throwing out many lateral ones, each of which when layed
will forma plant. And on the layers being rooted, and all
cleared away, the ftool remaining will furnifh another crop of
fhoots for laying next year, and the fame in fucceflion for —
many years.

Where layers are wanted from trees that are grown up,
and whofe branches are at a diftance from the ground, a tem-
porary ftage or fcaffold is ere&ted, on which pots or tubs of
mould are placed to receive the layers.

The general method of merely laying the branches or
fhoots in the earth, is pra¢tifed for all forts; but previous
to laying, they are often prepared in different ways to faci-
litate their rooting, according as the trees of different natures
require; as by fimple laying, twifting, flitting, cutting the
bark, piercing the flioot, wiring, and other modes.

Simple Laying.—This is merely laying the fhoots in the
earth, as directed below, without any previous preparation
of twilting, flitting, &c. and is fufficient for a great number
of trees and fhrubs of the foft-wooded kinds; but for fuch
as do not readily roct by this fimple method, recourfe muft
be had to fome of the following ways.

Twifting the Layer.—By giving the fhoot a gentle twift in
the part defigned to. be laid in the ground, it greatly pro-
motes and facilitates the emiffion of fibres from the bruifed

art.

: Slitting or tonguing the Layer—This is the moft univerfal
and fuccefsful mode, where any preparation of the fhoot is
neceflary to promote its rooting ; it is performed by flitting
the fhoot at ajoint underneath, up the middle, half aninch
or an inch or more long, according to the fize and nature of
the layer, forming a Bet of tongue nearly the fame as di-
reéted for carnation layers; laying that part in the earth,
and raifing the top upright, or rather pointing inwards, fo
as to feparate the tongue of the flit from the other part, and
keeping the flit open, as direéted below, ;

Cutting the Bark of the Layer.—This is performed by cut-
ting the bark all round at a joint, taking out {mall chips all
the way below the cut, and laying that part in the earth, by
which it readily emits roots.

Piercing the Layer.—This is done by thrufting an, awl
through the fhoot, at a joint, in feveral places, laying that

part

LAYING.

‘part in the ground, by which it will emit fibres from the
wounds more readily.

Wiring the Layer.—This is by twifting a piece of wire
hard round the fhoot at a joint, and pricking it with an awl
oneach fide of the wire in feveral places, laying it in the
earth, by which it breaks out into roots at the confined and
wounded parts ; often proving fuccefsful in fuch trees and
Shrubs as do not readily emit fibres by the other methods.

It may be obferved that by fome of thefe methods almoft
all forts of trees and fhrubs may be propagated.

Method of Laying. —The general method of laying all forts
of trees or plants, either by fimple laying, or any of the other
methods, is the following.

The ground about each plant muft be dug for the reception
of the layers, making excavations in the earth to lay down
all the fhoots or branches properly fituated for the purpofe,
pegging each down witha hooked ftick, laying alfo all the
proper young fhoots on each branch or main hoot, fixing
each layer from about three or four to fix inches deep,
according to their lergth, though fome fhorten their tops
down to an eye or two only above the earth, raifing the top
of each layer fomewhat upright, efpecially the flit or
tongued layers, to keep the flit part open. As all the
layers of each plant or ftool are thus layed, all the mould
fhould be levelled in equally in every part, clofe about every
layer, leaving an even {mooth furface, with the top of each
layer out. ‘

It fometimes happens that the branches of trees are fo
inflexible as not to be ealily brought down for laying; in
which cafe they mutt be plafhed, making the gafh or cut oa
the upper fide ; and when they are grown too large for plafh-
ing, or the nature of the wood will not bear that operation,
they may be thrown on their fides, by opening the earth
about the roots, and loofening or cutting all thofe on one
fide, that the plant may be brought to the ground to admit
of the branches being laid down into the earth.

Where layers are to be made from green-houfe fhrubs, or
other plants in pots, the work fhould generally be performed
in pots, either in their own, or others placed for that
purpole.

After laying in either of the above methods, there is no
particular culture neceflary, except in the heat of fum-
mer giving occafional waterings to keep the earth moift about
the layers, which will greatly forward them, and promote a
good fupply of roots againft autumn, when thofe that are
properly rooted fhould be taken off and tranfplanted.

The layed branches or fhoots fhould be examined at the
proper feafon, O&tober and November, and thofe that are
rooted be cut from the mother plant, with all the root poffi-
ble, planting them out in nurfery rows a foot or two afun-
der, according to their nature of growth, there to remain.
till of due fize for their feveral purpofes ; but thofe of the
tender kinds muft be potted, and placed among. others of
fimilar nature and growth.

When the layers are all cleared from the {tools or main
plants, the head of each ftool, when to be continued for
furnifhing layers, fhould be dreffed ; cutting off all decayed
and feraggy parts, digging the ground about them, working
fome frefh mould clofe about their heads, to refrefh and en-
courage their producing a frefh fupply of fhoots for the fol-
lowing year’s laying down. This fort of care preferves
them many years.

Layine-down to Grafs, in Agriculture, the means of
bringing fuch land as has heen under the plough into the
ftate of grafs or fward. This is a part of hufbandry which
is of much importance to the farmer, and which requires
much care and attention to accomplifh it in a proper manner,

2

under different circumftanees of foil, climate, fituation, and
preparation of the ground. It is well known by praétical
farmers that fome forts of foil are much more difficult to be
brought into the {tate of good grafs or fward than others,
and that, when this point has been accomplifhed, fome are
much mote profitable and advantageous than others, as af-
fording a much better, and more latting herbage. In fome
places, too, the bufinefs of bringing the land into the ftate
of fward, after it has been in that of arable cultivation, is
effected with the greatett eafe and facility : the ground, on
being left in an unploughed condition, from its natural ten-
dency to the production of herbage, returns to the ftate of
fward, almoft without trouble, feed, or expence; while in
others, allthe art of the molt careful agricultor is found in-
fufficient for accomplifhing the purpofe. It has been ftated
by Mr. Davis, that *¢ after twenty years fruitlefs expeGation
and expence, the landholders have frequently been obliged
to reftore the land again to a flate of tillage.” But befides
this difpofition or tendency in ‘foils for taking on the growth
and eftablifhment of grafs crops, there are other circum-
{tances to be attended to in bringing them to the ftate of
grafs or fward, after they have been under the plough ; fuch
as thofe of their poflefling neither too much nor too little
moifture, and that of their having a fuficient ftaple or
depth of mould for the full and fecure eftablifhment of
the grafs plants. As where the foils are too wet, or too
retentive of moifture, they will fuftain much injury, if not
be wholly deftroyed, during the winter feafon, when there is
much rain and froft, as well as be quickly fuperfeded by
plants of the. coarfe aquatic kind, fuch as the rufh, &c.
And where they are too dry, the graffes will be liable to be
deftroyed by heat during the fummer months, by the little
moifture which they contain being thus carried away, and of
courfe leave their places to be fupplied by other forts of
coarfe plants, fuch as thofe of the mofs, fern, and’heath
kinds, according to the nature of the ground. A good
depth of mould or foil is likewife requilite, in order that the
roots of the grafs plants may penetrate or run down to fuch
a depth below the furface, as to be'in a great meafure out of
danger from the effects of heat and evaporation in the fum-
mer feafon. On thefe as well as other accounts, it is there-
fore better that the lands intended for grafs, efpecially where
they are to be kept ina permanent ftate of fward, fhou!d in-
eline in fome meafure to a ftate of moifture, or be in fucha
degree retentive of it, as to preferve that ftate of humidity
which is neceflary for the healthy and vigorous growth of the
plants, withot endangering the deftru€tion of their roots by
putrefaction, from its ftagnating in too large a proportion
about them. It is chiefly on this principle, it is added, that
the more light, thin, dry, defcriptions of foil are better
fuited for the produétion of grain, or the occafional prac--
tice of convertible hufbandry, than for that of permanent
grafs or fward.

And there are {till other circumitances conneéted with the-
nature of the foils, which are neceflary to be partioularly at-
tended to in the laying of lands down to the ftate- of grafs,
as thofe of properly adapting the grafs plants to their quali-
ties, fome forts of grafles being much more impatient of
wet than others, confequently more proper for the drier
forts of lands ; fome more capable of refifting the effets
of heat and drought, and of courfe more fuitable for the
thinner and more porous kinds of foil: while others delight
in a moiit or wet foil, and are incapable of being grown with
any fuccefs, on fuch as are of a dry quality. ‘They like-
wile differ much in refpeét to their hardnefs ; fome refitting
the effects of cold much more effectually than others, and
of courfe more adapted to high expofed fituations. ee
: theie,s

LAYING.

thefe, they vary in other refpects, fome fucceeding to the
mot advantage in foils of the clayey kind, others in thofe
of aloamy quality, while others delight in thofe of a {-ndy
nature, a few in thofe of the calcareous kind, and fome in
thofe which partake much of the nature of peat.

In addition to thefe different natural propenfities, there
are fome grafles that have the property of riling to a great
height in the ftem, and of courte aflording a large coarfe
produce, while others are more limited in this refpeét, but
{pread and extend themfelves more in a lateral direétion, af-
fording alefs proportion of produce, but which is of a finer
quality. The former, with certain reftrictions, would feem
better adapted to the purpofe of hay, though the latter may
be applied tothe fame ufe, where the finenefs of quality is
preferred to quantity of produce. There are likewife fome
forts of grafles that contain much larger proportions of fac-
charine matter it their compofitions than others, as well as
more leaves and fewer flower ftems; and which, from the
avidity with which they are fed upon by different forts of
live ftock, and the fuccefs that attends their being thus con-
fumed in the improvement of fuch ftock, would appear
to poffefs the largeft proportion of nourifhment ; and of
courfe to bethe mott proper for being introduced where the
lands are intended for the purpofe of grazing, or fattening
animals by means of vegetable food in its grafly ftate. And
further, there is another property .of grafles in which they
differ confiderably ; and which is of fo much confequence
as to require being regarded in the laying of lands to the ftate
of fward. This is that of early growth, which is a circum-
ftance of valt importance in a grazing point of view, as
there is in general a great deficiency of grafs for the fupport
of ftock in the early part of the fpring. See Praétical
AGRICULTURE.

It is the opinion of Mr. Curtis, that in the forming of
good meadows, or other grafs-lands, there fhould be a com-
bination of thefe different circumiftances, as it is chiefly by
the firft, or the quantity of produce, that the cultivator is
enabled to fupport his live itock, and pay his rent ; of courfe
no expence in labour or manure is {pared to obtain it by the
prudent farmer. It does not, however follow, that this
fhould be folely regarded, or that to attain it the coarfeft
forts of plants fhould be cultivated ; nor will the graffes
that are recommended merely for their being relifhed by
cattle, or for the f{weetnefs of their foliage, if they are
found to be deficient in the quantity of produce, fully an-
{wer the views of the farmer or grazier, as, to conftitute a
good meadow or pafture, an abundant produce is neceflary,
And that, though animals prefer fome forts of food to
others, it is not poflible to indulge the live ftock that is to
be fupported conftantly with the fineft and moft delicate hay
orherbage. Befides, it is not improbable but that the pro-
duétive grafles may in fome cafes be highly nutritious, or
that cattle may eat as eagerly the herbage or hay made from
the coarfe as the fine grafles. And cattle are frequently
known to thrive on food to which they are habituated by ne-
ceffity, though at firft they could f{carcely be prevailed on to
eatit. Itis fuggefted, thatin making experiments, perfons
are apt to conclude too haftily from the appearance which
a plant aflumes on its being firlt planted or fown ; as the moft
infignificant plant or vegetable will often make a great fhow,
when its fibres have frefh earth to fhoot into: but the trial
comes when the objeét of the experiment has been ina mea-
dow or pafture feveral years, when its fibres, from long
growth, are matted together, and it meets with powerful
neighbours, to difpute every inch of ground with it:” if
s¢ it then continue to be produétive, it muft have merit.’?
It is well known, that lucern, when left to itfelf, is foon

overpowered ; and if broad-leaved clover, which is undoubt-
edly a perennial, the firtt year be fown, a great crop is pro-
duced ; but let the field be left to itfelf, aud the clover, like
the lucern, will yearly diminifh,—not becaufe it is a biennial,
as has been often fuppofed, but becaufe plants hardier, or
more congenial to the foil, ufurp its place: this fhews, ‘ that
at the fame time that a good plant is introduced, it fhould
be a powerful one, and fuch as is able to keep poffeffion, and
continue to be produdtive.”” Further, that * in refpeét to
the property of cattle’s thriving on the food they eat, it is
unquettionably of great confequence; and it is to be re-
gretted, that our knowledge of the moft nutritient kinds of
herbage is {0 confined: but of thofe plants which have been
in cultivation, we are enabled to fpeak with fome certainty :
it is well known, that “ clover, lncern, faintfoin, tares, and
feveral other fimilar plants, have a great tendency to fatten
cattle ; but what natural greffes, or other plants, which have
not been fubjeéted to feparate culture, have this particular
tendency, and in what degrees, remains to be afcertained by
the teft of experiment.’”? But, ‘that as leguminous plants
are in general found to agree with cattle, it may be reafon-
ably concluded, that a certain quantity of them may be
proper and beneficial in paftures. It is well known that
certain paftures are more difpofed to fatten animals than
others: but how far this depends on fituation, and their
particular produce, remains to be afcertained.’” With re-
{pe€t'to the property of early growth, it is fuggefted that
the ‘* want of early herbage in the {pring is the general
complaint of farmers and graziers in all the belt grafs diftriéts
of the kingdom: thofe plants, therefore, which are found
to fhoot at an early period, and to put forth early foliage,
efpecially when it is {uch as is grateful to cattle, muft be
deferving of great attention. As far as grafles have to do
in this bufinefs, thofe mentioned hereafter may effeé all that
can be expected in this way: much mult, however, depend
on feafons ; if the winter fhould be fevere, or north-eatterly
winds prevail in the {pring months, grafly herbage will be
backward, in fpite of all that can be done ; but in order to
counteract the bad effeéts of {uch feafons as much as poffible,
paftures and grafs-lands fhould be warmly fituated, and not
drenched too much with moiiture, being fheltered by thick
hedges, and divided into fmall inclolures.’’ But where
early pafturage is the great object of the farmer, there are
other plants that may deferve a place among them, fuch as
thofe mentioned below. And that “ though early herbage
is highly valuable for pafturage, it is not lefs fo for the pur-
pofes of hay ; as by the middle of May at the lateft, a mea-
dow of this fort would be fit for cutting ; and the fecond
hay-making begin by the time that hay-making ufually takes
place in other cafes ; and by this means the double advantage
be obtained, of a larger produce, and lefs rifk in fecuring or
making it.”’
It is {tated in a late work on Praétical Agriculture, that
“ on the principles that have been already explained, there
can be little doubt but that by a judicious and due atten-,
tion to the different circumftances and ufes for which grafs-
lands are intended, as well as to the felecting and mixing of
the beft and moft proper grafs-feeds, and adapting them to
the particular nature and circumftances of the foils, after
they have been brought into a fuitable condition for re-
ceiving them, thofe grounds which have been in a ftate of
tillage may be laid down to the ftate of fward, in a much
better and more beneficial manner than has been the cafe
under the indifcriminate ufe of fuch as were in, or which
have fown thémfelves on the lands trom the contiguous paf-
tures.”’ It has ‘* been long fince remarked as extraordinary,
by Mr. Stillingfleet, that cultivators fhould have neglected
§ to

LAYING.

to make a proper advantage of plants of fuch importance,
and which, in moft fituations, conftitute the principal food
of live ftock, from the want of properly diftinguifhing and
felecting fuch as are the moft advantageous and ufeful under
different circumftances of the land.” Some have likewife
contended, that “the beft grafs-feeds cannot be collected
at too high a rate; as it is poffible, by fuch means, to render
lands, which are fuited for the production of grafs, much
more valuable than can be done by the common modes of
laying them down.”

It cannot, however, but be coofeffed that much difficulty
has “ been thrown in the way of introducing the molt pro-
per forts of graffes, in laying lands down to fward, from
their near refemblance to each other, in many inftances, re-
quiring the niceft difcernment to diftinguifh them, and from
the want of other means of procuring them.”

It has been ftated by Mr. Curtis, in his traét on Grafles,
that if grafs-lands, fach as downs, paftures, and meadows,
be carefully examined, they will all, except fuch as have
been receutly iaid down with rye-grafs or clover, be found
much in a ftate of nature, replete with an indifcriminate
mixture of plants, fome of which produce cattle food of a
good kind, others fuch as is of a very indifferent defcrip-
tion; fome affording good crops, while others fearcely yield
any thing at all.’ And in the fyftem of Prattical Agri-
culture it is fuggefted as fufficiently obvious, ‘ that by a
careful attention to the procuring of the beft and moft fuit-
able forts of grafs-feeds, and applying them according to
the principles which have been given above, much fuperi-
ority may be attained in the forming of pafture, or other
forts of grafs-lands."" See Grass.

Method of Preparation of the Land.—The proper prepara-
tion of land for grafs-feeds is a part of management, ac-
cording to the fame writer, “ that is of vaft importance to
the fuccefs of forming good grafs-lands, but which has
deen much neglested in the practice: of laying them down.
From the fma Inefs of the feeds, and the fibrous nature of
the roots of the grafs-plants in moft cafes, it is evident that
lands which are intended for being laid down to the ftate of
fward, whatever their quality may be in refpeét to foil,
fhould conftantly be brought into as fine a {tate of pulveriza-
tion and mellownefs as poflible, before the feeds are put in:
as where the contrary is the cafe, from the lumpinefs of the
furface mould, the feeds can neither be fown with fo much
regularity, vegetate in fo equal a manner, or extend their
roots, and eftablifh themfelves at firft fo perfeétly in the
land, they are of courfe more liable to be deftroyed by hot
feafons coming on afterwards. It is probable that in this
sway much new laid down grafs-land is greatly injured the
firit fummer, efpecially when it turns out to be hot and dry.
The neceffary finenefs of mould may be obtained in different
modes, according to the nature of the lands. In the more
fuff and heavy ones, by ploughing before winter, and leav-
ing them to be expofed to the ation of frofts and other
caufes during that feafon; having recourfe to fevere har-
cowing, and occafional rolling, in the early {pring months ;
and by the frequent interpofition of fuch forts of crops, in
the courfes that precede thofe of grafs, as have a tendency,
from the peculiar nature of their roots, to loofen and render
the foils fine, fuch as thofe of the bean, cabbage, rape, and
clover kinds. The lighter forts of land may be brought
into a proper condition for the reception of grafs-feeds, by
fepeated ploughing and harrewing, or fcuffling, and the
frequent introdu@tion, in the previous crops, of fuch forts
of green fallow crops as have a power, by the great degree
of fhade and ftagnation which they afford, as well as by the
culture which they require while growing, of bringing the

Vox. XX.

foil into a fine friable ftate. Thefe are turnips, potatoes
tares, faintfoin, and others of a fimilar defcription.’? It
has been contended by Mr. Clofe, « that where the grafs-
feeds are to be put into the ground with grain crops in the
{pring, the tillage fhould be performed with more then or-
dinary attention; which, in the cafe of turnips, will d: pnd
greatly upon their being confumed at fuch an early period
as will admit of the ground being thoroughly broken down
and reduced; for if there be much delay, and the feafon
prove unfavourable, a bed of mould, fufficiently loofe and
mellow, will not be procured for the reception of the feeds :
and when grown with {pring corn, the lands fhould be
ploughed over three times; and where the firft of thefe
earths can be given early enough to be influenced by the
vernal froits, it will be found to be much more beneficial.’”
The ufe of the harrow and the roller will be occafionally ne-
ceflary, after the different ploughings, according to the na-
ture and ftate of the land. But when the fowing is
executed in Auguit, the fame degree of attention is not be-
lieved by the Rev. Mr. Young to be fo neceflary, as the
time and feafon afford fo full an opportunity of bringing the
ground into fuitable order, that the moft inattentive cultivator
can fearcely experience any other difficulty than what ori-
ginates from an unufual wetnefs of feafon.”

: In the Syftem of Praétical Avriculture noticed above, it
is mentioned that, befides this finenefs of preparation in
the foils, it is neceflary that the method of cropping and
application of manure in the preceding courfes be fuch as to
leave them in a ftate of high fertility and richnefs ; as no good
grafs-land can be fuppofed to be produced, where the lands
have been worn out and exhaufted by the previous crops :—
a practice which has, howeter, been toe general in the re-
turning of arable lands to the condition of grafs. Mr.
Marfhall has, he fays, indeed very juitly obferved, that the
want of proper condition in the lands at the time of their
being laid down to fward, added to thofe of improper forte
of graffes and bad feeds, is the chief caufe of their not fuce
ceeding.’” According to fome cultivators, “ manure ought
to be applied with every other crop, and always with that
which immediately precedes the grafs. This is,” he faye,
“« a practice that fhould be edopted as much aa poffible."*
And in order to have grafa-lands of the beit kind, it is
likewife of great utility to have them fo managed in the pre-
paration, as to be rendered perfeétly clean and free from all
forts of weeds; as by their rifing with greater rapidity thar
the fown grafs-plants, they are often liable to fhade and dee
{troy them, or greatly injure their growth.”

Aund it has been advifed by Mr. Billingdley, «in reftoring
old worn-out lands to the ftate of good patture, to clear the
land from injurious weeds by means of a full winter and
fummer fallowing ; or, inftead of the latter, by a crop of
potatoes, well manured for, and kept in a perfe@ly clean
ftate by attentive culture while growing, fucceeded by win-
ter vetches fed off in the early {pring.”” And « in all the
more light forts ef foil, it is unquettionably the moft bene-

-ficial practice to bring the ground into that fort of fine tilth,

which is proper for the reception of grafs-feeds. by a judi-
cious mixture of green crops of different forts with thofe of
the corn kind, according to the nature of the foil”? The
moft appropriate methods of combining and intermixing
thefe with each other are fully explained in confidering the
modes of cropping different forts of ground. Sce Cour/e of
Crops, and Rotation of Crops.

Further; ‘ when the lands have been, by thefe methods,
brought into a good ftate of fertility, and reduced into a
fufficiently mellow and friable condition of mould, the fur-
face fhould be made as fine, loofe, and even as poffible ’*

3G Asd

LAYING.

And that “ where the grounds are much inclined to moif-
ture, the ridges may be preferved, which fhould be of con-
fiderable breadth, with very flight furrows ; but in the more
light and porous defcriptions of land, the whole fhould be
laid as even as poffible, without any ridges or furrows. In
the former cafes, in fome diftriéts, they prefer making the
ridges fix, eight, or more yards in breadth; which, when
the land is to be under the fcythe, is in a much better {tate
for being mown; and if for pafture, there will be lefs danger
of the animals being injured by being caft in the furrows.
But in the latter, the furface will not only be more agreeable
in its appearance, but be more advantageous for all the pur-
pofes of grafs management,” when thus laid down.

Moft proper natural Graffes.—In refpe& to the kinds of
natural graffes, the circumftances that have been obferved
above render it fufficiently plain, that the proper choice and
application of graf"es mult be a matter of great confequence,
in the laying down lands to the ftate of {ward or herbage.

In fa&t, it is, according to the author of Prattical Agri-
culture, ‘a bufinefs attended with uncommon difficulty,
from the number of trials that have been yet made being
very inadequate for affording the means of fully deciding

upon their properties, advantages, and ufes, in many cafes,
as well as from their habits, and the foils to which they are
the beft fuited, being often very imperfetly known; and
alfo from the great trouble and inconvenience of obtaining
their feeds genuine, and in a proper {late of healthy vege-
tation.”’

But it is fuggefted that the plants of the natural grafs
kind, which have been found by experienced cultivators
moft ufeful in the different intentions already mentioned,
are ‘ the {weet-fcented vernal grafs, meadow fox-tail grafs,
{mooth-ftalked meadow grafs, rough-ftalked meadow grafs,
meadow fefcue grafs, hard fefcue grafs, tall fefcue grafa,
crefted dog’s-tail grafs, ray or rye grafs, Yorkshire white,
cock’s-foot grafs, tall oat grafs, timothy grafs, yarrow,
burnet, white clover, trefoil, cow grafs, rib grafs, and a few
others ;” moft of which will be found fehl th laying lands
to grafs, under’ different circumftances of foil, fituation,
moiiture, and drynefs. See Grass, and thefe feveral heads.

The Rev. Mr. Young, in the third volume of Commu-
nications to the Board of Agriculture, advifes the varying
of grafs-feeds, according to the nature of the foil, in this
way:

Soils and Seeds.

Clay. Loam,

Sand.

; Chalk. Peat.
* Cow-grafs. White clover. ' White clover, Yarrow. White clover. .
Cock’s-foot. Ray. Ray. Burnet. Dog’s-tail.
Dog’s-tail. York white. York white. Trefoil. Cock’s-foot.
Fefcue. Fefcue. Yarrow. White clover. Rib.
Fox-tail. Fox-tail. Burnet. Saintfoin. York white.
Oat-grafs. Dog’s-tail. Trefoil. Ray.
Trefoil. oa. Rib. Fox-tail
York-white. Timothy, Fefcne
‘Timothy. Yarrow Timothy.”
Lucerne.

With regard to the proportions or quantities which are
neceflary per acre, it is hinted, that ‘¢in fituations where wo-
men and children are fully employed, it may be difficult to
procure large quantities gathered by hand: in fuch places

_a man mutt be content with what can be bought. Crefted
dog’s-tail is fo very generally to be thus procured, that he
eannot but fuppofe it in a good meafure at command.

However, without adverting to this point, he may remark,.
that from the lands which he has laid down to grafs to a
confiderable extent, and in which he has ufed every one of
thefe plants largely except the poa, and that on a fmaller
fcale, he is inclined to think that the quantities ftated below.
may be fafely employed.” ;

Soils and Seeds. .

Clay.
feels. Subftitutes.
“Cow-grafs - - sib.
Trefoil - - lb.
Dog’s-tail = rolb. Yorkfhire white, 2 bufh. .
Fefcue - - abufh. Timothy - 4lb.
Fox-tail.. "=. = * 1 do: ", Do. - 4 do. ; or,
Yorkfhire white 1 bufh. .
Sand. .
Seeds. Subfiitutes.
White clover qb.
Trefoil - lb.
Burnet « 6lb.
Ray - 1 peck. ;
Yarrow = xbuth, Ray speck. Rib 4lb.

%.
.

Loam.
Seeds. Subftitates.
White clover stb.
Dog’s-tail 10 lb. Ray > 1 peck’;
Ray 1 peck, Rib-grafs 4b.
Fefcue 2.do, Yorkfhire white.
Fox-tail 3 do. Timothy - 4lb.
Yarrow. 2do. Cow-grafs. sb.
Chalk.
‘Seeds. Subfiitates. _
Burnet - rolb; .
Trefoil - 5 lb.
White clover 5 lb. :
Yarow = ybufy, Ray -. xbwh

LAYING.

Peat.

Seeds, Subftitutes.
White clover -_ tolb.
Dog's-tall - 10 |b. Yorkfhire white 6 pecks.
Ray - - 1 peck. :
Fox-tail - z2do. - Rib - glb.
Fefcue - 2 do. Cow-grafs - 4lb.
Timothy - 1 do,”?

Method of fowing Grafs-feeds.—In refpe& to the time and
manner of fowing grafs-feeds, they are different in practice
according to the preparation and the particular circumftances
of the land. The moft ufual period of putting in grafs-
feeds has been the fpring, at the time the grain crops are
fown: but where the land has been brought to a fuitable
ftate of preparation by means of green and other fallow
crops, the latter end of the fummer, as about Auguft, has
been the more general time. In the former cafe they are
moft commonly put in with the grain crops; but in the
latter without any other fort of crop. The author of the
Syftem of Praétical Agriculture remarks, that ‘* there has
been much diverfity of opinion among agricultural writers
with regard to the fuperior utility of thefe different feafons
of introducing the feeds, as well as with regard to their
being fown with or without other forts of crops. The
advantages of the autumnal over thofe of the vernal fow-
ings are contended to be, thofe of the grafs-plants being
lefs expofed to danger from the fhade, clofenefs, and chok-
ing, that muift neceflarily occur at the latter feafon, there
being lefs rifk of ftocking the ground with noxious weeds
in cafe of the feeds of hay-chambers being indifcriminately
fown; their being put in upon a better preparation and
more mellow and fertile ftate of the land; their growth
being more ftrong and vigorous from their not being robbed
of their proper nourifhment by other exhaufting crops, and
the great fuperiority of the hay produce: while, on the
contrary, it is maintained in fupport of the vernal fowings,
that befides their being lefs precarious, fhade is neceflary
in the early growth of the grafs-plants to proteét them
from the effef&ts of heat; the moifture is better pre-
ferved in the foil for their fupport ; fmall annual weeds
mire effectually prevent it from rifing to injure them; and
the lofs the farmer muft fuftain from the want of grain
crop guarded againft.”’

» But in regard to the objetion on the ground of weeds
being produced, Mr. Ciofe has remarked, that « fowing
rubbifh in Auguft is not of fo great importance as in the
fpring. Inthe former feafon all the annual feeds vegetate,
and if the beginning of the winter be mild, they will
bloffom; but they cannot perfect their feeds, and thus
ftock the land with noxious weeds.

Upon which the firft of thefe writers obferves, that
“though fome of the arguments urged on both fides of
this controverted point may be objected to, the autumnal
fowings not preventing the perennial weeds from rifing and

edding their feeds in the following fummer, nor the great
clofenefs of grain crops being without injury to the growth
of the young grafs-plants ; there are facts which render it
probable that each method may have advantages under par-
’ ticular circumftances. In the more fouthern diftri€ts, where
the feverity of the winter feafon is later in its approach,
the autamnal feafon may frequently be made ufe of with
advantage, after fallow crops, for fowing grafs-feeds,
efpecially in cafes where the lands are in too richa condition
Sr the fuccefsful growth of corn. But in the more northern

parts of the kingdom, and expofed fituations, where the
froft fets in at an early period, it may be in general the moft
advifable practice to put the feeds in, in the vernal months,
with fuitable crops ef the grain kind.’ And the Rev.
Mr. Young has obferved, that “ grafs-feeds anfwer almott
equally well in either method: he prefers, however, the
Auguit fowing without corn, though the fuccefs of his
trials in the different feafons has not juttified any decifive:
conclufion.”” It is even admitted, that “in moory and
mountainous fituations, where the fnows come early, au-
tumnal fowings are not advifable, or to be performed later
than the very early part of Auguit; the vernal feafon with
oats, for being cut young for foiling or hay, is conftantly to be
preferred.””, Mr. Dalton, in Yorkfhire, after trying other
methods, alfo recommends the autumnal feafon withoue
corn as the moit advifable. And the Rev. Mr. Clofe
ftates, that “a friend of his, withing to procure good mea-
dow or pafture around his houfe, fallowed the land for
barley ; but the {pring proving wet, and the foil being a
ftrong loam, he could only put half of it in order for that
crop, which was fown and laid with clover and rye grafs.
The other part was fallowed and fown in Auguft with the
{weepings of hay-chambers. The barley was a good crop,
and the clover and rye-grafs were probably equal to the
firft year’s cut of hay. The fecond year the artificial
grafles began to fail; worfe the third, fourth, and fifth;
the fixth year, after having received two dreffings, the
{pontaneous produét of the foil began to give a fleece over
the furface of the land. About ten years after thefe lands
were fown, Mr. Clofe faw this field, when the part fown ir
Auguft was worth at leaft fifteen fhillings per acre more
than the part which had been fown with artificial graffes in
the barley. Thus from a€tual experiments, numbers of
which he could adduce, he concludes that fowing the fweep-
ings of hay-chambers in Auguft, is preferable to fowing
any artificial grafles in the {pring with any crop of corn.
Suppofe the corn worth five pounds per acre, the difference
in the produce of hay or feed in the fecond, third, fourth,”
and fifth years, would more than counterbalance this ; and
the proprietor would find a permanent improvement in his
land of from fifteen to twenty fhillings per acre.’ Mr.
Young thinks, the beft feafon in the whole year for this
purpofe is Auguft, and the only one admiffible for it on
itrong, wet, and heavy foils, in forty years’ experience
having never failed at that period. It is ftated in the
Syftem of Praétical Agriculture already noticed, that ‘* ox
comparative experiments being made with corn in the {pring
months, and without it in Auguit, the latter was found
by much the beft mode by different cultivators.’’ But
that in the experiment of an accurate agricultor, mentioned
by the Rev. Mr. Young, in his paper in the communica-
tion to the board, “ in comparing different methods of
vernal fowings, in which four acres were fown with feeds
alone, on peafe and buck-wheat ploughed in the preceding
autumn ; five aeres with barley, and five more with the
feeds put in alone without corn or manure: the portions
fown alone were over-run with weeds, and only preferved from
being {mothered and deftroyed, by being eaten down by 2
dairy of cows.’’ And others, after repeatedly trying the ex-
periment of fowing in the {pring with corn, and the autumn
without, and from long and extenfive practice, conclude,
<¢ that, even if we were to haye no regard to any other circum-
ftance, except the grafs crop alone, it would be always
beft to fow it with fome kind of grain ; but when we con-
fider likewife the lofs that the farmer thus fultains for
want of a crop of grain, the practice of fowing alone
muft-be looked upon as highly pernicious to the farmer."’

Gz And

LAYING.

And hé foppofes, that it is probably in this laft refpect
that the greateit difadvantage of the practice confifts, as
without jt the farmer can derive no immediate recompenfe
for his great expence of tillage and preparation 0 the
land.”

In cafes where the vernal fowing with other forts of crops
is had recourfe to, barley is that, according to Mr. Cart-
wright, which is molt ufually recommended, and ¢ there
feems to be no queltion that barley is in general*the fitteft
grain to be fown with grafs-feeds. The fame tilth which
an{wers for the-one is requifite for the other. Barley has.a
difpofition to loofen the texture of the ground in which it
grows; a circumftance highly favourable to the vegetation
of grafs-feeds, which require a free and open foil to extend
their roots in ; the tender and delicate fibres of which have
much difficulty in contending with the refiftance of a ftub-
born foil. And this points out the reafon why grafs-feeds
fo frequently fail on {trong land not in a proper flate of
cultivation. In the choice of barley, that fort fhould be
preferred which runs leaft to ftraw, and which is the fooneft
ripe.’ But the writer of the Syftem of Practical Agri-
culture obferves, that as from the graffy nature of the ftem,
and the large fize of the ear in this fort of grain, a confi-
derable degree of clofenefs and fhade mutt conttantly be
kept up, it fhould never be fown fo thickly as in other cafes
where there are no grafs-feeds. Some obje& to fowing

rafs-feeds with barley on other principles, as thofe ' of its
wing its nourifhment from the furface, which is alfo the
cafe with the grafs-plants, and that in confequence they
mutt be greatly retarded in their growth from the want of
due fupport. “Where the land is in a proper flate of pre-
paration and tillage, if fown with oats, they will be apt to
become fo luxuriant as to greatly injure, if not wholly de-
ftroy, the young grafs-plants by the clofenefs of their fhade.
In fome cafes they, however, fucceed tolerably with this
fort of crop. On the ftronger kinds of land the fowing
of grafs-feeds has been found to anfwer well with thin crops
of beans. In an experiment of this kind, it is ftated that
Mr. Dalton found that the beans did not ‘rob, but fhel-
tered and nourifhed the grafs-plants, the plan anfwering be-
yond expectation.”

It is fuggefted, that in order to effe% the purpofes of
diftribution and perfe& vegetation in the moft complete
manner, the feedfman fhould “ be accuftomed to the bu-
finefs, and the feeds, as being of different weights, | - as
little mixed with each other as poffible. It is much better
to have more cafts than to blend the feeds together for the
fake of difpatch. For all the {maller forts of feeds, it has
been fuppofed by the Rev. Mr. Young, preferable to deliver
them by means of the Norfolk turnip trough, which has
Jately been adapted to clover and ray- afs. And this ope-
ration fhould always be performed as foon after the land has
been ploughed as poffible, as under fuch cireumftances the
feeds vegetate in a much more quick and vigorous manner.
Put it fhould never be attempted in fuch a wet ftate of the
land as produces any great degree of tenacity or adhefive-
nefs in the mould, as in fuch circumftances the feeds would
be apt to come up in a tufty unequal manner. Nor for the
fame reafon fhould the lighter forts of grafs-feeds ever be
fown in windy weather ; as the delivering them in an equal
and regular manner is a point of confequence to the forming
of good grafs-land. In the covering in of the feeds, the
author juit mentioned obferves, that care fhould be taken
that none are left in an expofed ftate on the furface of the
ground, as where that is the cafe many of them will be
deftroyed or picked up by birds, and the {ward appear
patchy. This bufinefs is executed in the moft complete

manner by a pair of light fhort-tined harrows at one tining.
The praétice of employing buth-harrows is improper, as in
that way the feeds are liable to be drawn into lumps. In
all the lighter and more fpongy deforiptions of land, it may
be advantageous to pafs a five roller over the furface im-
mediately after the feeds have been well harrowed in.” And
“in cafes where the tenants and not the proprietors of the
land are to lay them down to grafs, it may be the mott ad-
vifable practice for the latter to procure the feeds, but at
the expeuce of the former, efpecially where they have a
fufficient intereft in fuch laads ; as, without this precaution,
from their general propenfity to keep the ground under the
plough, and their indifference in refpec to the obtaining of
the moft proper forts of feeds, there may be danger of the
bufinefs being improperly performed.””

Proper Management after being laid down.—It may be re«
marked, that the proper conducting of this bufinefs is a
matter of confiderable importance, and a point upon which
much of the fuccefs of forming good grafs-land mutt in
mott circumftances depend. It is advifed by fome, as foon
as the crop with which the feeds have been fown has been
removed, to have recourfe to rolling the land with a mode«
rately heavy roller, when it is in fuch a ftate of drynefs as
jull to admit the impreffion of the implement ; as by this
procefs, from the mould being prefled clofely about the
roots of the plants, their early growth may be much bee
nefited, and the danger of drought in fome meafure ob
viated. ‘Lhe practice is, however, in the opinion of others,
the moft neceffary in the more light and porous defcriptions
of land. There are ftill others, likewife, who recommend
the application of manure at this period, in order to pro-
mote the growth and fupport of the young grafs-plants; a
point which would feem quite unneceflary where the above
mode of preparation has been had recourfe to. The writer
of the Sy‘tem of Praéical Agriculture, however, ftates that
«as the furface of fuch grounds as have been newly laid
down to the ftate of {ward is, from the previous tillage
which they require, extremely tender, and readily broken
into holes for fome time even in the drier defcriptions of
land, the turning-in of the cattle with the view of feeding
them down muft, in moft cafes, be highly prejudicial by the
treading which they caufe. The bell practice is, therefore,
probably to fuffer no fort of ftock to be put upon fuch lands
till the {pring after their being laid down; or where the
farmer finds it abfolutely sheer to turn upon the lands,
the lighteft fort of ftock fhould conftantly be fele&ted for
the purpofe.”? And ‘it has been obferved by the Rev.
Mr. Young, that the advantage of feeding fuch lands during
the autumn and winter feafons, is {earcely matter of any con-
fequence, as the {pring feed for fheep, where it is omitted,
is of fo much greater utility, a very early pafturage being
in this way afforded for ewes and lambs.” Mr, A. Young
is alfo decidedly of the fame opinion in his Farmer’s Ca-
lendar. '

There are much diverfity and contradiGtion in the opinions
of experienced cultivators as to the future management in
different ftates and circumftances of the lands, fome fup-
porting the fuperiority of keeping the ground clofely fed —
down by fheep or neat cattle, while others confider mowing
or feeding as preferable. «There feems little reafon to
doubt but that feeding by fome fort of ftock is a much
better practice than thofe of either mowing or feeding ; the
chief difficulty is in refpect to the fort of ftock that is the
moft proper. On the dry and more firm forts of ground,
a mixed ftock may be the moft advantageous, as neat cattle
and fheep, as in that way the new pafture may be fed down
in the moft regular manner ; but om thofe that are of a more

Openy.

LAYING.

@pen, porous, and lefs firm quality, theep, by their eating fo
clofely, may do much harm, efpecially in the firft years of
the new lay, by pulling up the young and imperfe@ly
eftablitied grafs-plants. Several inftances of this kind have
been noticed in fuch foils. In lands that are more inclined
to moifture, the confuming of the produce by neat catt'e
mutt conftantly be liable to do mifchief, except in very dry
feafons; they muft of courfe be principally fed down by
fheep. And in all cafes where the new lay is chiefly ccn-
ftituted of the more coarfe fort of grafles, fheep would feem
to be the moft proper kind of ilock, as the graffes are
thereby con{tantly becoming more fine and fweet. Many
fats of this nature have been noticed by cultivators. The
fweetnefs of the palturage on many fheep-downs has been
remarked to depend more on their being kept clofely fed
down than any other circumftances, as on being negleéted in
this refpe& it becomes coarfe, and is rejected.”

Sy/tem of Pradical Agriculture.—It has been well ob-
ferved by the Rev. Mr. Young, ina valuable paper, in the
third volume of Communications to the Board, that ‘¢ fheep-
feeding not only ameliorates by enriching the foil, and fining
the herbage, but alfo by deftroying weeds.’ And Dr.
Dickfon has ‘been affured by a very extenfive and expe-
rienced cultivator in Somerfetfhire, that under this fort of
management, not only many coarfe graffes, but other forts
of plants become fine, and eagerly fed upon by animals.’”
It is ftill farther ftated, that « Dr. Wilkinfon, who has been
much in the habit of comparing different pra€tices, advifes
the grazing conftantly with fheep, and for the firft fix years
never to permit the fcythe to touch the lays;’’ but this
is certainly longer than is neceflary to preclude the fcythe
in many forts of foil, And the Rev. Mr. Young has re-
marked in. addition, “that it is not merely the frit year
that feeding with fheep is the beft practice on new lays, but
it may he fo managed the fecond, and if it extend to the
third it is the better: and thongh there is not any necefiity
for adhering to it any longer, it has been found to anfwer
well in his praétice, four, five, or even fix years; and in
general it may be concluded, that the more the land is fed
with fheep, the greater the improvement will be. But in
this management the impoverifhing abfurd fyitem of remov-
ing the animals to be folded in other places, is not to form
any part of the practice.”

In the Agricultural Report of the North Riding of
“Yorkshire it is fuggefted, that ‘it has been long the prac-
tice in that diitri€t, with the moft improved cultivators, to
have recourfe to the method of fheep-feeding for fome time
after laying the lands down to grafs, as two years or more.
Where ray grafs and white clover are intended to remain
. fome years, it is found by fome advantageous to eat them
the firltyear by the fheep, in clofing, thickerinz, and ren-
dering them more permanent.’ hele facts are all in evi-
dence of the great propriety and utility of the practice of
feeding new grafs-lands. It mutt, however, be obferved,
that in order to render the practice perfe@tly fafe and bene-
ficial, the new lays fhould not be fed during the autumn, or
_ the ftock turned into them at too early a period in the
fpring. “ Nor fhould they be too heavily ftocked, or the
ftock kept in the paftures too long, efvecially when it.con-
filts principally of fheep, as they may do much harm by paring
and eating the plants fo clofely down as immediately to kill
them, or expofe their roots too much to the deftrutive ef-
fe&ts of drought. And in cafes where the grafles have run
up much to-ftem, if the lands be fufficiently ftoeked with
plants, it may be an ufeful method to cut them over, by
means of a ftrong {cythe, before their feeds are formed, as

by this means they will become more flrong and’ vigorous’:
but, in the contrary circumflances, they are better left for
the purpofe of providing a more abundant fupply of young

graffes, as the benefit obtained in this way will more than

counterbalance the injury fuftained by the running up of the

old plants.” But the author of the Syftem of Praétical

Agriculture ftates, that “ thouzh the praétice of feeding

new laid graffes in the firft years appears to be the molt ad-

vantageous and proper mode of management, e‘pecially for

lands intended for patture, there are many cafes in which

they may be mown with great fuccefs. This pratice is

perhaps always the moft beneficial and proper, and indeed

the only one that can be adopted, in fuch foils as poffefs any

peek degree of moilture ; as, under fuch circumitances, the

eeding them down with any fort of live flock muft, in moft

feafons, be injurious to the fward. And, befdes, where

the object and intention of the farmer is chiefly hay, the

grafs-plants, by being kept clofely eaten down by live ftock

for a confiderable length of time before the {cythe is ap-

plied, may, from their becoming thereby difpofed to a low

and lateral fpreading growth, be afterwards more unfit for
the production of hay crops. Several fats of this nature

are related by writers on hufbandry. In one cafe, where

different divifions of land of the fame kind were laid down:
in the fame manner, on one of them being kept in the ftate

of pafture, and the other alternately mown and paltured 3:
after fome years, both being fhut up for hay, that which

had been paftured afforded a much inferior produce to the

other. ‘The fame thing has happened in other cafes of old:
pattures being converted into hay lands, even when the mott

favourable feafon prevailed.” It is confequently concluded,

that ‘* on thefe principles, it may be a more judicious prac—
tice to manage lands defigned for hay, without having them

for any great length of time, previoufly- to their being

mown, fed down clofely with ftock ; as in this way a larger

produce of hay may be afforded.’’ And it is fuppofed,.
that ‘‘ where the new lays are mown the firft year after

being laid down, which is not a method to be recommended,

it,is an excellent practice to apply a moderate coat of ma--
nure over them in the autumn, efpecially when the ftate of
the land and the feafon is fuch, in refpect to drynefs, as to-
admit of its being done without injuring the furface {ward ;
as by this means the grafs-plants not only become more

{trong and vigorous, but better eftablifhed in the foil, and

of courfe bear cutting with much lefs injury.”’

But as it may be the cafe fometimes, though feldom,
where thefe modes are fuliy attended to, that the farmer
may fail either in part or wholly of producing a good lay ;
it has been obferved, that, “ in the firft cafe, it is the beft
practice to have recourfe to fowing frefh feeds, which fhould
be performed in the early part of the fpring, when the
weather is in a moilt ftate; the feeds being advifed by fome
to be trodden in by putting fheep upon the land; either in-
difcriminately, or by very open folding, 2s the ufe of the
roller will not be effe€tual, and that of harrowing cannot be
practifed without injury.” It is ftated that a large culti-
vator at Enfield found advantage from putting the feeds in
before the manure was applied in the new lays, which are
fometimes too haitily plonghed up.. By either method, .the
{ward of fuch lays may often be much thickened, as- well as
benefited in other refpe&ts: And that, in cafes where the
graffes have run up much to ftem, if the lands be fuffciently
ftocked with plants, it may be beneficial to cut them overy.
by means of a fharp fcythe, before their feeds are formed 3:
as by this means they will be more ftrong and vigorous, and»
the lands be lefs injured: but, under- the-coatrary circum«

flances,

LAYING.

flances, they are better left for the purpofe of providing a
more abundant fupply of young graffes, as the benefit ob-
tained in this way more than counterbalances the injury
fu(tained by the old plants being left upon the land. But
that where there is a complete failure from particular caufes,
the mott advifable method is, where the feeds have been put
in, in the fpring, with grain crops, to take off thefe crops
as foon as they admit of it; and, after giving the land one
ploughing, to harrow in direétly frefh feeds, which fhould
be accomplifhed as early in the beginning of Auguft as it
can be performed; and a roller may be applied over the
land, when in a fuitably dry condition, about October.
But that where the latter end of f{ummer has been the time
ef fowing, it is advifed “* that the land fhould have three
ploughings performed upon -it in the early {pring months,
when the weather is fufficiently dry, and the grafs-feeds be
again put in with the crop of buck-wheat in May, which,
thougli it is not a fuitable crop for the heavy wet forts of
land, fometimes anfwers well in dry feafons; and in wet
ones, as affording but little feed, may be mown when in
bloffom as green food for the cows.’? From the land not
being much robbed of its fertility in this way, it may be a
beneficial practice.

The application of manure to new Jaid down grafs lands
is feldom abfolutely neceflary : yet where they have not been
returned to the ftate of {ward under that degree of fertility
and preparation which has been inculcated, it may, in many
inftances, be had recourfe to with great advantage and im-
provement ; as it is perhaps one of the belt methods of pre-
ferving a good clofe ftate of grafs or fward, when properly
employed. Mr. Maxwell ftates, in the third volume of

«Communications to the Board, that “though in general no
manure will be wanted till the land has been mown for hay,
there can be no doubt but that great additional improvement
will be produced, where manure of any fort can be applied ;””
and that “ the oftener the land is manured, the greater will
“be the improvement.’ Where lands have been laid to {ward
or grafs with grain crops, the application of flight dreflings
of manure in the following autumn may be of much utility
in fixing and encouraging the growth of the young grafs-
plants, as has been feen; but in other cafes, the latter end
of the fummer following, or very early in the autumn, are
fuppofed by fome to be the mott beneficial and proper pe-
riods for the purpofe: ‘but as at thefe times, in many in-
fiances, much lofs of manure may be fuitained both by
evaporation and the wafhing of heavy- rains and fnows, it
may bea better and more advifable praGtice to perform the
‘bufinefs in the early fpring months, efpecially where the
“lands are to be conducted under the fcythe; as in this way
the enriching material will be ready to exert its influence at
-the moment the young plants begin to fend forth their new
‘fhoots, and thus not only afford more affiftance in thickening
and invigorating the new {ward, but be lefs in danger of
‘being ufelefsly diffipated and wafted.”” But “ where ma-
mure cannot be fpared for repeatedly drefling new grafs
lands, as the graffes are often, efpecially on lands not fuited
to their growth, liable to decline and become thin, in fome
inftances, it is fuppofed, from the {own graffes difappearing
before the fpontaneous ones have attained fufficient vigour
and {trength; but more generally, probably, from the
grounds not having been in a proper ftate of fertility, or
finenefs of furface mould, at the time the feeds were put in;
cor the particular unfavourablenefs of the feafon, about the
eclofe of the third fummer after their being fown. It is be-
dieved by the Rev. Mr. Young, to be a better practice to
eier the ufe of manure till that time, on fuch lays as are

paftured ; and when they are under the fcythe, till the hay
crop has been taken from the ground. We have no doubt
of the fuccefs of the application of dung top dreflings at
thefe periods, though they muft evidently be made ufe of
in a Jefs economical manner than at a later feafon in the au-
tumn, or an earlier one in the fpring. And it is the moft
common opinion, that all the finer aad more foluble kinds of
top dreflings are applied with the greateft benefits in the very
early {pring months, as about the latter end of February, or
the beginning of the following month. The differences in
the effects of thefe forts of manure have perhaps not yet
been fully afcertained, under different circumitances of ap-
plication.””

With the view of encouraging and fupporting the growth
of the natural graffes, when the fown ones decline, as about -
the third year, an experienced cultivator at Enfield, who
feems to favour the opinion of manure being the moft ufe-
fully laid on land early in the autumn, or on hay lands im-
mediately after the crops have been taken off, ftates that
«he has ufed coal-afhes with great fuccefs, to the amount
of three chaldrons fer acre. He has laid of this manure on
grafs land above fifty chaldrons in a year. About eight
years ago, he laid down a field of twelve acres with broad
clover principally, intending it to ftand only for two years..
In the fummer it was mowm twice ; next year it was grazed :
the clover was but weak. As he had particular reafons for
altering his mind, and for wifhing to continue it in grafs, he
refolved to try the effets of grazing it with fheep. On'the
fourth year it looked fo very bad, the clover almoft entirely
difappearing, that he was tempted to plough it up. He,-
however, refolved to continue the grazing, and to giveit a
drefling of three chaldrons fer acre of coal-afhes. ‘The next
year he obferved the white clover and natural grafles be-
ginning to form a clofe turf; and the field is now an-excel-
lent piece of fward, without the aid of any hay-feeds.’?.
And it appears from the further trials of the fame cultivator,
that the following fubitances have much effeét, not only in
promoting the growth and rendering the herbage more fine
and {weet, but in renovating the fward:—the ferapings of
the road, fand drift, fold-yard liquor, and watering; and
that the effects of other manures would feem to be chiefly in
promoting the luxuriance of the grafles, and of courfe to be.
principally advantageous in increafing the quantity of pro~
duce; fuch as ‘ tallow-chandlers’? graves, when ufed in
proportion of a ton an acre; and night-foil, when laid on to
about three horfe cart loads the acre. And that in fixing,
producing, and rendering the white clover more permanent,
marle, or itrong cold land, and coal-afhes, on wet foils,
have been highly beneficial. On the drier clayey lands in
Cornwall, <<‘ {ea-fand has been found to mellow the clay, and
make them hold the grafes.’? And on what are termed
ftone brafh lands, the ufe of marle is often found of great
utility, when applied in the latter part of the fummer of the
firft year of the lay. But it is neceflary, to the fuccefs of
this fort of application, that the ground be well covered
with grafs before itis applied ; as where the furface is much
expoted, the marle is liable to plaifter and cake together,
and the young grafs-plants to be, in confequence, expofed }
to much injury from the heat of the fummer. This fub-.
ftance feems to bring up the beft fort of natural grafles; but.
in time it finks below the reach of vegetation. About
thirty cart-loads are fufficient for the acre. And chalk, on -
the deep loamy clays, was found by Mr. Davis an ufeful
application the firft year on new lays, in the proportion of ,
about twenty loads to the acre. On the more fandy forts.
of land, clayey marle may be of great advantage in efta-.

7 ° blifhing ©

LAY

blifhing thg grafs; and on peaty or moory lands, marle and
other fimilar materials will be found of advantage in ren-
dering them more compatt, and better fuited for preferving
the graffes; as well as fand and road-ftuff, for fining the
herbage, and rendering it more palatable to the flock. |
Though ‘foot has been much ufed as a top-drefling, it has
not been found that its effeéts laft beyond the firft year. It
has been tried to the amount of fixty buthels fer acre, at Sd.
per buthel; perhaps it fhould be ufed in larger quantity.
Lime is et as dear, and of that 160 buthels have been
ufed per acre on arable land. Soot fhould perhaps be laid
onto thatamount. Sugar-bakers’ fcum has been ufed with
great fuccefs to the amount of two loads an acre, at half a
guinea per load, which has been found a ftrong warm ma-
nure, highly ferviceable on cold land, its effects being per-
manent. Lime is alfo found ufeful on the more friable red
Joamy foils, by fixing and rendering them more clofe, to
keep the vegetation more to the furface, as well as to pro-
mote the growth of the natural graffes, and prevent their
roots from being injured by the heat of the fun. And wool-
Jen rags, though not generally ufed as manure on grafs-land,
when chopped fmall, have been fpread with advantage on
young clovers before winter, to the amount of about 1o cwt.
per acre,’ being ufeful in protecting and nourifhing the
young grafs-plants in their more tender growth, but they
are flow in producing their beneficial effects. ; :
On applying, in order to compenfate for an immediate
crop of hay, and to thicken the {ward on one part of a field,
rotten dung about eight tons to the flatute acre, on another
part woollen rags chopped at the rate of ro ftones to an
acre 5 and on a third a rich marle in the proportion of about
So tons to the ftatute acre ; Dr. Campbell found, on com-
paring their effets two years afterwards, that ‘ the dung
had produced the greater Juxuriance. The. woollen rags
had a fuperior verdure, a deeper green :. but as they had not
yet been properly incorporated with the land, by the grafs
growing over them, their ultimate produce could not be
afcertained.”? An acre of land may, it is fuppofed, « be
manured by this means for about 3/. effectually, fhould they
te found to anfwer the purpofe.”? The fame is the cafe
with “the marle, which having covered the ground into
which it is not yet carried down by the rains, and the grafs not
having-grown through, it has at prefent rather done harm
than good.”’ On this account, he fuppofes that ‘¢ marle is
long in producing its beneficial effeéts, and the return of
which cannot be looked for in lefs than two or three years.’?
It is evident from thefe facts, that different effets may be
produced on grafs-lands by the application of different forts
of fubikances or materials to them in the manner of. top-
dreffings after they haye been laid down to grafs;,.and that
«<where fine herbage is the principal object in view, coal
afhes and compofts of the earthy kind formed from fand,
mud, fcrapings of roads, .and other fimilar materials, inti-
mately blended and incorporated with fuitable proportions
of well.rotted dung, may be the moft beneficial applica-
tions ;’’ alfo that “the liquor of fold yards and watering

may be ufeful in the fame intention as well as thofe of reftor-.

ing the grafs-plants or fwards, and promoting the luxuriance
or the crops.”?* But that ‘* where the increafe of produce
is chiefly aimed at, good dung in a well reduced ftate, tal-
Jlow-chandlers’ graves, night foil, chopped rags, foot, fcum
of fugar, and other fubftances of the more animal kind, are
the moft effeQual and proper.”’? While in the intention “ of
-eftablifhing, preferving, rendering durable the different
-graffes, marle, lime, chalk, the folding of fheep, and other
-fubftances and prattices of the fame fort, will be the moft
propemfor producing fuch effeéts.”’ And that in “ render.

LAZ

ing the lands more firm and folid, the three laft fubftances
may perhaps be employed with the greateft fuccefs and ad-

vantage.’’ See Mawure and Grass Land.
Layine- out Homeftalls. See Homesrary and Farm
Buildings.

Layinc-out Lands, the manner of diftributing the land of
a farm or an eftate. See Fan.

Layine-out Roads, in Rural Economy, the mode of plan-
ning and laying out the lines of roads. See Roans.

Layinc-down, or Laying-off, in Ship Building, delineat-
ing the fhip to its full fize from the given draught upon the
mou!d-loft floor, for the purpofe of making the moulds by
which the feveral parts of the fhip is provided.

LayinG, in Ropemaking, the clofing of the flrands toge-
ther, to compofe the rope.

Layine-hook, the hook on which the ftrands are all hung
together for laying or clofing.

LAYKAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the S.W. coat of Celebes. S. lat. hale
E. long. 119° 51'.

LAYMAN, a perfon not engaged in any order of eccle-
fiaitics: accordingly, in the diftribution of the people, /aity
is oppofed to the clergy, and may be divided into three
difting flates, viz. the civil, the military, and the maritime.

Layman, among Painters, a little tatue, or model, ei-
ther of wax or wood, whofe joints are fo made, that it may
be put into any attitude, or pofture. Its chief-ufe is for
oF cafting and adjufting draperies, for the clothing of

ures.

ve call it, after the French, maneguin, q. d. a little
main.

LAYMABAMBA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the jurifdiGtion of Chacapayas.

LAYMOU, a town-on the S. coaft of the ifland of
Ceram.

LAYR. See Lair.

LAZA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in Galicia; 18
miles E.S.E. of Orenfe.

LAZANILLA, a town of the ifland of Cuba; 4@
miles E.N.E. of Spiritu Santo.

LAZARE Buey, a town of Spain, in New Cattile;
eight miles from Toledo.

LAZARETTO, a {mall ifland in. the Mediterranean,
near the N. coaft of the ifland of Candy, formerly ufed by
the Venetians as a lazaretto, .but now deferted.

Lazaretto. Vecchio, [/, a {mall ifland-in the neighbour-
hood of Venice, formerly called « St. Maria of Nazareth,”
from a church of that name built by Auguftin Hermits in
1249... Since the year 1422, all fhips coming from the Le-
vant, are to perform quarantine in this ifland, for which
purpofe it was provided with the neceflary inns, which were
rebuilt and enlarged in 1365. Here all the fhips and mer-
chandize are clofely infpeéted, under the direétion of a de--
putation of the fenate.

Lazaretro, or Lazar-houfz, a public building, in man-
ner of an hofpital, for the reception of poor fick.

Lazarerto, in fome countries, is an @ifice appointed
for perfons coming from places fufpe&ted of the. plague, to
perform quarantine. See QUARANTINE.

This is ufually a large building, at a diftance from any_
city, whofe apartments itand detached from each other, &c.
where fhips are unladen, and their crew is laid up for forty
days, more or lef{s, according to the time and place of their -
departure,

We are indebted to John Howard, efg., the moft diftin-
guifhed philanthropift, who has appeared in this or any
other country, and whofe fervices in the caufe of humanity

cans

LAZ

.gan-never be forgotten, (fee his biographical article,) for a
particular account of all the principal lazarettos in Europe,
with plans of the buildings, a detail of their chief regula-
tions, and very important and ufeful hints for their improve-
ment. With this view he determined, towards the end of the
year 1785, notwithitanding the expence and danger which
e thus incurred, to vifit them in perfon. Accordingly, the
firft lazaretto which he infpe&ted was that at Marfeilles,
which is fituated.on an elevated rock near the city, at the
end of the bay, fronting the fouth-weft, and commanding
the entrance of the harbour. This is a {pactous building,
and its fituation renders it very commodions for the great
trade whivh the French carry on in the Levant. Within the
lazaretto 1s the gevernor’s houfe, a chapel, in which divine
ferviceis reguiarly performed, and a tavern, from which per-
fons-under quarantine may be fupplied with neceffaries. In
order to prevent any communication, that is not allowed by
the regulations of the eftablifhment, there is a double wall
round the lazaretto ; and at the gate there is a bell for
calling any perfon within this inclofure ; and by the number
and other modifications of the ftrokes, every individual
knows when he is called. At Genoa, whither Mr. Howard
next proceeded, the lazaretto is fituated on the fea-fhore,
mear the city, detached from other buildings, and encom-
pafled by a double wall. Another lazaretto, bylonging to
the Genoefe, ftands on a rifing ground at Varignano, near
the gulf or noble port of Specia. At Leghorn there are
three lazarettos ; ove uf which is new, having been ereéted
in the year 1778. The lazaretto at Naples is very {mall ;
that at Meflina hes on an ifland near the city. At Naples
there are two kinds of quarant’ne performed; one by fhips
with clean bills of health, and the other by fhips with foul
bills. The firit, called the petty quarantine, laits 18 days, and
the fhips which perform it lie at the entrance of the port
near the health-office. ‘The other, called the great quaran-
tine, is performed at a lazaretto, fituated on a peninfula near
the city. ‘The health-oflict at Zante is in the city at the
water fide. The old lazaretto is diitant about half a mile
from the city, and fituated on a rifing ground near the fea.
There is another called the new lazaretto, which is appro-
priated to a numerous body of peafants, who pafs over to
the Morea to work in harveft time; on their return, they
perform here a feven days’ quarantine ; and other p:rfons
perform 14 days’ quarantine in the old lazaretto. The laza-
retto at Corfu is finely fituated on a rock furrounded with
water, about a league from the city. The lazaretto of
Cattel-Nuovo, in Dalmatia, is on the fhore, about two miles
from the city; at the beck of it there is a delightful hill,
which belongs to a convent of friars. Perfons in quaran-
tine, after sree days, are allowed to walk there, and divert
themfelves with fhooting, &c. In order to obtain the moft
complete and fatisfattury information by performing the
ftricteft quarantine, our author determined to go to Smyma,
and there to take his paflage to Venice in a fhip with a foul
bill. He was thus enabled to give a particular account of
his reception and accommodation in the new !azaretto of this
city, which is chiefly affigned to Turks and foldiers, and
the crews of thole fhips which have the plague on board;
and this he thought to be the more neceflary, as the rules
and tarifls of the other lazarettos in Europe have heen evi-
dently formed from thofe eftablifhed at Venice. The city
of Venice has two lazarettos, appropriated to the expurga-
tion of merchandize fufceptible of infection, eoming from
fufpeéted parts, and for the accommodation of paflengers
in performing quarantine ; as alfo for the reception of per-
fons and effects infeed in the unhappy times of peflilence.
‘The old lazaretto is two miles, and the new about five miles

LAW

diftant from the city, both on little iflands, feparated from
all communication, not only by broad canals furrounding
them, but alfo by high walls; they are of large extent,
being about 400 geometrical paces in circumference. Of
thefe Mr. Feet has given a particular defcription, with
an account of the regulations, and mode of government to
which they are fubject, and a plan of the old lazaretto,
At Triefte there are two Jazarettos; one new, but both
clean, and a contraft to thofe which our author had feen at
Venice. Of the new one he has given a plan. It is furs
rounded, at the diftance of about 20 yards, by a double wall,
within which are feparate burying places for Roman Catho-
lics, Greeks, and Proteftants. Mr. Howard clofes his
acceunt of the principal lazarettos in Europe, with the out-
lines of a proper lazaretto, and an engraved fketch of a plan
for its conftru@tion. He has alfo fubjoined, in minute detail,
various pertinent remarks ref{peGling quarantines and laza-
rettos in general; together with obfervations on the im-
portance of a lazaretto in England, im its conneétion with
the advantages which our commerce might derive from it.
See “ An Account of the principal Lazarettos in Europe,
&c."” by John Howard, F.R.A. Warrington 1789, 4to.

By 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 80. § 23. is 1s enacted, that if
any found perfon fhall enter any lazaret, he fhall perform
quarantine ; and if he fhall return from thence (unlefs duly
licenfea), or fhali efcape, or attempt to efcape, he fhall be
guilty of felony without benefit of clergy. See Quaran-
TINE. “
LaZARerTo, a name given to an hofpital fhip, which is
for the reception of the fick, or perfons fuppofed to be in«
fe&tious. It is alfo the name of a place parted off at the
fore part of the lower deck in fome merchant fhips, for the
conveniency of laying up the provilions, ftores, &c. necef-
fary for the voyage. :

LAZAREVA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk, on the Lena; 32 miles S.W. of
Kirenfk.

LAZARI Morsus, a name given by fome writers to the
elephantiafis. Rh

LAZARIA, in Geography, atown of Portugal, in the
province of Beira; fix miles S.E. of Lamego.

LAZAROLE, in Botany. See Mepiar.

LAZARUs, Sr. or Lazaro, a military order, infti-
tuted at Jerufalem by the Chriilians of the Weft, when they
became matters of the Holy Land; whofe bufinefs was, to
receive pilgrims under their care, guard them on the roads,
and defend them from the infults of the Saracens.

Some fay, this order was initituted in 1119.

The knights of this order, being driven out of the Holy
Land in 1 253, followed St. Lew:s into France; who, in return
for the fervices they had done him in the Eait, confirmed the
donations made to them by his predeceffors, put them into
pofleflion of feveral houfes, commanderies, and hofpitals,
which he had built and endowed with ample privileges, and
procured from Alexander IV. in 1255 a bull, confirming the
order, and giving them permiffion to obferve the rule of St.
Augufline. In the year 1490, pope Innocent VIII. fup-
prefled their order, and united them to the order of St. John
of Jerufalem ; but the bull iffued for that purpofe was not
received in France. In 1572, pope Grezory XII. united
thofe of the order in Italy with that of St. Maurice, (which
fee,) then newly inflituted by Emanuel Philibert, duke of
Savoy. And, t» 1608, this order was united in France to
that of our Lady cf mount Carmel, which had been initi-
tuted by Henry IV., and it obtained fome new advantages
from Louis XIV. ‘The knights of St. Lazarus, and thofe
of our Lady of mount Carmel, are allowed to marry, and,

at

LAZ

at the fame time, to poffefs penfions charged upon eccle-
fiaftical livings. The badge of this order is a crofs ess
that of Malta) of eight points, made of pure gold, edged
with white enamel; the middle, or nucleus, of the crofs is
enamelled crimfon, and on. it is the image of the bleffed
virgin and child proper; the reverfe has the middle ena-
melled green, on which is the figure of St. Lazarus; between
the rays of the crofs are four fleurs-de-lis, and on each of
the points a {mall gold ball. The crofs is faftened to a broad
crimfon ribbon, and is worn either on the breaft or fearf-
wife. t
Lazarus, Fathers of St., called alfo Lazarites, a name
given to certain regular clerks of a congregation inftituted
in France, in the feventeenth century, by M. Vincent.
They take the denomination from a houfe in the Faux-
bourg St. Denis of. Paris; they have a feminary in Paris,
called the feminary des bons enfans. The vows they make
are fimple, and may be difpented with on occafion.
LAZICA, in Ancient Geography, a country of Afia, S.
of the Phafis, and N. of Armenia. ‘This country was in-
habited by a tribe of people called Lazi, who have to this
day prefervéd their name, and are known among the Turks
under the denomination of Zazas, and their country is
called the country of the Lazas, or the province of Trebi-
zond. In the time of Pliny, Arrian, and Ptolemy, the
Lazi were a particular tribe on the northern fkirts of Col-
chos. In the age of Juftinian, they fpread, or at leatt
reigned, over the whole country. At prefent they have mi-
grated along the coait towards Trebizond, and compole a
rude fea-faring people, with a peculiar language. . As the
ftrength of the Roman empire was gradually impaired, the
Romans ftationed on the Phafis were gradually withdrawn
or expelled about the beginning of the 2d century of the
Chriftian era; and the tribe of the Lazi, whofe potfterity
(as we have faid) fpeak a foreign dialeé&t, and inhabit the
fea coalt of Trebizond, impofed their name and dominion on
the ancient kingdom of Colchos. Their independence, how-
ever, was foon invaded by a formidable neighbour, who had
acquired, by arms and treaties, the fovereignty of Lberia.
The dependent king of Lazica received his fceptre from
the Perfian monarch, and the fucceffors of Conftantine ac-
quiefced in this injurious claim, which was proudly urged
as a right of immemorial prefcription. In the begiuning of
the fixth century (A.D. 522.) their influence was reftored
by the introduétion of Chriftianity. After the deceafe of
’ his father, Zathus was exalted to the regal dignity by the
favour of the great king ; but the pious youth abhorred the
ceremonies of the Magi, and fought, in the palace of Con-
ftantinople, an orthodox baptifm, a noble wife, and the al-
liance of the emperor Juttin. The king of Lazica was fo-
lemnly invefted with the diadem, and his new patron foothed
the jealoufy of the Perfian court, excufing the revolt of Col-
chos, by the venerable names of hofpitaliry and religion.
The common intereft of both empires impofed on the Col-
chians the duty of guarding the pafles of mount Caucafus,
where a wall of 60 miles is now defended by the monthly
fervice of the mufqueteers of Mingrelia. But this honovrable
connection was foon corrupted by the avarice and ambition
of the Romans. Degraded from the rank of allies, the Lazi
were inceflantly reminded, by words and aétions, cf their
dependent ftate. At the diftance of a day’s journey beyond
the Apfarus, they beheld the ring fortrefs of, Petra, which
commanded the maritime country to the fouth of the Phatis.
Inftead of being protected by the valour, Colches was in-
fulted by the licentioufnefs, of foreign mercenaries; the
benefits of commerce were converted into bafe and vexatious
‘monopoly ; and Gubazes, the native prince, was reduced

VoL. XX.

LAZ

to a pageant of royalty by the fuperior influence of the
officers of Juftinian. Difappointed in their expeétations of
Chrittian virtue, the indignant Lazi repofed fome confidence
in the juftice of am unbeliever, and after a private affurance
that their ambafladors fhould not be delivered to the Ro-
mans, they publicly folicited the friendfhip of Chofroes,
The fagacious monarch difcerned the ufe and importance of
Colchos, and meditated a plan of conqueft. His ambition
was fired by the hope of launching a Perfian navy from the
Phafis, of commanding the trade and navigation of the
Euxine fea, of defolating the coaft of Pontus and Bithynia,
of diftrefling, perhaps of attacking, Conftantinople, and of
perfuading the barbarians of Europe to fecond his arms and
counfels again{ft the common enemy of mankind. Accord-
ingly he led his troops to the frontiers of Iberia; they were
conducted by Colchian guides through the woods and along
the precivices of mount Caucafus; and a narrow path was
formed into a fafe and {pacious highway, for the march of
cavalry and even of elephants. Gubazes laid his perfon and
diadem at the foot of the king of Perfia ; his Colchians
imitated the fubmiffion of their prince, and after the walls
of Petra had been fhaken, the Roman garrifon prevented,
by a capitulation, the impending fury of the laft affault.
But the Lazi {oon difcovered that their impatience had urged
them to choofe an evil more intolerable than the calamities
which they ftrove to efcape. The monopoly of falt and
corn was effectually removed by the lofs of thofe valuable
commodities ; the authority of a Roman legiflator was fuc-
ceeded by the pride of an oriental defpot, who beheld, with
equal difdain, the flaves whum he had exalted, and the kings-
whom he had humbled, before the footitool of his throne.
The adoration of fire was introduced into Colchos by the
zeal of the Magi; their intolerant fpirit provoked the fer-
vour of Chriltian people ; and the prejudice of nature or
education was wounded by the impious practice of expofing
the dead bodies of their parents, on the fummit of a lofty
tower, to the crows and vultures of the air. The Lazt
were alfo apprized that Nufhervan had given fecret orders for
affaffinating their king, for tranfplanting them into fome
diltant land, and for fixing a faithful and warlike colony on
the banks of the Phafis. In thefe circumftances the Col-
chians, apprized of the ruin ‘that awaited them, folicited
the clemency and fuccour of Juftinian ; who, from motives
of policy, determined to expel the Perfians from the coaft of
the Euxine. The fiege of Petra (which fee) was imme-
diately undertaken. Thus commenced the Celchian or
Lazic war, A.D. 549. Notwithftanding fome fplendid
advantages obtained by the troops of Juftinian, the Perfians
occupied the pafles of Siberia; Colchos was enflaved by
their forts and garrifons ; they devoured the fcanty fufte-
nance of the people; and the prince of the Lazi fled into
the mountains. At length, the prudence of Chofroes re-
I'nquifhed the profecution of the Colchian war, under a
perfuafion that it is impoffible to reduce, or at leait to hold
a diftant country againit the withes and efforts of its inha-
bitants. The fidelity of Gubazes fuftamed trials of the
moft rigorous kind; he patiently endured the hardfhips of a
favage life, and rejeGted, with difdain, the {pecious tempta-
tions of the Perfian court. The kiug of the Lazihad been
educated in the Chriftian religion ; his mother was the daugh-
ter of a fenator; he had ferved 10 years.a filentiary of the
Byzantine palace ; and thearrears of an unpaid falary were,
a motive of attachment and of complaint.. The lieutenants
of Juitinian prejudiced the emperor againft him; perfuaded
him that a fecond defection was meditated; an order was
iffued to fend the king’ prifoner to Conftantinople, and a
treacherous claufe was inferted in it, that he might be law-

3H fully-

L.A.Z

fully killed in cafe of refiftance; and Gubazes, without
arms, or fufpicion of danger, was {tabbed in the fecurity of
a friendly interview. In the firft moment of rage and de-
fpair, the Colchians would have facrificed their country and
religion to the gratification of revenge; but the counfel of
the wifer men among them prevailed; and the emperor,
anxious to avoid the imputation of fo foul a murder, com-
miffioned a judge of fenatorial rank to enquire into the con-
dué& and death of the king of the Lazi; and fome fatis-
faction was granted to an injured people by the fentence and
execution of the meaner criminals. After 20 years of de-
ftruétive though feeble war, Chofroes was perfuaded to re+
nounce his claim to the pofleffion or fovereignty of Colchos
and its dependent ftates. Gibbon’s Decl. &c. of Rom.
Emp. vol. viii See Coxcuis, Mineretia, and TReEsI-
ZOND.

LAZISE, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Vero-
nefe, on the E. bank of lake Garde, with a harbour, a cuf-
tom-houfe, and acaftle ; five miles W. of Verona.

LAZIVRAD, in Natural Hiftory, one of the oldeit
names by which we find the lapis lazuli expreffed in av-
thors.

LAZULI Lapis, or Lapis Lazut1; Azure Stone, Jam. ;
Lafurflein, Wern.; Lazulite of Hatty and Delameth. (not
of Werner); Pierre d’ Azur, Broch.; Lazulite outremer,
Brong. ; Lazurus orientalis, Linn.

The colour of this mineral is azure blue, generally perfeét,
but alfo pafling into Berlin blue and {malt blue, feldom into
fky blue: fome varieties thew a flight tint of greenifh-
blue.

Tt occurs generally maffive, in rolled pieces and diffemi-
nated; alfo indiftin@ly cryftallized. The regular cryf-
tal form mentioned by Lhermina, and other French mineralo-
gifts, is that of the garnet dodecahedron ; but whether this
be the primitive or a fecondary form, or whether it belong at
all to the real azure ftone, is as yet undecided. _

Its internal luftre is gliftening and glimmering. FraCture
uneven, fine-grained.

Fragments indeterminately angular, more or lefs fharp-
edged, and flightly tranflucent on the edges.

It feratches glafs, and is eafily frangible.

Specific gravity of the Perfian, (according to Briffon and
Blumenbach,) 2.771; 2-896, (Kirwan) ; of the Siberian
2.945, (Briffon). ' ed
‘ Tt is infufible before the blowpipe ; but at a ftill higher
degree of heat its natural colour gives way to a bluifh-
grey, and it runs into a whitifh enamel. Klaproth obtained
a dark-coloured, femitran{fparent, glaffy globule, covered with

ains of iron. If previoufly calcined it forms a jelly with
acids. This latter obfervation was firft made by Merge,
who, as early as the year 1788, publifhed an analyfis of the
lapis lazuli, in which he fhewed that its colour is by no means
produced by copper ; his analyfis has been confirmed by
Klaproth, who found alfo alumine as a conftituent part,
which had been overlooked by his celebrated predeceflor.
Its compolition, as determined by Klaproth, is the tollow-

mg :

Silica - - 46
Alumine - - 14.50
Carbonate of lime 28
Gypfum- - 6.50
Oxyd of iron 3

Water - - 2

roo ©Klapr. Beitr. i. p. 196,

LAZ

The refult of an analyfis given by M. M. Clement and
Deformes, differs from the preceding: they obtained

Silica be + = S i
Alumine = i 4 = ay
Sulphur - - = i Soe
Soda - - - - - 22
Lofs Uh Cash aL At BOP Men) aah
100

They confider thefe conftituents as effential, and look
upon the 0.024 of lime, and the 0.015 of iron, which they
have fometimes found, as accidental ingredients. Thefe
chemifts have alfo obferved fome peculiarities in the charac-
ters of the earth, mentioned as pure filica in the above ana-
lyfis. This difcrepancy in the refults of the analyfes points
out the neceflicy of fubmitting the lapis lazuli to new che-
mical examination, which may throw light on the nature of
the matter that produces the vivid and intenfe colour of this
fubftance.

But little is known refpeéting the geognoftic fituation of
this mineral. We fee it difleminated in, and mixed with, a fealy
cryftalline lime-ftone; alfo with quartz, and moft frequently
with iron pyrites. ‘The Siberian azure ftone (which is diftin-
guifhed from that called the Perfian by its lefs vivid cones
is faid to be the produétion of a vein near the lake Baika
in Siberia, where it is accompanied with feldfpar, garnets,
and. pyrites.

The fineft azure-ftone is found in China, Great Bucharia,
and Siberia. The true lapis lazuli has not yet been found in
Europe, except buried under the ruins of Rome. That
mentioned by Tournefort, as occurring near Ergeron in Ar-
menia, is probably a blue copper-ore; and that which, as
Mr. Pennant ftates,is found in great quantities in the ifland of
Hainan, in the Chinefe fea, (whence it is fent to Canton,
where they employ it in china painting,) may likewife turn
out to be different from the true lapis lazuli.

M. Patrin was informed by a dealer in ftones, whom he
met at Ekaterineburg in Siberia, and who had been in
Bucharia, that the lapis lazuli occurred there in granite; not
in veins, but diffeminated in ail forts of proportion: but
that it was extremely rare to find maffes, as thick as one’s
head, in which the blue generally predominated over the
white and the grey. The blocks examined by Patrin had
the appearance of being rolled: but he was informed they
were taken from the quarry, and that their roundnefs was
owing to their friétion again{ft each other in the carriage ;
though fometimes they were found by chance as boulders in
torrents, and that thefe were of the moft vivid blue. f

According to Laxmann, who refided feveral years in
Eaftern Siberia, rolled pieces of lapis lazuli are found on the
fhore of the lake Baikal, in a kind of gulf to the fouthward,
called the Koultouk ; but he fearched in vain for the moun-
tains from which thefe blocks had been detached, and he
could obtain no information on this fubjeét from the Buret
Tartars who inhabit that favage country. Patrin.

We have omitted mentioning Perfia among the countries
that furnifh this valuable fubftance, becaufe a traveller well
verfed in the ftudy of precious ftones denies its ever having
been found there. ‘In the copper-mines of Perfia,’’ fays
Tavernier, ‘veins of lazur have been found; which colour is
much ufed in the country for painting flowers on the ceilings
and roofs of apartments. Before thefe were difcovered, the
Perfians had no other lazur than the real kind which comes
from Tartary, and is exceedingly dear. The Perfian lazur
is a fort of copper-ore, which, when pounded ard fifted,
forms a fine paint, which appears very bright and pleafant.

10 After

LAZ

After this difcovery, the Perfians were no longer permitted
to purchafe the Tartarian lapis lazuli; and Manatee Be
iffued an order that painters fhould not ufe any but Perfian
blue. This prohibition, however, did not long continue :
for the Perfian pigment would not ftand the effects of the
atmofphere like the real kind, but, in the courfe of time,
became dark and of a difmal colour. Sometimes it was full
of fcales, and would not adhere to the end of a foft hair
brufh ; on which account it was foon neglected as a pig-
ment, and the lapis lazuli of Tartary again introduced.

The lapis lazuli is fufceptible of taking a good polifh, and
is therefore ufed for various ornamental and other purpofes,
fuch as the engraving of gems: (Sec Gems.) The variety
containing diffeminated pyrites, which the ignorant frequently
miftake for gold, is preferred for mofaic and other inlaid work,
&c. Moft profufely it was ufed for the laft-mentioned purpofe,
in the magnificent marble palace which Catherine ITI. built
at Peterfburg for Orlof, her favourite, and which has fome
apartments completely lined with lapis lazuli brought from
Great Bucharia.

Maffes that contain much quartz are lefs efteemed by the
lapidaries, and particularly by thofe who prepare from it the
ultramarine, a beautiful blue colour, fo called becaufe it was
originally brought from the trading towns of the Levant.
See ULTRAMARINE.

Pliny diitin@tly defcribes the lapis lazuli, but as a variety
of fapphire.

The lapis lazuli was formerly reckoned of fome ufe in
medicine : it was prepared by calcining and wafhing it feve-
ral times; which done, it made an ingredient in the famous
confeGtion of alkermes.
~ Thealchemical writers have given us proceffes for magif-
teries, tinétures, and elixirs of lapis lazuli, but they are
wholly out of ufe.

The method of making the Venetian counterfeit lapis
lazuli is this; melt in a pot, in a glafs-houfe furnace, equal
quantities of the faireft lattimo, and the whiteft cryftalline
glafs; when this is in fufion, mix into it, by {mall parcels
at atime, the blue fmalt ufed by the painters; make fre-
quent proofs of the colour, and when it is right let the whole
ftand twelve hours, and then work it. If the metal rife
in the pot, put in a piece of leaf gold to keep it down.
This makes a fine pale blue fubftance, reprefenting the plain
blue parts of the natural lapis lazuli. Neri’s Art of Glafs,

perry.

t A Hea feetiic lapis lazuli may be alfo made by fufing ten
pounds of either of the compofitions for hard glafs (fee
Colouring of Guass) with an ounce and a half of zaffer,
and half an ounce of magnefia, till a very deep tranfparent
blue glafs be produced. When the mafs 1s cold, powder it,
and mix with it three quarters of a pound of calcined bones,
horn, or ivory, by grinding them together: then fufe this
mixture with a moderate heat, till the ingredients are
thoroughly ifcorporated, and form the melted mafs into
eakes by pouring it on a clean bright plate of copper or iron.
In order to give it veinsof gold, mix gold powder with an
equal weight of calcined borax, and temper them with oil
of {pike let the cakes be painted with this mixture with
frefh veins as are defired, and then put into a furnace of a
moderate heat.

LAZULITE, or Lasurite of Werner (not that of
Haiiy, for which fee the preceding article) ; Azurite, Jame-
fon ; Siderite, Tromfdorff.

Colour indigo blue, from which it paffes into {malt blue.

Is found maffive, diffeminated, and’ cryftallized, as it
would appear, in four-fided and fix-fided prifms. Mr.

LEA

Bernhardi obferved the fame forms in the variety from Salz-
burg, but alfo the regular oAahedron with truncated edges,
pafling into the regular rhomboidal dodecahedron. In ge-
neral, the cryftals are very indiftin€& and fmall; and they
occur always imbedded.

It is gliltening and fhining, and of rather refinous luftre.

Longitudinal fraéture imperfetly foliated, crofs fra&ture
uneven. Fragments indeterminately angular. Its hardnefs
is inferior to that of common feldf{par.

It is brittle, eafily frangible, and not particularly heavy.

The chemical charaéters of lazulite, which diftinguifh
it from blue iron earth, are, according to Klaproth, firft,
its crumbling before the blowpipe into a whuitifh earthy
ma{s ; fecondly, its giving a clear light wine yellow, glafly
pearl, with borax, and a tranfparent white pearl with falt
of phofphor ; and, laftly, its not being operated upon either
by acids, or cauttic alkali.

Klaproth found the variety from Vorau, near Wiene-
rifch Neuftadt, in Stiria, to be compofed of filex, alumine,
and iron, but could not, from the {mellnefs of the quantity
he operated upon, afcertain their proportions. An analyfis
ofthe fame, by Heim, gave 0.65 alumine, and 0.30 iron.

Tromf{dorff’s analyfis of the variety from Salzburg has
given the following refults :

Silex - = 10
Alumine - 66
Magnefia - 18
Lime = a 2
Oxyd of iren 205
Lofs = - 1.5

100 Gehlen’s Journal.

Mr. Tromfdorff thinks that alumine and magnefia muft
be confidered as the effential parts of this mineral fubftance ;
hence Mr. Bernhardi is inclined to refer it to the fpinelle ruby,
with which Hauy has already united the ceylanite, or pleo-
naft, and which the lazulite refembles alfo with refpe& to
its cryftallization. But is not the hardnefs of the latter much
inferior to that of fpinelle?

To the above two localities where the lazulite has been
found, we may add that of Krieglach; for, indeed, the
fubftance known by the name of blue feldfpar of Krieglach
appears to agree in all its characters with thofe of Stiria
and Salzburg. In all thefe places it is found in, and grown
together with, white quartz, imbedded ina kind of mica
flate.

LAZZI, a denomination given by the Saxons to that
rank of people who were born to labour, and being of a
more fervile ftate than our fervants, becaufe they could not
depart from their fervice without leave of the lord, but were
fixed to the land where born and in the nature of flaves :
hence the word Jazz, or /azy, fignifies thofe of a fervile con-
dition. See EpHIzine.

LE roy &e veut, :

Us Bf AT: oes

LEA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall ifland of the /Egean
fea. Pliny.

Lea, in Geography, a river of England, which rifes in
Bedfordfhire, pafles by Hertford, Ware, &c. and falls inte
the Thames a little below London.

Lea of Yarn, is ufed in fome parts of England for a cer-
tain quantity of yarn. At Kidderminfter it ought to contain
two hundred threads, ona reel four yards about. Stat. 22

& 23 Car. IT.
3H 2 LEACH-

LEA
“‘LEACH-Bring, a word ufed by the Englifh falt-workers

to exprefs. the brine which runs out from the falt, when it
ftands in the bafket to drain, immediately after being taken
out of the pan; and alfo the liquor left in the pan, when
no more falt will fhoot. This is alfo called the mother-brine,
and dittern. In the German falt-works they always throw this
liquor away. In our brine-falt works in Chefhire they
always preferve it, and add it to the next boiling ; and in the
Newcattle, and other fea-water falt-works, they fave it for
the making the bitter purging falt, called Zp/om-/alt.

LEAD, in Mineralogy, Plumbum, Lat.; Plomb, Fr.; Bly,
Germ. ; Saturnus, Alchem. ‘The colour of lead is of a
blueifh-white ; when tarnifhed, it becomes yellowith. white,
then blueifh, and at laft blueifh- black. Luftre, when untar-
nifhed, 3; hardnefs, 5; and fpecific gravity fomewhere be-
tween 1r and 12, According to Briffon, it was 11.3523
and a {pecimen tried by Gellert, which was found at Frey-
burg, was eftimated at 11.445. Next to gold, platina,
and mercury, it is the heavieit metal, being upwards of
eleven times heavier than an equal bulk of water. (See
Specific Gravity.) The heavieft is reckoned the bett.
It ftains paper and the fingers. Next to tin, it is the moft
fufible of all the metals. It is foluble in moft of the acids,
though more readily fo in the nitrous diluted than the
others: By expofure to the moift atmofphere, it rufts or
oxyds. It is malleable and unelaftic, and its oxyd is eafily
fufible into a tranfparent yellow glafs. Having given this
general defcription, we fhall now confider the feveral com-
binations under which it is found in nature.

Ores of Lead.
Sp: 1. Lead Glance. Bleiglanz. This {pecies contains

two fubfpecies: (1) Common lead-glance, the ‘colour of
which is of a lead-grey, of different kinds of intenfity ; in

» ie ge.

frequently contains the greateft proportion of filver. It
fometimes prefents fuperficially an iridefcent tarnifh. It oc-
curs maflive, difleminated, in membranes, in angular pieces,
and in grains fometimes it is met with reticulated, {pecular,
corroded, and amorphous; feldom cylindrical, but often
cryftallized. The cryitalline form exhibits feveral varieties :
1, in the fhape of a cube, in which the planes are either
ftraight or fpherical convex; 2, the cube having angles
more or lefs deeply truncated; 3, the cube having its edges
and angles truncated at the fame time, but of thefe the latter
the mott deeply ; 4, oGtahedron, either perfe& or truncated
on all its angles; 5, octahedron having its angles and edges
truncated at the fame time; 6, re€tangular four-fided
prifms, acuminated on both extremities by four planes,
which are fet on lateral edges; 7, fix-fided prifms, acumi-
nated by four planes; 8, three-fided tables, in which the
terminal planes are bevelled. ‘T’he cryftals are ufually {mall,
or at moit middle-fized, either grouped on one another, im-
planted, or folitary. The planes of the cryltals are fome-
times {mooth, fometimes drufy, and fometimes rough. In-
ternally it alternates from {pecular {fplendent to glitening ;
on the external furface it is lefs bright, but its lultre is me-
tallic. Its fra¢ture is more or lefs perfect foliated, and its
fragments are cubical. In mafs it is often compofed of
granular, and rarely of lamellar diitin& concretions, which
are much grown together, and whofe fraéture has a radiated
afpect. It is foft, perfeGtly fettile, ealily frangible, and
the fpeciiic gravity is from 6.2 to 7.8 nearly. Before the
blowpipe it flies to pieces, and emits a fulphureous odour,
It is eafily tufible, and may be readily reduced on coal be-
fore the blowpipe. When it is alter ee, heated and
cooled, it at length difappears entirely ; an if it contain
filver, a globule of that metal remains behind. According
to Vauquelin, lead-glance contains the following ingre-

fome yarieties it inclines to a blackifh calt. The lead-grey dients:

From Kirfehwald, ;

in Deux Ponts. Kampfitein. Ecklerberg, Kantenbach, Cologne.
Lead - - - 54 69 68.69 64. 63.2
Sulphur - - - 8 16 16.18 18 12.
Carbonated lime and filex 38 15 16.13 18 19.67
Oxyd of iron - aetins ° ° ° 3-33

100 100 Iot 100 98.1

Dr. Thomfon gives the following as the refult of his ex-
periments :

Lead - - 85.13
Sulphur - = =/13.02
Oxydofiron - 0.5
98.65
Lofs - - 1.35
100

Hence, as is evident from the above tables, the proportion
of lead varies from 54 to rather more than 85 per cent. The
proportion of filver varies confiderably alfo; and it appears
to have an effle& on the external afpect of the varieties. It
fometimes alfo contains a fmall portion of iron; and gold has
even been found in lead-glance. It is, next to pyrites, the
moft common of metallic ores, and is found in beds and veins
in primitive, tranfition, and fecondary mountains. It oc-
curs almoft always with blende and calamine, with which it
appears to have a {trong geognoftic affinity. It is frequently

accompanied with filver ores, and fometimes with copper
ores. To mention all the places in which it is found, would
be to mention almoft all the known mineral diftri€@s in the
world, It is very abundant in Germany, and alfo in many
places in our own country. The lead-mines in Britain are
fituated in Cornwall, Devonfhire, and Somerfethhire, in
Derbyfhire, Durham, Lancafhire, Cumberland, and Weft.
moreland ; in Shropfhire, in Flintfhire, Denbsghfhire, Me~
rionethfhire, and Montgomeryfhire; at the lead-hills in
Scotland, on the borders of Dumfriesfhire and Lanarkthire,
in Ayrfhire, and at Strontianin Argylefhire. Lead-glance
is alfo found at Konigfberg in Norway ; in various parts of
Lapland, and in Denmark and Sweden; in feveral diftnGs
of Saxony, Hungary, Tranfylvania; in France, Italy, and .
Spain. Molt of the lead of commerce is procured from this
ore; it is alfo ufed without farther preparation ia the pot-

‘teries for coarfe work, and alfo in the fmelting of filyer ores.

Lead-glance is now generally ufed as a {cientific name, in
preference to the lefs fignificant but common one galena,
on account of its luftre, which forms a ftriking feature in the
external afpeét of this mineral. (2) ‘I'he fecond fabfpecies

5 is

LEAD.

is compadl lead-glance. The colour of this is very fimilar to
that of the common lead-glance. It occurs in mafs, dif-
feminated, and fpecular. ‘The latter is externally fmooth,
fhining, and fplendent ; internally it is glimmering, and its
luitre is metallic. Its fraéture iseven. [t acquires a polifh
by friétion ; its ftreak is fhining, almoft fplendent ; not fo
eafily frangible as the preceding fub{pecies ; but agrees with
it in the other characters. Its ‘necific gravity is about 7.4.
It occurs in veins, and is ufually accompanied with the
common lead-glance. When the two fubfpecies occur to-
gether, the compact always forms the fides of the vein, and
this probably owing to its having been in a lefs perfect {late of
folytion. It is accompanied with black blende, common
iron pyrites, copper pyrites, quartz, and heavy f{par. It is
found in the lead-hills in Lanarkfhire, and in Derby hire ; in
divers parts of Germany, and in the valley of Chamouni in
Switzerland.

Sp. 2. Blue lead ore Blaubleyerz, Wern. Mine de plomb
Bleue, Broch. The colour of this {pecies is intermediate be-
tween dark indigo blue and lead-grey. It occurs maffive,
and cryftallized in perfeét fix-fided prifms, which are ufually
{mall, low, fometimes bulging, with a furface rough and
dull. Internally it is feebly glimmering, and its luflre is
metallic. The fraéture is even, pafling into the fine-grained
uneven and flat conchoidal. Its fragments are indeter-
minately angular. It is opaque, gives a fhining metallic
ftreak, is foft, fectile, and eafily frangible. Its fpecific
gravity is 5.46. It eafily melts before the blowpipe, burns
with a weak blue flame, emits a {trong fulphureous vapour,
and is reduced to pure lead. It is conjeCtured to be a com-
pound of lead, oxyd of lead, and fulphur; and is fuppofed
by Werner to be intermediate between lead-glance and black
lead ore. Klaproth difcovered in it phofphoric acid. It
Occurs in veins, accompanied with black lead ore, white
lead ore, malachite, radiated copper azure quartz, fluor-
{par, and heavy fpar. It is not often to be met with, and
has hitherto been found only at Zfchoppau in Saxony, at
Schemnitz in Hungary, and Brittany in France.

Sp. 3. Brown lead ore. Braun bleyerz, Wern. La
mine de plomb brune, Broch. Its colour is hair-brown, of
different degrees of intenfity, fometimes very pale, ap-
proaching to grey, and fometimes it pafles into a clove-
brown. It occurs mafflive, and is cryftallized in fix-fided
prifms. The furface of the cryftals is blackifh and rough.
Internally it is gliftening, and its luftre is refinous. The
fraGture is {mall and fine-grained uneven, and fometimes
paffes into fplintery. It is foft, not very brittle, but eafily
frangible. Its {pecific gravity between 6.60 and 6.98. It
melts eafily before the blowpipe, without being reduced ;
and, during the cooling, fhoots into acicular cryftals. It
does not effervefce with acids. According to Klaproth, a
f{pecimen from Brittany contained,

Oxyd of lead - - 78.58

Phofphoric acid - 19-73

Muriatic acid - r 1.65

99-96

Lofs - = - 4
100

It is found at Miefs in Bohemia; alfo in parts of Hun-
gary, Saxony, and Lower Brittany. In Bohemia it is
ufually found accompanied with lead-glance, white, black,
and green lead ores, copper pyrites, blende, quartz, heavy
{par , &c, It occurs in veins.

Sp. 4. Black lead ore. Schavarz bleyerz, Wern, La
mine de plomb-noire, Broch, ‘The colour of this fpecies is
greyith-black, of different degrees of intenfity. It occurs
in mafs, difleminated or cellular, or cryftallized in fix-fided
prifms. It is externally fplendent, and internally only
fhining. Fraéture f{mall-grained uneven, which fometimes
pafles into imperfect conchoidal and fplintery, Fragments
indeterminately angular; itreak greyifh white; rather
brittle; eafily frangible. Specific gravity about 5.8. Be-
fore the blowpipe it decrepitates, and is quickly reduced to
a metallic eo According to Lampadius it confills of,

ead - - -

72

Oxygen - F a 7
Carbonic acid - = 18
Carbon - - 2
99

Lofs - - re
10Q

It occurs in veins, and is almoft always accompanied with
white lead ore and lead-glance, and ufually ia the upper part
of veins, and in new lead-glance formations. It very fre-
quently encrufts lead-glance, and is covered with white lead
ore, and fometimes by green lead ore. It is found in the
lead-hills of Scotland ; in different parts of Bohemia, Saxony,
Salzburg, Lower Brittany, and in Siberia. Previoufly to
the analyfis of Lampadius, Haiiy fuppofed it was a phof-
phate of lead ; and Werner fufpected that it was a compound
of lead, carbonic, and fulphuric acids,

Sp. 5. White lead ore. Wies-bleyerz, Wern. Mine de
far blanche, Broch. ‘This is a carbonate of lead: its co-
our is a greyifh or yellowifh-white, with very many different
fhades. It occurs maflive, diffemiinated, but moft frequently
in acryftallized ftate. The chief varieties are, 1, the cunci-
form oétahedron; 2, the pyramidal dodecahedron; 3, the
preceding, with a fix-fided prifm interpofed between the py-
ramids ; 4, the fame as variety 3, with fummits of the ter-
minal pyramids replaced by a fix-fided plane; 5, a fix-fided
prifm, with fummits compofed of four planes; 6, the fame,
with fummits compofed of fix planes. The cryftals are
ufually fmall. Externally, it is {pecular fplendent, feldom
gliftening ; internally, it alternates from highly {plendent to
gliftening, and its luttre is adamantine, inclining fometimes
to femi-metallic, and fometimes to refinous, The fra¢ture
is commonly fmall conchoidal, but it frequently paffes into
fine-grained uneven, and even into fine {plintery. Frag-
ments indeterminately angular. It alternates from tranf{-
lucent to tranfparent, and is duplicating. It is foft, brittle,
and eafily frangible. Its {pecific gravity is from 6 to 7.24,
according to the different {pecimens that have been analyfed.
Before the blowpipe it flies to pieces, becomes red, yellow,
and laftly melts into a globule of metallic lead. It makes a
{trong effervefcence with acids. Its furface becomes black,
when expofed tothe vapour of fulphuret of ammonia. Its
conftituent parts are as follow ;

From Siberia,
analyfed by Maequer,

From the Lead-hills in Scotland,
analyfed by Klaproth,

Lead - - 67 Lead - - 77,
Carbonic acid - 24 Carbonic acid -~ 16
Oxygen - 6° Oxygen - 5
Water - Sse: Water . - 2

100 100

Li 'E: A.D,

But according to two other able chemifts, they are as follow :

From Zellerfeld. —_ Firft Analyfis. Second Analyfis.

Lead ~vibig 81.2 80.25
Carbonic acid - 16. 16.0
Oxyd ofiron - 0.3 0.18
Alumine - = 0.0 0.75
Lime - - 0.9 0.50
98 4 97-68
Lofs =| whe 1.6 2.32
100 100

It is almoft always accompanied with lead-glance, and
eccurs in a kind of repofitory. It occurs in veins that tra-
verfe tranfition rocks; though it is found with different
minerals, in different parts of the world. It is not a rare
mineral, but is feldom found in fufficient quantities to make
it worth while to feparate it from the adhering fpar, for the
purpofe of {melting. The fineft fpecimens of this ore that
are found in Britain come from the mines of Derbythire,
the Lead-hills in Scotland, and Minera in Denbighfhire. It
is alfo found on many parts of the continent,

Sp. 6. Green lead-ore. Griin Bleyerz, Wern. La.mine de
plomb verte, Broch. The colour of this fpecies is grafs-
green, which paffes on through the feveral fhades into green-
ifh-white. The olive and piftachio-green colours are the
moft common. It occurs maflive, fometimes reniform, but
moit commonly cryftallized. The varieties are, 1. Six-fided
prifms, having fometimes the lateral and terminal edges
truncated. 2. When the lateral edges of the prifm con-
verge towards their extremities, an acute, double, fix-fided
pyramid is formed. The cry‘tals are {mall ; externally
fmooth and fhining ; internally gliftening ; the lultre is re-
finous. Fracture {mall-grained, uneven. Fragments angu-
lar and blunt-edged: it is foft, rather brittle, and eafily
frangible. Specific gravity 6.27 to 6.94. Before the blow-
pipe it does not fly to pieces: it becomes white and melts
eafily into a greyifh-globule, but without being reduced
even with charcoal. It diffolves in acids without effervef-

eence. Its conftituent parts are, according to
Fourcroy
Oxyd of lead - 79
Phofphoric acid - 18
Oxyd of iron - I
Water - - 2
100
Vauquelin
Lead - - 45-18
Phofphorie acid - 13.17
Oxygen - - 4-05
Silica - - 32.
99-40
Lofs - 60
100

Green lead-ore is, when of a pale colour, apt to be con-
founded with the preceding fpecies; but it may be diftin-

From Ildekanfkoi. Tirft Analyfis. Second Analyfis,
Lead - = 74.0 77-50
Carbonid acid - 15.0 15-0
Oxyd of iron - 0.25 1.25
Alumine - 1.0 0.0
Lime’ - -, 1.0 0.0
Silicia Sais seep enor 2b 0.50
Water - - 4.0 0.0

95-50 94-25
Lofs - . 495 5075 i
100 100

guifhed by the following charateriftics: 1. The fracture
in this {pecies is fine-grained, uneven, but in white Jead-ore
it is more or lefs conchoidal. 2. Its luftre is refinous,
3. It is harder than white lead-ore. 4. It is of a greater
{pecific gravity. 5. Its cryftals are often aggregated ; and
6. Its prifms are generally fhorter than thofe of white
lead-ore. :

Sp. 7. Red lead ore. Roth Bleyerz, Werner. Red lead-
Spar, Wirwan. La mine de plomb rouge, Brochant. The
colour of this mineral is of a hyacinth-red, fometimes in-
clining to aurora, or morning red. It occurs moft com-
monly cryftallized in broad four-fided prifms, and but rarely
maflive, diffeminated, or in membranes. The cryftals are
\ middle-fized : the furface of the cryftals is ufually fmooth,
fometimes longitudinally ftreaked. Both externally and
internally it is {plendent, and its luftre is intermediate be-
tween adamantine and refinous. ‘The fra¢ture is foliated,
and the fragments indeterminately angular, It fometimes
inclines to tranfparency. It is foft, and in the interme-
diate ftate between very brittle and feétile: eafily fran-
gible, and its fpecific gravity is fomewhere between 5.6 and
60. It melts before the blowpipe into a blackith fcoria,
and may be partly reduced with borax. Specimens have
been analyfed by

Vauquelin Thenard
Lead whos &:) »9-572tOu- Oxyd/of lead.g Wp l= aemae
Oxygen - - 6.86 Chromic acid - 36
Chromicacid - 36.04
— 105
100

This mineral occurs in veins in gneifs and mica flate, where
it is accompanied with lead-glance, green lead-ore, iron
pyrites, brown iron-ftone, native gold and quartz. It is
found in Siberia; at Annaberg, in Auftria; and at Upper
Faucigny, in Savoy. It is much ufed as a pigment, on
account of its beautiful colour, its durability in the atmo-
{phere, and its mixing readily with oil. .

Sp. 8. Yellow lead-ore. Gelbes Bleyerz, Werner. Yellow
lead-fpar, Kirwan’ and Hatchett. Plomb molybdate, Haiiy.
La mine de plomb jaune, Brochant. In this fpecies, which
has long been known to mineralogitts, the lead is mineralized
by a particular metallic acid, called the molybdie acid.
It occurs fometimes maflive, more commonly cryftallized in
{mall cryftals ; the forms of which are re€tangular tables
of four fides, or of eight fides, bevelled ; the cube, o¢tahe-
dron, equiangular eight-fided table, and double eight-fided
pyramid. The tables are ufualJy broad and thin, and alter-
nate from {mall to very fmall, but are feldom middle-fized.

They

LE A D.

They are fometimes united, frequently interfeét one another,
and form thus the cellular external fhape. Its colour is
wax-yellow, and its luftre diftin@tly waxy : it is tranflucent,
foft, and eafily frangible. Its {pecific gravity is rather
more than 5. It decrepitates before the blowpipe, then
melts into a globule of a grey colour, in which are diffe-
minated particles of metallic Jead. It gives a blueifh-white
colour to borax; it occafionally produces a glafs, which is
greenjfh-blue, and fometimes deep blue. Its conftituent
parts are, according to

Klaproth's Analyfis Hatchett’s Analyfis,

Oxyd of lead - 64.42 Oyxdof lead - 58.40
Ox#d of molybdena 34.25 Molybdic acid - 38.0
4 - Oxydof iron - 2.08
98.67 Silica - - 0.28
Lofs 1.33
- 98.76
100 Lofs 1.24
100
Macquart’s Analyfis
Lead - . 58.75
Molybdena - 28.0
Oxygen” - - 4-76
Carbonate of lime - 4.50
Silica - - 4.
100.01

It occurs on compact lime-ftone which is much traverfed
by seins of calc-{par, and is accompanied with molybdena
and yellow lead-earth; fometimes, alfo, with lead-glance,
white, black, and green lead-ore, calamine, blende, the calc and
fluor fpars. It is found principally in Carinthia; though
it is met with at Annaberg, in Auftria; alfo in Hungary,
Silefia, Saxony, Burgundy, in France, and other places.

Sp. 9. Lead vitriol, or fulphate of lead. Bléi vitriol,
Werner, Native vitriol of lead, Kirw. Plomb fulphaté,
Hatiy. Le vitriol de plomb natif, Broch. The colour of
this mineral is yellowifh grey, paffing to the greyifh-white ;
the lighter varieties incline much to white. It occurs only
in cryftals, the form of which-is retangular oftahedrons ,
with obtufe pyramids. The pyramids are often varioufly
truncated. Externally it is fhining ; internally itis {plen-
dent. The fraGture is compact; it is more or lefs tranf-
parent : is foftifh, rather brittle, and its fpecific gravity is
about 6.3. cis eafily reduced, when expofed to the flame
of the blowpipe; and is infoluble in the nitrous acid.
Specimens have been analyfed by Klaproth; the conftituent
parts are as follow: viz. of that from

Angletea Wanlock-head
Oxyd of lead - 71 70.50
Sulphuric acid - 24.8 25-75
Water of cryftallization 2 2.25
Oxyd of iron - I
98.8 98.50
‘Lofs - - 1.2 1.5
100. 100.

It occurs in lead-glance veins at Wanlock-head, and in
brown iron-{tone in the ifland of Anglefea. It has alfo been
found in lead-glance veins in Andalufia in Spain.

Sp. 10. Lead-carth. Bleyerde, Wern. is divided into two

fub-fpecies ; 1, the coherent; and 2, the friable. 1. The
coherent, or indurated, named Verhdrtete bleierde by Wer-
ner, and Le plomb endurci by Brochant, is of a yellowifh or
grec eter colour. It is fometimes of a fmoky-grey, and
ometimes of a light brownifh-red. It occurs in mafs. In-
ternally it is glimmering, pafling into gliftening, and its
luftre is refinous. Its fracture is fine-grained, uneven, pafling
into fine fplintery and earthy, alfo into flat conchoidal. It
is opaque, or,'at mott, flightly tranflucent on the edges. It
gives a brownifh ftreak, is foft, pafling into friable, not
brittle, but inclining to feétile, and heavy. It is ealily re-
duced before the blowpipe, effervefces with acids, and
becomes black with fulphuret of ammonia. It does not
appear to have been hitherto analyfed, but is fuppofed to be
in intimate combination with white lead ore, alumine, and
lime. It occurs with the other ores of lead, and is ufually
accompanied by iron pyrites, malachite, and quartz. The
yellow varieties are found in Derbyfhire, in fome parts of
Germany, at La Croix in France, and at Nertfchinfk in
Siberia. The other varieties are to be met with at Wan-
lock-head, in the Lead-hills in Scotland, in Saxony, Silefia,
Poland, &c. 2. Friable lead-earth. Zerreibliche bleierde,
Werner. Le plomb terreux friable, Brochant, is of a yel-
lowifh-grey, approaching~ to fulphur-yellow. It occurs
friable ; fometimes maflive and difleminated. It is com-
pofed of dull dafty particles, which are more or lefs coher-
ing, and foil a little. It has a rough feel, and is heavy.
It occurs on the furface, or in the hoilows of other minerals,
and is ufually accompanied with lead-glance, and other
ores of lead, and is found at Wanlock-head, and the Lead-
hills of Scotland, at Zellerfeld in the Hartz, near Frey-
berg, in the electorate of Saxony, in the mountains of
Cracow, Poland, at La Croix in France, and at Berefow{koi
in Siberia. It is in fome inftances obferved pafling into
folid lead-earth, and is probably formed by the decompo-
fition of lead-glance, as it is frequently met with as a cruft
upon it.

Sp. 11. Another {pecies is denominated a triple fulphuret
of lead. Its colour is dark-grey inclining to black. It occurs
cryftallized. Its primitive figure is a reGtangular tetrahedral
prifm, befides which it prefents the following varieties.
1., The primitive cryftal with folid angles replaced by tri-
angular planes. 2. The fame with lateral edges replaced by
rectangular planes. 3. The fame terminated by a very low
and deeply truncated tetrahedral pyramid. 4. Four prifms
with deeply truncated dihedral fummits joined together at
their bafes, forming a reCtangular crofs. The cryttals are
large and middle-fized, with a fplendent metallic luftre
both externally andinternally. Its fraéture is coarfe-grained
and uneven. It is brittle and eafily frangible. It leaves a
faint black trace when rubbed on paper. Specific gravity
5-8 nearly. When fuddenly heated before the blowpipe it
crackles and fplits; but if gradually heated it melts, and on
cooling formsa globule of a dull metallic grey colour. Ac-
cording to an analyfis made by Mr. Hatchett, it confifts of

Sulphur x = 2 17
Lead - - . 42.62
Antimony - = - 24-23
Copper - - - 12.8
Iron - - . 1.2
97-85
Lofs - - - 2.15
100

It is found in a mine at Huel-Boys in Cornwall.
The

Li E: A.D.

The exiftence of native lead, which has been maintained by
feveral mineralogilts, is extremely doubtful. What has
been regarded as a native oxyd of the metal, appears to be
rather an earthy carbonates

Affay and Analyfis of Lead Ores.—The moft common lead
ore, galena, is very ealily analyfed, fince it is in general com-
pofed of fulphur and lead only. ‘Thofe ores in which the
lead is combined with other metals, fuch as filver, copper,
antimony, bifmuth, or arfenic, are attended with more dif-
ficulty in their analyfis. If the analyfis be made witha view
to {melt the ore, it will be proper to make the affay in the
dry, as well as the humid way. The latter will not only
give the proportion of lead, but its other conflituents, by
which the fmelter is directed to ufe the moft proper fluxes.
When, however, the analyfis is made for publication, it
fhould be made by the humid procefs only, and with the
greateft accuracy.

The common galena may be analyfed by diflolving 100
grains in dilute nitric acid: the lead will be diffolved, and
the refiduum will be fulphur, which may be feparated by
wafhing. The folution of lead may now be treated with
fulphat of foda. The lead will be precipitated, with the
fulphuric acid in the flate of fulphat of lead. The preci-
pitate being colleéted, and dried at the temperature of 212,
mutt be weighed, allowing for every 100 grains of the ful-
phat 69.85 of lead. The lead may be precipitated from
the nitric acid, in the metallic, by means of a plate of zinc.
The metallic lead will adhere to the plate, and may be
{craped off and {queezed into lumps, after being wafhed in
clean water. The lead obtained by this procefs is fuppofed
to contain afmall portion of the zinc. It will, therefore,
be proper to digeft the metallic precipitate, for a fhort time,
in very dilute fulphuric acid, and then wafh the lead with
warm diftilled water.

A fpecimen of galena containing filex was analyfed by
Vauquelin.

By flowly roafting a portion of this ore, he found it
loft 12 per cent. of fulphur. Another portion was treated
with dilute nitric acid, which diffolved the lead. The re-
fiduuna was heated to rednefs, by which the fulphur was
volarilized, leaving behind 16.76 of fulphur. To the folu-
tion im nitric acid was now added fulphat of foda, when the
lead was precipitated in the flate of fulphat. He obtained
63.1 percent. of lead, allowing rco of fulphat to contain
75-72 of metalliclead. He then faturated the liquor with
ammoniac, which threw down 3.3 per cen¢. of oxyd of iron,
aud obtained from the remaining liquor, by carbonat of
potath, 3 per cent. of carbonat of lime.

4 fpecimen of lead ore from Cornwall, confifting of lead,
filphur, antimony, and copper, was analyfed by Mr. Hatchet.

To 200 grains of the ore, in amatrafs, he added 2072.
of muriatic acid. While the mixture was heated, he added,
fromtime to time, fmall quantities of nitric acid, ju{t to
keep up an effervefcence, till the metals were oxydated and
diffolvec. After being gently heated for an hour, the folution
was complete, and of a green colour, owing to the prefence of
the copper. The fulphur was feparated and floated on the
liquid, which being colleéted was digefted in muriatic acid.
When dried it weighed 34 grains.

The above folution, and the muriatic acid in which the
fulphur was digefted, were mixed together, and diluted with
fix pmts of diftiled water. The mixture became turbid and
milky, and on being filtered while hot, the pure oxyd of
antimony was left on the filter, which being wafhed with
more boiling water, was dried,.and found to weigh 63 grains.

When the liquid, which had paffed through the filter,
including the wafhings, was cold, fome muriat of lead was
depolited in cryftals, owing to the {paring folubility of that

falt. The whole was evaporated to a fmall quantity of
liquid, fufficient to hold the copper in folution. ‘This liquid,
being feparated from the folid muriat of lead, contained a {malk
portion of that falt. A few drops of fulphuric acid being
added, however, feparated it in the ftate of fulphat of lead.
The mafs of muriat of lead left by evaporation, was now
re-diffolved in boiling water, and decompofed by fulphat of
foda. The fulphat of lead here formed was added to that
produced from the feparated liquid, which, on being wafhed
and dried on a fand bath, weighed 120.2 grains, The green
liquid containing the remainder of the mineral was now fa-
turated with ammonia and an excefs added, which rediffolved |
the oxyd of copper, forming a vivid blue folution. A quagtity
of oxyd of iron now fubfided, which, when feparated,
weighed 2.4 grains.

The folution of copper was now evaporated nearly to
drynefs, and boiled with pure potafh, when the black oxyd
of copper was left at the bottom of the veffel, which being
watfhed, feparated, and dried, weighed 32 grains.

In this analyfis the fulphur is the only fubftance feparated
in aftate of purity. The 63 grains of oxyd of antimony,
allowing it to contain 23.08 per cent. of oxygen, would afford
48.46 of antimony. The 120.2 grains of fulphat of lead,
allowing 70.9 to the 100, will give 85.22 of metallic lead.
The 32 grains of oxyd of copper, reckoning the black
oxyd of that metal to contain 25 in the 100, will yield

24 grains. \ If we reckon the 2.4 grains of iron at 1.2 of
metal, the analy fis will dtand as follows, when reduced to 100.
Sulphur “ Z S 17
Antimony - - - 24.46.
Lead - - = 42.61
Copper - - - 12
Iron - - - - rz
97-27
Lofs s bs 2 2.73
100

Tf filver had been a conftituent of the ore, the above pro-
cefs would have been a little varied. In the firft operation
the ore would have been diffolved in dilute nitric acid, the
antimony would have been in part diflolved, and left at the
bottom of the veffel in the’ ttate of white oxyd. When the
fulphur and the antimony, by dilution with water, are fepa-
rated, muriatic acid muft be added. The lead will be in
part, and the filver entirely precipitated. The muriat of
lead may be feparated, by boiling water, from the muriat of
filver. The weight of filver may be rated at 77.52 in the
100 of muriat. ‘The other metals may be feparated as in the
lait procefs. Arfeniated lead ore requires a {till different
treatment. It was analyfed by Vauquelin as follows: 100
parts of ore were roafled for half an hour, occafionally adding
a little tallow, which ferved to reduce the arfenic and facili-
tate its efcape. By this treatment it loft 38 parts, which
was prefumed to be oxyd of arfenic; the remaining mafs was
boiled with ftrong muriatic acid for an hour. A quantity
of oxymuriatic acid efcaped, the liquid affumed a red colour,
and white needle-formed cryftals of muriat ef lead were de=
pofited. ‘The lead by this meaus was converted into a mu=
riat, which being diffolved in boiling water, and treated with
fulphat of foda, affords fulphat of lead. ‘This precipitate,
being feparated and dried, weighed 25 parts, which gave
20.2. of lead, allowing 80.8 to the 100 of {.lphat. The
liquid thus freed from lead being treated with pure ammo-
nia, afforded a precipitate equal to 39 grains, confifting of
oxyds of iron and arfenic. The circumftanc? of oxymu-
riatic acid being given out, when the oxyd of lead was di-

gelled

LE

gefted with muriatic, induced Vauquelin to conclude that it
was in a ftate of peroxyd.

In this account the laft part of the procefs appears incom-
plete, in the circumftance of the oxyds of arfenic and iron
being mixed together. The former of thefe may be fepa-
rated, boiling the two in nitromuriatic acid, which will con-
vert the oxyd of arfenic into arfenic acid, and which may be

feparated by wafhing.
- “Garbonat of lead was analyfed by Klaproth by the fol-
lowing procefs. He introduced 100 grains of this ore into
| 200 grains of nitric acid, and diluted it with 300 of water. The

carbonic acid efcaped in the form of gas, making a lofs of
weight equal to 16 grains. Into this folution was fufpended
a cylinder of zinc. In 24 hours the lead was precipitated
in the metallic ftate, which weighed 77 grains, equal to 82
of oxyd.

Sulphat of lead has been analyfed by the fame chemift :
yoo grains of the ore were firft roafted at a red heat,
and loft two grains, fuppofed to be water. The remainder
was then heated to rednefs in a platina crucible, with 400

rains of carbonat of potafh. By this treatment a yellow
reddifh mafs was obtained, which, on being digefted in water
and filtered, afforded 72 gtains of oxyd of lead. This was
. next diffolved in nitric acid, leaving a refiduum of one grain
| of oxyd of iron. A cylinder of zinc was introduced into
the folution, which precipitated the lead in the metallic form,
in quantity equal to 665 grains.

The alkaline matter which paffed through the filter _con-
tained the fulphuric acid of the fulphat of lead, with ex-
cefs of alkali ; thisexcefs was faturated with nitric acid, and
the liquid acetat of barytes was added, which caufed a pre-
cipitation of 73 grains of fulphat of barytes: this he allows
to contain 25 grains of real {ulphuric acid. Hence the re-

fult is

Oxyd of lead 72
Sulphuric acid 25
Oxyd of iron I
Lofs by roafting 2

100

We have alfo the analyfis of phofphat of lead by the fame
' ingenious experimenter.

One hundred grains of this native {alt were diffolved in di-
lute nitriz acid; into this folution nitrat of filver was
dropped till it ceafed to precipitate : the infoluble fubftance,
which was muriat of filver, weighed 11 grains, indicating
1.7 grains of muriatic acid. Sulphuric acid was now added
to precipitate the lead. The fulphat of lead weighed
106 grains, which contained 78.4 of oxyd of lead. The
excels of fulphuric acid was
rytes, and then nearly neutralized with ammonia. On adding
acetat of lead, 82 grains of phofphat of lead were preci-
pitated, containing 18.37 of phofphoric acid : muriatic acid
was now added to the folution, and evaporated to drynefs.
The dry mafs was digefted with alcohol, which diffolved the
muriat of iron, the prefence of which was deteéted by pruf-
fiat of potath, and was found equal to ¢,th of a grain of the

oxyd.

Molybdat of lead was analyfed by Mr. Hatchett. He
boiled a quantity of the ore in {ulphuric acid, till it would
diffolve no more. This formed fulphat of lead, while the
molybdic acid was diffolved in the fulphuric acid. The ful-
phat of lead was boiled with carbonat of foda, and was
afterwards wathed: this appeared to be carbonat of lead.
The nitric acid diffolved all but a {mall quantity, which was
found to be filex. The lead was next precipitated by ful-
phuric acid. The folution of the molybdic acid in the ful-

Vou. XX.

feparated by adding nitrat ofba- °

AD.

phuric acid was diluted with 16 parts of water, and fatu-
rated with ammonia; when a little oxyd of iron was preci-
pitated. ‘The folution was now evaporated to drynefs, and
a ftrong heat given to fublime the fulphat of ammonia.
The remaining mafe, when boiled with nitric acid to dry-
nefs, afforded molybdic acid of a yellow colour.

Although the analyfis of the different ores may have
pointed out general methods for the feparation of lead from
other metals, fome hints may, neverthelefs, be neceflary for
the analyfis of the alloys of lead. Lead is moft frequently
alloyed with tin, filver, antimony, or bifmuth. The alloy
of tin and lead may be diffolved in dilute nitric acid. . The
lead will be entirely taken up. Mott of the tin will be pre-
cipitated in the ftate of white oxyd, by the addition of water.
If fulphuric acid be now dropped into the folution till the
precipitation ceafes, the lead, in a ftate of fulphat, will be
obtained, while the remaining tin will be diffolved, which
may afterwards be precipitated by an alkali. Lead may be
feparated from filver, when both thofe bodies are diffolved in
pure nitric acid. The filver may be precipitated in the ftate
of muriat, by adding muriat of foda. The“ lead may be
afterwards precipitated by fulphuric acid.

To feparate lead from bifmuth, diffolve the alloy in nitric
acid, then add a large quantity of water, which will preci-
pitate the greateft part of the bifmuth in the ftate of white
oxyd. The lead mutt then be precipitated by fulphat of
foda, and the remainder of the bifmuth by potafh.

The feparation of lead from antimony may be performed
by the fame procefs ufed for feparating tin.

It may be here noticed, that in all cafes where fulphur is
prefent in the ore or fubftance to be analyfed, if the nitric acid
be employed, it mutt be very dilute, otherwife the fulphur
will combine with its oxygen, forming fulphuric acid. In
order to know when this takes place, the folution muft be
telted with nitrat of barytes. If, however, lead be prefent,
it will combine with the fulphuric acid as it is formed, and
fall to the bottom of the veflel.

Reduéion of the Ores, or Jinelting of Lead.—T wo proceffes
are employed for the fmelting of lead, the one by means
of a blaft furnace, called an ore-hearth, and the other by
means of a reverberatory furnace. ‘The latter is ufed
throughout Derbythire and North Wales, and is undoubt-
edly the beft, where coal is not very fearce. In the former
of thefe methods the ore and the fuel are mixed together,
and expofed to the blaft. The heat diffipates the fulphuret,
the ore being the common fulphuret of lead or galena.
A portion of the lead is oxydated, which facilitates the vitrifi-
cation of the earthy parts of the ore, and of the fuel.
Thefe together conttitute the flag or fcoria, The metallic
lead falls into the lower part of the hearth, and is defended
from the oxygen of the blaft by the fcoria, which is fluid
upon its furface. The liquid lead is let off from time to time,
always retaining a portion for the fcoriz to float upon.
When the whole. of the lead is to be drawn off, the blatt
muft be ftopped, and fome lime thrown upon the liquid
fcoria, which renders it concrete, while the lead, being itill
liquid, can be run off.

The reverberatory furnace employed for {melting lead is
made on the fame plan with thofe commonly ufed for

uddling iron, differing in fize, and a few other particulars.
he fire is made at one end, and the flame plays over the
hearth, entering an oblique chimney at the end, which ter-
minates ina perpendicular one, of confiderable height. The
length of the hearth, from the place where the fire en-
ters, to the chimney, is 11 feet; two feet of this length next
the fire conftitutes the throat of the furnace ; the width of
the fame is four feet, and its depth about fix inches; the
31 length

]

LE

length of the fire-place is four feet, equal to the width of
the throat ; its width two feet, and depth three feet, from
the grate up to the throat of the furnace, The rett of the
hearth is a concave furface, nine feet long, four and a half feet
wide at the throat of the furnace, feven fect four inches wide
at the diftance of two feet from the throat, feven feet two
inches in the middle of the hearth, five feet eleven inches at
two feet diltance from the chimney, and two feet ten where
the flame enters the chimney at two apertures, each ten
inches {quare. hele apertures terminate in the oblique part
of the chimney, the fection of which is 16 inches fquare,
which communicates with the main chimney, the fection of
which is twenty inches fquare, fuppofing a ftraight horizon-
tal line, drawn from the lower plane of the throat of the
chimney to the oppofite fide of the furnace ; the lowelt part
of the concave hearth, which is in the middle of this cavity,
is nineteen inches below this line, the roof of the furnace
being feventeen inches above the fame line: the reftof the
hearth is coiwformably concave.

On each fide of the furnace are three openings, each
about ten inches fquare, provided with iron doors, to be
removed as occafion may require. They are arranged at
equal diftances from each other, between the commence-
ment of the hollow hearth and the entrance into the chimney.
The lower part of thefe apertures is ona level with the hori-
zontal line above alluded to, being for the purpofe of

‘ dtirring and raking the ore, &c. Befides the larger open-
ings there are two {mall apertures, one below the large
middle opening, and nearly on a level with the bottom of
the furnace ; the other under that next to the chimney, at
fome diftance above the firft aperture. The firft is a tap-
hole for the lead, and the fecond for the fcoria. The ore
is introduced by a veffel in the fhape of a hopper, placed in
the roof of the furnace.

Previous to the ore being fmelted, it requires to be fe-
parated as much as poffible from the earthy matter in which
it is imbedded. Although galena, which is the ore ufed
for {melting, is moft feaquently accompanied by fulphat of
barytes, fluats and earbonat of lime, it is found to exift in
cryltalhzed diftinét maffes, and can be feparated from it by
mechanical ineans to a tolerable extent. The whole of the
ore, with the earthy matter, is pounded to a certain degree
with hammers, and is chiefly performed by women. In fome
places, however, it is broken down by pafling it through
iron rollers preffed together by great weights. After the
ore has been thus reduced, the earthy matter is feparated
by wafhing. The powder to be wafhed is introduced into
a fieve or riddle, and placed in a large tub full of water.
By a certain motion given to the riddle, the lighter or earthy
parts are thrown oyer the edge of the fame, while the galena,
by its greater fpecific gravity, is retained. This procefs
requires great dexterity, which can be acquired by expe-
rience only. ‘There are, however, fome impurities which
cannot be feparated by this mechanical procefs, and are ge-
nerally {melted with the ore. Thefe are blind, or black-
jack, called by the fmelter mock ore; pyrites, or fulphuret
of iron, named Brazil by the workmen. When the ore
abounds much with thefe fubitances, the procefs of fmelt-
ing is more difficult, and requires an extra affiftance of flux
to reduce it.

[In the ftate above defcribed, the ore is introduced at the
hopper in the middle of the roof of the furnace, and fpread
upon the concave hearth, to expofe it as much to the flame as
poflible, in order to facilitate the efcape of the fulphwr.
This fhould be performed by a long continued heat which
is not violent, in order that the fuiphuret itfelf may not
be volatilized, an*effe& which, more or lefs, always takes
place. ‘The moment the fulphur has left the lead it begins

A D.

to combine with oxygen. The oxyd of lead, thus formed,
combines with the earthy matter, which it renders fo fufi-
ble as to become liquid upon the fulphur of the melted
lead, and defends it from the future action of the oxygen.
At this ftage of the procefs the fire is raifed to feparate as
quickly as poffible the melted lead from the liquid fcoria.
‘The latter is now let off at the upper tap hole, leaving a
{mall portion {till upon the lead to preferve it from the air.
The fire at this period is lowered, and a quantity of coal-
flack thrown in upon the, melted mafs. This ferves as well
to facilitate the cooling, and to caufe the reduction of fome
oxyd of lead, which alfo tends to ftiffen the melted feoria.
This lait effect, however, is not produced fufficiently, tll
a quantity of powdered lime is thrown into the furnace,
By this treatment the remaining {coria becomes concrete,
and is then broken to pieces and pufhed to the oppofite
fide by means of a rake, and taken out of the furnace at the
different openings on the fame fide. The liquid lead is now
let out, at its proper aperture, intoa large iron pan, or
ciftern, from whence it is laded into moulds to caft into
pigs. The furnace is now ready to be charged again.
When the ore abounds with much impurity, the oxyd of
lead is not fufficient to give the-proper degree of liquidity
to the fcoria. In this cafe a certain quantity of fluat of
lime is added, which has the property of forming a very
fufible compound with fulphat of barytes, an ingredient
very common in the ore.

This flux has been ufed from time immemorial for the
fame purpofe, and has no doubt derived its name from its
properties as a flux. See fuat of Lime.

The concrete fcoria, which is taken out of the furnace,
is found to contain fome lead, independent of that in the
ftate of oxyd, and chemically combined. This is generally
lodged in the cavities of the fpongy mafs. Thefe maffes
are taken to a kind of blaft furnace, called a flag-hearth.
By this fecond fufion of the feoria, the lead drops through
the liquid mafs into the lower part of the hearth, where it
is not acted upon by the blalt, and from thence is let off
and caft into pigs. "This lead is faid to be of an inferior qua-
lity. Some ores of lead contain filver. The great affinity
of lead for that metal is fuch, that the whole of it is found
in the lead (fee Sinver), from whence it is afterwards
feparated.

Phyfical and chemical Properties of Lead—Lead is of a
bluifh-white colour, when made as bright as poffible. This
is belt effeted by f{eraping and burnifhing. This polifh it
foon lofes by expofure to air.

Its foftnefs is fuch, that a cylinder of one inch in dia-
meter and twelve inches long, may be eafily bent by a perfon
of ordinary ftrength; indeed, it is the molt foft and flexible
of the metals. Its fpecific gravity, according to Briffon,
is 11.3523, and fo far from being increafed by the'hammer,
agreeably to that change in other metals by the fame
effect, Mufchenbroeck afferts that it is diminifhed. It
may be here proper to obferve, that thofe metals which are
fufceptible of the moft perfec cryftallization, will undergo’
the greateft condenfation by the hammer, provided the
metal be fufficiently malleable. Hence we find this property
the moit confpicuous in brafs, and in bliftered fteel, See
Merat.

Lead, in common with its foftnefs, is the leaft elaftic of
the metals; to which alfo may be attributed its little tena-
city. its harduefs is increafed by hammering, and its tena-
city in a proportionate degree,

Lead is exceedingly malleable, which connected with its
exceflive foftnefs, admits of its being rolled into thin
fheets with little power. Its tenacity, according to: Dr.

2 Thomfon,

LEAD.

Thomfon, is fuch, that a wire of ae of an inch will fup-

port only 18.4 pounds. Lead fufes at about 600° of
Fahrenheit, and if railed to a much higher temperature,
will be found to diminifh by evaporation. If lead be
melted and poured into an iron mould, it will be found to
conerete on the fides next the mould, while the middle part
will be liquid for a fhort time. If this liquid part be
poured off, or let out ata plug-hole at the bottom, the
interior furface of the folid part will exhibit a cryftalline
form. The crytftals will be larger and more diftin@ as the
‘cooling is flower.

Lead is much employed in the arts, particularly for
buildings and cilterns. For the former of thefe purpofes
it has many advantages. It is eafily worked into any thape
on account of its great foftnefs, and is fufficiently malleable
to fold two edges over each other, fo as make it water-
tight without foldering. This isa very great advantage,
fince, when the pieces are foldered together, the expanfion
and contraction, by a change of temperature, foon breaks
it to pieces. '

Although it is at prefent in general ufe for water-cif-
terns, pumps, and pipes for conveying water, ferious ob-
jeGtions have been made to it by different philofophers, par-
ticularly Dr. Lambe, fo far as regards its effe¢ts on the hu-
man economy.

A very ingenious paper was fome time ago publifhed by
Morveau, in which he fhews that the water expofed to the
leaden veflels would frequently be pernicious, if fome ful-
phuric acid were not prefent, which never fails to precipi-
tate lead from any of its folutions. Thus we fee that lead
is the leaft objeGtionable for mineral waters containing the ful-
‘phuric acid, which is very general in almoft all {prings.

Great mifchief has been produced by the ufe of lead in
dairies; although we lament to fay that this practice is
{till followed up to a certain extent. If the milk runs into
the flighteft acidity, we muft expect fome lead to be dif-
folved, and its probable confequences if taken into the
ftomach.

The difeafe called the Devonfhire colic, was proved by
fir George Baker, in feveral excellent papers written by him,
and publifhed in the Philofophical Tranfactions of that time,
to be occafioned by lead diffolved in the cyder, and which

_ had been furnifhed from the cyder preffes, which were lined
with that metal; but was in confequence of this valuable
difcovery laid afide.

We have heard of a fimilar difeafe in the Weft Indies,
acquired by drinking new rum. The rum was found to
contain lead, which had been taken from the leaden worm
ufed for the condenfation of the fpirituous vapour. What,
however, is very fingular, the rum loft its deleterious pro-
perty by keeping about twelve months. This fact was not
explained at the time, but it has lately been cleared up by a
feries of experiments made by the writer of this article.
The new rum is generally put into oak cafks, from whence
the ligour extracts a quantity of tan and gallic acid. Thefe
fub{tances combine with the lead in folution, forming a per-
feétly infoluble fubftance, which falls to the bottom of the
calk. Thefe faéts fhew that lead fhould not be ufed in any
fituation where fermented liquors are prefent, fince in every
ftage of their exiftence, they contain more or lefs acetic acid.
And it muft not be forgotten, that all diftilled fpirits will
contain the fame acid, from the circumftance of its being
volatile and coming over with the {pirit.

We have, however, abundant fatisfaétion in knowing that
the exiltence of lead and gallic acid in fpirits, wines, or

other fermented liquors, are incompatible: and that all
liquors which have been kept in oak cafks for a certain time
mutt be freed from lead. If we find the prefence of gallic
acid by a folution of iron, we may pronounce fuch liquid
free from lead.

Thefe obfervations, which may appear out of place, are
given with a view to guide thofe who may be making or
ufing veflels of lead, which, under fome circumftances, are
attended with deplorable confequences.

Alloys of Lead formed with other Metals—One part of tin
and two of lead form an alloy, fufible at about 350” of Fah-
renheit, and ufed by tinmen and others under the name of
foft folder. See Sorprr.

Lead forms an imperfeé alloy with copper. The metal
ufed for common brafs-cocks is an alloy of thefe two metals.
The lead is fo imperfectly combined with the copper, that
when a piece of the metal is expofed to a certain heat, the
lead feparates from the copper in bright globules of the
former.

The alloy of antimony with lead is not uncommon. Six-
teen a lead and one of antimony form the printers’ type
metal.

Lead eafily combines with mercury, forming an amalgam.
This is effeted either by putting mercury into melted lead,
or by putting lead, in {mall particles, to the mercury. See
AMALGAM.

An alloy of filver and lead is eafily formed. Indeed lead
is frequently ufed to take filver from plated iron, which is
afterwards got from the lead by cupellation.

We are indebted to Mr. Hatchett for fome valuable fats
relative to the alloys of lead and gold. One part of lead
to eleven of gold forms a very brittle alloy, having a frac~
ture of a pale brown colour, deftitute of metallic luftre.

The alloys in any proportion have the fingular property
of being of lefs fpecific gravity than the mean, the very con-
trary of which is obferved in moit other compounds of mes
tals. The following is a table given by Mr. Hatchett exhi+
biting thefe facts.

Bulk
before
Union.

Specific
Gravity of
Alloy.

18.08

| | |

Grains.

Metals.

17-765

a

———_—————_ — |S OOOO OS * |

16.627

Gold
Copper

17.039
Lead ;

gabe

LE

When lead is expofed to the air for a little time, it foon
appears of different colours, not unlike the prifmatic colours.
By a longer expofure, affifted with moilture, it becomes
covered with a white powder. This is the oxyd of lead
combined with carbonic acid. This change is facilitated by
heat, and ftill more by the fumes of acetic acid or vinegar.
Tt is by this means that the white lead of commerce is made,
of which we fhall treat hereafter.

If melted lead be expefed to the oxygen of the atmofphere,
a greyifh-yellow powder begins to form upon the furface.
By keeping it expofed for find time, the powder becomes
more yellow. In this {tate it is called ma/fficot, or yellow oxyd
of lead. It contains about 6.88 of oxygen.

This oxyd is made, in the large way, in a furnace not un-
like a baker's oven. The middle of the hearth contains a
recefs for expofing the melted lead. On each fide, and a
little below the level of the hearth, is a fire, the flame of
which paffes flowly over the hearth, giving fufficient heat to
keep the lead melted, and paffes up a chimney near the
mouth of the furnace. As foon as the lead. is melted, a
perfon is conftantly employed to agitate it, in order to ex-
pofe greater furface to the air. This manual operation is
performed by a rake {ufpended froma chain, fo that. the per-
pendicular part of the rake dafhes through a portion of the
melted lead, by merely moving it backwards and forwards.
By the fame motion, the oxyd which is formed is pufhed
away from the furface of the lead, leaving it free'to the
aGtion of frefh oxygen. This procefs being kept up, the
lead is at length converted into a greenifh-yellow powder,
mixed with lumps of metallic lead. This powder is ground
in a mill and then wafhed, by which means the metallic lead
is feparated, and the powder becomes of a more bright yel-
low. The green colour was therefore owing to a mixture
of the blue particles of lead, mixed with the yellow oxyd.
The yellow oxyd here produced is called mafficot ; which
fee.

This oxyd appears capable of combining with more oxy-
gen by a Jecond expofure. For this purpofe the yellow
powder, after being’ wafhed and dried, is returned into the
furnace above-mentioned, or one of fimilar conftru€tion, kept
for this fecond procefs only. _ The heat is kept uniform but
not great, and the oxyd raked about to expofe as much fur-
face as poffible. It gradually changes colour, and ultimate-
ly aflumes a {plendid red. In this itate it is called minium ;
which fee. Although during this procefs the oxyd appears
gradually to pafs through all the fhades of orange colour
from yellow to red, the two latter can only be contfidered as
diftin& oxyds, the intermediate tints being mixtures of the
two, 2

If we confider the yellow as the firft or protoxyd, the
red will be the fecond, and the brown, yet to be treated of, the
third and the peroxyd. Prouft, however, has given fome
reafon to believe that the yellow is not the firft. The oxyd
which is precipitated from the nitric acid when heated to
rednefs, to drive off the water and carbonic acid, is found
to be the yellow oxyd in a very perfect itate. The author
above-mentioned informs us, that if cryftals of the common
nitrat of lead be boiled with fome pieces of metallic lead,
fealy yellow cryitals are formed. This falt, decompofed by
potafh, affords an oxyd which Prouft fuppofes to contain
lefs oxygen than the yellow. Dr. Thomfon repeated his
experiment ; he found the oxyd not to differ in appearance
from the yellow, and makes it to confiit of lead, 91.5 lead,
and 8.5 oxygen. ‘This appears to be rather lefs oxygen
than, according to his own analyfis, is contained in the yellow.
But there is reafon to believe, that in‘Dr. Thomfon’s analy-
fis of the yellow oxyd, the oxygen is rated too high. The

A D.

fame oxyd, according to Bucholz, is compofed of 100 lead ©
and eight of oxygen, equal to 7.4 per cent. This analyfis
appears to have been made under fuch circumftances as to
entitle it to much credit. From the average of three ana-
lyfes of the yellow oxyd, obtained from acetat of lead, the
writer of this article made the oxygen 7.4. per cent. Hence we
have abundant reafon to doubt the exiftence of an oxyd be-
low the yellow oxyd, fince it appears, from Dr. Thomfon’s
own account, that the oxyd, faid to confift of lefs oxygen
than the yellow, contains 8.5 per cent., being 1.1 more jie
Bucholz makes the yellow oxyd.

If nitric acid in fufficient quantity be added to the red oxyd
of lead, nearly the whole will be diffolved ; {th of the oxyd
will remain at the bottom of the veffel, which, when colleéted
and dried, is of a dark brown colour, and is called the brown
oxyd of lead. The following procefs is given by Vauque-
lin: Mix a quantity of the red oxyd of lead with water in
a Woulff’s apparatus, and let the oxymuriatic acid gas pafs
through the mixture. The oxyd gradually becomes of a
deeper colour, and is at laft diflolved. From this folution
the brown oxyd is precipitated by potafh. From every 100
parts of the red oxyd 68 of the brown may be obtained. .

This oxyd is of a flea-brown colour, having no {mell or
tafte. It is infoluble in any of the acids. It converts the
muriatic into oxymuriatic acid, by giving up a portion of
its oxygen. When rubbed brifkly in a mortar with pow-
dered fulphur, the fulphur inflames, producing a ftrong
fmell of fulphurous acid. According to the analyfis of
Prouft, this oxyd is compofed of 79 lead and 21 oxygen.
Dr. Thomfon makes it 81.6 lead and 18.4 oxygen.

It appears highly probable that we have only three oxyds
of lead, namely, the yellow, the red, and the brown. The
firft, according to Prouft, contains g per cent.; Thomfon,
10.3; Bucholz, 7.4; the writer of this article, 7.4: the
average of all thefe being 8.5. The red oxyd, by Dr.
Thomfon’s analyfis, contains 12 per cent.: the brown, ac-
cording to Prouft, contains in the 100, 21 oxygen; Dr.
Thomfon makes 18.4: the mean of thefe is 19.7.

Agreeable to the average refults of thefe different analyfes,
we cannot help being forcibly ftruck with the beauty of
Mr. Dalton’s hypothefis relative to the limited proportions
with which bodies combine. He makes the atom of lead to
weigh 95, or to be gs times heavier than an atom of hydro-
gen; the atom of oxygen being 7 times heavier. In re-
ferring to the doGtrine advanced by this ingenious chemift, -
it will be feen that he holds the neceffity of bodies com-
bining atom to atom, or in fome multiple of the fame; as,
2to1, 3to1, &c. The firft oxyd of lead, agreeably to
the above data, muft be 1 to 1, or 95 to 7; the fecond
oxyd, 95 to 14; and the third, 95 to 21. Hence thefe

proportions reduced to roo, will ftand as follows : Hake

100°

= pag eet 6.86 in the 100, for the firft oxyd. Then,

95 +14 _ I00

for the fecond,
14 12.84

» or 12.84 in the roo.
OS sb BD

21
18.1 inthe roo. The proportions by analyfis give, for the
firft, 8.5; fecond, 12; and the third, 19.7: by theory,
6.86, 12.84, and 18.1.

The fecond and third oxyds of lead give out oxygen, by
expofure to heat in a crucible, and are reduced to the ftate
of the firft oxyd. If the heat be raifed a little above red-

; 9 nefs,

Lattly, for the third or peroxyd,

LE

nefs, the yelldw oxyd fufes into a glafs, in which ftate it is
called the vitreous oxyd of lead. It becomes fo exceedingly
fluid, as to run through the common crucibles. In this ftate
it has the power of oxydating, and combining with the
oxyds of all the metals which are oxydatic, by expofure to
air with heat: and hence is employed to great advantage in
‘the cupellation of the nobler metals. See Sitver.

When lead is oxydated at a rt temperature, fuch as
that employed in the feparation of filver from lead, the yel-
low oxyd fufes as it is formed, and is blown from the furface
of the lead by bellows. In this ftate it is called litharge ;

which fee. It confifts of the yellow oxyd, united to a por-
tion of carbonic acid. For this part we are indebted to Dr.
Thomfon.

Lead combines with fulphur and phofphorus.

Sulphuret of lead may be formed by projeting _fulphur
into melted lead, or by ftratifying thin plates of the metal
with the fulphur. The compound is very brittle, of a dark
grey colour. It may be cryftallized by flow cooling ; under
which form it exhibits a brilliant fracture, refembling the
native fulphuret, or galena. This fulphuret, according to
Dr. Thomfon, confiits of 86 lead and 14 fulphur. <Ac-
cording to Dalton’s hypothefis, it confifts of one atom of
lead to one of fulphur: the former atom being g5, and the
latter 13, will give 33 = =, or 12 to 1003 which
agrees with feveral other analyfes very nearly.

Lead appears capable of combining with a fecond dofe of
fulphur, conftituting a compound, which is more brilliant,
and of a lighter colour, It may be eafily diftinguifhed
from the common kind, by its burning in the flame of a
candle.

It is called the /uper-/ulphuret of lead, and, according to
Dalton’s hypothefis, muft confift of one atom of lead and

two atems of fulphur, which would give 95.5 =, Sa

eerrar at, 5 per cent. Dr. Thomfon makes it 25 per cent.
21.5

It is to this chemift we are indebted for our knowledge of
this fubftance.

Phofphuret of lead may be formed by mixing together equal
parts of filings of lead and phofphoric glafs; the mixture
being fufed in a crucible. It is of a filvery blueifh-white
colour. It pofleffes flight malleability, and may be cut
with a knife. It is compofed of 88 lead and 12 of phof-
phorus. Dalton makes the atom of phofphorus to weigh g:
hence this compound of 1 to 1 will give 23 59 ee

Salts of Lead —Mott of the acids combine with the yellow
oxyd of lead, forming peculiar compounds. By far the
greateft proportion of thefe compounds is infoluble in
water. All thofe which are foluble have a {weetith tafte,
attended with a roughnefs which it leaves on the tongue,
fimilar to that of red port, and fome other wines. This
property has caufed it ta be ufed for the villainous purpofe
of mixing with four wine, which does not only take up the
acid, but adds a roughnefs and fweet vinous flavour, ex-
ceeding impofing upon the palate. Some have fufpended
bags of fhot in the cafks of wine; others have added com-
mon white lead.

Mankind are now fo well acquainted with the different
tefts for lead, that it is very feldom found in thofe liquors.
Water impregnated with fulphuretted hydrogen gas will

A D.

inftantly turn wine muddy and black, which contains lead.
If a folution of iron be dropped into wine, and it turns black,
the prefence of gallic is indicated: and from what we before
obferved, the exiftence of lead and that acid are incom-
patible in the fame liquid.

Sulphat of Lead.—Lead is {earcely aéted upon by the ful-
phuric acid, in the cold. If the acid be boiled with the
lead, fumes of fulphurous acid will be given out, and a
portion of the lead oxydated, which combines with the acid,
forming a whitifh palty compound. If the acid be in ex-
cefs, and the mafs wafhed in water, the fubftance becomes
divided into two portions, namely, the fulphat of lead,
which is infoluble, and the Genet: which is flightly
foluble, and will be depofited in cryttals.

It is from the circumftance of the infolubility of the ful-
phat of lead, that the metal can be ufed with fuch advan-
tage for the lead-houfes, ufed in making fulphuric acid, and
for making veffels which have to hold this acid. The ful-
phat which firft forms upon the furface defends the lead not
only from the aétion of this acid, but from any other folvent
of this pernicious metal. Sulphat of lead may be beft
formed by adding fulphat of foda to the acetat of nitrat of
lead. A denfe white precipitate is formed, which is fulphat
of lead. This falt is produced in great abundance by the
calico-printers, in making acetat alumine, with alum and
acetat of lead. It forms an excellent paint with oil, for
ftanding the ation of acids.

Kirwan gives the proportion of this falt at 23.37 acid,
75 acid yellow oxyd, 1.63 water in the 100; Bucholz,
24.72 acid, 75.28 oxyd; and Klaproth, 26.5 acid, and
73.5 oxyd: the mean of thefe is 24.86 acid, and 75.14
bafe. €alculated by Dalton’s theory, the atom of ful-
D5: dick “hes Bai eresy TOOE

34 25”
or, the acid is 25 in the 100: then, 100 — 25 = 75 the
bafe.

Sulphite of Lead.—T he fulphurous acid has no aGtion upon
lead: but it combines with the yellow oxyd, forming an
infoluble compound, having no remarkable properties.
When expofed to a red heat, the acid is difengaged, in the
form of gas.

When the fulphurous acid is added to the red oxyd of
lead, the acid takes oxygen from the oxyd, reducing it to
the ftate of yellow oxyd. The acid is converted into the
fulphuric, and com'sines with the oxyd, forming the ful-
phat of lead. ‘

Dr. Thomfon gives the proportions at
74-5 oxyd,
25-5 acid.

100

phuric acid weighs 34: therefore,

Nitrat of Lead.—When the nitric acid is a little diluted,
it a&ts with confiderable rapidity upon lead. Ifit be a little
affifted by heat, the whole will become fpeedily diffolved,
forming nitrat of lead: This confifls of the yellow oxyd '
of the metal united to a portion of the acid. If the folution
be evaporated, it affords cryltals of tin, in fix-fided pyramids
of a filvery white colour. This falt diffolves in 7% of
boiling water. When the cryftals are heated, they undergo
a flight detonation: the fame takes place when they are
rubbed with fulphur in a hot mortar.

According

LEAD.

According to experiments of Dr. Thomfon, this falt
confitts of,
66 oxyd,
34 acid,

100

Wher the cryftals of the laft falt are boiled with me-
tallic lead, yellow fealy cryitals are formed, conftituting,
according to Dr. Thomfon, a fubnitrat, confifting of

81.5 oxyd,
18.5 acid,

100

By Dalton’s theory the weight of an atom of nitric acid
is 19: in moft of the nitrats he fuppofes one atom of the
bafe to unite with two atoms of acid. The nitrat of lead,
already defcribed, fhould, according to the above analyfis,
confift of at leaft two atoms of acid to one of bafe, for

aa ye San = 27.14 of acid, and 72.86 of

bafe.

The acid here falls confiderably fhort of that in the ana-
lyfis of Dr. Thomfon. The latter falt, which we have
ealled the fubnitrat, fhould have one atom lefs of acid.

OoUI Ae Ao LOO na og oa ms :
% iF CEE »which gives 15.7 acid,and
84.3 of oxyd = 100.

Muriat of Lead.—Muriatie acid has a very feeble a€tion
on lead, but it readily diffolves the yellow oxyd, forming
the muriat of lead. ‘This falt may be alfo formed by add-
ing muriat of foda to nitrat of lead. The precipitate
which is formed is the falt in queftion. It diffolves in 22
parts of cold water. This is the fact only when no excefs
of this acid, or when no other acid is prefent ; fince the
falt is foluble in moft acids to a greater extent than in wa-
ter. When this falt is mixed with the fulphat of lead, it
may be feparated from it by its folubility in the acetic acid.
Muriat of lead is much more foluble in hot than in cold
water. Hence, when a faturated hot folution is fuffered
to cool, the falt is depofited in cryftals of a filvery-white
eolour. When heated they readily melt, and on cooling
affume a flight tranfparency, from which it has been called
Plumbum corneum.

On the application of greater heat fome of the falt eva-
porates in a white {moke, leaving behind a fubftance, which
is faid to be a fubmuriat of lead.

The compofition of muriat of lead is, according to Klap-
roth,

Hence

Acid 13.5
Oxyd 86.5

100

By Kirwan’s account,
Acid 17
Oxyd 83

100

The weight of the atom of muriatic acid being 22, we

fhall have by Dalton’s theory Bos = at
fe

100

which we have 17.74 acid, and $2.26 of oxyd, which comes
very near to Kirwan. When the muriatic acid is poured on
the red oxyd of lead, the lead gives up a part of its
oxygen to the muriatic acid, oiMfieating the oxymuriatic
acid. The muriatic acid then unites with the yellow oxyd
thus formed, while the oxygen is returned to the remaining
red oxyd, forming the brown oxyd.

The fub{ftanee above-mentioned, faid to be a fubmuriat,
appears rather ambiguous, and may, perhaps, be a mere
mixture of the common muriat with the yellow oxyd of
lead. ‘There is, however, one argument in favoug of its ”
being a proper compound, It is faid not to be foluble in
water, or that the excefs of oxyd is attached to the muriat,
fo as to prevent its being feparated by the affinity of the
water for the falt,

The common way of forming this fubftance is by adding
to the muriat of foda a much larger quantity of litharge
than would be neceflary to faturate the acid of the falt.
We are indebted to Vauquelin for the beft account of the
nature of this anomalous decompofition. At the fame time
the muriat of lead is decompofed by foda. We have the
fact before our eyes, that an oxyd of lead will completely *
decompofe the muriat of foda. If we ftate the experiment
of Vauquelin we fhall be better able to give an opinion.
To one part of muriat of foda he added feven of litharge
in fine powder, with as much water as made the mixture of
the confiftency of thin foup. This was frequently ftirred
for feveral hours. The litharge gradually loft its colour,
and ultimately became white. It increafed in bulk, and fo
much water was abforbed as to make it neceffary to add
more. At the end of four days the chemical aétion had
entirely fubfided, when the refult was examined. The li-
quid part, when feparated by the filtre, had a ftrong tafte
of foda, with a tafte of muriat of lead, but no muriat of
foda was prefent. The liquid afforded cryftals of carbonat
of foda by evaporation. The fubftance from which the
liquor had been feparated, when wafhed and dried, was of a
dirty white colour, and was found to have increafed in
weight gth of the whole oxyd employed. When this fub-
itance was heated to a certain degree it aflumed a fine yel-
low colour, by which it loft 2,th of its weight. This was,
perhaps, carbonic acid and water.

Some cauftic foda was added to a part of this fubftance,
which changed its colour to that.of a dirty yellow, and the
refiduum was found to be a mafs of cryl{tals of muriat of
lead. By the teft of an alkaline hydro-fulphuret, the foda
appeared to hold a great quantity of the oxyd of lead in
folution.

The one part of muriat of foda, ufed in this experiment,
confifted of .44 of acid, and .56 of foda. The .44 acid
would combine with 2.4 of the yellow oxyd to form 3.84
of muriat of lead, leaving 7 — 2.4 = 4.6 of oxyd of lead.
This is fuppofing the true muriat to be formed ; but if a
fubmuriat were formed, it muft confift of more than one
atom of lead united to one of acid. Suppofe it one of
acid to two of oxyd, then .44 +2 x 2.4=.44 4+ 4.8=
5-2 of fubmuriat, ‘ftill there would be free oxyd left. But
the author tells us that the yellow fub{tance was infoluble in
water, or that the water would not take the muriat from
the excefs of oxyd, although the nitric acid, as well as the
foda, was capable of that effe&t. _ If there were no free oxyd
when two atoms of lead were’ to one of acid, let us fuppofe
them three to one, we fhall then have .44 + 3 xX 3.4=
-44 X 7.2 = 7.64 of a fecond fubmuriat. If, therefore,
we are to rely upon the faét, that the muriat of lead could
not be diflolved, leaving the exeefs of oxyd, we muit —e

this

BA D.

this yellow fubftance as a legitimate compound. If the
contrary be the cafe, we mutt regard it as a mixture of the
true muriat mixed with the yellow oxyd of lead. This
fub{tance has been manufactured under a patent by Mr.
Turner, of Newcaltle-upon-Tyne, and is deemed a valuable
pigment for painting.

Phofphat of Lead.—The phofphoric acid does not aét
upon lead in the cold, and but very feebly by heat. The
refult of this action is the formation of an infoluble com-
pound, which is the phofphat of lead. :

Thig falt may be more eafily formed by adding toge-
ther the folutions of phofphat of foda and the nitrat, or
acetat of lead. A denfe white powder fubfides, which is
the falt in queftion. his falt is infoluble in water, but it
diffolves readily in nitric, and alfo, when affifted by heat, in
the muriatic acid. On the latter folution cooling, crytftals
of muriat of lead are depofited; a proof that a partial de-
compofition takes place. It is alfo decompofed by the ful-
phuric acid, by the afliitance of heat. n

When this fa!t is heated it melts, and on cooling affumes a
cryftalline appearance.

Itis from this falt that phofphorus is generally obtained ;
for when it is expofed to a great heat, in an earthen retort,
with charcoal, both the lead and the phofphorus lofe their
oxygen, the latter being diftilled over.

Mr. Dalton makes the atom of phofphoric acid to weigh
95 ue Fee A fo that this falt, from
thefe data, confifts of 18.4 of acid, and 88.6 of oxyd,
which is very near the proportions of the native falt.

Carbonat of Lead —Carbonic acid does not act upon leads
but it combines with the yellow oxyd of lead, forming an
infoluble white powder, which is manufactured under the
name of white lead.

This falt may be formed by adding a carbonat of potafh
to the acetat or nitrat of lead. The precipitate, being
wafhed and dried, is {nowy-white powder, appearing to the
eye we'll calculated to make a'much finer white paint than
that made in the common way. Although the carbonat
formed by precipitation is, no doubt, chemically the fame
with the manufactured, their difference, in point of denfity,
is very remarkable. The proportions of the coniftituents of
this falt are, according to Bergman, 16 acid, 84 oxyd; to
Chenevix, 15 aci, 85 oxyd; Prouft, 16.15 acid, 83.85
oxyd; and Klaproth, 16.33 acid, $3.67 oxyd in the 100.

The manufaCture of white lead has been known long be-
fore any idea was entertained of its compofition, cr the
theory of the procefs; and it is rather fingular that no
more improvement has been made in the common procefs,
which has long appeared to chemifts as clumfy and uneco-
nomical.

The procefs confifts in expofing thin fheets of lead to the
fumes of vinegar at a certain temperature. The lead is
caft into fheets about two feet long, five or fix inches
broad, and about {th of aninch thick. ‘Thefe are coiled
up, rather fpirally, into a cylindrical fhape, about five or
fix inches diameter. The vinegar is. placed in the bottom of
earthen pots, which are different in fize at different manu-
faGtures ; fome holding three pints and others five or fix.
‘There is a ledge round the pot, in the infide, about an inch
deep, for the purpofe of fupporting the cylindric coil of
lead, which {tands upon it like a chimney. The pots thus
fitted, with the lead and vinegar, are arranged in rows, upon
a ftratum of horfe-litter, or, what is now ufed as being
cheaper, the refufe bark of tanners. The ends of all she

23> then

cylinders of lead are covered witha plate of the fame metal,
to confine the whole as much as poflible to the aétion of the
vapour. The pots thus placed are covered over with litter
or bark, and a new ftratum of pots arranged in a fimilar
way over them. Several tons of lead are fometimes expofed
in this manner at one time. ‘The heat arifing from the
fermentation of the vegetable or animal matter keeps up
a certain temperature, by which the vinegar is flowly eva-
porated. ‘The vapour oxydates the lead, and the oxyd
combines with carbonic acid. This latter fub{tance was
formerly thought to be furnifhed by the fermenting fub-
ftance in which the pots weie imbedded : it is now, however,
known, that the vinegar is decompofed, and furnithes the
carbonic acid. White-lead works are at prefent carried on,
both on the continent and in this country, in which the
heat is furnifhed by artificial means only ; and of courle the
carbonic acid can come from no other fource than that of
the vinegar.

After the lead has been expofed to the vapour of the
vinegar for about fix weeks or two months, the pots are
withdrawn, and the coils of lead are found corroded to a
contiderable thicknefs. The white carbonat thus formed is
very brittle and very hard. The fheets are now paffed
through rollers for the purpofe of breaking the white lead
from the uncorroded metallic lead. The powder is now
taken to a pair of {tones, and ground in a manner fimilar to
corn. After this it is levigated to get it of the greateft pof-
fible finenefs, and it is then gradually dried in ftoves for the
purpofe.

Denfity and whitenefs are the moft valuable properties of
white lead... Thefe properties do not depend upon the pro-
portions of its elements, but upon the mechanical treatment.
The denfity in all probability will be greater, as it has been
longer forming, by the aétion of the vinegar being flower.
Some of the pieces of white lead, as they are {eparated
from the fheet, are much harder than others, even in the
fame bed. This bardnefs and denfity are fometimes fo great
as to render the pieces fonorous. In this {late it is the moft
valuable. Hence the whiteft and denfeft pieces are feleéted:
for making the beautiful fubftance called flake white.

The value of white lead is eafily afcertained by the
painters, from the quantity of oil required to give it proper
confiltency. The greater the proportion of lead to the oil,
the greater is faid to be the body of the paint, and the greater
will be its whitenefs. The carbonat of lead made by preci-
pitation, when in a dry ftate, is much whiter than the beft
white lead, made in the common way. If, however, equal
weights of the two be mixed with oil to make them fit for
painting, the precipitated fpecimen will be found to take
amuch greater quantity of oil than the other, and its white-.
nefs much diminifhed. The common white lead will have
loft fo little of its whitenefs, that the contraft will be very
itrikingly in favour of the latter. This fa& is exceedingly
apparent, on mixing together tranfparent media of different
denfities. ‘The whitenefs of fnow depends upon the mixture
of {mall particles of ice with air; for when the fame are
mixed with water, the whitenefs difappears. All colourlefs
tranfparent bodies become white on being reduced to pow-
der. ‘This is obferved in pounded glafs and in falts which
lofe their water of cryftallization. Whitenefs may there-
fore be faid to arife from a confufed refraGtion of light, ra-
ther than from refletion. See Licur..

Fluat of Lead.—Fluoric acid does not oxydate lead ; but
it is capable of combining with the yellow oxyd, forming
this falt, which is an infolyble compound. It may be:

formed:

LEAD.

formed better by adding the fluat of ammonia to nitrat or
acetat of lead, the fluat of lead falling down ina ftate of
powder.

Borat of Lead.—Boracic acid does not a& upon lead.
This falt, however, may be formed by adding a folution of
borat of foda to nitrat of lead. The borat of lead will be
precipitated in the form of an infoluble white powder. This
falt, from a vitreous {tate which the acid is capable of af-
fuming, melts into a colourlefs glafs before the blowpipe.

Acetat of Lead.—Acctic acid has little or no a¢tion upon
lead when the metal is immerfed in it ; but the fumes of the
acid in contact with air is capable of oxydating lead, as we
have fhewn in the manufa€ture of white lead. The oxyd
thus formed is eafily taken up by the acetic acid, forming a
foluble compound of a fweetifh-and aftringent tafte. If
the folution be evaporated, an excefs of the acid being
prefent, the falt is obtained in needle-formed cryttals, and
of the luftre of fatin. It diffolves in about four times its
weight of water at 60°. It is fingular that this falt is de-
compofed by the carbonic acid. It is from this cireumftance
that we always find it decompofed, in fome degree, by dif-
folving it in water, which generally contains more or lefs of
that fubftance. This falt is ufed in medicine, uncryttallized,
under the name of Goulard’s extraé. '

The acetat of lead is an article of extenfive manufacture
in England, France, and Holland.

Common diftilled vinegar is firit faturated with the yellow
oxyd of lead, which is fometimes from the carbonat or white
lead, and frequently from litharge: the latter, however,
is the cheapeft procefs. The folution fhould have a little
excefs of acid, elfe it does not form the real falt. By flow
evaporation this folution cryftallizes, in which {tate it-is ufed
in abundance in the arts, particularly by the calico printers,
for the purpofe of getting the acetat of alumine, by double
decompofition with alum. .

The analyfis of this falt, according to Dr. Thomfon, is

26 Acid
58 Yellow oxyd
16 Water

100

From the combinations of the acetic acid, the earths, and
alkalies, it appears that the weight of its atom is about 36.
We have hence ME Sh = —

3
and 74 of yellow oxyd = too.

Subacetat of Lead—W hen the laft falt is boiled for fome
time with the yellow oxyd of lead, a peculiar falt is formed,
confifting of two atoms of oxyd, and one of acid. It is
lefs foluble in water than the acetat. It was firlt noticed by
Thenard, to whom we are indebted for the following ana-
lyfis :

which gives 26 of acid

17. Acid
78 Oxyd
4 Water,

If it confifts of two atoms of bafe to one of acid, its analyfis,
Zz X 102 + 36

according to the data in the acetat, will be =

= > which gives r5 aeid, and 85 oxyd = 100.

Oxalat of Lead.—This falt is formed by diffolving the oxyd
of lead in oxalicacid. In all probability there are two falts
of this fpecies. That given by Dr: Thomfon is formed

with the fecond oxyd, and an excefs of acid, and is the fu-
peracetat. According to Bergman’s analyfis it contains
41.2 Acid
58.8 Red oxyd

100

The weight of the atom of oxalic acid appears to be 39>
and an atom of the oxyd in this falt 95 lead + 14 oxygen
= 109, therefore fuppofing it the fuper falt 95 on rs 2 aXe

x

100

= which gives 41.7 acid, and 58.3 red oxyd =
100.

The proper oxalat of lead may, no doubt, be formed by
an alkaline oxalat being added to the nitrat of lead, the
falt being precipitated in a ftate of infoluble powder. From
the above data it ought to confift of 27.7 and 72.3 yellow
oxyd, ‘

Tartrat of Lead —The tartaric acid does not aét upon lead ;
but this falt may be formed by adding an alkaline tartrat to
the acetat, or nitrat of lead. ‘The tartrat of lead falls down
in the form of white powder. Dr., Thomfon gives the ana-
lyfis of this falt at 37.44 acid, and 62.56 yellow oxyd.

Citrat of Lead —This is an infoluble compound, formed
by adding an alkaline citrat to a foluble falt of lead.

Malat of Lead.—Malic acid has no aétion on lead ; but the
acid combines with the oxyd, forming a compound infoluble
in water, but foluble in acetic acid. Cyder, which contains
an abundance of malic acid, would never contain lead, but
from the prefence of acetic acid. If acetat of lead be

.dropped into cyder, a copious precipitate falls down, but if

free acetic acid be added, the precipitate is diffolved.

Arfeniat of Lead —The arfenic acid is capable of oxydating
lead, and then combines with its oxyd, forming arfeniat of
lead, which is completely an infoluble compound. It may
alfo be formed by adding the arfeniat of potafh to a foluble
falt of lead. From the analyfis of Chenevix it confifts of 33
acid, 63 yellow oxyd, and 4 of water. According to The-
nard, it is compofed of 35.7 acid, and 64.3 of oxyd. See
the native arfeniat of lead under the mineralogical part of
this article.

. Molybdat of Lead.—The artificial falt of this fpecies has
been little examined. See the native falt.

Chromat of Lead.—This falt may be formed by adding an
alkaline chromat to a foluble falt of lead. The falt is pre-
cipitated in the form of powder of a reddifh-yellow colour.
It is foluble in potafh and foda, from which it may be preci-
pitated without changing its properties. It is foluble in
nitric acid, but it is decompofed by the muriatic and ful-
phuric acids. See native falt.

The other fpecies of the falts of lead are not of import-
ance.

The alkalies and fome of the earths diffolve the oxyd of
lead.

Potafh and foda, when pure, diffolve the greateft propor-
tion. By expofure to the air, however, the carbonic acid
of the atmofphere combines with the oxyd of lead, as well
as the potafh. The lead is precipitated in a ftate of car-
bonat.

Thefe alkaline folutions of lead have the property of
ftaining hair, wool, and horn. The tint commences with
a light fawn colour, and ultimately becomes of a deep and
beautiful reddifh-brown. Thefe colours are not permanent,
being quickly faded by expofure to the light and the air,

Lime

LE. A D.

Lime water, and probably folutions of barytes and ftron-
tian, diffolve the oxyd of lead, but in fmaller quantity. A
liquid formed by: boiling lime and litharge in water, has alfo
the property, of ftaining wool, but the colour is fomewhat
different to that given by the alkaline folution. The brown
colour has lefs of the red and more of the yellow tint. A
compofition of common pearl-ath, red lead, and quick lime, is
ufed to give horn the appearance of tortoife fhell, In effect,
this compofition is a folution of the oxyd of lead in potafh.

Lead, as we have already feen in the preceding part of
this article, is much ufed in building, particularly for cover-
ing, gutters, pipes, andin glafs windows, For which ufes,
it is either cat into {heets in a mould, or milled; which laft,
fome have pretended, is the leaft ferviceable, not only onac-
count of its thinnefs, but alfo becaufe it is fo exceedingly
ftretched in milling, and rendered fo porous and {pongy, that
when it comes to lie in the hot fun, it is apt to fhrink and
cracks 1d confequently will not keep out the water. Others
have preferred the milled lead, or flatted metal, to the caft,
becaufe it is more equal, fmooth, and folid.

The lead ufed by glaziers is firlt caft into flender rods,
twelve or fourteen inches long, called canes ; and thefe, being
afterwards drawn through their vice, come to have a groove
= either fide for the panes cf glafs; and this they call turned
dead.

The method of paling or foldering lead for fitting on of
imboffed figures, &c. is by placing the part whereon the
figure is to be paled horizontal, and ftrewing on it fome
pulverized refin; under this-they place a chafing-dith of
coals till fuch time as the refin becomes reddifh, and rifes in
pimples ; they apply the figure, and rub fome foft folder into
the jointing ; when this is done, the figure will be paled on,
‘andas firm as if it had been caft on.

Lead is much ufed in varnifhes and painting with oil,
both as a colour and as a dryer. It is alfo ufedin the pre-
parations of enamels and of porcelain asa flux, and makes
the bafis of the glazing of almoft all pottery wares ; and
by means of lead the moft perfect metals are refined and
-aflayed.

Leap, in Medicine. This metal is celebrated by fome
chemical writers for its great medical virtues; but after all
it feems to be a metal which ought to be given internally
with the greateit caution, and to be rather calculated for
outward application. Its ore is fo poifonous, that the fteam
arifing from the furnaces where it is worked, infects the
-grafs of all the neighbouring places, and kills the ani-
mals which feed on it. The poifonous quality of this
ore is fuch, that the people who live in the countries
where it is dug, and near the places where it is wathed,
can keep neither dog nor cat, nor any kind of fowl,
but all die in a fhort time, and it has been known that
‘alittle houfe, in which lead ore had been kept for fome
time, though afterwards made very clean, and bedded
with fern, infected calves which were put into it, fo
that all died in a very {hort time ; and itis a too melancholy
obfervation, that children often die ftrangely and fuddenly
about thefe places. Philofophical Colleétions, N° 2. p. 6.

Its beft preparation is /accharum faturni, or the {uper-ace-
tate of lead; which, though capable of doing great, good in
hemorrhages, and fome cther cafes, is apt, however, to
bring on colics of fo violent a kind, that the remedy often
proves worfe than the difeafe.

The internal ufe of lead is dangerous, on account of the
-eolics and palfies that are occafioned by it. Culinary veffels,
lined with a mixture of tin and lead, whtch is the ufual

Vax. XX.

2a Pid MRL thats, 2ayC. Te 3. 25.

tinning, are apt to communicate to acid foods pernicious qua
lities, and require to be ufed with great precaution. The
fame thing has been alfo faid of liquors kept in glazed ware,
and of cyder made in veffels, where lead is ufed, and of
wines adulterated with litharge, &c. See the article Leap,
Jupra, and Coxica Pietonum.

M. Navier has lately difcovered that the liver of fulphur,
and particularly liver of fulphur of Mars, is an excellent an-
tidote againft the poifon of lead; and he advifes patients la-
bouring under its pernicious effe&ts to drink largely of acidu-
lated liquors, to make afterwards the liver of fulphur the
principal part of the cure, and to finifh the cure with gentle
purgatives.

The Dutch have been charged with, correéting the more
offenfive expreffed oils, as that of rape feed, fo as to fubfli-
tute them for oil olive or oil of almonds, by impregnating
them with lead: inorder to deteé& this abufe, mix a little of
the fufpeG&ed oil with a folution of orpiment made in lime-
water: on fhaking them together, and fuffering them to
reft, the oil, if it has any faturnine taint, will appear of an
orange-red colour : if pure, of a pale yellowifh. The lead
is difcovered in wines by the fame fulphureous folution, which
changes the colour of wines impregnated with this metal to
a brownifh red or a blackifh hue. However, the various
preparations of lead are applied externally with fafety and
great benefit, onaccount of its fedative, drying, and repel-
lent qualities. ‘The vinegar and fugar of lead, and all the
ointments and plafters which contain cerufs, minium, or li«
tharge, eminently poffefs thefe qualities. See the following
articles and references.

For the laws relating to lead, and the ftealing of it, fee
38 Edw. III. itat. 1. ¢. 6.
4 Geo. II.c. 32. 29 Geo. II. c. 30. See Larceny.

Leap, Black. See PrumBaco.

Black lead in fine powder may be readily mixed with
melted fulphur, and though the compound remains fluid
enough to be poured into moulds, it looks nearly like the
coarfer forts of black lead itfelf. This was probably the
method by which prince Rupert is faid to have made black
lead run: like a metal'in 4 mould, fo as to ferve for black lead
again. Birch’s Hift. Royal Soc. vol. iii.

The German black-lead pencils, and thofe which are
hawked about among us, are prepared in this manner : their
melting or foftening, when held in a candle, or applied to a
red-hot iron, and yielding a blueifh flame, with a ftrong {mell
like that of brimitone, difcovers their compofition. Pen-
cils of this kind are hard and brittle, and cut or feratch the
paper or wood inftead of marking them. The true Englifh
pencils are formed of black lead alone, fawed into flips,
which are fitted into a groove made of the fofteft wood, as
cedar, and another {lip of wood glued over them. Thefe
pencils, however, are of different quality, on account of dif-
ferent forts of the mineral being fraudulently joined together
in one pencil, the fore-part being commonly pretty good,
and the relt of an inferior kind. Jo avoid thefe inconve-
niences, fome take the finer pieces of black lead itfelf, -
which they faw into flips, and fix for ufe in port-crayons.
Lewis’s Commerce of Arts, p. 328.

By our laws, entering mines of black lead, with intent to
fteal it, is made felony. See 25 Geo. II. c. 10. See

. LARCENY.

Leap, for the manufadure of, fee PLUMBERY.

There are various preparations of lead, ferving for various
purpofes, fome of which are now difufed, and others, under
one form and name, or another, itill continued.

3K ‘Leap,

LEA

Leap, Balfam of, an external medicine, formerly famed
for its effects in old and fharp ulcers, It is made by mixing
one ounce of fugar of lead with two of oil of turpentine,
and fetting this mixture ina fand-heat till the falt is diffolved.
By this means the oil acquires ared colour, and is called
balfam of lead.

Leap, Burnt, plumbum uflum, is a chemical preparation
ufed in medicine, made of plates of Jead, melted in a pot
with fulphur, and reduced by fire into a brown powder.

Lead continued in fafionand ftirred, fo that trefh furfaces
may be expofed to the air, will gradually change into a pow-
dery duiky-coloured calx, bearing this name.

Burnt lead is only intended for external ufe. It has the
fame virtues afcribed to it, in ointments and plafters, as li-
tharge or minium. Mixed into an unguent with iard-alone,
it makes a good ointment for the piles.

Leap, Butter of, isa kind of liquid. unguent made of
vinegar and lead, incorporated with rofeate oil, and com-
mended for the cure of tetters. It is called Autyrum faturni.

Leap, Calcined, or calz of lead. See Catx, Cerusse,
Grass of Lead, Liruanrce, Massicor, Minium, &c. and
Alloys of Lean, fupra.

Leap, Cafling of. See Castine.

Leap, Cerate of Super-acetate, Ceratum plumbi fuper-acetatis,
the “ Unguentum ceruff acetate’’ of P. L. 1787, is pre-
pared in the following manner: Take of {uper-acetate of
lead two drachms, white wax, two ounces, and olive oil,
half a pint. Diffolve the wax in feven fluid-ounces of oil,
then gradually add to it the fuper-acetate of lead, fepa-
rately rubbed down with the remaining oil, and ftir the
mixture with a wooden flice, until the whole has united.

Leap, Compound cerate of. See Ceratum lithargyri
acetati compofitum.

Leap, Cohefion of. See Conzsron.

Leap Du/fis a preparation ufed by the potters ; made by
throwing charcoal duftinto meted lead, and ftirring thema
Jong time together: to feparate the coal again, they only
wath it in water, and dry it afrefh. Its ufe is, to give a var-
nifh and glofs to their works.

Leap, EviraG of, or Saturn, is prepared by fimmering
together as many pounds of the litharge of gold as quarts
of vinegar for an hour and a quarter, and often flrring
them ; then taking it from the fire, and as foon as it is cool
enough, pouring the clear liquor into bottles to be kept for
ufe. If this liqnor be made into the common confiftence of
an extra, it muft boil yet longer after its feparation from
the mafs, and will acquire a reddifh colour. This is Gou-
lard’s extract (fee Leap, /upra), and the bafis of all his
preparations of lead. It evidently differs in no refpe& from
fugar of lead, and vinegar of litharge, but in the degree of
concentration. The only circumftance in which the extract
feems to have the advantage of fugar of lead, appears to be
im the greater quantity of the acetous acid contained in it,
which proves an excellent affiftant in many cafes, and the
fugar of lead, when once cryftallized, cannot be brought
‘back to that ftate of folution in vinegar in which it was
before ; yet where a large quantity of watery menitruum is
added, as in Mr. Goulard’s faturnine water, it is as well to
make a folution of fugar of lead in the water, and add the
vinegar afterwards, as to mix them both together in the form
of extract, Aikin’s Obf. on the external Ufe of Prepa-
rations of Lead, &c. p. 2. See Vinecar of Lead.

In the Londoa Pharmacopeia of 1787, this was denomi-
nated * Aqua lithargyri acetati ;”? and in the laft edition it
is called “ Liquor plumbi acetatis,’’ or ‘ {olution of acetate

LEA

of lead,"’ and it is direéted to be prepared by mixing two
pounds four ounces of femi-vitreous oxyd of lead, with a
gallon of acetic acid, and boiling down to fix pints, con-
itantly tlirring ; then fetting it by, that the feculencies may
fublide, and ftraining. T'his is a denfe liquor, of a deep
brown colour, and confifts of a faturated folution of fubace
tate of lead. It was reftored in the laft Pharmacopeia, in
confequence of the celebrity it had obtained under the name
of “ Goulard’s Extract.” The Aqua lithargyri acetati
compofita’”? of P. L. 1787, called in the laft edition « Li-
quor plumbi acetatis diluti,"’ or * diluted folution ef acetate
of lead,’ is prepared by mixing a drachm of folution of
acetate of lead, a pint of dittilled water, and a flui-drachm
of weak fpirit. When this mixture is made, even with
diftilled water, fome precipitation takes place ; and when,
as is more common, ordinary water, containing any muriates
or fulpbates, is ufed, this is much more abundant from double
decompofition, and gives the liquor a milky aj 4 arance
when diffufed through it, To this it owes its common
name of white wafh.’

Leap, Glafe of. See Grass of Lead.

Leap, Magijtery of, is the calx of lead purified and fub-
tilized. It is made of lead diffolved in aquafortis, pouring
filtrated falt water into it ; whence refults a magiflery ex-
tremely white, which, when foftened by feveral lotions, is
mixed with pomatums for the face and complexion.

Leap Mine. See Mininc.

Leap, Jock, a name given to a glittering fubftance found
in lead-mines. See GALENA inanis, and BLINDE.

Leap, Native. See Leap, fupra.

Leap, Ointments of, Preparations of. See UNGUENT.

Leap Plafer. See EmMpLastrum Commune.

Leap Pipes, Manufadure of. "The common method ufed
for making lead pipes, confilts in cafting the lead upon a
{mooth fteel mandril placed in a mould, alfo of metal, to
form the outlide. Thefe pieces are about 18 inches long.
They are afterwards joined together by a procefs, called
lining. t {
A. very great improvement has been made in the manu-
facture of lead pipes, by drawing them in a manner fimilar to
wire. The lead to form the pipe is caft upon a mandril of
the diameter of the infide the pipe, but of fuch a thicknefs as
to equal the whole pipe in weight : it is then faftened upon
one end of a cylindric fteel mandril, and the lead is pulled
through different fized holes, till the pipe is of fufficient
length and thicknefs. Thefe pipes can be drawn to the
length of eight or ten feet. The power required, however,
is very great, which is one objection to the method. They
are alfo liable to flaws; for, if the cafting happen to be
imperfect, the imperfection is much increaled and extended
by the procefs of drawing.

This manufa€ture has been much improved by pafling the
lead upon the mandril, through grooved rollers of different
fizes, following each other in fucceffion. The power re-
quired is much lefs than that required for drawing ; and the
pipes are faid to be fuperior in other refpects. For a more
particular account of this manufacture, fee Lead Pipes.

Leap, Red, a preparation of mineral lead calcined and
rubified ; ufed by painters, potters, and {urgeons, See
Minium, and Oxyds of Leap.

Leap, Salt or Sugar of, Saccharum faturni, Superacetat
plumbi, fuperacetate of lead, is an effential falt of vinegar, in-
corporated with the proper fubftance of lead, or cerufs, dif-
folved in fpirit of vinegar. See SaccuARuM Saturni, and
Leap, /upra. *

Lean,

4

LEA

Lean, Tindure of. See Tinctura Saturnina.

Lean, Vinegar of, or of Litharge. See VINEGAR.

Leap, Water of, Aqua Saturni, is called by Mr. Goulard
vegeto-mineral water, who makes it by dropping into a
quart of pure water a hundred drops‘of the extract
of faturn, and then ‘adding to them four tea-{poonfuls of
brandy. ‘This is his {pecilic in external inflammations, par-
ticularly of the eye, for wafhing ulcers, cancers, {crofulas,
contufions, phlegmons, eryfipelas, piles, chilblains, tetters,
gangrenes, &c. But a folution of the faccharum faturni
will have the fame effe&.

Lean, Wiite. See Corussr, and Leap, /upra.

Leap Nails. See Naits.

Leap, in the A/anege, is a term whed to exprefs the part
that begins any motion firft. A horfe going im a ftraight
line always leads, or cuts the way with his right foot, This
is called in French entamer le chemin.

LEADWORT, in Botany. See Prumpaco.

LEADERS, in the Military Art. See Fite-laders.

LEENA, the lionefs. See Lioness.

LEAF, (Fortum,) in Botany and Vegetable Phyfiology, is
avery general, but not univerlal, organ of the herbage of
plants, of the firft importance to vegetable life, being, in
many refpeéts, equivalent to the lungs of animals ; infomuch
that when leaves are not prefent in the ufual manner, their
office muft be performed by fome other part, which is gene-
rally the ftem. Leaves are, for the moft part, remarkable
for their expanded form, in which the objeét of nature is
manifeftly to prefent to the atmofphere as wide an extent of
furface as poffible, greatly exceeding that of all the reft of
the plant. «* Their colour is almoft univerfally green, their
internal fubftance pulpy and vafcular, fometimnes very fuc-
culent, and their upper and under furfaces commonly differ
im hue, as well as in kind or degree of roughnefs.’’"—How
great a fhare the foliage of plants has in contributing to the
beauty of the vegetable creation, and how widely their utility
extends, in the fuftenance they afford to the animal world,
not to mention their various economical ufes to mankind, is
too evident to require much illuftration. Their curious
funétions, and their real ufe tothe plant that bears them, has
not till lately been properly underftood or juftly appreciated.
‘The fcience of chemiitry was, for a long time, not fufficiently
advanced to throw the neceffary light upon this fubjeé ;
and even at the prefent day, when applied to the phyfiology
of vegetables, it ferves rather to help us to conceive what
may be, than to fee clearly what és, tranfacied in their ap-
parently fimple, but truly elaborate, frame.

The firft who attempted to reafon upon the ufes and pro-
perties of leaves was Cefalpinus, who merely fuppofed them
a fort of clothing, or proteétion againit cold and heat. It
is not worth ftaying to confider his reafons, for an opinion
which is fo inadequate to what it attempts to explain. This

" writer conceived the foliage of plants to originate from, or

to be, a fort of expanfion of, their bark.

Some of the firlt practical obfervations that tended to
difcover the importance of leaves, were made by gardeners,
who, in their various treatment of fruit trees, foon found
they were not to be {tripped of their leaves, even partially,
without caution, and that a general injury to the foliage in-
fallibly ruined the fruit. They have alfo univerfally dif-
covered, by experience alone, the benefit of removing de-
eayed or fickly leaves ; which all books on gardening have
never failed to inculcate, though the writers had no idea of
the manner in which the morbid fecretions, or corrupted ex-
dalatious, of thefe bodies, might injure the growing plant.—

LEA

When goofeberry or currant buftes are flripped of their
leaves, by the voracity of caterpillars, every body knows that
the fruit, if not withered, is altogether taftelefs. We cannot
even yet precifely trace the mode in which this effect is
produced, except that it evidently arifes from a great, though
only temporary, injury to the conltitution of the fhrub,
caufed by its premature and violent defoliation, ‘I'his in-
jury is repaired in the enfuing feafon.

The abforption and perfpiration of leaves could not long
remain unobferved, when thefe organs came to be confidered
with any philofophical attention. Hales and Bonnet have
made the beft and moft numerous experiments on this par=
of their funétions, The former firlt fuggefted the proba-
bility of their imbibing air as well as moilure, nor did the
action of light upon them efcape his fagacity, though fub-
fequent chemifts and phyfiologifts have purfued thefe fub-
jects to a far greater extent. ‘The fading of a leafy branch
of any plant when gathered, and its revival, on being im-
merfed fer a fhort time in water, fufficiently evince the per-
{piring and abforbing powers of the leaves. Dr. Hales firit
determined the proportion of each, by experiments upon
the great annual fun-flower, the vine, cabbage, &c. On
the firit-mentioned plant he beftowed particular attention,
and the refult of his obfervation was that it loft lb. 14 oz.
weight in the courfe of a hot dry day, but in a dry night
only three ounces. In a rainy night it gained two or three
eunces by abforption. The furface of the plant, compared
with that of its roots being, as nearly as could be calculated,
in the proportion of five to two, it follows that the daily
abforption by the roots was fo much the more rapid, in
order to make up the lofs which took place in the herbage.
Compared with the ordinary ixfenfible perfpiration of the
human body, that of the fun-flower is only as 15 to 50;
but the bulk or folid fubftance of the two being extremely
different, that of the vegetable being fo much more dilated,
it is found the latter perfpires feventeen times more, in pro-
portion to its bulk, than the human frame. Thefe propor-
tions of courfe vary in both, according to circumitances.
If the roots be plentifully watered, the evaporation by the
leaves is the more copious and rapid. In newly removed.
plants, the abforption by the leaves fupplies the wants of
the vegetable body, till the roots have fhot forth néw fibres
in order to obtain moifture in that their natural direétion s
but if fuch plants be immoderately watered, they may-be
killed by excefs of moifture; for no evaporation by the
leaves being allowed to take place, nothing can be imbibed
by the roots. In certain ftates of the atmofphere, fome
plants are frequently exhaufted by their perfpiration, and
droop for want of adequate fupplies from the roots; while
others are fo conftructed as to perfpire very lowly, and
therefore to refift the effects of the molt parching air or dun.
Such is the nature of the cuticle that covers the leaves of
aloes, and of all fucculent plants, more or lefs, that although
they perfpire but very flowly, they abforb with great facility.
Hence.thefe plants are admirably adapted to thrive on dry
funny rocks, or amid the moit arid fandy deferts of Africa,
where the rare and trivial fupplies of rain which fall to their
lot during a great part of the year, prove {fuficient for their
fupport in confequence of their tardy perfpiration. It is
truly worthy of remark, that this difference, in their powers
of. imbibing and giving out moitture, exilts only while thefe
plants retain their living principle. When killed by the
application of great heat or cold, their leaves dry as quickly
as any bodies of equal thicknefs. LEvergreens are found to
perfpire much Jefs than other fhrubs, while the Cornus maf~
cula, or Cornelian cherry, a plant with a thin dry leaf, Was,

a ers _ found

LEAF.

found by Du Hamel to perfpire to the amount of twice
its whole weight in 24 hours.—See PrRsPIRATION OF
PLANTs.

The beft obfervations on the abforbing power of leaves,
and its difference in different plants, have been made by
Bonnet, and are recorded in his book entitled Recherches
fur ? Ufage des Feuilles. By laying good, healthy, full-grown
leaves of various herbs or trees upon the furface of wa-
ter, fome with the upper, and others of the fame fpecies
with the under, fide applied to the water, he obferved in
which fituation they continued longeft in health and vigour 5
and alfo how far different fpecies differed from each other
in this refpe@. In general, herbaceous plants fultained the
longeft this continual and cepious application of wet to
their upper furface, while various trees on which the fame
experiment was made, decidedly preferred abforption by
their under fide. t

The abforption and evaporatign in the leaves of aquatic
plants; whether, like many fpecies of Potamogeton, as well
as the Zannichellia, the Chara, and all the fubmerfed dca,
they are entirely under water ; or whether, like the Nympheas
they float on its furface ; appear in general to be very ra-
pid; fuch plants, however juicy, drying with great rapi-
dity when taken into the air. They are, for the molt part,
highly vafcular, and, no doubt, have an equal facility in
imbibing and in giving out water. 4

Although molt leaves are fo formed as to have decidedly
an upper and an under furface, the {word-fhaped plants
(fee ENsarm) are an exception. Their foliage is vertical,
and has little or no upper furface, except where it embraces
thé tem; what is analogous to the under fide of ordinary
leaves, being in fa€t fo circumftanced in thefe, as to con-
flitute their whole furface. Other leaves are fo cylindrical,
that no difference of fides can be traced. [In all thefe the
abforbent veffels and the perfpiring ones muft be difperfed
alike over the whole expanfion of the leaf; as they are over
ftalks, and efpecially over the ftems of plants that have no
leaves at all, in which neverthelefs all the known fun@ions
of leaves neceflarily take place. This latter is the cafe in
the whole genus Stagelia, and in many fpecies of Caéus, as
well as in feveral rufh-like plants, and thofe fingular pro-
duétions the Cu/cuta and Caffytha.

There are, in a very few initances, ftrange aberrations of
tonfiguration in leaves, deltined to the accomplifhment of
fome particular purpofe. ‘Thus, thofe of the Dionea, (fee
that article,) bear an appendage like a rat-trap, the toothed
lobes of which, when flimulated, clofe upon each other, and
imprifon any infect that may have happened to alight upon
them. The leaves of the Sarracenie are tubular, and thofe
of the Nepenthes bear each a tubular appendage with a lid.
Thefe are found for the molt part full of water, that
feems to be fecreted or poured out by the veffels of the leaf,
rather than received, as has commonly been fuppofed of the
Sarracexig, from the atmofphere. ‘his water is the refort
of infets, who moitly perifh in it, and the materials of their
decompoling bodies are fuppofed to minifter to the health
of the plant. The Drofére, found in our bogs, entrap in-
fe&ts by the vifcid and irritable hairs of their leaves, appa-
rently for a‘fimilar purpofe.

This leads us to confider the effects of air and light upon
vegetables, through the medium of their foliage, which,
in this point of view, is tranfeendently important.

Grew and Malpighi, independent of each other, but
about the fame period, dete¢ted, in the leaves of plants,
abundance of velicles full of air, as alfo the {piral-coated
tubes or veffels of the ftems, canfidered by their difcoverers,

as well as by fubfequent phyfiologifts till very lately, in the
light of air-veffels hkewife, becaufe, like the arteries of the
animal frame, they appeared, on diflection, to be empty,
or at leaft not occupied by the fap or juices of the plant:
On the deteétion of thefe veficles, phyfiologifts theoreti-
cally fuppofed leaves to imbibe air, “ which the fpiral vef-
fels were believed to convey all through the plant, in order
that it might act on the fap as it does on the animal blood.’
The analogy thus underflood was-not correét,; becaufe air’
is conveyed no further than the lungs of animals 3 but with-
out this hypothefis no ufe could be found for the fuppofed
longitudinal air-veflels.”” Now it is provdd that thefe longi-
tudinal fpiral-coated tubes do really tranfmit the fap from
one part of the vegetable frame-to-anctlier, finally conveying
it into the leaves, where it is ated upon by the air, either
of the above-mentioned velicles, or of the atmofphere. he
analogy with animal refpiration holds good, therefore, much
more correctly than the authors of,the above hypothelis
imagined. On this fubje& we need not repeat what is faid
under the article CrrcuLa tion of the Sap.

Dr. Hales’s experiments with the air-pump, to proye the
tranfmiflion of air through the vegetable body, are to be
regarded with caution, as merely fhewing that air will per~
vade their longitudinal veflels, when a branch is cut, and
its vital principle probably in fome degree injured 3 at leatt
when the natural movement of its fap is by no means going
on, nor that fluid remaining in its natural fituation. Air is
obtained in abundance, by means of the air-pump, from
every part of the vegetable body, as well as from recently
extracted fap; and plants are found to perifh very foon in
an exhaulted receiver. Hales rightly remarked, that air is
not only taken in by plants very copioufly along with their
food, but alfo.imbibed by their bark, as well as through the
furface of their leaves. Yet we cannot follow him when he
adds, ‘¢ efpecially at night, when they are changed from a
perfpiring to a ftrongly imbibing ftate,”” Such a difference
between night and day feems merely to regard the watery
abforption and perfpiration of leaves, the introduétion of
air, or rather its action upon them, being doubtlefs carried
on chiefly in the light, that body having a principal fhare
in the refult. Nor did this efcape the fagacity of Hales,
who, after concluding that “one great ufe of leaves is to
perform in fome meafure the fame office for the fupport of
the vegetable life, that the lungs of animals do, for the fup-
port of the animal life; plants, very probably, drawing
through their leaves fome part of their nourifhment from
the air :'’ adds two pages further; ‘¢and may not light alfo,
by freely entering the expanded furfaces of leaves and flowers,
contribute much to the ennobling the principles of vege-
tables 2”?

Bonnet’s experiments and enquiries, ref{pe€ting leaves, prine
cipally elucidate their abforbing powers, proving them to be
“ furnifhed with a fyftem of cuticular abforbents, which.
carry fluids into their fap-veffels, fo, as to enable them, in
fome degree, to difpenfe with fupplies from the root.’
This philofopher has not improved upon the ideas of Hales,
refpecting the effeéts of air or light upon plants. He does.
not appear to have had any conception of leaves imbibing
air and giving it out again; {till lefs of their effeting any
change in'its properties. He was not aware that the bub-
bles he obferved clinging to leaves, whether dead or living,
when placed under water, and expoied to a bright fun, were
feparated, by the action of light, from the water itfelf; fo.
that he has no right to be contidered as the difcoverer of the
expiration of plants.

The great Dr. Prieflley firft pointed out a property im

I

growing

LE

growing vegetables, of abforbing carbonic acid gas, deno-
minated by him fixed air, by the upper furface of their
leaves, and of giving out by their under furface oxygen
gas, or pure refpirable air. Dr. Ingenhoufz improved upon
this important difcovery, by obferving light to be neceflary
to thefe funtions, remarking that in the dark leaves give
out a bad or carbonic air, and that fruits and flowers almoft
invariably give out the laft-mentioned kind of air, at all
times, but efpecially in the dark. Aquatic or bog plants,
as the Lpilobium and Nymphea, were found by thefe philo-
fophers to excel remarkably in this faculty of purifying air,
or of changing it from a carbonic to an exygenous ‘nature.
This operation is, in moft cafes, performed very quickly.
A vine-leaf in an ounce phial of carbonic acid gas, that
immediately extinguifhed a candife, being fet in the fun,
without water, changed it to pure refpirable air in an hour
and ahalf. © Dr. Prieftley found fome of the bog-plants to
alter even unmixed inflammable air, or hydrogen. Succu-
lent leaves afford moft of the purified air in queition, becaufe

~ef the abundance of their cellular parenchymatous fub-

itance, in which the chemical operations of leaves are per-
formed, and in which their green colour chiefly refides.
This colour therefore does not exit in leaves never ex-
pofed to the light, in which confequently no fuch che-
mical operations ever take place. ‘The fickly white obferv-
able in that part of celery Ralks, or of the fprouts of
afparagus, indeed of all plants, which is under the furface
of the ground, is entirely owing to the abfence of light ;
for when expofed to light fuch parts become green like the
reft of the herbage. It is found that expofing plants to
the ation of hydrogen gas will produce the fame green
colour, even if they are kept in the dark.

Every perfon attentive to the growth of plants muft
have obferved the conftant direction of the upper furface
of their leaves towards the light. When the fituation of
branches nailed to a wall is altered, and the pofition of their
leaves dilturbed, the latter refume their natural pofture in a
day or two, and the more f{peedily in proportion to the
brightnefs of the weather. It has long been known that
licht acts beneficially upon the upper furface of leaves, and
hurtfully upon their under fide; for if the latter be re-
peatedly turned to the light, or forcibly kept in fuch an
unnatural pofition, the leaves grow fickly, black or difco-
loured {pots appear about the veins at their backs, and the
cuticle {fcales off. Thus we have feen the Magnolia grandi-
flora, whofe rigid leaves de not readily change their pofture,
very materially injured, by nailing it to a wall in hot and
bricht weather. The under furface of its foliage became
fpotted, ard the colour of the other fide fickly ; the leaves
fell prematurely, and the plant was long in recovering its
health. One great ufe of footftalks to leaves appears to
be to facilitate their turning to the light, and varying their
pofiticn as the fun purfues his courfe; as may be ieen in
clover and other papilionaceous plants more efpectally.
Leaves feparated from their parent branch, and fufpended
delicately by a fine thread, turn to the light as effectually
ds if in their natural fituations. This power, however, of
turning to the light, is not equally obvious in all leaves.
Such as are very much folded or plaited, neceffarily prefent-
ing, on that account, about an equal portion of their fur-
face to the fun in ‘every pofition, are often lefs moveable ;
and this may account perhaps for the infenfibility obferved
by Bonnet in the mallow. Sword-fhaped leaves are always
vertical, and do not alter their pofition. Thofe of the pa-
piionaceous tribe are, as we have already hinted, among

the moit fenfible. Light feems, in many inftances, the fole

AF.

caufe of their expanfion, for when it is withdrawn, they
fold together and droop as if dying; fuch a ftate of relaxa-
tion being very elegantly, and indeed, as it appears, ver

correctly, termed by Linnzus the fleep of plants, on whickr
fubjeé he has left us a curious differtation in his Amvenitates
Academica, X. 4. p. 333- He there jultly remarks that the
general afpeét of a field, a garden, or a hot-houfe, is won-
derfully changed duritig a'fummer's night in Sweden, fo as
to puzzle the moft experienced botanilt, owing to a generak
alteration in the pofture of the foliage of ntl Some
fold the two fides of the leaf together; others tarn their
leaves upward, fo as to enclofe the flowers, which they thus
fhelter from roéttrnal dews that might interfere with their-
impregnation; and many prefs their foliage downwards,
clofe to the item or branch, whofe buds they thus perhaps
proteét from cold. Such movements evince a portion of
that irritability, dependent on life, which is more ftrikingly
difplayed in the fenfibility of fome leaves to the touch of
any extraneous body. Several fpecies of Mimo/a, called
for that reafon fenfitive plants, as well as a few others of
different genera, fold up their leaves when any concuffion is
given to the plant. If any of their leaflets be fhaken or in-
jured, the irritation is communicated to the neighbouring
ones, and thence, with accelerated velocity, to the reft,
even to other leaves on the fame branch or root. The leaves
of the Hedyfarum gyrans of Bengak are remarkable for a
fpontaneous movement, apparently independent of external
{timulation. They are ternate, and their fmail lateral leaf-
lets move frequently, but irregularly, up and down, inde-
pendent of light, requiring only, for the performance of this
action, a warm and itll air. This, like all other move-
ments of leaves, 1s moft confpicuous in fuch as are young.

In confequence of the obfervations of Priefticy and Ingen--
houfz, confirmed, varioufly extended, and explained upon.
the principles of improved chemiitry by fucceeding phi-
lofophers, the effects of light, heat, and atmofpheric air
upon leaves, and, where thefe are wanting, upon the green
ftems of plants, are now, as far as concerns all vegetables
in common, tolerably well underftood. It is agreed that in
the day-time the parts in queftion imbibe from’ the atmo-
{phere carbonic acid gas, which they decompofe,, abforbing
the carbon as matter of nourifhment, which is added to the
fap, and emitting the oxygen. Plants abforb the fame gas
from water, when by the a¢tion of light it is feparated from
that fluid. Air contaminated with this gas by the burning
of a candle, or the breathing of animals, ferves therefore
as food for vegetables, who in their turn purify it again,
and render it ht for the {upport of animal life, by the oxy-
gen given out from their leaves uader the influence of light.
Hence arifes a mutual and effential dependence of the animal
and vegetable kingdoms on cach other, for the difcovery of
which, one of the moit curious and beautiful in natural phi-
lofophy, we are principally indebted to Dr. Prieftiey,. that
great name from which fanaticifm would gladly tear, if it.
could, even the laurels of feience.

The above view of the funGions of leaves exaétly coin-
cides with Mr. Knight’s theory of vegetation, of which we
have given an outline in ovr article CincuLATION of the Sap.
That gentleman has proved, that very little alburnum, or
new wood, is fecreted when light is kept from the leaves.
We are alfo thus enabled to underftand how effential oils
may be produced, which, as wellas fugar, are known to be
compofed of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon in different pro-
portions. The various modifications of mucilage, dete&ed
ang diftinguifhed in the vegetable body by modern chemiftry,
are perhaps, as more depeudant on: the vital principle for

their

.

LTE AF

their formation, more inexplicable by chemical laws. It is
perhaps in vain to attempt to explain how any particular
fecretion is elaborated. Still lefs can we comprehend how
different tribes of plants, growing in the fame foil, even
vegetating tn the fame diftilled water, fhould regularly pro-
duce, as far as the health of the individuals under experi-
ment will allow, their own peculiar fecretions, ever preferv-
ing the mott effential qualities of their {pecies in this refpect.
How the nutritious fap, originally fimilar in thefe different
plants, can be fo operated upon, by the very fame agents,
in the thi and tender {lructure of the different leaves, as to
produce fubltances fo totally unlike each other as we meet
with in plants, whence their various flavours and qualities
originate ; all this 4 inexplicable in our prefent tate of
knowledge, though tranfatted every moment before our
eyes. ‘The different fecretions in various organs of the
fame individual vegetable body ; the acrimony of the leaf,
the bitter of the bark, the perfume of the bloffom, the
{weetnefs and acidity of the fruit ; all thefe are no lefs won-
derful. We underitand enough indeed to conceive how the
re{t may be accompiifed, and may congratulate ourfelves
on being allowed even a glimpfe of thofe mytteries of
nature, which our finite powers are inadequate fully to
comprehend.

Having {aid fo much on the phyfiology of leaves, it is
neceflary to confider them in another point of view, for the
purpofes of {cientific botany. In difcriminating the {pe-
cies of plants a knowledge of the various forms of leaves is
of the utmoft importance, nor are they entirely ufelefs in the
difcrimination of natural tribes or orders. It is univerfal
with graffes and the orchis family to have fimple and undi-
vided leaves; it is nearly as general for the papilionaceous
or leguminous tribe to have compound ones. In fome orders
they are always oppofite, in others alternate; in fome genera
evergreen, in others deciduous; but thefe latter circum-
ftances are liable to various exceptions. Trees and fhrubs of
North America, and even thofe of Europe, generically re-
lated to them, have a general tendency to aflume very bril-
liant colours in their foliage, as it verges towards decay.
Grailes, on the other hand, are very uniform and conftant
in their green colour, which is feldom changeable. Ever-
green leaves are commonly darker coloured, though more
{hining than others, and will often thrive with a lefs propor-
tion of light than is neceflary for other trees. The lower
leaves of herbs that grow in lofty and windy ftations, are
frequently much lefs divided than the upper ones, while the
reverfe is the cafe with molt aquatic plants, whofe lower
leaves, immerfed in the water, are fometimes quite capillary,
while the uppermoft are broad, and float on its furface ;
witnefs the Ranunculus aguatilis, whole white flowers be-
fpangle our ponds in fummer. The action of a running
ftream appears to elongate the leaves of this, as well as of
many ether plants. The dilated form of leaves in general,
by which they prefent fo large a furface to the atmofphere,
caufes them to be the’ more eafily diflodged by autumnal
ftorms, when their conneétion with the brauch or {tem has
already become gradually loofened by their approaching de-
cay. See Decinuous, and Fatt of the Leaf.

Leaves are, in the firft place, to be confidered as to their
fituation and pofition.

Folia radicalia, radical leaves, {pring from the root, as in
the Primrofe and Cowflip ; caulina, ttem-leaves, grow on
the item, as in the White Lily ; ramea, branch-leaves, if
different from thofe of the main ‘item, require to be diltin-
guifhed from them, as in Purple Cow-wheat, AZelampyrum
arvenfe. }

Alterna, alternate leaves, ftand folitarily on the ftem or
branches, as in Willows and many common plants ; oppo-
Jitay oppofite ones are found in the Lilac, and many others
equally common ; /par/a, are feattered without any order,
as in the Orange and White Lilies; conferta, are crowded
together, as in the Rhododendron and Azalea.

Bina, are only two upon a plant, like thofe of the Lily
of the Valley ; ¢erna, ftand three together, as in the fweet
Verbena triphylla, and often in the Fuchfia 3 quaterna, quina,
Jena, &e. are when four, five, fix, or more, furround the
{tem in a whorl, as in fome kinds of Heath; verticillata,
whorled leaves, ufed without any reference to the numbery
exprefles this mode of growth, as exemplified in the Wood-’
ruff, Madder, and many plants of the fame as well as dif-
ferent families.

Fafticulata, tufted leaves, are feen in the Larch and Ce-
dar ; imbricata, lying like tiles upon a houfe, in the Common
Ling ; decuffata, ftand in pairs crofling each other, as in the
Caper Spurge, Euphorbia Lathyris ; diflicha, two-ranked,
{pread in two direétions, yet are not regularly oppofite at
their origin, as in the Yew; /ecunda, are unilateral, leaning
all toward one fide, as in the Solomon’s Seal.

Adpreffa ave clofely prefled to the ftem, as in fome kinds
of Xeranthemum and Spurge, in which cafe the back of each
leaf only is prefented to the light ; verticalia, ftand perpendi-
cularly, with ‘both fides equally at right angles with the
horizon, like the La@uca Scaricla, but fuch a cafe is rare,
except in {word-fhaped leaves; eredfa, are fuch as grow nearly
upright, forming a very acute angle with the ftem; pater-
tia {pread more in the ufual manner ; horizontalia, or paten-
tifima, {pread in the greateit poffible degree ; reclinata incline
downward, the extremity of each being lower than the bafe,
or point of infertion ; recurva, are curved backward, as in
Erica retorta ; incurva, turn inward, as in £. empetrifolia ;
obliqua, are twilted, fo that one part 1s vertical, the other
horizontal ; re/upinata, are fo completely turned or reverfed
that the upper {urface is become the under, as in A/freme-
ria pelecrina ; depreffa, ave radical leaves preffed clofe to
the ground, like the Hoary Plantain, Plantago media, or any
fucculent ones that are vertically flattened, in oppofition to
comprefja, flattened laterally ;-natantia, float on the furface of
water ; demerfa, immerfa, or fubmerfa, are plunged beneath
it 3 cmerfa are railed above the water, others upon the fame
plant being funk below its furface.

The infertion of heaves means the mode in which they are
connected with the parent plant. P

Petiolata, ttand on footttalks (petioli) either long or fhort,
fimple or compound ; peltata, have the footftalks inferted,
not. into the bafe as ufual, but into the middle of each
leaf, like the arm of a man holding a fhield, as in the
Common Natturtium. or Tropeolum ; /feffilia, feifile leaves,
{pring immediately from the item, branch or root, without
any footitalk, of which examples are frequent ; amplexi-
caulia, clafp the ftem with their more or lefs dilated bate,
being ufually alternate; connata, or connato-perfoliata, are
oppofite leaves, united at the bafe, fo that the ftem runs
through them ; perfoliata, have the ftem running through
them in any way whatfoever, as Bupleurum perfoliatum,
called Thorough-wax, from qwax to grow, in allution to
this circumftance ; vaginantia, are {uch as fheath the ftem,
or each other, with their bafe, which is exemplified in
meft grafles, and many liliaceous plants that have no
ftem ; equitantia, embrace each other with their comprefled
bafe, while they fpread upwards in two ravks, of which
the genus /ris affords many examples; decurrentia, decurrent,

rur

LE ALF.

“run down the ftem or branch in a leafy border or wing, as
in many Thiftles, and the Great Mullein ; forifera, bear
the flowers out of their difk or margin, as in Ru/cus and
Xylophylla.

With regard to form, the firft thing to be confidered is
whether leaves are fimple (/implicia) or compound (compofita).
Of the former kind are thofe of grafles, Orchifes and Lilies,
which are not only fimple but undivided, while thofe of the
Vine and Mallow are fimple, but lobed; the Hop bears

-fome leaves lobed, others undivided, as does Laurus Safafras,
and the Paper Mulberry. Compound leaves are obiervable
in Rofes, Jafmine, and the Un belliferous tribe in general,
and confilt of leaflets, or partial leaves, (_folio/a,). connected
by a common ftalk, and falling off alorg with it. In com-
pound leaves the footftalk is either fimple, as in the Jafmine
and Rofe, or compound, as in Parfley, Hemlock, and

.Fumitory. In fimple leaves the footftalk, if prefent,
muft of courfe be fimple, while in compound ones it muft
always be prefeat, though net always fubdivided.”’

‘The following are the principal forms of fimple leaves,
coniidering their outline only.

Orbiculatum, as nearly a perie& circle as poffible, of which
inftances are very rare.

Subrotundum, roundith, is not uncommon.

Ovatum, the fhape of an egg cut longitudinally, a very

_ common form of leaves.

Obawvatum, is the fame figure reverfed, the little end being

. downward. ;

Ellipticum, oval, of an equal breadth at each end.

Odlongum, of an indeterminate oblong fhape, three or four
times longer than broad.

Spatulatum, roundifh, or obovate, with a long taper bafe,

-like a furgeon's {patula.

Cuneiforme, like a wedge, broad and abrupt at the ex-
tremity.

Lanceolatum, lanceolate, of a narrow oblong figure, taper-
ing towards each end, very common, as in Willows, and
Plantago lanceolata, or Ribwert. :

_ Lineare, linear, narrow with the fides as nearly parallel as
poffible, fuch as the leaves of moft graifles, the various
f{pecies of Narciffus, the Rofemary, and many different
plants. Linear-lanceolate leaves are of an intermediate fhape

between this and the laft, or but flightly lanceolate, of
which the gradations are numerous, often upon the fame
lant.

Acerofum, needle-fhaped, linear and evergreen, moftly
acute and rigid, almoft peculiar to the Fir and Juniper
tribe. Such leaves have ufually a joint where they unite
‘ a the branch, at which they feparate from it when they
all.

Triangulare, having three prominent ang’es, of whatever
meafurement or direction, as in Goofefoot, and fome leaves of
Ivy.

yale. having four angles, as in the Liriodendrum
or Tulip-tree, a very peculiar kind of leaf.

Quinguangulere, with five angles, like the Cyclamen, and
vy.

Veltoides, deltoid, or trowel-fhaped, having three angles,
of which the terminal one is much further from the bafe
than the two lateral ones, asin Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus.
Linnzus in his Philofophia Botanica, p. 43, cites his fig. 58.
_of that work as an example of this leaf, which is a miltake,

that figure being a reprefentation of the fucculent three-edged |

leaf, (fol. trigonum,) of Mefembryanthemum deltoides.
Rhombeum, rhomboid or diamond-fhaped, approaching to
a fquare, though the fides are fearcely ever equal. This is
feen in Trapa uatans, and the Stinking Goofefoot.
6

Reniforme, kidney-fhaped, a fhort broad rounded figure,
hollowed out at the bafe, as in Afarabacca.

Cordatum, heart-fhaped, ovate hwllowed out at the bafe,
according to the vulgar idea of aheart ; a form very frequent
in leaves.

Lunulatum. crefcent-fhaped, like’ a half-moon, whether
the points be direéted backward, as in Sagittaria obtufifolia
when its leaves are fhorter than ufual, or forward; as in Pa/-
Stora lunulata, Sm. Ic. Pi&t. t. 1.

Sagittatum, arrow-fhaped, like Sagittaria fagittifolia, and
feveral fpecies of Sorrel, Rumex. In the Great White
Bindweed, Convolvulus fepium, the polterior angles are
abrupt or lopped.

Haftatum, halberd-fhaped, triangular, hollowed out at the
bafe and fides, the lower lobes fpreading horizontally, at
right angles with the footftalk, as in Sheep’s Sorrel, and
the upper leaves of the Woody Nightfhade, Selanum- Dul-
camara.

Panduriforme, fiddle-fhaped, oblong, blunt and dilated
at eachend, hollowed out at each fide, of which remark-
able figure the Fiddle Dock is a itriking, and almof fingular
example.

Runcinatum, runcinate or Jion-toothed, that is re-uncina-
tum, hooked backward, being cut into many tranfverfe
acute fegments, whofe points are dire€ted backwards, like
the Dandelion.

Lyratum, lyrate, fo named in allufion to the antique lyre,
but reverfed. This leaf has a broad rounded extremity,
with feveral tranfverfe rounded fegments, gradually leflening
towards its bafe, asin Zryfimum Barbarea. It is moft fre-
quent in the Cruciform and Compound clafles, and by 2a
vccafional deep feparation of the fegments, oftea becomes a
compound or lyrato-pinnate leaf.

Fiffum, cloven or {plit, when the margins of the fiffures
and iegmeuts are ftraight, not rounded, as in the Ginkgo
or Maidevhair-tree. Bifidum, trifidum, multifidum, &c. ex-
prefs the number of the fegments, but thefe terms are alfo.
ufed with lefs limitation, to indicate the number of divifions,
of whatever fhape, when the latter circumftance does net
come under confideration.

Lobatum, lobed, when the margins of the fegmerfts
are rounded, as is moft generally the cafe; witnefs the
Hepatica. Bilobum, trilobum, &c. indieate the number of
the lobes.

Sinuatum, finuated, cut along the margin into deep,
rounded, or wide openings, like Statice finucta, Mefembryan-
themum pinnatifidum, Curt. Mag. t. 67, and the Common
Oak.

Partitum, deeply divided, almoft to the bafe, like the
Mufk Mallow. Bipaertitum, tripartitum, multipartitum, exe
prefs the number of divifions.

Laciniatum, \aciniated, cut, or as it were torn, into nu-
merous irregular portions, which may be feen in various
fpecies of Senecio, denominated on that account Ragwort.

Incifum and Difé@um, cut or jagged, are nearly fynony-
mous with the lait, but exprefs a lefs deep divifion of the
whole leaf.

Palmatum, palmate or hand-fhaped, cut into feveral ob-
long, nearly equal or uniform fegments, about half way, or
rather more, towards the bafe, leaving an entire {pace there,
like the palm of the hand, as in the common Blue Paffion-
flower, whofe leaves however are frequently ftill more deeply
divided, and the Fig.

Pinnatifidum, pinnatifid, or wing-cleft, cut tranfverfely
into feveral oblong parallel fegments, like feveral fpecies of
Thiftle, Carduus, and on a fmaller feale, though more

deeply,

LEAF.

deeply, Lepidium petreum and alpinum ; as well as Coronopus
didyma of Vl. Brit. :

Bipinnatifidim, doubly fo divided, as in the Long Rough-
headed Poppy, ‘Papaver Argemone, and Eriocalia major ; fee
that article.

Pedlinatum, pe€tinate, a fine and elegant fort of pinna-
‘tifid leaf, whofe fegments are fo narrow and fo regularly
parallel, that they refemble the teeth of a comb, exemplified
in the Water Violet, Hottonia paluffris.

Inequale, wnequal, fometimes called oblique, is when the
two halves of a leaf are manifeitly unequal in dimentions,
-efpecially at the bafe, where they are not at all parallel.
This is the cafe with moft {pecies of Eucalyptus and Begonia,
but it is hardly obfervable in any Britifh plants, except in a
{mall degree.

‘Integrum, undivided, expreffes a leaf or leaflet being defti-
tute of all fegment, divilion or lobe, without any reference
to its margin, whether toothed or not. :

The various terminations of leaves are thus diftinguifhed.

Folium truncatum, an abrupt leaf, has the extremity cut
off, as it were, tranfverfely, by a ftraight line, as the Tulip-
tree, Liriodendrum tulipifera.

Premorfum, bitten, or jagged-pointed, is blunt with va-
rious irregular notches, a very unufual termination, but
charaGteriltic of Dr. Swartz’s genus érides, a tribe of
Indian Orchidee. Hibifcus premorfus, Linn. Suppl. has a
more dilated leaf with a fimilar termination. .

Retufum, retufe, blunt with a broad fhallow notch, like
the Mountain Sorrel, Rumex digynus.

Emarginatum, emarginate or nicked, having a {mall acute
notch at the fummit, which is rot uncommon.

Obiufum, blunt, terminating in a fegment of a circle, like
the Primrofe leaf, and many others.

Acutum, fharp, ending wich an acute angle, as is ftill more
-ufual.

Acuminatum, pointed, having a taper point, like many
grafles, and various other plants.

Obtufum cum acumine, blunt with a fmall point, like the
Sea Lavender, Statice Limonium.

Mucronatum, or Cufpidatum, fharp-pointed, tipped with
a rigid or pungent f{pine, like the Thiltle tribe.

Tridentatum, three-toothed, when there are three terminal,
nearly equal, points.

Tricufpidatum expreffes the fame thing.

Cirrofum, cirvofe, tipped with a tendril, as in Gloriofa
and Flagellaria, two Indian plants.

, The different margins of leaves are defined as follows,
and are very important to be well underftood, and correétly
applied, in forming fpecitic charaCters of plants.

Folium integerrimum, an entire leaf, is deltitute of all mar-
ginal teeth, notches or incifions, as in the Orchis and Lily
tribes. This term, alluding folely to the margin, has no
reference to, or comparifon with, integrum, which concerns
the general figure, or dif, of the leaf.

Spinofum, {pinous, befet with prickles, though otherwife
-perhaps entire, as in Thiftles, and Eryngos. _'The veins and
ribs are f{pinous in fome kinds of So/anum, and many Rofes
and Brambles.

Inerme, unarmed, is oppofed to f{pinous.

Glandulefum, glandular, bordered with pores that exude
fome »peculiar fluid, as in Salix pentandra, the Bay-leaved
Willow, and fome others.

Cilictum, fringed, bordered with foft parallel hairs, as in
Rhododendrum hirfutum.

Cartilagineum, cartilaginous, having a hard or horny edge,
like feveral {pecies of Saxifrage. _ phages

Dentatum, toothed, befet with direGily projecting teeth,

of its own fubftance, as in fome fpecies of Plantain and
Hawkweed. .

Denticulatum, finely toothed, is much more ufual than the
laft.

Serratum, ferrated, having fharp teeth pointing forward,
like thofe of a faw, cither in a fimple row, like the Nettle,
or with {maller intermediate ferratures, as in the Strawberry
tree, (Arbutus Unedo,) various Rofes, and others. Such
leaves are called duplicato-ferrata, doubly ferrated.

Serrulatum, minutely ferrated, is ufed when the teeth are
very fine, even fo minute perhaps as to be fcarcely percepti-
ble but by the touch.

Crenatum, notched or crenate, when the indentations are
blunted or roundéd, and not directed towards either end of
the leaf, which may be feen in Ground-ivy, and feveral
Saxifrages, fome of which are fharply crenate. ‘The two
Britifh fpecies of Salvia are examples of doubly crenate
leaves.

Erofum, jagged, irregularly cut or notched, like fome
{pecies of Senecio or Ragwort.

Repandum, wavy, bordered with {mall projetions and
fhallow fegments of circles alternately, as in Fringed Water-=
lily, Menyanthes nypheoides.

Revoluium, revelute, turned or rolled backwards, as in
Rofemary. As this term always regards the margin only,
in modern botanical phrafeology, it is needlefs to fay mar-
gine revolutum.

Involutum, involute, is the reverfe of the laft, as in Bute
terwort (Pinguicula).

Conduplicatum, folded, when the margins are clapped
flatly together, as in Rofcoea purpurea, Sm. Exot. Bot.
t. 108, and the bafes of {word-fhaped leaves.

Terms defcriptive of the furfaces of leaves, no lefs requi-
fite to be clearly underftood than the former, are as follows.

Folium glabrum, a {mooth leaf, is ufed in contradiftinétion
to all kinds of hairinefs or pubefcence.

Leve, {mooth and even, is oppofed to all kinds of rough-
nefs and inequality whatever. ‘hus, the bliftered leaf of a
cabbage is glabrum, but not /eve ; that of an Orchis, or of
Myrtle, is both. ,

Nitidum, polifhed, fmooth and fhining, like Laurel.
Vifeidum, vifcid, exuding a clammy juice, as in Butter-
wort. ,

Verrucofum, warty, befprinkled with hard tubercles, like ~
the Pearly Aloe, or fome fpecies of Echium; the warts of
the latter moftly bearing rigid briltles.

Papillofum, papillary, covered with fofter tubercles, like
the Ice-plant.

Scabrum, rough to the touch, from any little rigid inequa-
lities, oppofed to /eve.

Afper, isa greater degree of the laft, of which one of the
moft eminent examples is Symphytum a/perrimum, Sims in
Curt. Mag. t. 929.

Hifpidum, briftly, befet with rigid or pungent briftles,
like the Borage.

Urens, ftinging, when each briftle difcharges a venomous
irritating fluid, as in the Nettle ; fee Pi/us under the article
Futcra.

Hirtum, or Pilofum, hairy, clethed with foft hairs.

Tomentofum, downy, very foft to the touch, as in the
Marfh Mallow, and others of that tribe. “

Villofum, fhaggy, clothed or befprinkled with long fhaggy
hairs, like Hieracium villofum, and others.

Lanatum, woolly, covered with denfe, entangled, often
branched hairs, as in feveral {pecies of Mullen ( Verbafcum).

Incaniim, hoary, whether arifing from clofe filky de-
prefled hairs, as in Wormwood, and the White Willow, or

5 from

LEAF.

from a {caly kind of mealinefs, as in Atriplex, and fome {pe-
cies of Aly/ffum.

Glaucum, glaucous, clothed with a fine mezlinefs, cf a
fea-green colour, which eafily rubs off, as in the Cabbage,
the Chfora, and many others.

Maculatum, {potted, befprinkled with {pots or ftains of a
different colour from the prevailing green of the leaf. In
Lamium maculatum thefe {pots are white, in Hypocharis macu-
data they are of a dark purple.

Coloratum, coloured, is ufed when a leaf, or any part
thereof, is of any other colour than green, as in Amaranthus
tricolor.

Pundatum, dotted, either fuperficially, asin Rhododendrum
pun@atum, Andr. Repof. t. 36, or with pellucid cells filled
with an eflential oil, like Hypericum perforatum, and the
whole natural order of Juffieu's Aurantia.

Rugofum, rugged, having the veins tighter than the inter-
mediate fpaces, fo that the latter become tumid, as in the
Garden Clary, and many other fpecies of Salvia.

Bullatum, biiftery, a more remarkable degree of the laft,
frequent in the Garden Cabbage.

+ Plicatum, plaited, when the difk of the leaf, efpecially
towards the margin, is acutely folded up and down, as in
Mallows, and Ladies’ Mantle.

Undslatum, wndulated, when the difk near the margin is
waved obtufely up and down, in confequence of being more
ample than the adjoining part, as in Cyamus Nelumbo; or
than the rib, as in Refeda lutea and alba.

Crifpum, curled, when the border is fo much more di-
lated than the difk, that it neceffarily becomes curled and
twifted, which is the cafe with the Curled Mallow, and
fome varieties of Mint, for this mode of growth is juftly
fufpeGted by Linnzus, to be but a variety, or preternatural
luxuriance.

Concavum, hollow, depreffed in the centre, owing to a
tightnefs in fome part of the circumference, as in Cyamus
Nelumbo.

Canaliculatum, channelled, having a longitudinal depref-
fion, like feveral {pecies of Narciffus.

Venofum, veiny, when the veilels by which the fluids are
conveyed throvgh the leaf, are branched, fubdivided, and
more or lefs prominent, frequently forming an elegant. net-
work, in which cafe the leaf is faid to be reticulated, either
on one or both its furfaces.

Nervofum, or Coftatum, (fee the latter article,) ribbed,
when the veffels exteud in fimple lines from the bafe to the
point, or towards it. The greater clufters of veffels are
generally called nervi or coffz, nerves or ribs, the {maller
vena, veins, whether branched or fimple.

Avenium, veinlefs, and LEn-rve, riblefs, are oppofed to
the laft-mentioned terms.

Trinerve, three-ribbed, is a leaf with three great or prin-
cipal ribs, all alike dittinét and feparate from the very bafe,
as well as remote from the margin, like the beautiful Blatea
frinervis.

Bafi trinerve, three-ribbed at the bafe, has the bafe cut
away, as it were, clofe up to the lateral ribs, as in the Bur-
dock, and Great Aanual Sunflower.

Triplinerve, triply-ribbed, is when the fide-ribs branch off
from the middle one, at fome diltance zbove the bafe, as in
Laurus Cinnamomurm and Camphora, and many fpecies of
Sunflower. Thé fine and ample South American genus
Melafloma, is remarkable for the confpicuous ribs of its

leaves, which are ufually five, feven, or more, the lateral
-ones either branching off from the central, or all of them
diftin& to the bafe.

Nudum, naked, implies that a leaf is deftitute of all kinds

- of clothing or hairinefs, as in the Orchis.

Vou. XX.

Variegatum, variegated, is a fort of variety or difeafe, in
which it differs from coloratum, the latter being natural, and
proper to the fpecies. Variegation of leaves confifts in
white or yellow irregular blotches, as in the Elder, Round-
leaved Mint, Holly, and Aucuba japonica. Such plants
are ufually more tender, and difficult of increafe, than
when in their natural ftate, as gardeners experience in Ge-
raniums.

The following terms exprefs the fubftance, peculiar con-
firuration, or fume other circumftance relating to leaves, not
included in the foregoing lifts.

Flium teres, or cylindraceum, cylindrical, is feen in Con-
chium gibbofum, and fome others of that genus. See Con-
CHIUM.

Semicylindraceum, femicy|:ndrical, flat on one fide, which
is generally the upper, like Sal/ola fruticofa, and Chenopodium
marilimum.

Subulatum, awl-fhaped, tapering from the bafe to the point,
like Sa//ola Kali.

Tubulofum, tubular, ho'low within, as in the Onion, and
fome other fpecies of Allium, forme Rufhes, &c. The tube
is double in Lobelia Dortmanna.

Carnofiun, flehy, of a thick pulpy fubftance, as in all
thofe called fucculen: plants, belonging moftly to the genera
of Sedum, Craffula, Aloe, Mcfembryanthemum, &c. Of the
fingular power in fuch leaves of refifting drought, we have
already {poken. When bruifed they foon dry or corrupt.

Gibbum, gibbous, {welling on one fide or both, as in Aloe
relufa.

Compreffim, compreffed, flattened iaterally.

Deprefjum, deprefied, flattened vertically, as zlready men-
tioned. Various kinds of Mefembryanthcmum exemplify
thefe.

Carinatum, keeled, when the back 1s longitudinally pro-
minent, like the keel of a boat.

Enfiferme, {word-fhaped, compreffed, tapering to a point,
flightly convex at each fide, neither of which is properly the
upper or under furface ; as in ris and its allies.

Anceps, two-edged, is nearly fynonymous with the laft.

Acinaciforme, {cimitar-fhaped, and Dolabriforme, hatchet-
fhaped, are two kinds of fuccuient leaves appropriated
to two fpecies of Mefembryanthemum, that bear the fame
names.

Trigonum, three-edged, has three longitudinal fides ard as
er ES like Mefembryanthemum deltoides, Linn. Phil.
Bot. f. 58.

Thigutrsih differs from the laft only in being more pre-
cifely applied to a three-fided awl-fhaped leaf.

Tetragonum, four-edged, has four prominent angles, as in
Tris tuberofa. ,

Lingulatum, tongue-fhaped, is a thick oblong blunt figure,
generally cartilaginous at the edges, as in Saxifraga Coty-
Zedon, and fome of its near relations.

Membranaceum, membranous, expreffes a thin pliable fort
of leaf, the reverfe of fucculent.

Coriaceum, leathery, is thick and tough, without being
pulpy or fucculent, like Magnolia grandiflora, Aucuba,
Laurel, and many others.

Sempervirens, evergreen, permanent through one, two, or
more winters, fo that the branches are never {tripped.

Deciduum, deciduous, (fee that article,) fuch as falls

off at the approach of winter, as in moft trees and fhrubs of

cold climates.

Aliendtum, alienated, when the firft leaves of a plant give .

place to others totally different from them, as well as from
the natural habit of the genus, as in many Minofe of New

Holland.
Cucullatum, hooded, when the edges meet in the lower
3L part

LE AYE.

part and expand in the upper, forming a fheath or hood, of
which the genus Sarracenia is a curious example. The
Common Lime, Tilia europea, is liable to a variety in which
the fame thing takes place accidentally. A tree of ‘this
kind, of which we have a {pecimen, in the church-yard of
Zedlitz in Bohemia, is vulgarly fuppdfed to bear fuch
hooded leaves, in confequence of a parcel of monks having
once been hanged upon this tree. It is feldom we can fo
clearly trace the caufe of any variety. Some might think
the experiment worth repeating.

Appendiculaium, furnithed with an appendage, or addi-
tional organ, for fome purpofe not effential to a leaf, as the
irritable lobes at the end of the foliage of Dionea mufcipula ;
and the pouch with a lid, upon that of Nepenthes diftillatoria
of both which we have already treated. Al/rovanda and
Viricularia bear numerous bladders on their leaves under
water, which feem to fecrete air for the purpofe of floating
the plants, efpecially perhaps at their flowering feafon.

Folia compofita, compound leaves, confift of two or any
greater number of partial leaves, connected by a common
foot{talk, whether fimple or branched. Such partial leaves
are termed folio/a, leaflets.

Folium articulatum, a jointed leaf, confifts of one leafiet,
or pair of leaflets, growing out of the fummit of another,
with a fort of joint, as in Fagara tragodes.

Digitatum, fingered or digitate, has feveral leaflets at the
top of one common ftalk, as in many Potentille.

Binatum, binate, confifts of a pair of leaflets only on one
footitalk, as in Zygophyllum, {ome Mimo/fe, the Great Ever-
lating Pea, and other ipecies of Lathyrus.

Ternatum, ternate, has three leaflets, like the Trefoil and
Strawberry. :

Quinatum, quinate, has five.

Pinnatum, pinnate, a very common kind of leaf, is formed
of feveral leaflets, ranged laterally along one footftalk,
either with or without partial ftalks, and in an oppofite or
alternate manner. ‘There is ufually a terminal leaflet, as in
Rofes, Jafmine, and Elder, which mode of growth is called
folium pinnatum cum impari, and is that always: underftood,
when nothing is particularized 5 abrupté pinnatum means that
there is no fuch terminal or odd leaflet. Sometimes its place
is fupplied by a tendril, as in Vetches and Peas, and fucha
leaf is termed pinnatum cirrofum. Interrupte pinnatum, inter-
ruptedly pinnate, is when the principal leaflets are ranged
alternately with one or more intermediate feries of {maller
ones, 2s in our Englifh Spiree, and Potentilla anferina.~ Ar-
ticulat2, jomtedly, is when there are apparent joints in the
common footftalk, as in Weinmannia pinnata. In the Ja-
panefe fhrub NMandina domeftica the leaflets all feparate by a
joint at their bafe, very foon after the leaf is gathered.
Decurfivé, decurrently, is when the leaflets run down the
footftalk at their bafe, like Eryngium campefire. Lyrato, in
a lyrate manner, has the terminal leaflet largeft, the reft
gradually fmaller, often with intermediate leaflets, as in
Geum, andthe Turnip. This and the true lyrate leaf often
vary into each other, in the fame plant or {pecies. Veerti-
cillaio, in 2 whorled manner, has the leaflets cut into fine
divaricated fegments, embracing the foot{talk, of which the
curious Sium verticillatum, F1. Brit. is an inftance.

Auriculatum, an auricled leaf, bears a pair of leaflets at its
bafe, that often indeed unite with it, as in the Dipfacus pi-
lofus, and Salvia trileba. Hedyfarum gyrans, the Moving
Plant, mentioned above, has properly an auricled leaf, rather
than a ternate one, the auricles being what move up and
down f{pontaneoufly.

Conjugatum, conjugate or yoked, confifts of one pair of
leaflets, and is much the fame as binatum.' Bijugum, trijugum,
quadrijugum, multijugum, exprefs particular numbers of pairs

of leaflets, as is fometimes neceffary in the {pecific charaGters
of Mimofe. .

Pedatum, pedate or foot-like, is in the firft inftance ter-
nate, but the two lateral leaflets are compounded in their
fore part, which may be feen in Helleborus fatidus and Hs
niger. ‘¢ There is an affinity between a pedate leaf, and
thofe fimple ones which are three-ribbed at the bafe.”’

The different degrees in which leaves are compounded are
thus diftinguifhed, without any reference to the mode.

Folium compofitum is a fimply compound leaf, as in Rofes.

Decompofitum, doubly compound, is exemplified in the
oer (Zgopodium), and many other umbelliferous
plants.

Supradecompofitum, more than twice compounded, is feen
in fome common umbelliferous plants, as the Hemlock, and
in many Mimofe.

The following terms exprefs not only the degree but the
mode. ‘

Bigeminatiim, twice paired, and «Tergeminatum, thrice
paired, are found in fome Mimo/fe. ;

Biternatum, twice ternate, is feen in Agopodium, and Tri-
ternaium, thrice ternate, in Fumaria lutea. wR S

Bipinnatum, doubly pinnate, Tripinnatum, triply pinnate,
are found in many exotic leguminous plants.

Some botanifts, amongit whom Forfkall feems to have
taken the lead, ufe the word /amina for the expanded part of
a leaf, that is, for the leaf itfelf, fo that the term is entirely
fuperfluous, and is befides appropriated to the border of the
petals in a polypetalous corolla. (See Lamina.) What
is not leef is footitalk (petiolus), the part which ufually fup-
ports the leaf, and whofe different kinds will be explained
under the article Petiotus. Another appendage to leaves,
but not always prefent, any more than the footitalk, is the
Stipula. See Futcrum and Stipuva.

In the ufe of the various terms. above explained, it is often
found neceflary to combine two. of them; in order either
to exprefs fome intermediate figure, or to provide. for that
variety or mutability of fhape, very frequent in the foliage
of many plants. Thus, ovato-lanceolatum indicates a.lan-
ceolate figure, fomewhat dilated towards the bafe, fo as to
approach towards ovate ; as e/liptico-lanceolatum implies a di-
latation about the middle. Or fuch compound terms may
exprefs, that the foliage, generally lanceolate, occafionally
verges towards either of thofe broader forms, . But we mutt
be careful not to combine terms which are incompatible, as
conjugato-pinnata, and digitato-pinnata, employed by fome
writers in defining Mimofe; whereas their meaning is con-
jugata, or digitata, in the firft inftance, and pinnata as regard-
ing the fecondary divifions. © Sub is commodioufly prefixed
to many terms, when our application of them is doubtful,
or not precife, as /ubrotundum, roundifh, /ub/effile, nearly
feffile ; but it fhould be fparingly ufed. It too often indi-
cates a want of decifion or perfpicuity in the writer, rather
than any uncertainty in his fubje&. An acute obferver can
génerally feize what is effential, in parts that are the leaft
variable, in each particular tribe ; paffing over what is.
doubtful; and above all, not dwelling on too many parti-.
culars-in his definitions, when a few-are fufficient. The
leaves of plants afford, on the whole, the moft commodious.
{pecific diftin€tio 1s, as being obvious, moft generally pre-
fent, and independent of the parts of fruétification, from
which the generic chara&ters are taken. In few cafes are
the leaves of any genus fo uniform or fimilar in ail the fpe-.
cies, as not to exhibit abundance of clear fpecific differences,
efpecially when their ftipulas and footftalks are taken like-.
wife into confideration. :

The Leaves of Plants have, in one inftance only, as far.
as we know, been reforted to for.the purpofe of forming

7 va fyfem.,

LEA

a fyftem of botanical’ arrangement. The celebrated Dr.
Sauvages of Montpellier publifhed, in 1751, a Methodus
Foliorum, or an arrangement of the wild as well as garden
plants about Montpellier, according to their foliage. It is
preceded by an epiltle to Linnzus in French, and an intro-
duction in the fame language. His orders are eleven:
Aphylle, Ce/pititie, Anguflifole, Latifolie, Adverfifolie, Ver-
ticillate, Digitate, Palmate, Pinnate, Decompzfite, and Laci-
niate. But they offer, in many inftances, 10 much violence
to nature, and are attended with fo little, if any, advan-
tage, that it is not worth while to detail their characters.
We doubt much whether this fyflem was ever expected to
be prevalent ; but if fo, the author, truly able and excel-
lent in other departments of {cience, and even of fyitematic
arrangement, has, in this cafe, been totally difappointed.

Lear, in Agriculture, fuch parts of trees and fhrubs as
are annually fhed and fallto the ground. Where the leaves
‘of trees or plants can be colleSted in large quantities, as in
parks and woodlands, they may be highly ufeful in aug-
menting the manure-heaps of the farmer. And it is advifed
by Mr. Young, in his Calesdar, that, in wooded counties,
all the leaves that can be had at little expence fhould be
raked up in Oétober, and carted to the yards and ftanding
folds, for littering and making them into dung: he does
it,’ he fays, ‘¢ at three-pence per one-horfe cart-load.
They do not rot eafily, but that is,’’ he thinks, «no objeétion
to them; they are a {ponge to be faturated with urine, and
if not touched previoufly to carting on the land, will convey
to the field much of what might otherwife be loft; and
they are extremely ufeful in aiding the main object of bed-
ding the yards’’ in the autumn and winter feafon; and of
courfe fave itraw where that article is fcarce.

‘Lear, in Gardening. Leaves are of great ufe in the
garden where they can be collected in proper fupplies for
mixing in hot-beds and other preparations, where gentle
heat is required. They are, likewife, beneficial as light
' coverings againit froft and fevere feafons in many cates.
See Lear, in Botany.

Lear-cared, in Rural Economy, a provincial term applied
to horfes when their ears are low and badly placed.

Lear, Indian, in Botany. See TaMALAPATRA.

Lear, Water. See HypRopHyLiuM.

Lear is alfo applied to the fineft and moft beautiful parts
of flowers, more properly called petals.

It is true, all flowers have not leaves or petals; and it is
fometimes difficult to determine which is to be called the
leaves, and which the*calyx of the fame flower.

To prevent confounding the leaves of the flower with thofe
of the reft of the plant, the former are called by botanilts
‘petala, the latter folia.

Leaves, in ‘Architefure, are an ornament of the Corin-
thian capital, and thence borrowed into the Compoiite ;
confifting in the reprefentation of a double row of leaves
covering the vafe, tympanum, or neck of the column.

Thete leaves are ufually formed in imitation of thofe of
~the acanthus ; fometimes of thofe of olive, and fometimes of
laurel.

The leaves are divided; each making three ranges of
leffer, and are bent at top one-third of their height.

* Lear-gold. See Goxrp-leaf.

Leaves, in clocks and watches, are ufed for the notches
“of their pinions.

Lear-filver. See Sirver. -

LEAGUE, an extent of ground, confidered length-

wife ; ferving to meafure the diftances of one place from -

another; and containing more or lefs geometrical paces,
according to the different ufages and cuftoms of countries.

i

LEA

The word comes from feuca, or leuga, an ancient Gaulifh
word, for an itinerary meafure, and adopted in that fenfe
by the Romans, Some derive the word /euca from ALUKO<y
white ; becaufe the Gauls, in imitation of the Romans,
marked the {paces and diftances of their roads with white
ftones. The Gallic leuca was = 14 Roman mile =
2415,522 yards.

A fea-league is ufually reckoned 3000 geometrical paces,
or three Englifh miles; the large leagues of France are
ufually 3000, and in fome places 3500 paces; the mean or
common league is 2500 paces, and the little league 2000.
Chorier obferves, that the ancient Gaulith leagues were but
1500 paces; and the modern French league is = 2500
toifes = 5328,75 Englifh yards. The term licue, or
league, is applied in different parts of France to very dif.
ferent diitances. The aftronomical league of 25 to a de-
gree meafures 4865 Englith yards. The legal lieues, of
two French miles, by which the highways were meafured,
contain each 4263 Englifh yards. The marine league of 20
to a degree meafures 6081 Englifh yards.

The Spanifh leagues are larger than the French, 17 Spa-
nifh leagues making a degree, or 20 French leagues, or 694
Englith ftatute miles. The league of Spain is = four an-
cient Roman miles = 6441,392 yards. The large league
of Spain is = five ancient Roman miles = 8051,74 Eng-
lith yards. On roads made fince 1766, the diftances are laid
down at the rate of Sooo varas to the league ; that is, 7416
Englith yards ; fo that five fuch leagues = 21 Englifh miles
nearly. But the juridical league 1s 5000 varas, or 4635
Englih yards; fo that eight of thefe are equal to 21 Englith
miles. Marine leagues are reckoned at the rate of 20 toa
degree. But in different parts of Spain, the leagues are
very different. The leagues of Germany and Holland con-
tain four geographical miles each. The German league, or
that of Scandinavia, is = 9662,0886 Englifh yards. The
mile or league of Germany is 200 Rhenifh yards
$239,846 Englith yards.

The Perfian leagues are nearly the fame with the Spanith ;
that is, each is equivalent to four Italian miles ; which
come nearly to what Herodotus mentions of the para-
fanga, an ancient meafure among the Perfians, éontaining
eet ftadia; eight of which, according to Strabo, make a
miles.

The Perfians mark their leagues by trees, as the ancient
Romans did by ftones, /apides ; for which reafon they are
alfo called zgag,a Turkifh word fignifying a free. In Japan,
the league contifts of 1800 fathoms. Thefe are all diftin-
guifhed by little hillocks, raifed on purpofe by the road-fide.
See the leagues of moft countries reduced to the Roman
foot, under Mirz. See alfo Measure.

League alfo denotes an alliance or a confederacy between
princes and {tates for their mutual, aid, either in attacking
fome common enemy, or in defending themfelves, The word
comes from liga ; which, in the corrupt Latin, was ufed for
a confederacy : * Qua quis cum alio ligatur.””

There have been feveral holy leagues entered into by the
Chriftians, againit the Saracens and Infidels; called alfo
crufados, or croifades.

The League, by way of eminence, denctes that famous
one on foot in France, from the year 1576 to 1593. Its
intent was to prevent the fucceflion of Henry IV. who was
of the Reformed religion, tothe crown ; and it ended with
his.abjuration of that faith.

The leaguers, or confederates, were of three kinds: the
zealous leaguers aimed at the utter deftruction, not only

of the Huguenots, but alfo of the miniftry. The Spani/h
3L2: leaguers

be o.

Yeagners had principally in view the transferring of the crown
of France to the king of Spain, or the infanta his daugh-
ter. The moderate leaguers aimed only at the extirpation of
Calvinifm, without any alteration of the yovernment.

Leacue, in Geography. See Grisons.

Leacuer of God's Houft. See Gon’s Houfe.

Leacur, Grey. See Grey League.

Leacus of the Ten Jurifdicions, one of the three leagues
into which the Grifons are diltributed. This league ought
properly to be called, and is not unfrequently denominated
in Switzerland, the league of the eleven jurifdictions, from
the number of communities that compofe it ; but as on its
firlt union it was formed of en only, the original appel-
lation is {till retained, although one of the jurifdictions has
been fince that period divided into two. ‘This territory was
formerly under the dominion of the Wats, whofe authorit
was limited, as the people poffefled very confiderable pri-
vileges. Qn the death of Donatus, the aft baron, the
count of Toggerburg, who married his eldeft daughter,
fucceeded to tis poffeffions ; and Frederic, one of his de-
cendants, dying in 1436, without iffue, the communities
united, formed an offentive and defenfive alliance, and erected
themfelves into aleague. After fome viciffitudes, the com-
munities became free, and their independence was folemnly
ratified by the emperor Ferdinand III., foon after the peace
of Weltphahia. For further particulars, fee Grisons.

Leacur, Solemn. See Covenant

LEAK, in Sea Language, isa chink or breach in the decks,
fides, or bottom of a fhip, through which the water comes
in. A fhip is faid to /pring a leak when fhe begins to leak,
or let in the water.

The manner of ftopping a leak is, to put into it a plug
wrapt in oakum, and well tarred, or in a tarpauling clout,
which keeps the water out; or nailing a piece of fheet-
lead on the place. See CauLKinc, and FoTuerine.

Seamen fometimes {top a leak by thruttinga piece of falt
beef intoit. The fea-water, fays Mr. Boyle, being frefher
than the brine imbibed by the beef, penetrates into its
body, and canfes it to {well fo as to bear ftrongly againtt
the edges of the broken plank, and thereby itops the influx
of the water. Works Abr. vol. i. p. 147.

A\ ready way to find a leak in a fhip, is to apply the nar-
row end of a {peaking trumpet to the ear, and the other to
the fide of the fhip where the leak is fuppofed to be; then
the noife of the water iffuing in at the leak will be heard
diitinStly, whereby it may be difcovered. See Philof. Tranf.
No. Zot.

LEAKAGE, the ftate of a veffel that leaks ; that ia,
lets water, or other liquid, ooze in or out.

LeakaGe alfo denotes an allowance of three barrels in
thirty-tix, both of {trong beer or table beer and ale, and
after that rate for any greater or lefs quantity, out of the
excife, 43 Geo. III. c. 69. f. 12. The faid allowance to
the common brewer of three upon every thirtv-fix barrels of
beer or ale, fhall be in full compenfation for all wafte or
other loffes whatfoever. f. 13.

“LEAKE, Jouyn, M.D., in Biography, was born of
Scottifh parents in Cumberland, and received his education
at the grammar-{chool at Bifhop-Auckland. This being
finithed, he fet off for London, intending to engage in the
military profeffion; but finding fome promifes, with which
he had been flattered, were not likely foon to be realized, he
turned his attention to medicine. After attending the hof-
pitals, and being admitted a member of the corporation of
furgeons, an opportunity prefented itfelf of improving him-
felf in foreign fchools ; he embarked for Lifbon, and after-
wards vifited Italy. Onhis return, he eftablifhed himfelf as

LEA

a furgeon and accoucheur inthe neighbourhood of Piccadilly;
and about that time publifhed «* A Diflertation on the Pro
perties and Efficacy of the Lifbon Diet-drink.’? Where he
obtained his doétor's diploma is not known; but he became
ere long a licentiate of the College of Phyficians, and re-
moved to Craven-{treet, where he began to lecture, as well
as continued to pra¢tife, the obitetric art. In 1765, he
purchafed a piece of ground on a bui'ding leafe, and after-
wards publifhed the plan for the inftitution of the Weftmin-
fter Lying-in-Hofpital ; and as foon as the building was
raifed, he voluntarily, and without any confideraticn,
affigned over.to the governors all his right on the premifes,
in favour of the hofpital. He enjoyed a confiderable thare
of reputation and practice as an accoucheur, and as a
le&turer ; and was efteemed a polite and accomplifhed man.
He added nothing, however, in the way of improvement, to
his profeffion, and his writings are not characterized by any
extraordinary acutenefs, or depth of refearch; but are
plain, correét, and pra¢tical. He was attacked, in the fum-
mer of 1792, with a diforder of the cheft, with which he
had been previoufly affe€ted, and was found dead in his bed
on the eighth of Anguft of that year. He publifhed, in
1773, a volume of ‘ Praétical Obfervations on Child-bed
Fever 3?’ and, in 1774, “ A Ledture introductory to the
‘Theory and Praétice of Midwifery, including the Hiftory,
Nature, and Tendency of that Science, &c.”? This was af-
terwards confiderably altered and enlarged, and publifhed in
two volumes, under the title of ‘* Medical Initruétions to-
wards the Prevention and Cure of various Difeafes incident
to Women, &c.”? The work pafied through feven or eight
editions, and was tranflated into the French and German
languages. In the beginning of 1792, a fhort time before
his death, he publithed «* A practical Efiay on the Difeafes
of the Vifcera, particularly thofe of the Stemach and
Bowels.’’ Hutchinfon Biog. Med.

Leaxe, Ricanp, was born at Harwich in the year 1629,
and was bred to the fea-fervice. At the refloration he was
made mafter-gunner of the Princefs, a frigate of fifty guns;
and in the firft Dutch war dittinguifhed himfelf by his flall and
bravery in two very extraordinary ations, in one againft
fifteen fail of Dutch men of war, and another in 1667,
againft two Danith {hips in the Baltic, in which, the princi-
pal officers being killed, the command devolved on him,
though only mafter-gunner. In 1669, he was promoted to
be gunner of the Royal Prince, a firlt rate man of ware In
1673, he was engaged, with his two fons Henry and John,
in the battle again{t Van Tromp, when the fhip had all her
matts fhot away, nearly four hundred men killed and difabled,
and moit of her upper tier of guns difmounted. As fhe lay
like a wreck, a Dutch man of war and two fire-fhips came
down upon her, and captain Rooke, afterwards fir George,
conceiving it impoffible to defend her, defired the men to fave
their lives, and itrike the colours. Mr. Leake hearing this,
ordered the lieutenant off the quarter-deck, and took the
command, faying ‘the Royal Prince fhall never be given
up to the enemy, while I am alive to defendher”’ The un-
daunted f{pirit of the brave gunner infpired the {mall refidue
of the thip’s company with refolution, they returned to the
fight, and, under the direction of this valiant gunner and
his two fons, funk both the fire-fhips, and obliged the man
of war to sheer off, and having thus faved the Royal Prince,
he brought her into Chatham, Mr. Leake’s joy in obtain-
ing this vidtory was miferably damped by the lofs of his el-
deft fon Henry, who was killed by his fide. Mr. Leake,
in confequence of his great merit, was made, in 1677, matter-
gunner of England, and ftore-keeper of the ordnance at
Woolwich, He invented, among other things, the cufhee-

if piece 5

LEA

piece } and contrived a new method of firing a mortar. He

_died in 1686. He had a furprifing genius for all inventions
relating to guanery, and alfo in the compofition of fire-
works. Heleft a fon,

Leaxe, Joun, who was but fixteen years of age when
he was engaged in the battle juft referred to, and in which
he took a confpicuous part. He was fhortly after made
captain, and performed many prodigies of valour, and,
among others, he executed a defperate attempt of convoy-
ing fome victuallers into Londonderry, which obliged the
enemy to raife the fiege: he was alfo at the battle of La
Hogue. In 1702, being commodore of a fquadron, he
deftroyed the French trade and fettlements at Newfoundland,
and rettored the Englifh to the poffeffion of the whole ifland.
On his return he was made rear-admiral, and, in a {hort time
afterwards, he was created vice-admiral of the blue, and re-
ceived the honour of knighthood. In 1705, he faved the
important fortrefs of Gibraltar from the combined attacks
of France and Spain, and was engaged in the reduétion of
‘Barcelona. In the courfe of the following year he relieved
that fame. city, when it was reduced to the lait extremity,
and obliged king Philip to raife the fiege. Soon after this
he took the cities of Carthagena, Alicant, and Joyce, and
concluded the exploits of the year with the reduétion of the
city and ifland of Majorca. On his return home, he was
prefented by prince George of Denmark with a valuable
diamond ring, worth 4oo/., and from the queen he received
z000/. as areward of his important fervices. On the death
of admiral fir Cloudefly Shovel, in 1707, he was made admi-
ral of the white, and commander-in-chief of her majefty’s
fleet. Inthe following year he furprized a convoy of the
enemies corn, fent it to Barcelona, and thus faved the city
and the confederate army from the danger of famine. He
reduced the ifland of Sardinia to obedience to Charles-king
of Spain, and affitted lord Stanhope in thé conqueft of Mi-
norca. Returning home, he was appointed one of the coun-
cil to the lord high admiral, and in 1709 he was made rear
admiral of Great Britain. He was feveral times chofen
member of parliament for Rochefter, and in 1712 con-
duéted the forces to take poffeffion of Dunkirk. On the
acceffion of George I, he was fuperfeded, and allowed a
penfion of 6oo/., upon which he lived ina private manner
till his death, which happened at his houfe in Greenwich, in
1720. He left no children, but was fucceeded in his pro-
perty by

Leake, SterHen Martin, who was fon of captain
Martin, the brother-in-law of admiral Leake. Inheriting
the property of the admiral, he took his name in addition to
that of his own. He went through the different ranks in
the Herald’s office, till he came to be Garter. He was the
firft perfon who wrote profeffedly on Englifh coins; He
publithed a hiitory of Britifh coins, under the title of
* Nummi Britannici Hittoria :’’ he wrote alfo “ The Life
of Sir John Leake,”’ of which only 50 copies were printed :
andin 1766 he printed 50 copies of “« The Statutes of the
Order of the Garter.’? He died in 1773.

LEAM, a term fometimes ufed for a cut or canal.

Leam, in Geography, a high mountain cf the county of
Galway, Ireland, fituated on the fouth fide of Lough

- Corrib, near the {mall town of Oughterard.

LEAM-KIEN-SAM, atown of Chinefe Tartary ; 42

miles S. of Poro.

LEAM-YOM-HOTUN, a town of Corea ; 600 miles.

‘E.N.E. of Pekin. N. lat. 42° 20’. E. long. 128° 46’.
LEANDER, in Biography, a French Capuchin friar, was

born at Dijon, where he died, in the year 1667. His writings

are numerous, and by thefe he acquired a high reputation ;

LE A

he is frequently referred te by Dupin, in his “ Nova Biblio-
theca Auctorum Ecclefiaicorum.’? One of his works is en-
titled « The Truths of the Gofpel ;”’ in two volumes folio.
Moreri.

LEAO, in Geography, a river of China, which runs into
the fea; 12 miles W. of Lai-tcheou

Leao, or Leho, a river of Chinefe Tartary, formed
by the union of feveral rivers, of which no one bears this
name till after it has pa‘Ted the barrier between Leao-tong
and Tartary. It runs into the gulf of Leao-tong, about 12
miles W. of Yao-tcheou.

Leao, in Natural Hiftory, a mineral fubftance, approach-
ing to the nature of the lapis !azuli, found in the Eatt In-
dies, and of great ufe in the Chinefe porcelain manufacture,
being the fineft blue they are pofieffed of. This fone is found
in the {trata of pit-coal, or in thofe of a yellowith or reddith
earth, in the neighbourhood of the veins of coal. ‘There
are often found-picces of it lying on the furface of the ground,
and thefe are a fure indication, that more will be found on
digging. It is generally found in oblong pieces of the fize
of a finger, notrourd, but flat. Some of this is very fine,
and fome coarfe, and of 4 bad colour. ‘The latter is very
common, but the fine fort is fcarce, and greatly valued. Itis
not eafy to diftinguifh them at fight, but they are found by
experiment, and the trying one piece Is generally fufficient
forjudging of the whole mine; for all that is found in the
fame place is ufvally of the fame fort.

Their manner of preparing it for ufeis this: They firft
wafh it very clean, to feparate it from the earth,.or any
other foulnefs it may have ; they then lay it at the bottom
of their baking furnaces ; and when it has been thus calcined
for three or four hours, it is taken out and powdered very
fife in large moztars of porcelain, with pettles of flone faced
withiron.. When the powder is perfetly fine, they pour in
fome boiling water, and grind that with the reft ; and when
it is thoroughly incorporated, they add mere, and finally
pour it off, after fome time fettling. ‘The remainder at the
bottom of the mortar, which isthe coarfer part, they grind
again with more water, and fo on, till they have made the
whole fine, excepting a little dirt or grit. When this is done,
all the liquors are mixed together, and well flirred. They
are fuffered to itandtwo or three minutes after this, and then
poured off, with the powder remaining in them. This is
fuffezed to fubfide gradually, and is the fine blue they ufe
in their beft works, our common fmalt ferving for the blue
of all the common low-priced China-ware. Obfervat. fur
les Coditumes de l'Afie, p. 326.

Itis plain that this ftone is a fort of lapis lazuli; and the
ultramarine blue, ufed by our painters, is made in a manner
not wholly unhke this. It is much to be wifhed, that
England were well fearched for fuch a ftone as this leao,
fince our mines in Derbyfhire afford many blue fubftances,
which have not been fufficiently confidered ; andif it fhould
be found that either this, or any other European nation,
produces it, it will bea fine difcovery, as we fhould not only
have the means of giving a fine colour to our own manufac-
tures of this kind, but we might trade with it in China to a-vaft
advantage. If Engiand does not poffeisit, it is very;3proba-
ble that Germany does, the eed there affording an almoft
inexhauttible {tore of coloured ftones: and this. being cer-
tainly no other than the ftony matter of fome cryftailine no-
dule, accidentally tinged with fome particles of copper.
See Lazuri Lapis.

LEAO-TONG, in Geography, a province of Chinefe
Tartary, more ufually called Chen-yang, or Mougden.
(See Cuen-yanc.) The province is extremely fertile ;
but it is too far diftant from Peking, and from the centre =

3 ; the

LEA

the empire, to fend its*provifions thither. Befide, carriage
js altogether impracticable, except in winter: in this feafon,
great quantities of game, and fifh preferved, or inclofed in
ice, according to the Chinefe expreflion, are carried from
that ‘country to the capital.

Leao-ronc, Gulf of, or Yellow Sea, is a large bay or
-gulf of the Chinefe fea, between the peninfula of Corea and
China ; about 400 miles from N. to S., and from ‘100 to 250
‘from E. to W. N, lat..34° 45! to 41°.

LEAO-COU-HOTUN, atown of Corea, on the S.
fide of the Ya-lou river; 370 miles E. of Peking. N. lat.
40° 9’. E. long, 125° 4!.

LEAP, in Agriculture, a meafure of capacity, fignifying
half a bufhel, fometimes termed /ip.

Lear, in Mufic, is when the fong does not proceed by
-conjoint degrees.
a third, fourth, fifth, &c. between two notes, the Italians
call it a Lap, falto. :

It is to be obferved, that there are two kinds of leaps,
regular and irregular, called by the Italians -/a/ti regolari
irregolari. :

The regular leaps are thofe of a third major or minor,
whether natural or accidental, fourth, fifth, 4ixth minor, and
otave, and thefe either afcending or defcending.

Irregular leaps are the triton, fixth major, feventh major,
the ninth, tenth, and, in general, all beyond the compafs of

- an odtave ;, at leaft in vocal mufic. ,

Befides thefe, there are others which may be ufed, but
with difcretion; fuch as the diminifhed fourth, the falfe
“fifth, and flat feventh. ‘The difference between the regular
and irregular leaps is, that the former are performed by the
voice, without any great difficulty or effort ; whereas, the
Jatter require more attention and pains to execute.

Leap, in Fifhing, is ufed for a net, engine, or wheel,
made of twigs, to catch fifhin. Stat. 4 & 5 Will. & Mary.
cap. 23. ’

Leap, in the Manege, an air of a ftep and a leap.

LEAPING-HORSE, in the Manege, is one that works
in the high manege, or one that makes his leaps with order
cand obedience between two pillars upon a ftraight line, in
volts, caprioles, balotades, or croupades. Ufe excludes a
gallop a terra a terra, and corvets from the number of leaps ;
becaufe the horfe does not rife fo very high in thefe. Each
Jeap of the horfe ought not to gain, or make above a foot
and a half of ground forward.

LEAP-YEAR, the fame with Bifevtile ; which fee.

It is thus called, becaufe, in the common year any fixed
day of the month changes fucceffively one day of the week ;
dut in the leap-year, it fkips or leaps over one day.

The common year hath three hundred and fixty-five days
in it, but the leap-year three hundred and fixty-fix days ; and
in this cafe February hath twenty-nine days; which, in the
ommon year, hath but twenty-eizht.

To find the leap-year, the rule is,

« Divide by 4, what's left fhall be,
For leap-year, o: for paft, 1, 2, or 3.”

For example ; is the year 1812 a leap-year, or common-
year.

_ 4)1812(453

‘There 1s o remainder, fo that it 1s leap-year.

LEASBURG, in Geography, a town of America, being
the capital of Cafwell county, in North Carolina : containing
a court-koufe, gaol, and a few houfes. ; :

LEASE, from the French /aifer, dimittere, to lett, in Law,
a demife, or letting of lands, tenements, or hereditaments,
unto another for life, term of years, or at will, for a rent re-
ferved. ;

For inftance, when there is an interval of

LEA

A contra for the poffeffion of lands or tenements, for
fome determinate period, is an effate for years (fee Esrarn) ;
and it takes place where a man letteth them to another for the
time of a certain number of years, agreed upon between the
leffor, or perfon who granteth a leafe, and the leffee, the
perfon to whom it is granted, and the leffee enters thereon.
(Litt. § 58:) If the leafe be but for half a year, or a
quarter, or any lefs time, this leffee is reputed as a tenant
for years, and is fo ftyled in fome legal proceedings ; a year
being the fhorteft term which the law takes notice of in this
cafe. A year is a determinate and well-knowm period, con-
filting commonly of 365 days. (See Bissextire.) A
month, (fe¢ Mont) in law, is a leafe month, or 28 days,
unlefs otherwife expreffed; and, therefore, a leafe for
«twelve months” is only for 48 weeks; but if it be for
“a wwelve-month’’ in the fingular number, it is good for the
whole year. (6 Rep. 61.) \ Thefe eltates for years were
originally granted to mere farmers or hufbandmen, who
every year rendered fome equivalent in money, provifions,
or other rent, to the leffors or landlords ; but, in order to
encourage them to manure and cultivate the ground, they
had a permanent intereft granted them, not determinable at
the will of the lord. Their poffeffion, however, was deemed
of fo little confequence, that they were rather confidered
as the bailiffs or fervants of the lord, who were to receive
and account for the profits at a fettled price, than as having
any property of their own; and, therefore, they were not
allowed to have a freehold eftate: but their intereft exifted
after their deaths in their executors, who were to make up
the accounts of their teftator with the lord, and his other
creditors, and were entitled to the ftock upon the farm.
The leffee’s eftate might alfo, by the ancient law, be at any
time defeated by a common recovery fuffered by the tenant
of the freehold (Co, Litt. 46.) ; which annihilated all
leafes for years then fubfifting, unlefs afterwards renewed by
the recoveror, whofe title was fuppofed fuperior to his by
whom thofe leafes were granted. Eftates for years, whilft
they continued precarious, were ufually of fhort duration,
like our leafes upon rack-rent; and we are told (Mirror.
c. 2. § 27. Co. Litt. 45, 46.), that by the ancient law
no leafes for. more than 40 years were allowable, becaufe
any longer poffeffion (efpecially when given without any
livery declaring the nature and duration of the eftate),
might tend to defeat the inheritance. This law, if it did
ever exilt, was foon antiquated; for, in Madox’s ‘ Col-
lection of Ancient Inftruments,” fome leafes for years, of a
pretty early date, occur, which confiderably exceed’ that
period ; and long terms, for 300 or 1000 years, were in ufe
in the time of Edward III., and probably of Edward I.
But when, by the ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 15. the
termor (that is, he who is entitled to the term of
years), was protected againft thefe fi€titious recoveries,
and his intereft rendered fecure and permanent, long
terms began to be more frequent than before; and were
afterwards extenfively introduced, being found extremely
convenient for family fettlements and mortgages; con-
tinuing fubje&t, however, to the fame rules of fucceflion,
and with the fame inferiority to freeholds, as when they
were little better than tenancies at the will of the land-
lord.

Every eftate which muft expire at a period certain and
prefixed, by whatever words created, is-an eflate for years ;
and, therefore, this eftate is frequently calledia term, terminus,
becanfe its duration is limited and determined; for every
fuch eftate muft have a certain beginning and certain end.
(Co. Litt. 45.) But “id certum eft, quod certum reddi
poteft ;"’ therefore, if a man make a leafe to another, ee

°

LEAS £.

fo many years as J. S. fhall name, it is a good leafe for years
(6 Rep. 35.) ; for though it is at prefent uncertain, yet
when J. S. hath named the years, it is then reduced toa
certainty. If no day of commencement is named in the
creation of this eftate, it begins from the making, or delivery,
of the leafe. (Co. Litt. 46.) A leafe for fo many years
as J. S. hall live, is void from the beginning (Co, Litt. 45.) :
but a leafe for 20 or more years, if J.S. fhall fo long live, is
good, for a certain period is fixed, beyond which it cannot
Taft, though it may determine fooner, on the death of J. S.
An eftate for life, even if it be pur auter vie, is a freehold ;
but an eftate for 1000 years is only a chattel, and reckoned
part of the perfonal eftate.. A leafe for years may be made
to commence in fuiuro, though a leafe for life cannot. Be-
caule no livery of feilin is neceffary to a leafe for years, fuch
leflee is not faid to be /éized, or to have true legal feifin of
thelands. Nor, indeed, does the bare leafe velt any ettate
in theleflee ; but only gives him aright of entry on the tene-
ment, which right is cailed his “ intereft in the term,”’ or
intere/fe termini ; but when he has actually fo entered, and
thereby accepted the grant, the eltate is then, and not before,
vetted in him, and he is poffe/ed, not properly of the land,
but of the term of years (Co. Litt. 46.) ; the poffeffion, or
feifin of the /and remaining {till in him who hath the freehold.
Thus, the word “term”? does net merely figuify the time
fpecified in the leafe, but the eftate alfo and intereft that
pafles by that leafe ; and, therefore, the ‘* term’”’ may expire
during the continuance of the “ time,’ as by furrender, for-
feiture, or the like. See TENANT.

Effates at will, another {pecies of eftates not freehold, are
thole where lands and tenements are let by one man to another,
to have and to hold at the will of the leffor ; and the tenant
by force of this leafe obtains poffeffios. (Litt. § 65.) Such
tenant hath no certain indefeafible eftate, nothing that can
be affigned by himto any other; becaufe the leffor may de-
termine his will, and put him out whenever he pleafes. But
every eftate at will is at the will of both parties, landlord
and tenant; fo that either of them may determine his will,
and quit his connection with the other at his own pleafure.
If, indeed, the tenant at will fows his land, and the landlord,
before the corn is ripe, or before it is reaped, puts him out,
yet the tenant fhall have the emblements, and free ingrefs,
egrefs, and regrefs, to. cut and carry away the profits.
(Co. Litt. 56.) But it isotherwife, where the tenant him-
felf determines the will; for in this cafe the landlord. fhall
have the profits of the land. (Co. Litt. 55.) Andif rent
be payable quarterly, or half-yearly, and the leflee deter-
mines the will, the rent fhall be paid to the end wf the cur-
rent quarter or half-year. (Salk. 414. 1 Sid. 339.) Upon
the fame principle, courts of law have of late years leaned
as. much as poffible againft conitruing demifes, where no
certain term is mentioned, to be tenancies at will; but have
rather held them to be tenancies from year to year fo !ong as
both parties pleafe, efpecially where an annual rent is.re-
ferved, in which cafe they will not fuffer either party to
determine the tenancy even at the end of the year, without
reafonable notice to the other, which is generally under-
ftood to be fix months. For another fpecies of eltates at
will, fee CopyuoLp. See alfo Surrerance.

A leafe is either written, called an indenture deed-foll, or
leafe in writing ; or by word of mouth, called /ea/e-parel.
See Parot.

_ All eftates, interefts of frechold, or terms for years in
ands, &c. not put in writing and figned by. the parties,
fhall have no greater effect than as eftates at will; unlefs
it be of leafes not exceeding three years from the making ;
_wherein the rent. referved fhall be. two-thirds of the. value

of the things demifed. (Stat. 29 Car. II. cap: 3:) Leafes
exceeding three years muft be made in writing, and if the
fubitance of a leafe be put in writing, and figned by the
parties, though it be not fealed, it fhall Have the effet of a
leafe for years, &c. Weod’s In‘t. 266.

_ But a leafe in writing, though not under feal, cannot be
given in evidence, unlefs it be flamped. (1 Term. Rep. 735.)
Articles with covenants to make a leafe to let and make a
leafe of lands, for a certain term, at fo. much rent, hath
been adjudgedaleafe. (Cro. Eliz. 486.) In a covenant,
with the words ** have, poffefs, and occupy lands, in con-
fideration of a yearly rent, without the word demife,”’ it
was held a good leafe; and a licence to occupy, take the
profits, &c. which pafleth an intere‘t, amounts to a leafe.
(3 Bulit. 204. 3 Salk. 223.) An agreement of the parties,
that the leffee fhall enjoy the lands, will make a leafe; but
if the agreement hath a reference 10 the leafe to be made,
and implies an intent not to be perfected till then, it is not a
perfect leafe till made afterwards. (Bridg. 13. 2 Shep.
Abr. 374.) Ifa man, on promife of a leafe tobe made to
him, lays out money on thet premifes, he fhall oblige the
leffor afterwards to make the leafe; the agreement being:
executed on the leflee’s part, where no fuch expence hath
been, a bare promife of the leafe for a termi of years, though
the’ leflee have poffeffion, fhall not be good withoulfome
writing. A leafe for years may begin from a day paft, or
to.came, at Michaelmasdait, Chriftmas next, three or four
years after, or after the death of the leffee, &c. though
a term cannot commence upon a contingency which depends
upon another contingency. (1Inft.5. 1 Rep. 156.) If
one makes a leafe for a year, and fo from year to year, it is
a leafe for two years; and afterwards it is but an eftate at
will, (1 Mod. 4. 1 Lutw. 213.) And if from three years
to three years, it isa good leafe for fix years; alfo, ifa man
make a leafe for years, without f{pecifying the number, it
may be good for two years, to anfwer the plural number..
(Wood’s Init. 265.) Of all kinds of powers the moft fre-
quent is that to make leafes. In the making of fuch leafes-
all the requiiites fpecified in the power muft be ftri€tly ob-
ferved; and fuch leafes muft contain all fuch beneficial
claufes and refervations as ought to be, for the benefit of
the remainder-man ; the principle being, that the eftate mult
come to him in as beneficial a manner as the ancient owners
held it. By ftat. 29 Geo. II. c. 31. infants, lunatics, and
femes-covert, may apply to the courts of chancery or exche-
quer, or to the courts of equity of the counties palatine of
Cheiter, Lancafter, and Durham, orto the courts of great
feffion of Wales, by petition cr motion in a fummary way,
and by the order of thefe courts refpedtively, fuch per-
fons may by deed only, without levying a fine, furrender
leafes for lives or years, and take new leafes for lives or years
of the premifes comprifed therein. Joint-tenants, tenantsin
common, and coparceners may make leafes for life, years,
or at will, of. their own parts, which fhall bind their com-
panions ; and in fome cafes, perfons who are not feifed of
lands in fee, &c. may make leafes for life or years, by {pe-
cial power enabling them to do it ; when the authority muit
be exaétly purfued. (Wood’s Inft. 267.) But there is a
difference, where there is a general power to make leafes,
and a particular power. (8 Rep. 69.) IF joint-tenants join
ina leafe, thisfhall be but one leafe, for they have but one
freehold; but if tenants in common join in a leaié, it fhall
be feveral leafes of their feveral interefts., 3 Rol. Abr. 64.
Com. Dig. title Efates (G.6,) Bac. Abr. Leafes (I. me)

A leffor may take dittrefs on the tenements Jet for the rent ;
or may have action of debt for the arrears, &c. Tenants
fuffering honfes to be uncovered, or in decay, taking away

; : wain{cot, ,

LEASE.

wainfcot, &c. fixed to the freehold, unlefs put up by the
leffee, and taken down hefore the term is expired ; cutting
down timber trees fo fell, permitting young trees to be
deitroyed by cattle, &c, ploughing up ground that time out
of mind hath not been shasta, not keeping banks in re-
pair, &c. are guilty of waftes. (1 Init. 52. Dyer 37.
x Salk. 368.) Leffees are bound to repair their tenements,
except the contrary be mentioned in the leafe. Although a
leflee for years is not obliged to repair the houfe let to him,
whichis burned by accident ; if there be not a fpecial cove-
nant in the leafe, that he fhall leave the houfe in good repair
at the end of the term; yet if the houfe be burnt by negli-
gence, the leffee fhall repair it, although there be no fuch
covenant. (Pafch. 24 Car. B. R.) A leffee at will is not
bound to fuftain or repair, as tenant for years is. A Jeflee
who covenants to pay rent, and to repair, with an exception
of cafualties by fire, is liable upon the covenant for rent,
though the premifes are burnt down, and not rebuilt by the
leffor after notice. (1 Term Rep. 310.) A provifo ina
Jeafe for two years, that the landlord fhall re-enter, on the
tenant’s committing any act of bankruptcy, on which a
commiffion fhall iffue, is good. (2 Term Rep. 133.) An
alfignee of a bankrupt, a devifee, and a perfonal repre-
fentatiye, are aflignees in law to the purpofe of being liable
to a€uons on a covenant for rent ina leafe to the bankrupt,
devifor, or inteftate. (Dougl. 184.) Perfons for whofe
lives eftates are held by leafe, &c. remaining beyond fea, or
being abfent feven years, if no proof be made of their being
alive, fhall be accounted dead. (See 19 Car. Il. c. 6.)
Where the term of a leafe is to end on a precife day, then,
there is no occafion for a notice to quit; becaufe the leafe
of courfe is at an end, unlefs the parties come toa frefh
agreement. In the cafe of a tenancy from year to year,
there mutt be half a year’s notice to quit, ending at the ex-
piration of the year. Six calendar mouths’ notice is not fuffi-
cient. And there is no diftin&tion between houfes and lands as
to the time of giving notice to quit. 1 Term Rep. 54. 159.
162, 3. Blackit. Com. b. ii. Tomlins’s Jacob, tit. Leaje.

Lease by /faiute. There are three kinds of perfons, who
may make leafes for three lives or twenty-one years, and not
exceeding this term, by flatutes, that could not do fo here-
tofore, viz. tenantsin tail, binding their iflue in tail, but not
in remainder or reverfion; hufband and wife, of the wife’s
Jand ; and perfons feifed of an eflate in fee fimple in right of
the church, except parfons and vicars; by the flat. 32
Hen. VIII. c. 28. called the “ enabling ftatute.””

But this flatute {pecifies feveral requifites in order to
render the leafes binding: they mu!t be by indenture, and
not by deed-poll, or parol. They muft commence from the
day of making, and not at any greater diftance of time: the
old leafe, if there be any, mutt be firft abfolutely furrendered,
or be within a year of expiring: it mult be either for twenty-
one years, or three lives, and not for beth; it muft not ex-
ceed the term of three lives, or twenty-one years, but may
be for a fhorter time: the leafe mult be of corporeal heredi-
taments, and not of fuch things as lie merely in grant; for
no rent can be referved out of thefe by the common law, as
the leffor cannot refort to them to diftrain: though new by
5 Geo. III. c.17. a leafe of tithes or other incorporeal he-
reditaments alone, may be granted by any bifhop or eccle-
fiattical or eleemofynary corporation, and the fucceffor fhall
be entitled to recover the rent by an aétion of debt, which,
in cafe of a freehold leafe, he could not have brought at the
commonlaw. The leafe muft alfo be of lands and tenements
commonly letten for twenty years patt; and the cultomary
rent for that term referved; and leafes muft not be made
Avithout impeachment of waite.

By 1 Eliz. c. 19. called the * difabling or reflraining fta-
tute,’ it is ena¢ted, that all grants by archbifhops and bi-.
fhops, other than for the term of twenty-one years or three
lives from the time of making, or without referving the
ufual rent, fhall be void: but this ftatute did not extend to
grants made by any bifhop to the crown; however, thefe,
as well as thofe made to any fubje&, were comprehended in
the prohibition of the fatute 1 Jac. I. c. 3. ‘The rettric-
tions of this flatute were extended by 13 Eliz. c. 10. ex
plained and enforced by 14 Eliz. c. 11. and 14. 18 Eliz.
c. 11. and 43 Eliz. c. 29. to certain other inferior corpora-
tions, both fole and aggregate. From all thefe it is col-
leted, that all colleges, cathedra!s, and other ecclefiaftical
or eleemofynary corporations, and all parfons and vicars, are
reftrained from making any leafes of any kind, of their land,
unlefs under the following regulations: 1 They muft not ex-
ceed twenty-one years or three lives from the making.
2. The accuftomed rent, or more, mutt be yearly referved
upon them. 3. Houfes in corporations or market-towns
may be let for forty years ; provided they be not the man-
fion-houfes of the leffars, nor have above ten acres of ground
belonging to them, and provided the leffee be bound to
keep them in repair; and they may alfo be aliened in fee-
fimple for lands of equal value in recompence. 4. Where
there is an old leafe in being, no concurrent leafe fhall be
made, unlefs where the old one wi!l expire within three years.
5. No leafe by the equity of the ftatute fhall be made with-
out impeachment of wafte. (Co. Litt. 45) 6. All bonds
and covenants tending. to fraftrate the provifions of the fta-
tutes 13 and 18 Eliz. fhall be void. The, 13 Eliz. c. 20,
tovether with all explanations, &c. of the fame by 14th,
r8th and 43d of Eliz. and much of 3 Car. 1. which made
them perpetual, are repealed by 43 Geo. III. c. 84.
er gor

If a bifkop have two chapters, as there may be two or
more to one bifhopric, beth chapters muft confirm leafes
made by the bifhop. (1 Inft. 131.) A leafe made by a
bifhop to begin prefently for twenty-one years, when there
is an old leaie in being, is good, notwith{tanding the ftat.
of x Eliz. c. 19. eng Caf. 241.) But if fuch a leafe is
to commence at a future day, it will be void. (1 Leon 44.)
Leafe for three lives by a bifhop of tithes is void again‘t the
fucceffor, although the ufual rent be duly received. (Moor
Caf. 1078.) Leafes of a dean and chapter are geod, with-
out contirmation of the bifhop. (Dyer, 273. 2 Nelf. Abr.
1096.) Where there is a chapter and no dean, they may
make grants, &c. and are within the ftatute. (1 Mod. 204.)
A prebendary’s leafe confirmed by the archbifhop, who is
his patron, is good, witheut confirmation of dean and chap-
ter. (3 Bulftr. 290.) But where a prebendary made a leafe
for years of part of his prebend, and this was confirmed by
dean and chapter; becanfe it was not confirmed likewile by
the bifhop, who was patron and ordinary of the prebend,
the leafe was adjudged void. (Dyer 6c.) If a prebendary
hath rectories in two feveral diocefes, belonging to his pre-
bend, and his leafe of them is confirmed by the bifhop, dean
and chapter of the diocefe of which he is prebendary, it is
good, though not confirmed by the other. (Litt.75.) A
chancellor ofa cathedral church may make a leafe, and it
is faid it will be good againft’the fucceflor, though not
confirmed, &c. (Litt. 158.) If a parfon or vicar makes a
leafe for life or years, ot lands ufually letten, referving the
cuftomary rent, &c., it muft be confirmed by patron and or-
dinary, for they are out of the flatute 32 Hen. VIII. ¢. 28.
And if the parfon and ordinary make a leafe for years of the
glebe to the patron; ard afterwards the patron afligns the
leafe to another, fuch affignment is good, and is a confirma-

tion

LEASE.

tion of that leafe to the aflignee. (5 Rep. 15.) A leafe for
years of a {piritual perfon will be void by his death, if it is
not according to the ftatute; and a leafe for life is voidable
by entry, &c. of his fucceffor. (2 Cro. 173.) If a bifhop
he not bifhop de jure, leafes made by him to charge the
bifhopric are void, though all judicial a€&ts by him are good.
(2 Cro. 353.) And where a bifhop makes a leafe,-which
may tend to the diminution of the revenues of the bifhopric,
&c. which fhould maintain the fucceffor, there the depriva-
tion or tranflation of the bifhop is the fame with his death.
i Init. 324.

There is another reftriftion with regard to college
leafes, by ftat 18 Eliz. c. 6. which direéts, that one-third
of the old rent, then paid, fhould for the future be re-
feryed in wheat or malt, referving a quarter of wheat for
each 6s. 8d. or a quarter of malt for every ss.3 or that
the leffees fhould pay for the fame according to the price
that wheat and malt fhould be fold for, in the market next
adjoining to the re{pe¢tive colleges, on the market-day be-
fore the rent becomes due. This money arifing from corn
rents is, communibus annis, almoft double to the rents referved

_ in money.

But when a quarter of wheat is worth sos. and the
colleges receive one-third of their rent in corn, i. e. a quar-
ter of wheat, or its value for every 13s. 4d. which they are
paid in money, it follows that the corn rent will be in pro-
portion to the money rent nearly as four to one. But thefe
rents united are very far from the prefent value. Colleges,
therefore, in order to obtain the difference, generally take
a fine upon the renewal of their leafes.

The leafes of beneficed clergymen are farther reftrained,
in cafe of their non-refidence, by flatutes 13 Eliz. c. 20.
14 Eliz. c. 11. 18 Eliz. c. 11. 43 Eliz. c.g. which direét,
that if any beneficed clergyman be abfent from his cure
above fourfcore days in any one year, he fhall not only for-
feit one year’s profit of his benefice to be diltributed among
the poor of the parifh; but that all leafes made by him of
the profits of fuch benefice, and all covenants and agree-
ments of like nature, fhall ceafe and be void; except in the
cafe of licenfed pluralifts, who are allowed to demife the
living, on which they are non-refident, to their curates only,
provided {uch curates do not abfent themfelves above forty
days in any one year. Blackit. Com. b. it.

An affignment differs from a leale only in this ; that by a
leafe one grants an interelt lefs than his own, referving to
hiimfelf a reverfion ; in affignments he parts with the whole
property, and the affignee ftands to all intents and purpofes
in the place of the affignor.

If a leffor accepts of rent from an affignee, knowing of
the afiignment, it bars him from aétion of debt again{t the
leffee ; for the privity of contraét is extinguifhed : but after
fuch acceptance, the leffor or his affigns may maintain an
‘action againit the firlt leffee upon his covenant for payment
of the rent. (1 Saund. 241. 3 Rep. 24.) But acceptance
of rent from the affignee has been adjudged a fufficient
notice of the affignment, fo that the leffor could not refort
to the firft lefee. 2 Bulftr. r5r.

Leaszs of the King. Leafes made by the king, of part
of the duchy of Cornwall, are to be for three lives, or
thirty-one years; and not to be made difpunifhable of watte,
whereon the ancient rent is to be referved; and eftates in
reverfion, with thofe in poffeflion, are not to exceed three
lives, &c. 13 Car. II. c. 4.

Leafes from the crown of lands in England and Wales,

‘and under the feals of the duchy of Lancatter, &c. for one,
two, or three lives, or terms not exceeding fifty years, are

VoL. XX,

allowed time for inrollment, &c. by flat. ro Ann. c. 18.
Leafes made by the prince of Wales of lands, &c. in the
duchy of Cornwall, for three lives, or thirty-one years, on
which is referved the moft ufual rent paid for the greatett
part of twenty years béfore, fhall be good againf the king,
the prince, and their heirs, &c. and the conditions of fuch
leafes be as effeGtual as if the prince had been feifed of an
abfolute eftate in fee-fimple in the lands. Stat. 10 Geo. Il.
¢, 29:

Lease of Land, in the Economy of Agriculture, a kind
of contract or agreement for the letting of lands, tenements,
&c. either for life, or a certain term of years, under a re-
ferved rent. It has been ftated by Mr. Marhall, that the
different modes of holding land are firft that of «the tenant
holding at will, or until the cuftomary notice be given, by
either party to the other,—without any legal contra& or
written agreement,—the cnly tie between the owner and the
occupier being the cuftom of the eltate, or of the county
in which it lies,—and the common law of the land.”’? This,
he conceives, may be confidered as * the fimp'e holding
which fucceeded the feudal or copyhold tenure; but which
is now going faft into difufe.”” ‘he fecond mode is that of
“holding from year to year, under a written agreement,
with f{pecified covenants.”? ‘his, which is a more modera
ufage, is, on the contrary, he thinks, becoming more and
more prevalent ; even where leafes for a term of years were
formerly granted.”? The third, is that of a “ leafe for a
term of years 5 as feven, fourteen, twenty-one, or a greater
number of years certain; but without the power of aflign-
ment, unlefs with the confent of the leflor.”? And the
fourth, that of a leafe for lives; as one, two, three, or
more, without the power of affiznment, which he believes
now are rarely granted in England, but in Wales they are
ftill prevalent ; the rent being there fettled according to
the value of the land at the time of letting, as on grant-
ing a leafe for a term. And, in the weltern extremity
of England, what are termed life leafes are ftill common.
But that they are in faét rather pledges for money taken
up, or deeds of fale for lives, than leafes; as nearly the
whole of the eftimated fale value cf the land, during
the life term, is paid down at the time of purchafe, the
feller referving only a quit-rent or annual acknowledg~
ment.””

It is gonceived by the fame writer, that life leafes may be
confidered in different points of view ; as ‘‘to a tenant who
holds at a moderate rent, a leafe for life is gratifying, his.
farm becoming a fort of life eftate, in which he is fixed for
life; but that unlefs he is a prudent or a fortunate man, it
may prove a fource of misfortune to his family, who in the
moment of their diftrefs for his lofs, may be lial‘e to be
turned out, pennylefs, from a houfe and home: a circum-
ftance which can rarely happen, under holdings for certain
terms of years.’? ‘Thefe forts of leafes have a much better
effect, it is fuppofed, on agriculture than annual holdings ;
and that it is more than probable that life tenancy hereto-
fore has affifted in the advancement of the art. ‘It is,
however, a well afcertained fact, that the manifold and great
improvements which have taken place in Englith agriculture,
during the laft half century, have not been effeéted in Des
vonthire nor in Wales, but in Norfolk, and in the midland
counties under leafes for terms of years." And “that in a
political light, life leafes have a favourable appearance, as
tending to fill up a {pace between ordinary tenants and yeo-
manry or {mall proprietors, and giving their holders: better
flakes than lefs certain occupiers have, in the eftablifhed
order of things.’? But that ‘here it is the light in whick
life-holds appear to land proprietors that is entitled to the

3M chieé

LEASE,

chief attention,’ which “on whatever fide they have been
viewed by the owners of extenfive eitates during the lat
twenty or thirty years, have doubtlefsly appeared in odious
colours, For owing to the rapid depreciation of money
there are proprietors who have been receiving, year after
year, not more perhaps than one-half, or a lefs proportion,
of the fair rental value of many of their lands. And for
fuch as ttill hang on good lives, they may not receive more
for many years to come.” And further, that ¢ owing to
the perpetual bondage in which their lands are kept, no
general work of urrangement can be effected, nor any indi-
vidual improvement introduced by a proprietor, who can
fearcely be faid to have any authority either over his eftate or
its pofleffors.”” ‘They have in fact been the bane of very
ufeful improvement of the foil, and the great canfe of its
want of amelioration in every county where they have exifted
to any extent. ‘

It may be noticed, that thofe forts of holdings which are
enly for the year, ‘¢ are, to a tenant, molt difcouraging ; and
to improvement in agriculture moft unfriendly. In a public
view they are of courfe highly impolitical ; while to a pro-
prietor they are moft convenient, as he may be faid to be in
conftant poffeflion of his ellate. He can lay out and exe-
cute general improvements, as embankments and drainage,
extenlive works of irrigation, the alteration of water-
courfes, roads and fences, and complete the arrangement of
tenements without controul. It would be unwife, therefore,
en an eftate under this fort of tenancy, to alter it, until the
requifite improvements were planned, and put ina train of
being performed.” It has, however, been further juftly
remarked, that ‘* whatever difcourages agriculture can-
not be permanently profitable, either to a proprietor or the
community.”? And in regard to prefent profit they muft
be highly difadvantageous to the proprietor or owner.

_. With refpe& to the third holding of land, as that of leafes
for terms of years, as “ for twenty-one years, though they
may be profitable at their commencement, they have, it is
fuppofed, been found much otherwife before their expira-
tion: owing to the great rife in the value of farm produce,
during the terms. And while proprietors who were letting
their lands from year to year, were profiting by this cir-
cumftance; the income of thofe whofe lands were under
long leafes (whether of lives or years) were ftationary ;
and this while the expences of living were advancing with
the value. of lands; which circumttances, added to their
being controuled in the required arrangement, and perhaps
‘annoyed during a length of years, by the improper conduct
of ignorant, ill-difpofed, purfe-proud tenants (enriched by
thefe: very circumftances) have determined many perfons in
different parts of the kingdom te difcontinue the practice of
granting leales; giving .written agreements from year to
year only ; which is much to be lamented for the interett of
agriculture and the community in general.”?_ While others
have fhortened the terms of their leafes to fourteen years.
But fuch « has been the rapid depreciation in the value of
money, and the nominal increafe of the value of lands, that
even this. term has been found ferioufly inconvenient to
a landlord-; and the term of feven.years (without a co-
venant of remuneration) is, it is believed, of little ufe to
a tenant.’’ 'Thefe fixed leafes are liable, it is conceived,
to another objection. As “ although a man of {pirit
and worth will,not only give an advanced ’rent, in the firft
initance, but will, through the improvements he has made,
be able and siting to give a flill greater advance at the end
of the term; yet, when a leafe of this nature has been un-
fortunately or improvidently granted to a poor, an ignorant,
an indolent, a-refentful, or a difhonefi man, the farm thus

let may be left at the end of the term in a much worfe con
dition than it was in at the commencement.’? This renders
it highly neceflary for the manager of an elftate to be careful
in the choice of tenants. Where great and expenfive im-
provements are required, it will be conftantly neceffary,
however, to have long leafes.

‘This may be remedied, in a great meafure, by the renewal
of leafes before their teyms are expired.

The above writer confiders it ufeful, for owners or pro-
prietors to come to clear underftandings with their tenants,
three years previoufly to the terminations of their refpetive
leafes. ‘* For it is conceived, that, until about that period,
a fkilful tenant continues to keep his land in cultivation and
condition, for his own intereft ; which, until then, may be
faid to go hand in hand with that of his landlord. And if,
at that period of a leafe, a frefh agreement were entered
into, the ruinous confequences of an expiring term might be
avoided.” And that from proprietors objecting to give
leafes for Jong terms, ‘it occurred to him, that agreements
for holding from three years to three years, inttead of from
year to year, would be an eligible {pecies of tenancy. Or,
which is precifely the fame thing, granting leafes for fix
years certain; with a condition, that if neither party give
notice to quit before the expiration of the firlt three years,
then the term to be prolonged to nine years ; and fo on, from
three years to three years, (or in effect from {ix years to fix
years,) until three years after notice has been duly given by
either party to the other,’’ as by thefe meaus room is given
for a tenant “to turn his hand in. He has, in reality, a
frefh leafe of fix years granted him every third year. And
this is fufficient to encourage him to keep his lands can-
tinually in the moft hufbandlike tate. And if he execute
any of the higher improvements, it is but reafonable that he
fhould have, whenever he may quit his farm, an equitable
remuneration for the remainder of {uch improvements. Thus
the tenant is placed on fure ground ; he may {till manure
and improve with much the fame confidence, as if the lands
in his occupation were his own property.’’ And ‘in return
for fuch advantages, the tenant cannot hefitate, it is fuppofed,
to covenant, that, during the laft three years of his term,
he will manage his farm in a hufbandlike manner, and at the
end of the term leave it in fuch a flate of cultivation and
repair, as will induce a good tenant to take it at a full rent ;
or fuffer the proprietor to put it in fuch a flate, at. his (the
out-going tenant’s) expence. An efltate which is under leafe
on thefe principles, and under attentive management, can-
not, it is conceived, be let down to an unprofitable ftate.
It mutt continually remain under a regular courfe of huf-
bandry, and in a ftate of cultivation and repair; and the
more permanent improvements be kept up. If the a¢ting
manager do his duty, even the changing. of tenants cannot
interrupt its profperity,’’ while ‘ the incoming tenant (under
aétive management) fteps into his farm, with the advantages
that he would have enjoyed, had it been under his own
direGtion, for the three preceding years.”” But “ with a
leafe on this principle, and with a proper choice of tenants,
removals can rarely happen. What proprietor, who knows
the difficulty of procuring a good tenant, would wifh to
difcharge him? And no fuch tenant would readily leave
the farm he is fettled upon, if he find proper treatment.
Even fhould notice be given in confequence of any mifunder-
ftanding between the parties, three years allow time for
reflection; and, before they expire, refentment may. die
away, and cordiality be rettored. If, however, cither party
be diflatisfied, he has an eafy way of diffolving the connec-
tion. Orif a proprietor is defirous to make frefh arrange-
ments on his eftate, or to regulate his rent-rell by the exilt-

2 ing

EE ASE.”

tng value of money, he need not wait many years to fulfil
his detires; for if the tenant in occupancy will not agree to
pay a fair rent, the owner has three years before him to
choole one who will.’’ It is thus evident, that ‘a leafe on
this principle has a decided preference, by a proprietor, to
long leafes. And its advantage over annual holdings is not
lefs confiderable. The lands of an eftate are well worth
from five to ten per cent. more toa tenant, under the former,
than under the shies tenancy. So that befide the conve-
niencies mentioned, a proprietor may be immediately adding
very confiderably to his income, by this principle of manage-
ment.”’ This has been proved in many cafes ia different
parts of the kingdom.

Covenants of Leafes.—It is fuggefted, that the neceflary
‘covenants,—the relervations, reftritions, obligations, penal-
ties, and remunerations, that the leafe (or form of a leafe)
of any landed eitate contains, are (or ought to be) a code of
private reftraining laws, fuited to the circumftances of that
particular eftate, in order to prote& it from injury, and to
promote its profperity : an honeft tenant confiders the cove=
nants of his leafe merely as inftruCtions to dire¢t his fteps,
- but which ought to reftrain him no farther than to prote&
the farm or the eftate from injury. But a worthlefs tenant,
as a thief, is ever ready to break the laws which bind him;
and the proprietor of an eftate ought to have fome means of
punifhing him for his fault. Penal covenants in leafes are of
courle of the greateft importance to proprietors. But on
account of ‘the great difficulty with which a general law
of this nature would be framed, owing to the great diverfity
of foils, fitnations, and modes of culture, every eltate, ftridly
fpeaking, requiring its own peculiar code to govern and
defend it, (and of courfe the great difficulty which a court
muft find to decide with any fort of accuracy in c&fes of this
kind,)—one would naturally imagine, it is faid, that courts
of law would rather be thankful to proprietors of -eftates,
for furnifhing them with ready and fate means of doing
juitice, than fet their faces againft any covenants, which
have been formerly entered into, and legally confirmed by
the parties before them. If penalties are exceflive or op-
preflively fevere, or have been furreptitioufly impofed, it
undoubtedly belongs to a court of law to mitigate or remove
them. But fevere reftriGtions, and exceffive penalties, are
highly impolitic, and altogether improper to be introduced
into the leafe or law of an eftate, inafmuch as they tend to
deprefs its character, and may prevent good tenants from
fettling upon it ; or drive away thofe whom it may already
poffefs ;"’ and of “ courfe militating againit one of the firft
principles of good management.”” But ‘ where, by judicious
reftriétions and reafonable penalties, defigning men are kept
aloof, a general good is gained to the eltate.”

The particular covenants that are neceflary, muft be de-
termined by the exilting circumftances of the eftate, or the
particular farm for which it is intended; the modes of
culture, cropping, &c. as it is obvious, that “a grafs
land farm requires a fet of covenants differing from thofe
which are proper for a farm under mixed cultivation. And
an arable farm, fituated near a great tewn, fhould have cove-
nants differing in fome refpeéis ftom thoie of another, which
lies in a reclufe diltri€t: while every part of an ellate, and
all eftates on which hedge timber can be profitably raifed,
call for a feries of regulations, which an untimbered eftate,
or one on which grown timber only is to be protected, does
not require."’ And that, ‘* much depends on the time of
changing tenants. A fpring and autumnal removal require
very different {tipulations refpeGing the {tates in which the
lands of a farm are to be left ; how the crops in the ground,
and the produce on hand are to be difpofed of; and by

whom the crops of the fuceeeding year are to be put in.
Every diftri& has its cultomary time or times of removal,
and it can feldom be prudent in an individual to alter it
(even though very improperly fixed) as he might thereby
diminifh his choice of tenants. Neverthelefs, it is in the
power of proprietors conjointly, to effect, in time, the re
quired alteration. Michaelmas and Lady-day may be con-
fidered as the ordinary times of changing tenants in England.
The former is not an ineligible time for removing in autumn,
but the latter is extremely improper, as being in the middle
of {pring feed time, and falling at a time when the winter
fodder is partially expended, and the crops of the preceding
year are partially thrafhed out."". Mr. Marfhall ftates, that
‘in the north of England (Cleveland, in Yorkfhire, being
the moft fouthern diftri& in which he has obferved it,) a far
more rational plan of removal is eftablifhed. There, the
arable lands are quitted at Candlemas ; the pafture grounds
(Cleveland being much of a dairy diftri€t) at Lady-day ;
and the mowing ground and the home-{tall at old May-
day.’? While, in Scotland, fimilar regulations prevail ; but
with a well judged difference, which naturally arifes out of
the different climatures of the two fituations. There, the
premifes are finally quitted at what is termed Whitfuntide,
namely, the fifteenth of May old ftyle.”” And it is the
opinion of this writer, that, ‘for the more fouthern pro-
vinces of England, the firft of May, new ityle, would be a
proper time for removals in the f{pring.”’

Forms of Leafes.—In refpe& to the forms of leafes, thofe
which are good do not, it is ftated, ‘* merely require a judi-
cious feleG&tion of covenants, but that the feveral ~claufes
fhould be properly digefted ; and be arranged, worded, and
lettered in fuch a manner, as to be intelligible to plain coun-
trymen,—to men for whofe guidance and good government
they are intended."’ And the plan, which experience en-
titles the above writer to recommend, is that ‘ of printing
leafes on large folio fheets of firm paper, or theets of parch-
ment, folded in the folio manner ; each page containing two
columns, and each claufe compofing a diltin&t paragraph;
with a blank page, or half page, to receive a fketch, or rough
plan of the farm demifed; as well as a particular, or fchedude,
of the different parcels of land of which it is compofed :
with the number, name, and meafurement of each arranged
in the column manner: in order that no doubt may at any
time arife refpeGiing their identity.”” It is ufeful to have
a book in which all thefe, and fome other circumftances, are
regularly arranged and marked down.

Mr. Kent, in his «* Hints to Gentlemen of Landed Pro-
perty,” ftates, that the ancient feudal tenures had un-
doubiedly a ftrong tendency to enflave mankind, by fubje&-
ing them to the controul and power of an arbitrary lord ;
but, like moft other things, there were fome advantages to
be found in the fyftem. Every man who held land had 4
certainty in it, as the tenant generally held his. poffeffion
for life. When thefe tenures were difcountenanced by the
more liberal fpirit of modern law, fome new compaét be-
came neceflary, and terms of years were fubftituted in lieu
of the former ; for, as land properly managed requires great
expence, and feldom an{wers that expence in one year, it
was but reafonable that the man who applied his judgment,
devoted his labour, and ventured his capital, fhould have
fome reafonable time allowed him to reimburfe himéfelf, and
derive fome proportionate reward for what he had done.
In the courfe of time, this term began to be reduced into a
certain number of years; and as moit of the land was for-
merly under the regulation of two crops and a fallow, the
time allowed was from three to twenty-one years. And
the Jatter in the end became “a mott general limitatien,

3Mz2

aug

*LEASE.

and is the moft prevalent term for leafes at the prefent
eriod. .

There can be no doubt, it is fuppofed, but that leafes are
the firlt, the greateft, and molt rational encouragement
that can be given to agriculture ; yet of late years there are
very {trong prejudices entertained againft them.

Let any impartial man take a view of two diitrits, where
it is the cultom to grant leafes, and where it is not: in the
former he will generally find a refpeétable yeomanry, and a
well cultivated country ; in the other, an indigent {piritlefs
race ; following a contracted fyflem of hufbandry, calculated
to anfwer no permanent purpofe of advantage to themfelves
orlandlords. Yet, there are many gentlemen who, to have
{uch people at immediate command, prefer the continuance
of a flovenly unproductive ityle of hufbandry, to neatnels
and fertility. In fome parts of England, the prejudice
againit leafes is fo ftrong, that fome landlords will be tempted
aimoft as foon to alienate the fee fimple of their eltates, as
to grant a tenant a reafonable term in them. It is very un-
fortunate for a county where this abhorrence of leafes pre-
vails, as it keeps back an immenfe feene of improvement,
which otherwife would take place, and robs the mdu!trious
occupier of a deal of comfort which might be beitowed
upon him; and it can produce no other confolation to the
owner than that of having the.country more at command,
and forcinz a certain degree of refpect from it, which is
abfurd to the laft degree ; for a landlord may, it is conceived,
enfure as much real refpe&t from a tenant on leafe, as from
a tenant at his immediate will and pleafure, and at the fame
time fecure,his property better, and ftipulate for improve-
ments to the extent of his inclination or defire.

+ is noticed farther,’that in the eaftern counties, where
it is more the cuftom to grant leafes than in the midland
parts of England, agriculiure is upon the moit re{pectable
footing ; and that withia half a century there are many
eftates more than doubled in their value; which, without
leafes, where the means of improvement were heavy, could
not have carried a third of the advance that has been put
upon them. In fhort, it feems to him unreafonable to ex-
peét a man to employ the whole of his capital, and to devote
the beft part of his hfe upon an eltate which, on the death

or mere caprice of the landlord, he is liable to be turned out .

of at fix months, or perhaps a fhorter notice. is

It is not, kowever, meant to imply, that leafes ought not
in any cafe to be withheld; there are certainly fome ex-
ceptions againt the pratice he withes to fee eltablithed : for
inftance, if lands are fituated very near a gentleman’s houfe,
part of which it may, perhaps, be an object, on fome future
occafion, to take into hand, or where a minor is very near
coming of age, or where there is any immediate view of fale ;
in fuch cafes, it would be imprudent to grant leafes. But
where none of thefe contingencies ftand in the way, and
where eitates are under an entail, or in a family that has no
idea of parting with them, leafing is unqueltionably the moft
effeGtual means of raifing the value of an eltate, as it enables
the owner to ftipulate for improvements in what way and
proportion he pleafes, which he cannot do fo well in any
other manner.

And the author of the “* Treatife on modern Agriculture”’
gontends, that nothing gives fuch a {pring to indultry as the
conviétion, founded on the experience of ages, that in this
country the fruits of the labours of the indultrious man are
fecured tohim. Hence, a farmer will be more or lefs ative
in proportion to the fecurity he holds of reaping the fruits
of his induftry, fill, and capital. :

And it is fill further ftated, that leafes are certainly necef-
fary and proper, as a compact between man and man ; and

though the mode of cropping and general tenor of the leafe
mult vary according to times and circumitances, yet no man
who has thought ferioufly on the fubjeét will deny that they
are for the benefit of both parties, as they fecure to the land-
lord the proper management of the land fo leafed, and to
the tenant the additional profits which may be expected to
arife from his {uperior cultivation of fuch lands or farms.

But as it is neceflary to impofe fome degree of reftraint
upon tenants, the means of doing it in fuch a way that they
may not be fo fettered as to be prevented fiom making ufe-
ful improvements, or left fo much at liberty as to do mif-
chief; are the point that forms the principal difficulty.
Hence the circumftance to be chiefly guarded againft.by
reltriGtive penal. covenants, are thofe of preventing the
breaking-up of old meadows, pattures, or other lands, the re-
moving away hay, itraw, or other materials convertible into
manure ; and the improving or deltroying of timber trees. To
enforce the leaving of green winter food ; the keeping up
ofall forts of fences; the cleanfing of water-courfes, ponds,
pools, &c. and the preferving of buildings, gates, pens, and
bridle roads in proper repair. To prevent the forming of
rabbit-warrens, and the committing of wafte of any kind.
And, finally, to regulate the circumftances of the out-going
and in-coming tenants with propriety.

But although it is not poflible to form any particular
leafe, fo as to include claufes that can apply to every kind
of foil, mode of cropping, and general management ; yet,
as he has had opportunities of perufing a great variety of
leafes in different parts of England ; and as he is in pofleffion
of one which is the moft perfect of the kind. he has feen, it
is fuggefted that it may convey more information on the
thet than any explanation that could be otherwife given
of it.

Form of Leaf.
“Tus Indenture, made the day of in the
year of our Lord one thoufand eight hundred and
between A. B. of in the county of
efquire of the firlt part, and C. D. of in the
county of yeoman cf the fecond part: Wit-

nefleth, That for and in confideration of the rents and cove-
nants, provifos and agreements, hereinafter referved, ex-
preffed, and contained, and which, on the part and behalf
of the faid C. D., his executors and adminiftrators, are to be
paid, done, and performed, he the faid A. B, hath demifed,
leafed, fetten, and to farm letten; and by thefe prefents
doth demife, leafe, fet, and to farm let unto the faid C. D.,
his executors and adminiitrators, all thofe meffuages, tene-
ments, or farms, called fituated in the parifh
of and county of now or late in
the poffeffion of together with all and
fingular houfes, out-houfes, edifices, buildings, barns, caw
houfes, cattle-fheds, ftables, yards, garths, ftack-garths,
gardens, lands, feedings, ways, waters, eafements, privileges,
and appurtenances whatfoever, to the faid demifed premifes
belonging, or in anywife appertaining, except and always
referved out of this prefent demife,.unto the faid A. B., his
heirs and affigns, all mines, minerals, and quarries, of what
nature or kind foever the fame may be, as well opened as not
opened, lying, being, and remaining within or under the faid.
premifes, or which can or may be obtained, or gotten forth,
or out of the fame, or any part therecf,, with liberty to dig
brick-earth, and room to work, mould, dry, and burn the
fame into bricks, in and upon the faid hereby demifed pre-
mifes, or any part therecf: And alfo with full and free
liberty, power, and authority, to and for the faid A. B., his
heirs or ailigns, and his and their agents, fervants, and work-

5 men,

mea SE

rhen, at feafonable times in the year, in the day-time, to fearch
for all and every fuch mines, minerals, quarries, and brick-
earth, and to link pits or fhafts, and to make trenches,
grooves, drifts, water-gates, canals, water-courfes, and to
direét or turn any water-courfe, brook, or river, for the
winning and working fuch mines, minerals, and quarries,
within the faid demifed premifes, with fufficient ground-
room and heap-room for laying the ores, metals, minerals,
coals, {lones, clay, earth, materials, and rubbifh, to pro-
ceed, or be obtained or gotten forth out of the fame or
any of them; together with fullliberty and power to build
and ere€t engines, machines, houfes, hovels, lodges, {tables,
cabins, and other edifices aud erections whatfoever, for the
effe tual winning and working the fame: And alfo full and
free liberty of way, leave, and paflage in, through, and over
the faid premifes, or any part thereof, to and from the faid
mines, minerals, quarries, and brick-kilns whatfoever, with
carts, wains, waggons, and any other carriage or carriages
neceflary for leading ores, metals, minerals, coals, {tones,
cinders, bricks, lime, timber, or any other.matter or thing
whatfoever, and to make, lay, and place through, over,
and upon the faid premifes, any road or roads, waggon-
way of waggon-ways, rail-ways, or any way or ways, canal
or canals, for the purpofe aforefaid, and from time to time
to repair the fame, and to do all other acts and things need-
ful or neceffary for the winning, working, managing, and
carrying on the faid mines, quarries, and brick-making, as
he or they fhall think proper, with liberty to demife or grant
to any perfons all fuch liberties as herein before-mentioned :
And alfo, except and referved unto the faid A.B., his heirs
and affiens, all timber and other trees, woods, underwoods,
and plantations, and the ground and foil thereof, now ftand-
ing, growing, or being, or which fhall hereafter at any
time during the continuance of this demife, ftand, grow, or
be upon the faid premifes, with liberty to fell, cut down,
or lop fuch timber trees, or other trees, woods, underwoods,
and plantations, and to carry away the fame, by any means
whatfoever: He, the faid proprietor, his heirs or afligns,
or his or their grantee or leflee refpeétively, making reafon-
able fatisfa&tion to the faid tenant, his executors or admi-
niftrators, for the damage or fpoil of herbage or ground,
to be occafioned by the ufe or exercife of all and every or
any of the liberties aforefaid, fuch fatisfaction to be from
time to time fixed and afcertained by two indifferent per-
fons, one to be named by and on the part of the faid A. B.,
his heirs or affigns, and the other by and on the part of the
faid C. D., his executors or adminiftrators: And alfo, ex-
cept and referved full power and authority for the faid A. B.,
his heirs or affigns, and his and their ftewards and agents, with
workmen in therrcompany, oF without, in the day-time twice,
or oftener, in every year during the term hereby demifed, to
enter in and upon the faid premifes, or any part thereof, to
view the {tate and condition of the fame: And alfo, except
and referved unto the faid proprietor, his heirs and affigns,
free liberty to hunt, courfe, hawk, fhoot, and fifh, in, upon,
through, and over all and every the faid hereby demifed
premiles, or any part thereof; to haveand to hold the faid
meffuage, tenement, or farm-hold, lands, grounds, and all
and fingular other the premifes hereby demifed, or mea-
tioned, or intended fo to be, with their and every of their
appurtenances (except as before excepted), unto the faid
C.D, his executors and adminiftrators, from the twelfth
day of May, in the year of our Lord one thoufand eight
hundred and » for and during and unto the full
end and ‘term of twenty-one years, from thenceforth next
enfuing, and fully to be complete and ended: yielding
and paying yearly, and every year during the faid term

of twenty-one ‘years hereby demifed unto the faid A. B.,
his heirs or afligns, the clear yearly rent or fum of
of lawful money of Great Britain,
by equal half-yearly payments, at two days or times in the
year, that is to fay, the twenty-fecond day of November,
and the twelfch day of May in every year, by even and
equal portions ; the firlt half-yearly payment of the faid
yearly rent to begin and be made upon the twenty-fecond
day of November next enfuing the commencement of the
faid term hereby demifed: And allo yielding and paying
yearly and every year unto the faid A.B., his heirs or affigns,
on the feveral days and times aforefaid, over and above the
faid yearly rent of the further
rent or fum of pounds an acre,
for every acre of the faid demifed premifes, that he the faid
C. D., his executors or adminiftrators, fhall, at any time or
times during the continuance of this demife, break up, tear
out, or convert into tillage, or have, or ufe, or employ in
any courfe of hufbandry, contrary to the covenants here-
after contained, without the licence and confent of the faid
proprietor, his heirs or affigns, in writing for that purpofe
firft had and obtained, and fo in proportion fora greater or
lefs quantity than an acre; the firit payment ot the faid
additional rent to be made on the firlt of the aforefaid
half-yearly days of payment, which fhall happen next after
the ploughing, breaking up, tearing out, converting into
tillage, or having or uling, or employing in any courle of
hufbandry, contrary to the covenants hereinafter contained,
any part of the faid hereby demifed premifes, which faid
two feveral and refpettive rents are to be paid as above ex-
prefled and referved, free and clear of all taxes, affeflments,
charges, and impofitions whatfoever, as well parliamentary
as parochial, or otherwife, which the faid premifes now are,
or may hereafter be liable to anfwer or pay: Provided al-
ways, and upon condition, and it is the true intent and.
meaning of thefe prefents, that if it fhall happen that the
faid yearly and other rents herein and above referved, or any.
of them, or any part thereof, be behind or unpaid, by the
{pace of forty days next over or after either.or any of the
faid days or times whereon the fame ought to be paid as
aforefaid, or in cafe the faid C. D., his executors or admi-
niftrators, fhall negleét or refufe to do and perform all and
every of the covenants or agreements herein mentioned and
contained, on his and their parts, to be paid, done, and per-
formed; or in cafe the faid tenant, his executors or admi-
niftraters, fhall, or do, at any time or times during the term
hereby demifed, alien, let, or affign over the faid premifes,
or any part thereof, unto any perfon or perfons, without the
licence and confent of the faid A.B., his heirs or affigns,.
in writing for that purpofe firlt had and obtained, that
then, and in any of the faid cafes, it fhall and may be Iawful
to and for the faid A. B., his heirs or affigns, or fuch perfon
or perfons as fhall be by him or them appointed for that
purpofe, into and upon the faid demifed premifes, or into-
and upon any part thereof, in the name of the whole, wholly
to re-enter, and the fame to have again,, re-poffefs, and re--
enjoy, as in his and their firft and tormer eftate, and from
and immediately after fuch re-entry made, the faid term
hereby demifed fhall ceafe, determine,and become utterly void
and of none effect, any thing in thefe prefents contained to
the contrary thereof in anywife notwithilanding : And the
faid A. B. for himfelf, his heirs and afligns, doth hereby co-
venant, promife, and agree to, and with tlie faid C..D., his ex--
ecutors and adminiftrators, that it fhall and may be lawful to.
and for the faid C. D., his executors and adminiftrators, (he
and they paying the rents and performing the covenants and
agreements herein referved and contained, on his and their
parts.

LEASE.

‘parts, and to bepaid, done, and performed, according to
tthe true intent and meaning of thefe prefents), peace-
ably and quietly to have, hold, ufe, occupy, poffefs, and enjoy
all and fingular the faid premifes, with their appurtenances
hereby demifed (except as before excepted), for and during
the faid term of twenty-one years, without the lawful let,
fuit, trouble, denial, hindrance, moleftation, eviction, or
interruption of him the faid A. B., his heirs or afligns, or
any other perfon or perfons, claiming by, from, or under
him, them, or any of them: And alfo, that it fhall and
may be lawful to and for the faid C.D. his executors or
adminiftrators (he and they paying the rents and performing
the covenants and agreements as aforefaid), in the harveit
feafon next after the expiration of the faid term hereby de-
mifed, peaceably and quietly to have, cut down, reap and
lead the crop of corn or grain by him, them, or any of them,
fown and then growing upon two-third parts of the lands
then in ploughing or tillage (according to the covenants
hereinafter contained, and the true intent and meaning of
thefe prefents), commonly called the way-going crop ; and
the fame corn or grain to fet in the ftack-yards, and thrafh
the fame in the barn or barns of and belonging to the faid
demifed premifes; And that he the faid C. D., his executors
or adminiftrators, fhall, for the purpofes aforefaid, have the
ufe of all the ftack-yards, barns, and granaries of and be-
longing to the faid demifed premifes, until the twelfth day
of May next, after the determination of this demife ; and
the fame corn and grain fo thrafhed (after payment of rents
and arrears of rents then unpaid), fhall and may carry away,
fell, and difpofe of, to and for his or their proper ufe and
benefit, leaving and delivering all the ftraw of the faid way-
going crop, as foon as the fame is thrafhed (as hereafter
mentioned), in and upon the faid premifes, unto and for the
ufe and benefit of the faid A. B., his heirs and.afligns, or
his or their next fucceeding tenant or tenants: And the faid
A. B., his heirs and affigns, or his or their next fucceeding
tenant or tenants, fhall and will lead the faid way-going crop
from the lands where it grew to the barns or {ftack-yards,
and fork the fame from the loaded carts to the ftacks: And
alfo fhall and will bear and pay one-half the expence of
making and ereGting new quick fences upon the faid pre-
mifes, and of cleaning, rearing, and preferving the fame for
feven years, after being firft planted: And alfo, &c. [Here
follow any other covenants on the part of the leflor for new
buildings, &c. &c. ]

And the {aid tenant, for himfelf, his heirs, executors, ad-
miniftrators, and affigns, doth covenant, promife, and agree
to and with the faid A. B., his heirs and affigns, by thefe
prefents, in manner following, that is to fay, that the faid
C. D., his executors or adminiftrators, fhall and will well and
truly pay, or caufe to be paid, unto the faid A. B., his heirs
or affigns, the faid yearly rent or fum of and
alfo the other cafual or eventual rents hererein above referved,
and payable on the days and times, and in manner above
mentioned for payment thereof, according to the true intent
and meaning of thefe prefents: And alfo fhall and will from
time to time, and at all times during the term hereby de-
mifed, well and truly pay and difcharge all and all manner
of taxes, affeffments, rates, charges, dues, tithes, and im-
pofitions, parliamentary or parochial, whatfoever, which now
are, or at any time hereafter during the term hereby demifed
fhall be, taxed, affefled, rated, charged, or impofed upon
the faid premifes, or any part thereof: And alfo fhall
and will, from time to time, and at all times during the
faid term hereby demifed, at his and their own charge and
expence, repair, uphold, maintain, and keep, with all man-
mer of needful and neceflary reparations, all and fingular the

houfes, buildings, barns, cow-houfes, eattle-fheds, flables,
offices, gates, {tiles, rails, fences, hedges, ditches, drains,
and water-courfes, of and belonging to the premifes hereby
demifed, or which may at any time hereafter during the faid
term, be built, ereGted, or made upon the faid premifes or any
part thereof: And at the end, expiration, or other fooner de-
termination of the faid term, fhall and will deliver up all and
fingular the faid houfes, buildings, erections, barns, cow-
houfes, cattle-fheds, ftables, offices, gates, fiiles, rails, fences,
hedges, ditches, drains, and water-courfes, with their and

-every of their improvements unto the faid A. B., his heirs or

afligns, in good and fufficient repair and condition, together
with the peaceable and quiet pofleffion thereof: And alfo
fhall not, nor will not, at any time or times during the conti-
nuance of this demife, fell, difpofe of, fend or carry away, er
permit to be fold or difpofed of, fent or carried away from off
the faid premifes hereby demifed, any of the hay, ftraw,
clover, turnips, cabbages, or other fodder, that fhall grow
or be produced from, or made thereon, but fhall and will eat
and confume the fame (for the increafe of manure) upon the
faid premifes: And alfo fliall and will, from time to time,
during the continuance of this demife, at the proper feafous in
every year, duly lay and fpread upon the fallow grounds of
the faid premifes (where maft requifite and proper for the im-
provement thereof), in an even, recular, and uniform manner,
all the manure, dung, and compoft that fhall be ‘bred and
made on the premifes ; except the manure, dung, and com-
poft to be bred and made thereon in the year next before the
determination of the faid term; and which manure, dung,
and compoft, fhall be left in the fold-yards, dung-hills, or
midden-{teads of the faid premifes, for the ufe and benefit of
the faid A. B., his heirs or affigns, or his or their next fuc-
ceeding tenant or tenants: And alfo fhall not and will not
plant or fow any hemp, flax, or muftard, or any rape for feed *
upon the faid premifes, or any part thereof: And alfo fhall
not, and will not, at any time or times in the year next before
the determination of this demife, depafture or graze, or fuf-
fer to be depaftured or grazed upon the faid premifes, or
any part thereof, any larger ftock of cattle or greater num-
ber of {tints than were ufually depaftured or grazed thereon
in the two years next preceding the faid laft year of the faid
term, or other fooner determination thereof : And alfo thall
and will yearly, and every year: during the faid term hereby
demifed, catch and deftroy the moles, and fcale, mould,
drefs, and clean the grafs-grounds of and belonging to the
faid demifed premifes: And alfo fhall and will thrafh the
way-going crop, at the determination of the faid term, in an
uniform manner, fo as to deliver a conftant, regular, daily
fupply of ftraw to and for the ufe of the faid A. B., his
heirs or affigns, or his or their tenant or tenants: And alfo
fhall and will, from and after the firlt day of Oétober
preceding the termination of the faid term, hain, free,
and keep uneaten, all thofe fields or parcels of ground fown
with grafs-feed in the laft fifteen months of the faid term ;
fave and except that it fhall and may be lawful for the faid
C. D., his executors and adminiftrators, from and after the
firft day of April next before the end of the faid term, to
depafture, with not more than fheep an acre, one-
half of the faid hained clover or new grafs, which half fhall
be chofen and fet out by the agent of the faid A. B., his
heirs or afligns, in the month of March preceding: And
alfo fhall and will permit the faid A. B., his heirs or affigns,
or his or their tenant or tenants, to fow with grafs-feeds all
or any part of the lands-fown with corn or grain, for the
way-going crop, and to roll in the fame witha roller drawn

* Rape for green food is allowed.
by

LEA

by horfes, according to the cyftom of the country: And
alfo fhall and will permit and f{uffer the faid proprietor, his
heirs or afligns, or his or their fervants, draughts, and work-
men, from time to time, and at all times, from and after the
firit day of December preceding the determination of this
demife, to enter into and upon all the then fallow grounds
of the faid premifes, or the grounds which, according to
the true intent and meaning of thefe prefents, ought to be
in fallow, and the fame to plough, fow, harrow, drefs,
manure, lime, and prepare for fuch courfe of agriculture as
he or they fhall think proper to convert the fame into, with-
out the let or hindrance of him the faid C. D., his executors
or adminiftrators: And alfo fhall not, and will not, have,
ufe, or employ, in ploughing or tillage, a greater quantity
of land than acres of the faid premifes at any
One time, or in any one year,’ during the term hereby de-
mifed: And alfo fhall and will yearly, and every year
during the term hereby demifed, fummer fallow + at leatt
one-third part of the tillage, and plough the fame at Jeatt
feveral times, at proper feafonsin each year,
and keep the fame free and clear from quick-ins, wild oats,
thittles, coltsfoot, runch, dead nettles, and every other per-
nicious plant or weed, and lay and {pread upon every acre of
fuch fallow, in an even and regular manner, at Icatt
fother of well-turned clod-lime, or in lieu thereof twenty fother
of good well-rotted dung, and fo in proportion fora lefs quan-
tity than an acre : And alfo hall not, and will not, have, keep,
or continue in ploughing or tillage, any part of the faid de-
mifed premifes, more than years at one time, that
is from being ploughed out from grafs, to being laid down
to grafs again: And alfo fhall and will yearly, and every
year, fow with grafs-feeds, and lay down to grafs, at leaft
one-third part of the ploughing or tillage-lands, after a
clean fummer fallowing, and a crop of wheat, ora crop of
turnips and white corn, and fow upon every acre thereof at
leaft eight pounds of red clover feed, three pounds of white
clover; three pounds of rib-wort plantain, and two pecks of
rye-grafs t of the beft quality ; the quantity and quality to
be afcertained by proper vouchers from the perfons of whom
the faid feeds were bought, and by whom the faid feeds were
fown: And alfo fhall and will, whenever any part of the
ploughing or tillage lands are laid to grafs, keep and continue
the fame in grafs at leaft i] years before the fame,

- Or any part thereof, be again ploughed out, or converted

~

into tillage: And alfo thall and will, in the lalt three years
of the faid term, lay down to grafs as aforefaid, or have in
grals, and at the end thereof leave in grafs, all thofe fields
or parcels of land, called And alfo fhall
and will, during the whole of the faid term, keep in grafs,
and at the expiration thereof leave in grafs, all thofe fields
or parcels of land § And alfo all fuch lands as
fhall be converted into watered meadows: And alfo fhall and
will during the term hereby demifed, bear and pay one-half
the expence of making and ereGting new quick fences upon

+ On the fallow turnips fhou!d be fown, if a proper foil,
or cabbages, or drilled beans, at thirty inches dittance.

+ To thefe, upon light foils, are generally added three or
four pounds of yellow hop-clover.

|, This blank is fometimes filled up with two or one,
according to foil, fituation, and circumitances, and weak
foils, improper for corn, generally continue in grafs five, fix,
or feven years, until it 1s thought they want refrefhing by
tillage, which is only ufed in fuch fituations, as being fubfer-
vient to rearing ftock.

§ This covenant is ufed only in fuch fituations where there
are any rich old grazing lands.

LEA

the faid premifes, and of cleaning, rearing; and preferving
the fame for feven years after being firlt planted. [Here
follow any other particular covenants that circumftances may
require. |

In addition to this general form of leafe, others with par-
ticular covenants become neceflary for each particular fort
of farm.

Leass, Valuation of, the mode of finding out and afcer-
taining the value of leafehold property, in which the cir-
{tances that are to be more particularly attended to are
thofe of the peculiar nature or conditions of the leafe, and
the difference between the leafe rent, and the fu'l or aétual
rental value ; as all forts of leafes, where the rent payable is
not equal to the juft or true rental value at the period of
their being fold, leffen the value of the land, and are obvi-
oufly an incumbrance in different points of view. The
mode of managing this bufinefs with propriety, according
to a late writer, is, after afcertaining the difference between
the leafe rent and the full rental value (incumbered with the
fame outgoings and repairs as the leafe rent), to multiply it
by the number of years that are unexpired, deducting the
prodv@ in full from the value of the land free from fuch in-
cumbrance ; and from the produ€&t thus found, to further
deduG half the intereft thereof during the faid number of
years, together with that of one-half year over, where the
rent is payable half yearly, and one year where it 1s payable
annzally ; as all that a purchafer of this fort of property has
a right to expe, is that of receiving the full rent for his.
land during the continuance of fuch leafe or engagement. See
Valuation of Landed Property.

Lvasé, in Agriculture, a provincial term that implies graffy
ground, meadow-ground, or any unploughed ground kept
for the ufe of cattle. ;

Lease and Releafe, in Law, is a Conveyance of the fee-
fimple, right, or intereft in lands or tenernents, under the fta-
tute of Ufes, 27 H. VIII. cap. 10. giving firft the poffef-
fion, and afterwards the intereft, in the eftate conveyed.
This fpecies of conveyance was firft invented by ferjeant
Moore, foon after the {tatute of Ufes, and it is now the molt
common of any, and not to be fhaken. Though the deed
of feoffment was the ufual conveyance at common law ; yet
fince the ftat. of 27 Hen. VITI. of ufes, the conveyance by
leafe and releafe has taken place of it, and is become a very
common afurance to pafs lands and tenements; for it amounts
to afeoffment, the ufe drawing after it the poffeffion without
aétual entry, &c. and fupplying the place of livery and feifin,
required in that deed ; in the making of it, a leafe, or bargain
and fale fora year, or fuch like term, upon fome pecuniary
confideration, is firft prepared and executed, to the intent
that by virtue thereof the leffee may be in aétual poffeffion.
of the lands intended to be conveyed by the releafe, and
thereby and by foree of the ftatute 27 Hen. VIII. c. ro..
for transferring of ufes into pofleffion, be enabled to take
and accept a grant of the reverfion and inheritance of the
faid lands, &c. to the ufe of himfelf and his-heirs for ever.
Upon which the releafe is accordingly made, reciting the
leafe and declaring the ufes ; and in thele cafes a pepper-corn
rent in the leafe for a year is a fufficient refervation to raife
an ufe, to make the leffee capable of a releafe. (2 Vent. 35.
2 Mod. 262.) This is held to fupply the place of livery of
feifin ; and fo a conveyance by leafe and releafe is faid to
amount to a teoffment. (Co. Lit. 270. Cro. Jac. 204.):
Black. Com. b. 1. Tomlin’s Jacob Dict. vol. ii. tic. Lease
and Revease. See BARGAIN and Sate, and CONVEYANCE...

The form of this conveyance is originally derived to us
from the common law ;, and. it is neceflary to pont ster in

what:

LEA

what refpe&t it operates as a commofi-law conveyance, and
in what it operates under the ftatue of Ufes. At the com-
mon law, where the ufual mode of conveyance was by feoff-
ment with livery of feifin, if there was a tenant in poffeflion,
fo that livery could not be made, the reverfion was granted,
and the tenant attorned to the reverfioner. As by this mode
the reverfion or remainder of an eftate might be conveyed
without livery, when it depended on an eltate previoufly
exilting, it was natural to proceed one {tep further, and to
create a particular eltate for the exprefs and fole purpofe of
conveying the reverfion ; and then by a furrender or releafe,
either of the particular eftate to the reverfioner, or of the
reverfion to the particular tenant, the whole fee vefted in
the furrenderee or releafee. It was afterwards obferved, that
there was no neceffity to grant the reverlion to a ilranger ;
and that if a particular eftate was made to the perfon to
whom it was propofed to convey the fee, the reverlion might
be immediately relealed to him, which releafe operating by
way of enlargement, would give the releafee (or releflee as
he is fometimes termed) a fee. In all thefe cafes the parti-
cular eftate was only an eltate for years; for at the common
law the ceremony of livery of feifin is as neceffary to create
even an eftate of freehold, as itis to create an eftate of in-
heritance. Still an a€tual entry would be necefflary on the
part of the particular tenant ; for without aétual poffeffion
the lefiee is not capable of a releafe, operating by way of
enlargement. But this neceflity of entry for the purpole of
obtaining the poffeflion, was fuperfeded or made unneceflary
by the ftatute of Ufes(27 Hen. VIII.c. 10. above alluded to) ;
for by that ftatute the poffeffion was immediately transferred
to the coflui que ufe; fo that a bargainee under that fta-
tute is as much in poffeffion, and as capable of a releafe be-
fore or without entry, as a leflee is at the common law after
entry. All, therefore, that remained to be done to avoid on
the one hand the neceflity of livery of feifin from the grantor,
and to avoid on the other the neceffity of an a€tual entry on
the part of the grantee, was, that the particular eitate
(which, for the reafons above-mentioned, fhould be an eftate
for years) fhould be fo framed as to be a bargain and fale
within the flatute. Originally it was made in fuch a man-
ner as to be both a leafe at the common law, and a bargain
and fale under the ftatute: but as it is held, that where
conveyances may operate both by the common law and
ftatute, they fhall be confidered to operate by the common
law, unlefs the intention of the parties appears to the con-
trary, it became the practice to infert, among the operative
words, the words dargain and /ell (in fact, it is more accurate
to infert no other operative words) ; and to exprefs that the
bargain and fale, or leafe, is made to the intent and pur-
pofe that thereby, and by the ftatute for transferring ufes
into poffeffions, the leffee may be capable of areleafe. The
bargain and fale therefore, or leafe for a year, as it Is ge-
nerally called, operates, and the bargainee is in the poffeffion,
by the itatute. The releafe operates by enlarging the ettate
or pofleffion of the bargainee to a fee. This is at the com-
mon law ; and if the ae be declared to the releafee in fee-
fimple, it continues an eftate at the common law; but if the
ufe is declared to a third perfon, the itatute again intervenes,
and annexes or transfers the poffeffion of the releafee to the
ufe of the perfon to whom the ufe is declared. It has been
faid, that the poffeffion of the bargainee under the leafe is
not fo properly merged in, as enlarged by, the releafe ; but
at all events it does not, after the releafe, exift diflinét from
the eftate pafled by the releafe. 1 Init. 271. b. mn.

As the operation of a leafe and releafe depends upon the
leafe, or bargain and fale; if the grantor is a body cor-
porate, the leafe will not operate under the ftatute of Ufes;

LEA

for a body corporate cannot be feifed to an ufe, and there-
fore the leafe of poffeffion, confidered as a bargain and fale
under the ftatute, is void ; and the releafe then mutt be of
no effect for want of a previous pofleffion in the releafee.
In cafes of this nature, therefore, it is proper to make the
conveyance by feoffment, or by.a leafe and releafe with an
actuai entry by the leflee previous to the releafe ; after which
the releafe will pafs the reverfion. It may alfo be obferved,
that in exchanges, if one of the parties die before the ex-
change is executed by entry, the exchange is void. But if
the exchange be made by leafe and releafe, this inconvenience
is prevented, as the itatute executes the poffeflion without
entry ; and all incidents annexed to an exchange at common
law will be prelerved. 1 Inft. 271. b. inn,

When an eftate is conveyed by leafe and releafe, in the
leafe for a year there mutt be the words, bargain aad fell for
money, and five fhillings or any other fum, though never
paid, is a good confideration, whereupon the bargainee for
a year is immediately in pofleffion on the executing of the
deed, without aétual entry : if only the words demi/e, grant
and to farm let are wed, in that cafe the leflee cannot accept
of a releafe of the inheritance, until he hath a¢tually entered,
and is in poffeffion. (2 Lil. Abr. 435.) But where Little-
ton fays, that if a leafe is made for years, and the leffor
releafes to the lefiee before entry, fuch releafe is void ; be-
caufe the lefiee had only aright, and not the pofleflion ; and
fuch releafe fhall not enure to enlarge the eftate, without
the pofieflion: though this is true at common law, it is not
fo now upon the ftatute of Ufes. (2 Mod. 250, 251.) And
if a man make a leafe for life, remainder for life, and the
firft leffee dieth ; on which the leffor releafes to him in re-
mainder, before entry ; this is a good releafe to enlarge the
eltate, he having an eltate in law capable of enlargement by
releafe, before entry had. 1 Inft. 270.

No perfon can make a bargain and fale, who hath not
poffeffion of the lands: but it is not neceflary to reierve a
rent therein ; becaufe the contideration of money raifes the
ufe. If a leafe be without any fuch confideration, the leflee
hath not any eftate till entry, nor hath the leffor any rever-
fion ; and therefore a releafe will not operate, &c. (1 Init.
270. 278. Cro. Jac. 169. 1 Mod. 263.) On leafe at will,
areleafe fhall be good by reafon of the privity between the
parties; butif a man be only tenant at fufferance, the re-
leafe will not inure to him ; and as to the perfon who hath
the reverfion it is void, for fuch tenant hath not any pof-
feffion, there being no ellate in him. Lit. § 461, 462.
Cro Elize@1. Dyer 25%: {

In a leafe and releafe, to make a tenant to the precipe to
fuffer a recovery, where the releafe is made to A. B., and
his heirs (viz. the tenant to the precipe), it mult be alfo
faid to the ule of him the faid A.B., and his heirs and
afligns for ever ; forthe releffee muft be abfolute tenant of
the freehold. (2 Vent. 312. Lil. Conveyance, 251.) And
a releafe made on trutt, muit be to A. B., his heirs and
affigns, to the only ufe and behoof of the releffee, his heirs
and affigns for ever ; in tru{t for C. D., who is to be a party
to the deed, and the purchafe-moncy to be paid by the
ceflui que trujt. 1 the words to the ufe, &c. are not interted
in the releafe, the eflate doth not execute by the ftatute of
Ufes, and the trnft is void. Lil. Conv. 231, 251. See ~
Recovery and Trust. ‘

A leafe and releafe make but one conveyance, being in
the nature of one deed. 1 Mod. 252. See RELEASE.

LEASEHOLD Tenure of Lends, in Agriculture, is that
fort of tenancy which is held under leafe or fpecial agree-
ment for any definite term, whether of lives or years $
which alfo admits of feveral diftinctions, as, where the air is

: or

‘

LEA

for a great length of time, as a thoufand years, and where it is
for life, of which there are different kinds, as where the fine is
certain, or under certain limitations on renewal,with an uncer-
tain fine; payable to a proprietor or other fuperior, who
has merely referved a conventional rent, the tenant having
given a fum of money to obtain the leafe and the right of
alienation ; this is a praétice common in the weftern counties :
with an uncertain fine payable to a proprietor, who receives
the full rent of the land at the time of granting the leafe,
the landlord having a power of alienation ; this is a practice
common in Wales, and fome parts of this country: and
where it is for an ordinary term, (as for lefs than 100 years,)
with the power of alienation, They are all tenures, which

ive a fort of temporary property or intereft in the lands,
by which they are rendered liable to bargain or fale as other
forts of property by the holders of them. See TENANT
and TENURE.

LEASH, or Leasue, among Sfortfmen, denotes three
creatures of any kind; but chiefly greyhounds, foxes, bucks,
and hares.

We fay a leafh of greyhounds, a couple and a half of
hounds,

* LEASING, or Lesine. See Gieanine.
’ LEAT, is ufed for a trench to convey water to or from
a mill. Itis mentioned in the ftatute 7 Jac. I. cap. 19.

LEATHER, in Commerce, the fkins of feveral forts of
beafts dreffed and prepared for the ufe of various manu-
faGturers, whofe bufinefs is to make them up, according to
their different employments. The butcher and others, who
flay them oif the carcafes, difpofe of them raw or falted to
the tanner and tawer; they to the fhamoy, morocco, and
other kind of ‘leather-dreffers, who prepare them according
to their refpeétive arts, in order to vent them among the
¢urriers and leather-cutters, glovers, harnefs-makers, coach-
makers, fadlers, breeches-makers, gilt-leather-makers, chair-
makers, fhoe-makers, book-binders, and all in any way con-
cerned in the article of leather.

Leather has divers names according to the ftate wherein

it is, and according to the different kinds of fkins of which
it is prepared, and its peculiar qualities when fo prepared.
r. The {kin is raw as it comes off the animal. 2. Some are
falted with fea-falt and alum, or with natron, which isa
fpecies of falt-petre, or white falt-wort, to prevent corruption
in keeping, or fending to diftant tanneries during hot fea-
fons.
’ Skins dried with the hair on, are commonly thofe of oxen
and cows, or buffaloes, either tame or wild. Mot of thofe
in France come from foreign countries. The places which
furnifh the largeft quantity, “are Peru, the ifle of St. Do-
mingo, Barbary, Cape Verde Ifles, the river Senegal in
Africa, Mufcovy, Ireland, the ifland of Cuba. Thofe of
this latter place are the molt efteemed; they are called Ha-
vannah fkins, from the name of the capital city of that
iflahd, whither they are carried in order to be fent to Spain,
and from thence into other parts of Europe. After thefe
dkins are ftript of their hair, they are fold to the tanners,
See Curryinc, TANNING, and SKINs.

The three principal aflortments of leather are tanned or

tawed, and oil and alum leather, all which are dreffed in
ome yards.

* The art of dreffing leather in oil confifts in firft foaking

the fkins; then throwing them into the lime-pit ; and when
they are taken hence, pulling them and delivering them to
the friezer ; they are then {truck with the oil, and fent to

- the mill; when they are milled fufficiently; they are thrown

into the ditch to be fcoured, and by fome fcudded, and after-
wards hung upon the hooks to dry. When they have been
VOL. & M.

LEA

weighed and marked by the proper officers, in order to fix
the excife duty, they are fit for fale. The forts of Skins
dreffed in oil are thole of deer, fheep, and lambs, and fome
few of goat, and the oil ufed for this purpofe is Newfound-
land, or cod’s liver oil. The alum leather-dreflers’ art con-
fifts in properly foaking, liming, wringing, (an operation
fometimes omitted,) and ftriking them in a liquor compofed
of water, falt, and alum, and then drying them properly.
The forts of fkins dreffed in alum are thofe of fheep and
lambs, and a large quantity of kid. Poftleth. Dict. Com.
art. Leather.

There are feveral ftatutes relating to leather; the 27

Hen. VIII. c. 14. dire€&ts packers to be appointed for lea-
ther to be tranfported: but the 18 Eliz. c. g. prohibits the
fhipping of leather on penalty of forfeiture, &c. Though
by 20 Car. c. 5. tranfportation of leather was allowed to
Scotland, Ireland, or any foreign countries paying a cuftom
or duty ; which ftatute was continued by divers fubfequent
acts.
* No perfon fhall ingrofs leather to fell again, under the
penalty of forfeiture. None but tanners are to buy any
rough hides of leather, or calves’ flcins in the hair, on pain of
forfeiture ; and no perfon fhall foreftall hides, under the pe~
nalty of 6s.8d.ahide. Leather not fufficiently tanned is to
be forfeited. In London, the lord mayor and aldermen are
to appoint and fwear fearchers and fealers of leather out of
the company of cordwainers, &c. and alfo triers of the
fufficiency of leather; and the fame is to be done by mayors,
&c. in other towns and corporations ; and fearchers allowing
infufficient leather, incur a forfeiture of 40s. Shoemakers
making fhoes or boots of infufficient leather are liable to for-
feit for every pair 3s. 4d. and the value thereof. (1 Jac. I.
c. 22.) Redtanned leather is to be brought into open lea~
ther markets, and fearched and fealed before it be expofed to
fale, and on fale is to be regiftered, or fhall be forfeited ; and
contraéts for fale otherwife tobe void. (13 & 14 Car. II.
c.7-) Hides of leather are adjudged the ware and manu-
facture of the currier, and fubjeé& to fearch, &c. All per~
fons dealing in leather may buy tanned leather, fearched ia
open market, and any perfon may buy or fell leather, hides,
or fkins, by weight. 1 W. & M.c. 33.

The firft ftatute concerning leather, which it is neceffary
for us to refer to in this article, is the 1 Jac. c. 22, which
reduces all preceding aéts relating to that commodity into
one; and therefore to this we fhall have a retrofpe& in the
progrefs of this article ; premifing that all forteitures by
this act, not otherwife {pecially directed, fhall be divided,
one-third to the king, one-third to him that fhall fue, and
one-third to the city, town, or lord of the liberty. By
g Ann. c. 11. any two juftices near the place where the
forfeitures are incurred, or offence committed, may hear and
determine the fame. All forfeitures, by the att of 13 &
14 Car. II. c. 7. fhall be recovered in any court at Weftmin-~
{ter, or in any court of record in the city, &c. where the
offence fhall be committed ; to be diftributed half to the
king, and half tothe informer. By 39 & 40 Geo. III.
c. 66, itis enacted that proper places and times for infpeét-
ing all raw hides and fkins of cattle, fheep, horfes, and
hogs, fhall be fixed by the mayor, bailiff, or head-officer of
any city, town corporate, borough, or market-town, or any
two magiftrates acting for the fame, or any two juftices aG-
ing for the divifion within or neareft to {uch city, &c. The
manner of appointing infpectors is alfo preferibed by the faid
acts. Andbythe fame, butchers, &c. who are chargeable
with wilfully or carelefsly injuring hides, fo as to make them
lefs valuable, are liable to penalties, not exceeding 55.
(4fGeo, ITI.) nor lefs than 1s. for the raw hide of every ox,

3N bull,

LEATHER.

bull, cow, or heifer, &c.; and nct exceeding as. 6d.
(41 Geo. IIT.) nor lefs than 6d. for the ficin of every calf ;
and not exceeding 2s. 6d. (41 Geo. ITI.) nor lefs than 1s.
for the hide of every horfe, mare, or gelding ; and not ex-
ceeding 6d. nor lefs than 3d. for the bie of every hog, pig,
fheep, orlamb. InfpeGors are required to takea prefcribed
oath, and are allowed certain fees for examining and infpect-
ing hides. &c. (See alfo 43 Geo. III. c. 106.) Thefe in-
f{petors may impofe penalties for damaging hides, &c. 5
which penalties fhall be recovered before a juftice, one-half
of which, by 41 Geo. ITI. c. 53. fhall be given to the in-
{peCtor, and the other half applied to the purpofe of better
carrying on the objects of thefe a&s. By the above-cited
a&s, 39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 66, the infpectors of raw
hides fhall provide proper ftamps, and ftamp the hides, not
damaged or otherwife ; and feize fuch hides or fins as have
been damaged, and fell the fame, provided the penalties be
not paid in lefs than 48 hours after fuch feizure. Butchers
or others neglecting to bring hides to be marked, fhall for-
feit not exceeding 5/. nor lefs than 4os. for every fuch hide.
‘The regulations of this a€t fhall extend to all hides found in
Great Britain. (at Geo, III. c. 53.) All difputes fhall
be fettled by any five impartial and refpectable perfons con-
cerned in the manufacture of leather, fummoned by a ma-
giitrate, before whom fuch difpute fhall be brought. All
penalties and forfeitures fhall be recovered before one, jx{tice
or magiftrate of any city, town, or place, where the offence
fhall be committed, upon conviétion, confeflion, or the oath
of one witnefs, and levied by diftrefs ; and for want of fufh-
cient diftrefs, the offending party fhall be committed by fuch
juttice or magiltrate to the common gaol or houfe of correc-
tion, for atime not exceeding one menth. All penalties and
forfeitures, not otherwife difpofed of, fhall go, half to the
informer, and half to the execution of the purpofes of the
a&. Perfons aggrieved may ‘appeal to the next feffions.
(39 & 40 Geo. III. c. 66.) By the fame and 41 Geo. III.
c. 53. informations for offences againft this act for wilfully
or carelefsly gafhing raw hides, fhall be laid within three days
after the commiflion of the offence ; and for any other of-
fence within 14 days after the offence committed. By
43 Geo. III. c. 106. the provifions of 39 & 40 Geo. III.
c. 66. and 41 Geo. III. c. 53, are extended to London,
Weitminfter, and Southwark, and to all places within fifteen
miles of the Royal Exchange. All raw hides within five
miles of the Royal Exchange {hall be brought to Leadenhall
market, and the {kins of fheep and lambs to one of the three
fheep-fkin markets in Southwark, the Whitechapel market,
or the market at Wood’s Clofe.
for infpeétion are to be appointed within three months after
the pafling of this a&. For the market at Leadenhall, eight
infpectors are to be appointed; four from the company of
butchers, two by the company of curriers, and two by the
company of cardwainers ; and befides, there fhall be appoint-
ed four infpeétors for the fheep market at Wood’s Clofe, two
for Southwark, and two for the market of Whitechapel.
One half of the infgeGtors at each of the three laft-mentioned
markets to be appointed by the company of butchers, and
the other half at each of {uch markets in equal proportions
by the companies of curriers and cordwainers. Provifion is
made for increafing their number and regulating their attend-
ance. Infpettors for Leadenhall market are required to
attend on the ufual market days, from fix in the morning
till five in the afternoon, from the 25th of March to the
ggth of September ; and from feven in the morning until
four in the afternoon, from the 30th of September till the
2gth of March.

_ The ditribution of fines and fees is prefcribed, fo that one-

Proper places and hours -

half fhall be equally divided between the infpectors, aGting

at the refpeCtive markets, and the remaining half-part fhall

be paid weekly to the arbitrator of the market, in refpeét to

which they are received, and paid monthly by the faid arbi-

trators to the refpeCtive perfons appointed by the courts of

affiftants to receive the fame. ‘here is a penalty for im-

peding infpeGtors, not exceding 5/. nor lefs than 105, for each

offence, and alfo a penalty not exceeding 20/. on infpe€tors

receiving, and perfons offering bribes. Salefmen are re-

quired to deliver an account of hides or flins fold, under a pe-

nalty for every offence of 1o/. ‘The lord-mayor of London

is empowered to increafe the fees of the infpedtors, under the

reprefentation of the courts of affiftants of the companies

concerned, to any fum not exceeding 1d. for every hide,

id. for every calf-flin, hog-fkin, or pig-fkin, and: 4d. for

every fheep or lamb-fkin. The refpeétive courts of affitte
ants are required to appoint annually four arbitrators, to fet-

tle difputes arifing in any of the markets above-mentioned ;

and thefe arbitrators are empowered to fine infpeétors, and
alfo butchers and falefmen, for frivolous decifions and exorbit-
ant impofitions. Infpeétors and arbitrators are liable to be

difmiffed for mifconduét in their refpective offices, or toa
fine not exceeding 5/. nor lefs than xos. Buyers and fellers

of unftamped hides or fkins are liable to a forfeiture not ex-.
ceeding 20s, nor lefs than ss. for every hide ; and not ex-
ceeding 5s. nor lefs than rs. for every fin of hogs, pigs, or
calves ; and not exceeding rs. nor lefs than 6d. for every fheep
or lamb-fkin. The treaiurers are appointed by the re-
{peCtive courts of affiftants to receive the fums collected by
the arbitrators ; one-half of which fhall be paid to the trea-
furer appointed by the company of butchers, one-fourth to

the officer of the company of curriers, and one-fourth to,
the officer of the company of cordwainers; which fums

fhall firft of all be applied for the execution of the aés, and-
to the ufe of the poor of the faid companies.

For particular regulations concerning ¢anners and curriers
of hides, fee thefe articles refpectively. The mayor and
aldermen of London (on pain of 4o/. for every year they
make default, half to the king and half to him that fhall
fue) fhall yearly appoint eight freemen of fome of the com-
panies of cordwainers, curriers, fadlers or girdlers, of whom
one fhall be a fealer, and keep a feal for the fealing-of lea-
ther ; they fhall be fworn to do their office truly ; and they
fhall fearch and view all tanned leather brought to market,
whether it is thoroughly tanned and dried ; andif it is, fhall
feal the fame. Four of thefe officers fhall be changed every
year ; no officer fhall be continued above two years together,
nor be re-eleéted till after the end of three years, on pain of 1o/.
a month. A fimilar regulation extends to other places. The
wardens of the curriers fhall fearch and feal curried leather,
for which they are entitled to fees, to be paid by the currier ;
on pain of forfeiture for every hide not fearched and feaied,
6s. 8d. If any fearcher or fealer fhall negleét his office or .
mifbehave, he fhall forfeit 4os.: if he. fhall'take a bribe,
or exact a fee not appointed, he fhall forfeit 20/. ; and if he
fhall refufe to execute his offiee, he thal! forfeit ro/. If any
perfon fhall hinder the fearcher in the execution.ef his office,
he fhall forfeit 5/. (1 Jac. c. 22.) The mayor of London
(on pain of 5/. half to the king, and half to him that fhall fue}
fhall, within fix days after notice given of any feizure of any
leather, red and unwrought, appoint fix triers, two of the
cordwainers, two of the curriers, and two of the tanners,
ufing Leadenhall market, who, upon their oaths taken before
him, fhall, on the fecond or third market-day for leather,
try the fame, whether it be fufficient or not. The fame re.
gulation extends to other places. ‘riers not doing their,
duty fhall forfeit 57. The offering for fale of unfearched

and

LEATHER.

and unfealed leather incurs a forfeiture of the fame, or its
-value, and for every hide or piece 6s. 8d. ; and for>every
dozen of calves’ ficins, 3s. 4d. ; but no perfon fhall incur any
penalty for felling or buying any fheep-fkins, unfearched or
unfealed. (1 Jac.¢. 22. 4 Jac. c. 6.) All red tanned leather
fhall be bought only in the open fair or market, and not in
any houfe, yard, fhop, or other place, on pain of forfeiting
-the fame, or its value, and rendering the contract void : and
fuch leather fhall be fearched and fealed before fale, and on
fale fhall be regiftered, on pain of forfeiting the fame, or
its value. (1r9& 14 Car. I]. c.7.) Searchers and fealers
fhall keep a regilter of all bargains made for leather, during
the fair or market, with the prices; taking for fearching,
fealing, and regiltering of every ten hides, or butts, of
the feller 2d., and fo in proportion; and for every fix
»dozen of calves’-{kins, or fheep-fkins, 2d. : and of the buyer
after the fame rate. Red tanned leather, brought into Lon-
don, or within three miles of it, fhall be brought to Lea-
‘denhall, tobe viewed and regiltered by the fearchers, with
half fuch fees to be paid for tanned leather bought out of
London, or within three miles, and fearched and fealed be-
fore it be brought within the city ; on pain that every perfon
houfing, or not bringing his leather to Leadenhall, hall
forfeit for every hide or {kin 6s. 8d. No perfon fhall buy
any tanned leather, unwrought, but who fhall work the fame
into wares, on pain of forfeiting the fame, or value. (1 Jac.
¢. 22.) But by 12 Geo. II. c¢.25, all perfons who deal
or work in leather may buy ail forts of tanned leather in open
fair or market, whether curried or uncurried, being firft
fearched and fealed, and may cut and fell the fame in any
fmall pieces in their open fhops. (See alfo 1 W. feff. 1.
¢. 33.) Within London, or within three miles, no perfon
fhall fell any wares appertaining to the myttery of any arti-
ficer cutting leather, but only in open fhop, common fair,
or market, whereby the wardens may have fearch thereof :
on pain of forfeiting the fame, and alfo 10s. 1 Jac.
Cc. 22.
~ No fhoemaker fhall make any boots or fhoes, or any part
of them, except of leather, well and truly tanned and cur-
‘ried, or of leather well and truly tanned only ; nor put
into any part of any fhoes or boots, any leather made of a
fheep-fkin, bull-hide, or horfe-hide, &ec. &c.» on pain of
forfeiting for every pair of fhoes or boots 3s. 4d:, and the
value. Andif any artificer uling leather do make any wares
of any tanned leather infufficiently tanned, or of tanned and
curried leather, not fufficiently tanned and curried, he fhall
forfeit the fame, and value. If any fhoemaker or cobler
within London, or three miles of it, fhall put any tanned
leather into any boots or thoes, or other things made of
tanned leather, which fhall not be well and perfectly tanned,
“or do put any curried leather into boots or thoes, or any
things made of leather, which fhall not be fnfliciently tanned
-and curried, and alfo fealed; he shall forfeit the fame and
value. 1 Jaé.c.

All forts of leather and fkin, tanned or dreffed, may be
exported. 20 Car. II.c. 5. 9 Ann. c. 6. ;

By 43 Geo. IEI.c. 69, a duty is laid upon all hides and
fkins, vellum and parchment, imported ; and drawbacks
allowed on the exportation of them, Other duties are alfo
impofed by 49 Geo. III. c.98. for which we refer to the
at, fched. A. After the duty on importation fhall be paid,
the officers of the cuftoms fhall caufe every hide or fin to be
marked, to denote the payment of the duty. (9 Anne.
¢.i5.) But by 15 Geo, ILf. c. 35, raw or undrefled goat-
fkins may be imported for five years, duty free ; and this
aét was made perpetual by 31 Geo. IIT. c. 43. The feve-
gal duties for and upon all hides and fins, and parts and

22

pieces of hides and fkins, tanned, tawed, or drefled, to be
paid by the tanners, tawers, and dreffers of hides and fline
refpectively, and the duties upon vellum and parchment,
to be paid by the refpeétive makers thereof; and certain
drawbacks are allowed on the exportation thereof. By
tanned hides or {lcins, or pieces thereof, are meant only fucks
as are tanned in wooze, made of, the bark of trees, or fhu-
mack ; and by hides and fkins, dreffed in vil, ave meant fuch
as are made into leather in oil, or with any materials, of which
the chief ingredient fhall be oil ; and by tated hides or kins,
are meant fuch as are drefled or made into leather, in alum and
falt, or meal, or other ingredients properly ufed by tawers
of white leather. g Ann. c. 11. f. 3.

By 43 Geo. ITI. c. 69, every tanner fhall take out a li-
cence annually, for which he fhall pay, if within the bills of
mortality, 5/., elfewhere 2/. tos.,on pain of 30/. (24 Geo. LIT.
c. 41. Sefl. 2.1.) Andevery tawer fhall take out a li-
cence annually, for which he fhall pay 1/. on the penalty of
1o/, And every drefler of hides in oil fhall take out a li-
cence annually, for which he fhall pay 2/. on the penalty of
2o/, Andevery currier fhall take outa licence-annually, for
which he fhall pay 2/. on the penalty of 20/. And every
maker of vellum or parchment fhall take out a licence an-
nually, for which he fhall pay 1/ on the penalty of ro.
And every perfon who fhall take out fuch licences {hall re-
new them annually, ten days before their expiration, on the
penalties above itated. Collar-makers, glovers, bridle-
cutters and others, who drefs fkins or hides, or pieces thereof,
in oil, alum, and falt, or meal, or other ingredients, and who
cut and make the fame into wares, fhall be accounted tawers, _
or dreffers. (2 Ann.c. 11. § 28.) Any hide or fkin, which
hath once paid the duty, fhall not be charged under any other
denomination (g Ann. c. 11. § 3.) The commiffioners
of thefe duties, appointed by the commiflioners of the trea-
fury, fhall have the fame power as the commiflioners of ex-
cife. Tanners, tawers, curriers, or dreflers of hides or
fins, and makers of vellum or parchment, are required to
give notice in writing to the officer, of their names and places
of abode, and of their tan-houfes, yards, work-houfes, mills,
or other places where they intend to tan, taw, or drefs_
hides or _fkins, or make vellum or parchmemt, before they
ufe the fame; on pain of so/. Thofe who ufe fuch places
without entry of them, fhall forfeit 20/4, and the goods found
in them, or their value, fhall alfo be forfeited. The officers,
at all feafonable hours, fhall enter and furvey thefe places,
and if the owner or occupier refufe them entrance, he fhall
forfeit ro), And if any hide or fkin, tanned, tawed, or
dreffed in oil, be found in any place not entered, without a
flamp denoting that the duty has been charged, the fame
fhall be forfeited and feized ; and the perfons in whofe pof-
feffion it fhall have been found, hall for each offence forfeit
tool, (41 Geo. ITI. c.g1.§ 10.) Tanners and others
fhall give two days notice to the proper officers of the re-
moval of goods to the drying place, that an account of them
may be taken; and before they are carried ‘away from the
drying place, two days notice fhall be given; and they fhall
be entered with the officer with refpe& to their number and
quality, and yerified on oath before a juftice of peace, col-
lector or fupervifor ; nor fhall they be removed, till the duty
be firft charged, entered and marked. The penalty for neg-
le& is 20/. and forfeiture of the goods, or their value. Con-
cealment of any hide or fin, vellum or parchment, in order
to avoid the duty, incurs a forfeiture of 2o0/. and the goods
or their value. If any tanner or other perfon fhall fhave an
hide or calf-fkin, before the fame be thoroughly tanned, fo
as to impair it and diminifh the duty, the fame or its value
fhall be forfeited. Tanners or other fuch perfon fhall keep

3N2 jus%

LEA

juit feales and pi ; and the penalty for negle&t or not
allowing the ufe of them, fhall bea forfeiture of so/. The
ufe of falfe fcales incurs a forfeiture of 1e0/, (10 Geo. III.
c 44. 28 Geo. III. c. 37.) Cheating or obftructing
officers fubjets to a forfeiture of 10o0/. (26 Geo. III.
c.77-) When the duties are afcertained, the officer fhall
enter them in a book, and return them to the commiffioners,
ora perfon appointed by them ; and when the duty is fettled,
the officer fhall caufe every hide or fkin, and every piece of
both, and all vellum and parchment to be marked. And if
the goods be removed before the duty is charged, and they
are marked, the penalty is a forfeiture of so/. and the faid
goods ; and any perfon counterfeiting the itamps, or know-
ingly felling any of the faid goods with a counterfeit ftamp,
is chargeable with felony without benefit of clergy. (g Ann.
el1t. 5 Geo. II. c. 3. 33 Geo. III. c. 54.) Stamped and
unftamped goods fhall be kept feparate, on pain of ro).
(5 Geo.c. 2.) And thofe that have been ftamped fliall not
be removed for 24 hours after ftamping, &c. under a forfeit-
ure of 20/7, (5 Geo. III. c. 43.) Scales and weights
fhall be kept for reweighing them, and affiftance given to
the officer, on pain of 5o/. Perfons within the bills of mor-
tality fhall pay off the duties within 14 days to the com-
miffioners, and in other places in fix weeks, after the goods
have been marked. (g Ann.c. 11.) Vhofe who do not
pay in this manner fhall forfeit double duty ; and they fhall
not be delivered out till the duty be paid, on pain of ‘double
value. Every tanner, and other fuch perfon, fhall balance
their accounts with the officers once in three months, on
pain of sof. Any two juftices refiding near the premifes
may hear and determine offences, and order the penalties to
be levied by diftrefs and fale, if not redeemed in fix days.

Foreign manufaétured gloves imported {hall be forfeited,
and may be fearched for and feized by any officer of the
cuftoms or excife ; and every perfon importing or vending
the fame, fhall alfo forfeit 200/. with double coits. 6 Geo.
III. c. 19.

Leatuer, Slacking for. See BLACKING.

Leatuer, buf. See Burr.

Leatusr, fofil, alluta montana, is a foliated amianthus,
confifting of foit fibres interwoven together and frequently
containing {parry cryftals inclofed in it.

LeEatHER, gilt. See Japanner’s Gitpine, and Lac-
QUER.

Learner mills. See Mint.

LEATHER money. See Money.

Learuer-mouthed, in Ichthyography, a term ufed as the
Exglifh for malacoftomous, the diitinGtive epithet of fuch
fifhes as have thick lps and no teeth in their jaws; as the
carp, tench, bream, roach, &c.

Learuer-/ellers, company of. See Company.

Learuer, fhamoy, or /hammy. See SHAMMY.

eee Turkey, methad of preparing, &c. See TORKEY
Lather.

LEATHERHEAD, in Geography, a large parith, for-
merly a market-town of Surry, England, is 12 miles E.N.E.
from Guildford, and 19 S.W.by S. from London. In the year
1800, the town confifted of 200 houfes, and contained 1078
iohibitants. This place i8 chiefly remarkable for a large
fair, held here on the 10th of Oétober, for cattle, horfes,
pigs, toys, &c. The river Mole paffes through this parifh,
and emerges to day here, after having been hidden in a fub-
terraneous channel from the foot of Boxhill. Thisis a fin-
gular character of the Mole. At this place it is crofled by a
bridge of 14 arches. In the vicinity of Leatherhead are
feveral feats ; fome of which are particularly noted for the

piturefque and beautiful character of their contiguous

LEB

fcenery, ad fine profpects. The principal of thefe #
Norbury-park, the feat of William Lock, etq. ; a very iu»
terefting defcription of which, and its painted room, by
Barret, will be found in Gilpin’s ‘ Obfervations on the
weftern Parts of England,’’ 8vo. 1798. See alfo Manning
and Bray’s ** Hiftory and Antiquities of Surry.’

LEATHERWOOD, in Gardening. See Dinca.

LEAU, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart
ment of the Dyle, and chief place of a canton, in the dif.
tri&t of Louvain. The place contains 715, and the canton
6264 inhabitants, on a territory of 974 kiliometres, in 13
communes.

LEAVE and Take, See Taxe.

LEAVEN, any thing that will make a body {well and
ferment.

The word is formed of the French /evain, which fignifies
the fame, of the verb /ever, or Latin kvare, to raife.

Beer, ale, wine, and cyder, only work by means of
the leaven in them. Sour pafte, barm, rennets, &c. are
leavens ufed in baking bread, brewing beer,, making cheefe,
&e.

LEAVER. See Lever.

LEBA, in Geography, a town of Pomerania; 16’milés«
N. of Lauenburg. :

LEBACH, a town of France, in the department of the
Sarre, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&t of Sarre-
bruck. The place contains 506, and the canton $392 in-
habitants, in 66 communes.

LEBADE®, Livapta, in Ancient Geography, a town
of Greece, in Beeotia, built on a plain upon the fmalt
river Hercyna. The inhabitants at a former time occupied
a town on an adjoining eminence, and their town was called.
Midza; but an Athenian, named Lebadus, perfuaded them.
to build another on the plain, which was called after his name.
On the banks of the Hercyna was a temple dedicated to Her-
cyna. ‘The facred grove of Trophonius was near this town,
in which was a temple of this name, with a ftatue made by
Praxiteles. Ceres, furnamed Europa, had a temple here,,
and Jupiter Pluvius had a ftatue. Near this place was a
temple of Proferpina confervatrix, and another of Jupiter
rex. The ftatue of Trophonius at Lebadee is faid te
have been the work of Dedalus. Paufanias,1. ix. Beotic..
Cc. 40. Bs

LEB/ZA, a town of Macedonia, anciently the capital
of this kingdom, the precife fituation of which cannot be
afcertained.

LEBANON, or Lisanuys, a celebrated mountain of
Afia, fituated on the borders of Paleftine and Syria. It
takes its name, as fome fay, from the Hebrew /aban, on ac-
count ef the whitenefs of its fummits, which appear
covered with fnow a great part of the year. Others derive,
it from the Greek /idanos, frankincenfe, alleging, without
fufficient reafon as Reland obferves, that it furnifhed this.
or any other aromatic gum. The antilebanen, or antie
Tibanus, 1s fo called from its parallel courfe in oppofition to:
the other. Some ancient fathers, as St. Jerom and Eufebius,,
have defcribed the libanus and antilibanus as one con-
tinued ridge, winding about in the form of an horfe-thoe,,
which begins about three or four leagues from the Medi-
terranean, a little above Smyrna, and running fouthward
towards Sidon, takes an eaftern courfe towards Damafeus 3.
winding thence northward towards Laodicea Cabiofa. The
wettern ridge is that which is properly called Libanus ; the
eaftern is Antilibanus, and the hollow between is Cocle-
fyria. (See AnzitipaNnus and Ca@xesyria.) St. Jerom
reprefents Libanus as by far the loftie{t hiil in the whole
land of promife, as well as the moft woody and thick-fet,

and

x

LEBANON.

amd Theodoret alfo ftates it to be the higheft of all Palef-
tine. Modern travellers concur in this account of its
great height. ‘ Scarcely,” fays Volney, “ do we depart
from Larnaca in Cyprus, which is 36 leagues diftant, before
we difcover its fummit capped with clouds. This is alfo dif-
tinétly perceivable on the map, from the courfe of the
rivers. The Orontes, which flows from the mountains of
Damafcus, and lofes itfelf below Antioch; the Kefmia,
which, from the north of Balbec, takes its courfe towards
Tyre; the Jordan, forced by the declivities towards the
fouth, prove that this is the higheft point.’’ Although the
height of this mountain has not been determined by the
barometer, Volney deduces it from another confideration.
In winter the tops of the adjoining mountains are entirely
covered with fnow from Alexandretta to Jerufalem ; but
after the month of March it melts, except on mount Le-
banon, where, however, it does not remain the whole year,
except in the higheft cavities, and towards the N.E., where
it is fheltered from the fea-winds and the rays of the fun.
Since it is well known that {now in this latitude requires
an elevation of 15 or 16 hundred fathoms, we may con-
clude, fays Volney, that to be the height of Lebanon, and
that it is confequently much lower than the Alps, or even the
Pyreneés. Mount Blanc, the loftieft of the Alps, is efti-
mated at 2488 fathoms above the level of the fea ; and the
peak of Olfian, in the Pyreneés, at 1900. Lebanon, which
gives its name to the whole extenfive chain of the Kef-
raouan, and the country of the Druzes, prefents us every
where with majeitic mountains. At every ftep we meet
with fcenes, in which nature difplays either taftewr grandeur,
fometimes fingularity, but always variety. When we land
* on the coatt, the loftinefs and fteep afcent of this moun-
tainous ridge, which feems to inclofe the country, thele gi-
gantic mafles, which fhoot into the clouds, infpire aftonifh-
ment and awe. Should the curious traveller then climb thefe
fummits which bounded his view, the wide extended {pace
which he difcovers becomes a frefh {ubjet of admiration ;
but completely to enjoy this majeftic fcene, he mutt afcend
the very point of Lebanon, or the “ Sannin.” There, on
every fide, he will view an horizon without bounds; while,
in clear weather, the fight is loft over the defert, which
extends to the Perfian gulf, and over the fea, which bathes
the coaits of Europe. He contemplates, befides rocks,
woods, torrents, hill-fides, villages, and towns, which are
nearer and more dillin& objects, the valley obfcured by
‘ftormy clouds, and {miles at hearing the thunder, which
had fo often burft over his head, growling under his feet ;
while the threatening fummits of the mountains are diminifhed
till they appear only like the furrows of a ploughed field,
er the iteps of an amphitheatre, and he feels himfelf flattered
by an elevation above fo many great objects, on which pride
makes him look down with a fecret fatisfa@ion. Such is
the picturefque defcription of Volney, which he purfues
more in detail. Mount Lebanon is computed at about 100
leagues in compais, and is bounded by Mefopotamia on the
‘E., Armenia on: the N., Paleftine on the S., and the Medi-
“terranean on the W. It confifts of four ridges of moun-
tains, which rife one above the other ; the firit of thefe is
very fertile in grain and fruit; the fecond is barren and
‘rocky, producing nothing but briars and thorns ; the third,
‘though itill higher, is faid to enjoy a conftant verdure and
fpring, its gardens and orchards producing fuch a variety of
herbs, fruits, &c. that it hath been ityled an earthly para-
_dife ; the lait and loftieft is uninhabitable, by reafon of its
_exceflive coldnefs, being covered with deep {nows almoft all
‘the year. It is moltly inhabited by the Maronites below,

and by the wild Arabs, called Amadea, of the fet of Halli,
every where elfe but on the top. Here are feveral churches;
convents, and chapels, and caverns cut into the rock. The
Monks that inhabit it are very poor, but courteous to tra-
vellers, from whom they expeét fome token of beneficence.
The convent, or cenobium, where the Maronite patriarch
refides, lies almoft in a bottom; the defcent to it is very
fteep, narrow, and winding, and it has only that one avenue,.
which makes it fo much the fafer, as well as the more re-
tired. It chiefly confifts of fundry grotts, cut into the
‘rock ; of which the church is one of the largeft. A river
which empties itfelf at Tripoli, runs a little below it, and
fupplies it with water. Near the grott of St. Marina, who
is reputed to have lived here as an hermit, in man’s clothes,
are fome vines, which afford excellent wine ; and fine young
mulberry trees, as well as cedars, and other curiofities. Of
the boafted cedars of Lebanon, there are no very magnifi-
cent remains ; four or five of them only deferving notice :

but the number of firs, oaks, brambles, mulberry trees,

figs, and vines, is much more confiderable. ‘The wines of”
Lebanon have been much extolled by the Grecian and Ro-

man epicures. It is probable, that the inhabitants of this

territory have made no change in their ancient method of
making wines, nor in the culture of their vines. They

are difpofed on piles of fix or eight feet in height. They

are not pruned as in France, which mutt certainly, fays

Volney, greatly injure both the quantity and quality of the:
crop. The vintage begins about the end of September.
The convent of Mar-hanna makes about 150 rabia, or

earthen jars, containing about 110 pints each. The price

current in the country is about feven or eight fols (four-
pence) the French pint. Of the numerous kinds of wine

made in Syria, the chief is the Vino d’Oro, or ¢ golden:
wine” of mount Lebanon, This is not boiled, as is the
cafe in the preparation of other wines, but left to purify

itfelf by keeping: the quantity produced is fmall. It is,

as its name implies, of a bright golden colour, and is highly

prized even on the fpot. Several confiderable rivers have
their fource in this mountain, viz. the Jordan, Rocham,
Nahar-Roffian, and Nahar-Cadicha; befides many lefler
ftreams, that run between the vallies; particularly that of
Ahouali, which flows down into the «*« Romantic valley,’’ fo-
called, becaufe it is furrounded on all fides with high rocks.

Thefe rivers, rufhing down from fuch heights, form feveral.
beautiful cafcades, like thofe of the Nile. This mountain

has been, and is itillto this day, a place of retreat and refuge

for a great number of robbers, and other defperate people.

The ttone which compofes the mountains of Lebanon and

Antilebanon, and thofe of Syria in general, is a hard calca-
reous ftone of a whitifh colour, fonorous like free-ftone, and

difpofed in ftrata varioufly inclined. Of this-itone the in-
habitants build their houfes, and make lime.

Lesanon, a poft-town of America, in York county,
Maine, on the eaft fide of Salmon-Fall river; 100 miles N.
of Bofton. It was incorporated in 1767, and in 1790 con-
tained 1275 inhabitants.—Alfo, a poft-town in Windham
county, Conneéticut, fettled in 1697. The foil is equal to
almoft any in the ftate, and the inbabitants are generally
farmers, of whom many are rich. The number of inha-
bitants is 36525 g miles N. of Norwich.—Alfo, a poft-town:
in Grafton county, New Hampbhire, on Mufcoury river,
and on the eaft fide of Conneéticut, 2 miles below Dart-
mouth college ;. incorporated in 1761, and in the year 1800
containing 1574 inhabitants. —Alfo, a poft-town of Penn-
fylvania, fituated on the fouth fide of Quitapehilla creek, in
Dauphin county ;. containing about 300 misotg sod

built,.

BRE SB

built, many of them of brick and ftone, a German Lutheran
and a Calvinift-church; $2 miles N.W. by W. from Phila-
‘delphia.

Lrpanon, New, a village in Canaan, New York, ‘plea-
fantly fituated, partly on the declivity of a hill, and partly
in a vale, and containing medicinal {prings next in celebrity
to thofe of Ball-town, Saratoga.

LEBE, atown of Germany, in the lordfhip of Lauen-
burg, inalake near the Baltic; 15 miles N.W. of Lauen-
burg. N. lat. 54° 4o'. E. long. 17° 29'.

LEBEDIAU, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
"Tambov; 1co miles W.N.W. of Tambov. N. lat. 53° 28".
E. long. 38° so’.

LEBEDIN. a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Charkov; 60 miles N.W. of Charkov.

LEBEDOS, in Ancient Geography, atown of the Tonians,
fituated in Lydia, upon an itthmus, north of Colophon,
diftant 120 ftadia from this city. Lyfimachus demolithed
it, and tranfported the inhabitants to Ephefus.

LEBERIS, in fome Medical Writers, a word ufed to
-exprefs the exuvie of fefpents, or the {kins which {nakes
calt off every year. Thefe are by fome greatly recom-
mended for taking off freckles and fun-burns from the
face.

LEBIALNA, in Geography, an ifland of Ruffia, in the
Cafpian fea. N. lat. 45° 55’. E. long. 53° 30°.

LEBIAR, a foreft of Africa, in the country of Zen-
haga, affording great quantities of gum; 100 miles E.N.E.
of Portendic.

LEBIDA, or Lespa, a fea-port town of Africa, in
the country of Tripoli, on the coa{t of the Mediterranean 5
zo miles E.S.E. of Tripoli. N. lat. 32° 40’. E. long.
137056":

LEBIEDA, atown of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Wilna; 1o miles S. of Lida.

LEBIEDZIOW, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna; 56 miles E.S.E. of Wilna.

LEBLANC, MicuAe, in Biography, born at Dijon
in the year 1653, entered into the order of the Jefuits, and
was one of the fourteen mathematicians whom Lewis XIV.
fent to the king of Siam in 1657. Leblanc went and re-
fided with the priefts of the country, to learn their language 5
but the revolution taking place, which deprived the king of
his crown, put an end to the hopes of the miflionaries, and
he was obliged to return to Paris. He had the misfortune
of being taken prifoner by the Dutch, and thrown into
prifon at Middleburg, in Zealand. In the year 1690 he
was fet at liberty, and returned to Dijon, where he was em-
ployed as profeffor of mathematics in the Jefuits’ college.
In 1691 he joined a new miffion for China, and embarked at
Lifbon. During the voyage he met with an accident, which
put an end to his life at Mozambique, in the year 1693.
‘As a writer he is principally known by “ A Hittory of the
Revolution of the Kingdom of Siam in 1685, and of the
prefent State of the Indies,” 2 vols. r2mo. Moreri.

LEBNA, in Scripture Geography, a ttrong city of Palef-
tine, in the tribe of Judah, fituated on a narrow neck of
land, which ran northwards between the tribes of Dan and
Benjamin. Jofhua took it and gave it to the Levites of this
tribe, and it becamn a city of refuge. This had been an
encampment of the Lfraelites in the Defert.

LEBNEK, in Geography, a town of Tranfylvania; 15
miles S.E. of Schefburg.

LEBNI, in the Materia Medica of the Ancients, a name
given by fome to ftorax. Avicenna has treated of this drug
an three feparate chapters. ‘The Greeks were very nice an

LEC

diftinguifhing the feveral kinds of ftorax, and the Arabians
feem to have followed their example: nay, they have even
borrowed fome of the terms, by which they called the par-
ticular forts. The foft, or liquid ftorax of the Greeks,
feems to have been very common among: thefe people, and
they have called it mel /ebni, the honey of ftorax. ‘This was
a common word with them to exprefs any thing foft.

LEBO, in Geography, a river of Chili, which runs into
the Pacific ocean, S. lat. 37° 50’.

LEBRILLA, a town or village of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Murcia, containing about 1000 inhabitants ; almoft
divided into two by a fort of long, broad, and deep bog,
formed by rains, over which is a bridge; 11 miles from
Murcia.

LEBRIXA, or Lesnisa, a town of Spain, in the ter-
ritory of Seville, fituated formerly on a branch of the Gua-
dalguivir, but now, in confequence of its being choaked up,
6 miles from the river. It has a cattle; and the environs
produce olives, which afford fome of the beit oil in Spain 5
20 miles S. of Seville.

LEBSKOI, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Archangel, near the union of the rivers Mezen and Pezna 3
168 miles E. of Archangel.

LEBUS, a town of the Middle Mark of Brandenburg,
fituated on the Oder, containing about 14,000 inhabitants.
‘Its {cite is low, and among hills, which intercept the view
of it; 5 miles N.W. of Franckfort on the Oder. N. lat.
52° 26’. E. long. 14° 44'.

LECA, a town of the ifland of Samos.

LECANOMANTIA, Acxasonevresx, in Antiquity, a

. kind of divination performed in a bafon with wedges ot gold
or filver. See Hypromancy.

LECASELLO, in Geography, a town of the Ligurian
republic; 20 miles N.E. of Genoa.

LECCE, Avrrium, a city of Naples, the capital of
the province of Otranto, and fometimes giving name to the
province. It is a large, well-built town, the fee of a bifhop,
fuffragan of Otranto. The wool produced in its environs
was formerly much celebrated; and the adjacent country
yields abundance of almonds and olives. It contains, befides
the cathedral, three parifh churches and feveral convents.
It is the refidence of the governor, and the number of in=
habitants is eftimated by fome at 13,000, by others at
18,000; 24 miles from Brindifi, and as far from Otranto,
and § miles from the eaftern fhore. .N. lat. 40° go’. E.
long. 18° 8!.

LECCI, a town of the ifland of Corfica; 5 miles Nv of
Porto Vecchio.

LECCO, a town of Italy, and capital of the department
of the Montagna, on the lake Como, whence a branch of
the lake is called ‘the lake of Lecco; 14 miles E.N.E. of
cere N. lat.45° 5'. E. long. 9° 23'.

LECETA, a town of Spain, in Navarre; i
N.N.W. of Pamplona. eb 1 aan

LECH, in Metallurgy, a term ufed by the'miners to ex-
prefs the gold ore which has been powdered and wafhed, and
afterwards run with the affiftance of lime-ftone. The lech
is afterwards burnt in a fire of charcoal, in order to render
it fit for the feparation of the metal, by means of lead
which abforbing and {corifying the extraneous matter, revi-
ders the gold pure. i j

LECHEUM, in Ancient Geography, a town and pro-
montory of Greece, on the gulf of Corinth, which ferved
as a port to Corinth. It hada temple of Neptune, in which
was a bronze ftatue of this deity, Venus had alfo a temple

here. ; :
4 LECHEA,

LECH EA.

LECHEA, in Botany, was fo named by Linneus, at
the fuggeltion of Kalm, in honour of Profeffor John Leche,
of Abo in Finland, Member of the Stockholm Academy,
feveral of whofe memoirs, relating to zoology, botany, and
rural economy, are found in the 'Tranfaétions of that learned
body. He has alfo left us three differtations, publifhed
under his prefidency: 1, Primitie Flore Scanice; 2, Nove
Tnfe@orum Species, written by his pupil Uddman, a piece
highly valued for its merit and rarity ; 3, Me Commoratione
bybernali et peregrinaiionibus hirundinum. He died in 1764,
aged 60. The name is pronounced Lekéa. Linn. Gen. 43.
Schreb. 59. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 495. Mart. Mill. Dit.
v. 3: Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 185. Juff. 303. La-
marck. Illuftr. t. 52. Gertn. t. 129. Michaux Boreali-
Amer. v. 1. 76.—Clafs and order, Zriandria Trigynia. Nat.
_ Ord. Caryophyllei, Linn. Jul.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of three ovate, concave,
{preading, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals three, oblong,
narrower than the calyx, but about as long, concave. Svam.
Filaments three, fometimes four or five, capillary, longer
than the petals, lying over the piftil, equal ; anthers roundifh.
Piff. Germen fuperior, ovate; ftyles none; ftigmas three,
feathery, fpreading. Peric. Capfule ovate, flightly trian-
gular, of three cells, and three valves, cohering at their bafe,
with three central linear receptacles. Seeds folitary, ovate,
angular at the inner fide, where they are attached to each
receptacle.

Eff. Ch, Calyx of three leaves. Petals three, oblong.
Capfule fuperior, of three cells, and three half-diftin&t valves,
with three central linear receptacles. Seeds folitary.

x. L. minor. Leffler Lechea. Linn. Sp. Pl. 133. Am.
Acad. v. 3. 10. Lamarck. t. 52. f.1? (L. major; Mi-
chaux n. 1, by the defcripticn.)—Hairs of the ftem and
branches fpreading. Lower leaves whorled, elliptical, with
a {mall point; upper alternate, lanceolate, acute. Flowers
panicled, fomewhat corymbofe.—Gathered by Kalm in the
dry fandy fir woods of Canada—The root is perennial and
woody. Svems feveral ; the barren ones about a {pan long,
lax, and f{preading, with numerous, ternate or quaternate,
fhort, leafy branches, all clothed with long, white, fpreading
hairs; flowering ftems much taller and ftouter, from one to two
or three feet high, panicled, leafy, round, clothed with rather
lefs fpreading hairs. Leaves of the barren ftems three or
four in a whorl, on fhort ftalks, fpreading, a quarter of an
inch long, broadly elliptical, entire, with a fhort point, the
margin and rib fringed with long white fpreading hairs;
thofe of the flowering ohes fcattered, longer, and narrower.
Flowers numerous, {mall, terminating the lateral branches,

in {mall corymhofe clufters, whofe {talks are hairy, and more~

or lefs furnifhed with lanceolate braéteas. Calyx-kaves
broad, keeled, very concave, {mooth. Cap/ule polifhed.

This is certainly what Linneus originally intended for
Lechea minor, though he afterwards confounded other full
f{maller fpecies with it, and the name being oppofed to his
major, which is a nonentity, is unmeaning, if not falfe. Lefs
inconvenience, however, mutt arife from retaining than from
changing it, unlefs we were furnifhed with more ample and
certain materials for new modelling the whole genus. Our
aim here is to correé&t fuch errors as we can, for the ufe of
thofe who may take up the fubje& hereafter.

2. L. major, Greater Lechea. Linn. Sp. Pl. 133.
Am. Acad. v. 3. 11..t. 1. f.45 copied in Lamarck, f, 2.—
«* Leaves ovato-lanceolate. Flowers lateral, fcattered.”>—
Native of dry iituations in Canada. Linneus, in his manu-
feripts and Syit. Veg. quotes for this, Menandra ramis al-
ternis, Gron. Virg. ed. 2. 20, that is, n Cameraria /pecies,
Joliis latioribus oblongis, fubtis argenteis, caule rubroy capfula

ampld triloculari of Clayton, who found his plant, flowering
in Augult, on fandy hills at point Comfort, in the county
of Gloucefter, Virginia. It is defcribed as fhrubby, with
the afpect of Ciflus Helianthemum or of Vaccinium Oxycoccus;
two plants between which it is difficult to find any point of
refemblance ; the /eaves alternate, oblong, and entire. Co-
rolla none. Stamens four, as long as the calyx, the two up-
permott fpringing from the fame point of the receptacle, the
two lateral ones oppofite. Style none. Stigma hifpid. Vhe
reft of the account accords with the generic charaéter. It
mu{t be obferved that when Clayton gueffes his plant to
belong to Cameraria, he means that of Dillenius, which is
the Linnean AMontia. Linneus, in the Amecnitates, de-
{eribes his L. major thus. ‘ Stems purplifh, round, with
fimple, alternate, diftant branches. Leaves alternate, oval-
lanceolate, rough above, downy beneath, reflexed at the
margin, fcarce perceptibly flalked. L/oqwers two, three or
four from the fmall uppermoft branches.”” Now it happens
that the fpecimen in the Linnzan herbarium is no other than
Ciflus canadenfis, with the numerous ftamens proper to that
genus, and totally foreign to Lechea. The capfule alfo has
imperfeét partitions from the middle of the valves. The feeds
indeed appear to be but one in each cell, and large, the only
circumitance which cculd induce a reference of this Ci/lus to
Lechea. Yet there canbe no doubt of the defcription in the
Ameenitates having been made from this plant, though the
figure is unlike it, and more refembles L. minor, for which
indeed, as well as for the major, it is quoted by Linneus in.
Sp. PL, and being in itfelftoo imperfe& to convey a precife
idea of any thing, it can determine nothing in the prefent
cafe. What is L. major of Kalm we know not, nor that of
Hort. Kew. That of Michaux appears clearly to be onr
minor, whole lower leaves are indeed fo much like Oxycoccus,
while its upper are not wery unlike Helianthemum, that Clay-
ton might poffibly have that fpeties in view when he made
the above defcription, but the ‘ large capfule with three
cells”? agrees beit with the above Ciffus. Amid all this un-
certainty we would rather ftrike out ZL. major,.and give a
new name, perhaps heterophylla, to our minor. 7

3. L. racemulofa. Many-cluftered Lechea. Michaux.
Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 77. (Menandra ramis ternis; Gron.-
Virg. ed. 2. 21.)—Hafrs. clofe-preffed. Leaves: linear-
lanceolate, acute, hairy beneath. Flowers in numerous
flender clufters. Calyx hairy.—Gathered by Clayton in
the fame place, at point Comfort, with the lait. Specimens:
from him are in the Linnean herbarium, anfwering to the-
account of, Michaux, who alfo gathered his plant in Vir-
ginia. We have others, probably of the fame {pecies, from
Kalm, and from the Rev. Dr. Muhlenberg of Lancatter in:
Pennfylvania. Thofe of Clayton have a panicled lem, a
foot or two high, clothed with clofe-preffed, fomewhat
filky, hairs; the branches either ternate, oppofite,. or {cat--
tered. Leaves of the ftem lanceolate ; thofe of the branches
linear, gradually fmaller upwards, and often accompanying
the flowers, but fometimes the cluflers are leaflefs; they are
elongated, flender, hairy or filky. The calyx alfo is hairy, .
and greatly refembles that of a little annual Cifus.

4. L. thymifolia. 'Thyme-leaved Lechea. Michaux Bo--
reali-Amer. v. 1. 77, excluding the fynonym. (Capraria
foliis integerrimis; Gron. Virg. ed. 1.75. Herb. Linn.
from the author, )—Hairs clofe-prefled. Leaves lanceolate.
Stem panicled. Clufters leafy. Bra€teas linear, much
longer than the flowers.—Gathered by Clayton in Virginia’ -
by Michaux in dry expofed fituations in North and South
Carolina. Stem a foot high, round, reddifh, rough with
clofe-preffed hairs ; fimple and naked below; panicled ‘and |

leafy above. Leaves oppofite. or fcattered, various in fize, .
flightly

LEC

lightly falked, lanceolate, acute, the margin and rib
fringed. 2/owers in numerous, flender, hifpid clufters, fur-
nifhed with copious linear bradeas, two of which, extremely
narrow and obtufe, accompany every flower at the bafe, and
“ twice as long as the calyx; which is likewife hairy or
‘ hifpid.

5. L. tenuifolia. Slender-leaved Lechea! Michaux Bo-
reali-Amer. v. 1. 77.—Stems bufhy, decumbent, afcending,
with {preading branches. Leaves linear-awl-fhaped. Flowers
ranged alteraately, and rather remotely, ‘along the branches.
On fandy hills near the Santee river, flowering in April and
May. We know nothing-of this {pecies but bath Michaux,
who defcribes it as of humble and bufhy growth, with cap-
fules rather larger, in proportion to the plant, than is ufual
in this genus.

6. L. verticillata. Whorled Lechea.

Willd. n. 3.—
Leaves elliptical, ferrated.

Flowers whorled.—Sent by
Dr. Rottler from Madras. The root feems, as in all the
former, to be perennial. Stems feveral, {preading or decum-
ent, fimple or branched, a {pan long, round, leafy, clothed
with foft fpreading hairs. Leaves oppofite, ftalked, half
an inch long, elliptical, acute, finely and fharply ferrated,
hairy, tapering at the bafe. Flowers numerous, in denfe
axillary whorls, fufficiently agreeing with the charaGter of
the genus, to which Willdenow has judicioufly referred it.
The ferrated eves, however, are very peculiar.

Another fpecies, LZ. chinenfis, is mentioned in Loureiro,
Cochinch. 60; but this, though adopted by profeffor Mar-
tyn, cannot, in our opinion, have any right to a place here,
the author’s defcription fhewing it evidently to be nearly
allied to Commelina, confequenly more remote, if poflible,
than even the above Ci/lus canadenfis from Lechea. 5.

LECHENAULTIA, named by Mr. R. Brown, in
compliment to his friend Lechenaulty an eminent French bo-
tanift and traveller, who has undertaken to illuftrate the
plants of the weltern coaft of New Holland more efpe-
cially, as well as thofe of Java and Timor. Brown Prodr.
Nov, Holl. v. 1. 581. Clafs and order, Pentandria Mono-
gynia. Nat. Ord. Campanacee, Linn. Campanulacee, Juff.
Goodenevie, Brown,

Eff. Ch. Calyx fuperior.

Tube of the corolla flit
longitudinally on one fide.

Anthers cohering. Pollen of
compound grains. Stigma obfolete, in the bottom of a two-
lipped cover. Capfule prifmatic, of two cells, and four
oppolite valves with central partitions. Seeds cubical or
cylindrical, fhelly. Brown. ‘

Obf. The grains of pollen, in all the fpecies, are com-
pofed of four combined globules, which mark, though mi-
nute, is elteemed by Mr. Brown very effential to diftinguifh
this genus from all the reft of its natural order, and efpe-
cially from its near ally Anthotium.

The {pecies are generally fhrubs of humble growth, rarely
herbaceous, and are {mooth, with narrow entire leaves.
Flowers axillary or terminal, moftly folitary.

Se&. 1. Small fhrubs, with heath-like leaves. Flowers
axillary or terminal. Capfule valvular. Seeds cubical,

1. L. formofa. Flowers axillary, folitary, drooping,
without braéteas. Corolla fmooth, two-lipped.—Gathered
by Mr. Brown on the fouth coait of New Holland.

2. L. tubifora. Flowers nearly terminal, folitary, flightly
ftalked. Corolla tubular, curved, with a clofed limb. Leaves
awl-fhaped, with a {mall pellucid point.—Native of the fame
country.

3. L. expanfa. Corymbsaxillary, of few flowers. Stalks
swith a pair of bracteas each. Corolla with one lip, in fringed
degments,—Native of the fame country.

Se@.2. Herbaceous. Flower oppofite to a leaf. Cap-

LEC

fule opening only when far advanced, its valves cohering by
a narrow neck. Seeds cylindrical.

4. L. filiformis. Leaves alternate, thread-fhaped, fome-
what compreffed.—Gathered by Mr. Brown in the tropical
part of New Holland. a

LECHERAINE, in Geography, a town of France, in
the department of Mont Blanc ; 10 miles N.N.E. of Cham-
bery. “

LECHIA, in Schthyology, a name given by Paulus Jovius,
and others, to the fifh called by others amia and glaucus,
and by the ancient Greeks amia and trodus. See Scom-
BER.

LECHLADE, or Leacutane; in Geography, a fmall
market-town and parifh in the hundred of Brightwells-bar-
row, Gloucetterfhire, England, is fituated, 76 miles, diltant
from London, on the north fide of the river Ifis, or Thames,
near the point where the counties of Berks, Oxford, and
Gloucefter unite ; and not far from the place where the
Leche rivulet empties itfelf into the Thames, From the
latter circumftance Lechlade is faid to have derived its
name: Jade being a contraction from the Saxon dadean,
to unload or empty. In Domefday book is the mention of
a fifhery here of 175 eels. The maner, at the period of that
furvey, was the property of Henry de Fereres, anceltor of
the Ferrers, earls of Derby, from whom, by the marriage
of Ifabel, an lieirefs, it was conveyed to Roger Mortimer.
A priory, or hofpital for Black Canons, and confifting of
a matter and certain poor and infirm brethren, was founded
here upona piece of ground edlled Lade, near the ancient
bridge over the Thames, given for that purpofe by lady
Tfabel Ferrers. ‘The hofpital was fupprefled in the year
1473, and its revenues applied to the foundation of a chantry
of three priefis in the parifh church. Some foundations of
buildings, fuppofed to have belonged to the priory, have
been dug up near the bridge. The church is a handfome
{truéture in the pointed ftyle, and was ereéted, about the
middle of the fifteenth century, at the joint expence of the
then vicar, Conrade Ney, the inmates of the priory, and the
inhabitants of the parifh. ‘The nave is fpacious, and divided
from the aifles by light pillars ; at the weft end is a fquare
embattled tower, terminated by a well-proportioned {pire :
the pulpit is of {culptured ftone. At this town the Thames
becomes navigable ; and here the junétion of the Thames
and Severn is completed by the canal. Mott of the Wilt-
fhire and Gloucefterfhire cheefe, confumed in the metropolis,
is brought in waggons to this town, where it is put on board
the veflels which convey it down the Thames. A weekly
market is held on Tuefdays, for which the grant was ob-
tained by Richard, earl of Cornwall: an annual fair, held
on the ninth of September, is much frequented. Accord-
ing to the returns made in 1800, under the population at,
the inhabitants of this parifh amounted to 917 ; the number
of houfes to 193.

In a meadow near Lechlade, was lately difcovered a large
fubterraneous building, {uppofed to have been a Roman
bath: it was nearly fifty feet in length, forty in breadth,
and four in height ; the floor was {fupported by pillars of
brick, and curioufly inlaid with itones of variegated colours.
Ridge’s Hiftory, &c. of Gloucetterfhire, 2 vols. Syo.
Beauties of England and Wales.

LECHNICH, a town of France, in the department of
the Roer, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrict of
Cologne. The plaee contains 1053, and the canton 11,462
inhabitants, in 31 communes. 2

LECHONES, Os, aclufter of {mall iflands in the At-
lantic, near the’ W. coaft of Portugal ; threemiles N. wa:

’ the

LEC

the mouth of the Duero. N. lat. 41° 43’.
8° 25'.

LECHWA R, a town of Hindooftan, in Bahar; 30
miles S, of Bahar.

LECK, atown of Denmark, in the duchy of Slefwick ;
14 miles N. of Breditede.

LECKNESS, a town of Norway ; 22 miles W. of
Chriftianfand. :

LE CLERC, Daniex, in Biography.
DANIEL LE.

L’ECLUSE, in Geography. See Ectuse.

LE COQ, Anrnony, in Biography, a Parifian phyfi-
cian, graduated in the faculty of that city, and practifed
there with great reputation until his death, which took place
onthe 28th of March, 1550. He was eleéted dean of his
faculty in 1538; and in the following year was called, in
confultation with Fernel, to vifit the French king, Francis I.
who had contra¢ted the venereal difeafe, He fhewed his
knowledge of the nature of the difeafe, by infifting, in op-
pofition to Fernel, who was not difpofed to employ any
other remedy than his antivenereal opiate, that mercurial
friftions were neceffary ; but his mode of propofing it
evinced that he was a novice in the manners of acourt. He
obferved to Fernel, {peaking of the king, « C’eft un vilain
qui a gagné la vérole ; frottetur comme un autre, et comme
le dernier de fon royaume, puifque il s’eft gaté de la méme
maniere.”” This was reported to the king, who laughed,
and was pleafed with his franknefs. Le Coq left two works :
1. * De Ligno faréto non permifcendo in imperitos fuca-
to{que medicos,”” Paris, 1548. 2. ‘ Confilia de Arthri-
tide,’’ Francfort, 1540. The latter comprehended alfo
fome other treatifes on the gout, efpecially thofe of Sylvius
and Fernel ; in conjunétion with whom, Le Cog had been
confulted on the fubjeé&t by Louis of Flanders, and by Eleo-
nora, queen of France. Eloy. Di&. Hift.

LECTICA, among the Romans, a litter, or vehicle, in
which people were carried. The /él/a differed from the
fe@ica, as being higher, and becaufe people always fat in it ;
on which account the fella, from the time it was firft brought
into ufe, was efteemed the more honourable carriage of the
two. See Litter.

The le€tica was alfo ufed as a bier for carrying out the
dead, who were dreffed in habits fuitable to their quality and
fex. Pitife. in voc. See Buryrne.

LECTICARII, among the Romans, fervants who car-
ried the leética.

LECTICARIUS, was alfo an officer in the Greek
church, whofe bufinefs it was to bear off the bodies of thofe
who died, and to bury them. Thefe were otherwife deno-
minated decani and copiate. ;

LECTIO, Reapinc. Confideredin a medicinal view, it
is faid by Cellus, lib. i. cap. 4. to be bad, efpecially after fup-
per, for thofe whofe heads are weak: and in lib. 1. cap. 8.
he recommends reading with an audible voice, for fuch as
have weak ftomachs. It is alfo directed by Paulus Egine-
tus as an exercife, lib. i. cap. 19.

LECTISTERNIUM, a religious ceremony among the
ancient Romans; being a feftival prepared, and folemnly
ferved up, in a temple, at a time of public calamity aud
danger.

And becaufe, according to the cuftoms of thofe times,
they placed beds around the tables, and fet the ftatues of the

ods on thofe beds, in the fame manner as men fat at meals,
they called the folemnity leétifternium, from /@us, bed, and
Sflernere, of flerno, to fpread, prepare.
In this ceremony the Sibylline decemvirs prefided, till
Vor. XX. ‘

E. long.

See CLERK,

LEC

the year of Rome 558, and afterwards the Epulones.
EPuto.

Cafaubon has obferved, from a paflage in the fcholiaft
of Pindar, that the Greeks had ale a fort of leGifternium
in ufe.

Livy obferves, that the firft leGtifternium feen in Rome,
was that which held for eight days fucceffively, in honour
of Apollo, Latona, Diana, Hercules, Mercury, and Nep-
tune ; on occafion of a contagious difeafe which killed almoft
all their cattle, in the year of Rome 354; though Valerius
Maximus mentions one before that.

LECTORES, among the Romans, fervants in great
mien’s houfes, who were employed in reading while their
matters were at fupper. They were called by the Greeks
anagnofle.

LECTOURE, in Geography, a town of France, and
principal place of a diftri€&t, in the department of the Gers,
feated on a mountain, having accefs only on one fide, near
the Gers, and well defended. Before the revolution it was
the refidence of a governor, and fee of a bifhop. The
place contains 5433, and the canton 13,655 inhabitants, on
a territory of 265 kiliometres, in 17 communes; 16 miles
S. of Agen. N, lat. 45° 56’. E. long. 0° 22!.

LECTUM, in Ancient Geography, Cape Baba, a pro-
montory of Afia Minor, belonging to the Troades, fituated
between’ the ifle of Lefbos to the fouth, and that of Te-
nedos to the north, at the extremity of Mount Ida. To
the north it terminated the gulf of Adramyttium.

LECTURERS, in England, are an order of preachers ©
in parifh churches, diftin& from the re¢tor, vicar, and cu-
rate. They are chofen by the veltry, or chief inhabitants
of the parifh, fupported by voluntary fubfcriptions and
legacies, and are ufually the afternoon preachers in the Sun-
day fervice. The term is alfo more generally applied to
thofe who ipreach on Sunday, or on any ftated day of the
week, in churches, or other places of public worfhip. By
13 & 14 Car. II. cap. 4. le€turers in churches, unlicenfed,
and not conforming to the liturgy, fhall be difabled to
preach, and fhall alfo fuffer three months’ imprifonment in
the common gaol: and two juftices, or the mayor, or other
chief magiftrate, in a town corporate, fhall, upon certi-
ficate of the offence from the ordinary, commit them accord-
ingly. Where there are leGtures founded by the donations
of pious perfons, the le€turers are appointed by the founders,
without any interpofition or confent of re€tors of churches,
&c. though with the leave and approbation of the bifhop :
fuch as that of lady Moyer’s at St. Paul’s. But the lec-
turer is not entitled to the pulpit, without the confent of
the reGtor or vicar, who is poffefled of the freehold of the
church.

LECTURES. See Boyre’s Ledures.

Lectures of Divinity, &c. in the univerlities.
cius Profeffors.

LECTUS Icneus, among the Romans, a kind of in-
ftrument of torture firft invented by Decius. The bottom
of it was fet with ferrated teeth or fpikes, and ftrewed with
falt ; while melted tallow was poured from above on the
unhappy tortured perfon.

LECYTHIS, in Botany, fo denominated by Leefling,
from the Greek word anxvSo:, an oil jar, or large pot. i.
confounds it with AcuSo:, the yolk of an egg. The latter has
been ufed for the pea, alluding to the yellow colour of its
internal fubftance : rxxv$os applies to the form of the feed-
veffel, which is that of a great pot with a cover. Leefl,
It. 189. Linn. Gen. 268. Schreb. 359. Willd. Sp. Pl.
vy. 2. 1172. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Jacq. Amer. 168.

: 30 Joh,

See

See Re-

LECYTHIS.

Jul. 327) Lamarck Tiluftr. t. 476.—Clafs and order, Po-
lyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Hefperidee, Linn. Myrti,
Jul,

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of fix roundifh, con-
cave, permanent leaves. Cor. Petals fix, very large, oblong,
obtufe, flat, the two uppermoft widely {preading. Nectary
petal-like, of a fingle tongue-fhaped leaf, flat and perforated
at the bafe to admit the germen, bordered ; its oblong part
bent inwards and upwards from the bottom of the flower,
linear, externally convex, thicker and ovate at the extre-
mity, covering the piltil with the ftamens. Stam. Filaments
very numerous, inferted upon the difk of the bafe of the
nectary at the inner lide, very fhort, {welling upwards ;
anthers oblong, fmall. Pi. Germen inferior, depreffed,
pointed, encompaffed with the receptacle of the flower, ftyle
very fhort ; ftigma bluntith, conical. Peric. Capfule woody,
roundifh at the bafe, abrupt at the top, encompaffed with
the remains of the calyx, cut round, and opening by a cir-
cular lid, imperfectly divided into. four, fometimes two or
fix cells. Seeds few, polifhed, with rough edges.

Eff, Ch. Petals fix. Calyx of fix leaves. Neary tongue-
el bearing the ftamens. Capfule with a lid, and many

eeds.

1. L. ollaria. Linn. Sp. Pl. 734. Loefl. It. 189. (Jaca-
pucaya ; Marcgr. Braf. 128. Pif. Braf. 135.)—Leaves
feffile, ovate, fomewhat heart-fhaped, nearly entire.—Native
of Brafil and the Caracaos. This, according to Lefiing,
is a valt tree, with large unequal branches, bent in various
direGtions, and a rough bark. Leaves about the ends of
the branches, alternate, feffile, ovate inclining to heart-
fhaped, firm, {mooth, nearly entire, flightly waved, of a
brownifh green. Flowers in terminal clnfrs, flightly droop-
ing, on alternate, horizontal, fomewhat angular ftalks, with
ovate, concave, foon deciduous éradeas. Corolla white,
with a yellow neétary.—Marcgraave fays the /eaves are
ferrated, the fruit like a pot with its cover, as big as a

ehild’s head, containing feeds like chefnuts, eatable either
raw or roa{ted, and that the bark of the tree ferves to make
4nk. ;

2. L. miner. Linn. Sylt. Veg. ed. 14. 494. Jacq.
Amer. 168. t. 109.— Leayes ftalked, lanceolate, ferrated.—
Obferved by Jacquin in woods near Carthagena, South
America, flowering in June and July, ripening fruit in De-
cember. An elegant branching free, 60 feet high. Leaves
numerous, fix inches long, alternate, {preading in two di-
reCtions, ]anceolate-oblong, pointed, ferrated, {mooth. Spikes
terminal, each often accompanied by a {maller axillary one
below, fhorter than the leaves; the flowers nearly {feflile,
flightly fcented. Petals and ne@ary white. Stamens yellow.
Fruit very hard, brown, two inches wide. Sveds about
eight. Jacquin thought he experienced a giddinefs and
ficknefs after eating one of them, though its tafle proved
very agreeable. Some perfons told him thefe feeds were
eatable, others reported them to be poifonous. Monkies
are faid to be fond of them. The flowers are infefted with
a kind of black wafps, very troublefome to thofe who at-
tempt to gather any.

3. L. grandiflora. Aubl. Guian. v. 2. 712. t.283—285.
(L. Ollaria; Linn. Am. Acad. v. 8. 258; Herb, Linn. )—
Leaves flalked, obovate, entire. Clufters many times longer
than the footftalks. Petals obtufe.— Native of Guiana and
Surinam. A large tree. Leaves from four to feven inches
in length, and two or three broad, obovate-oblong, with a
little point, entire, lightly wavy, fmooth, with ene rib and
many parallel tranfverfe veins. oot/lalks an inch long.
Clufters about the ends of the branches, axillary, pendulous,

of numerous large rofe-coloured flowers, whofe partial flalks
are an inch long, bearing a pair of blunt éradéeas, and whofe
blunt concave petals are nearly an inch and half in length,
Calyx-leaves rounded, obtufe, flat. #ruit about feven inches
long, and four wide; the opening about 24. Seeds, ace
cording to Aublet, very good to eats The flowers appear
in January, the fruit is ripe in April.

4. L. amara. Aubl.. Guian. 716. t. 286 and, 285.—
Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire. Cluflers axillary
and terminal, twice the length of the footitalks, Petals
acute.—Found in the woods of Guiana, by Aublet, whofe -
figure and defcription aflord all the knowledge we have of
this fpecies. He fays the ¢runf is’ 10 feet high, bearing at
the top many ftraight and horizontal branches, whofe fub-
divifions are pendulous and leafy. In his French deferip-
tion, which will generally be found the moft original and
authentic throughout his work, he lays this is a very lofty
tree. The flowers are fmall, yellow, with two or three
feales upon their footftalks. uit the fize of an egg, its
coat thin though hard. Seeds bitter, but eaten by Hb i

5. L. Zabucajo. Aubl. Guian. 718. t. 288 —Leayes
elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire. Clutters terminal. Petals
obtufe. Calyx-leaves lanceolate.— Gathered by Aublet in
the defert woods of the interior of Guiana, flowering in
March, and bearing fruit in July. We have from fir Jofeph
Banks a {pecimen of this {pecies, gathered in Dutch Guiana
by Mr. Alexander Anderfon, which agrees well with Au-
blet’s defcription, and helps us better to underftand the dif-
tinctive characters, than profeflor Willdenow was able to do
from his incorrect figure. The profeffor rightly expunges
the quotations of Pifo, which belong to the firft; but it is
unlucky that the fpecific name belongs to them, or rather
perhaps is common to many fpecies. This is a valt ¢ree ; its
trunk 60 feet, or more, in height. Wood white, red in the
centre. Leaves ttalked, from fix to ten inches long, and
two or more in breadth. C/u/fers at the ends of the branches,
pendulous. Partial flower-/falks an inch long, fwelling up-
ward. Calyx-leaves broadith at the bafe, tapering, concave,
fharpifh from the inflexion of their edges at the fummit,
flefhy, one-third of an inch in length, reddifh when frefh.
Petals large, rounded, flefhy, white bordered with rofes
colour, two of them much bigger than the reft, being equal
to thofe of L. grandiflora. ‘The fruit is about four inches
in diameter. Seeds {weet, eatable, preferable to our almonds.

6. L. Ldatimon. Aubl. Guian. 721. t. 289.—Leaves
elliptical, pointed, entire. Clutters axillary. Stalks glan-
dular. Calyx-leaves ovate, acute. Petals obtufe.—Native
of wild forefts in Guiana. A ¢ree agreeing with the laft in
height, and in the general afpeét of its /eaves. Cluflers axil-
lary, with zigzag, glandular red ftalks. Flowers rofe-
coloured, not half the fize of the laft, with broader calyx-
leaves. Fruit little more than an inch in diameter. Aublet
obferved what he deemed a variety only, with yellow
flowers. ;

7. L. parviflora. Aubl. Guian. 717: t. 287 and 285.—
Leaves elliptic-oblong, pointed, entire. Cluiters terminal,
panicled. Petals acute. Capfule of two cells.—Found
about the banks of rivers in Guiana. Audlet. A {mall
tree, with drooping branches. Leaves three or four inches
long. F/owers much {maller than even thofe of L. amara,
bright yellow, and very fragrant. Fruit fmall, thin and
brittle, of only two cells. Seeds folitary, bitter.

8. L. multiflora.—Leaves . Cluiters terminal, pani-
cled. Petals obtufe. .Calyx-leaves broader than long,
rounded, blunt, downy.—A native of Guiana, communi-
cated by E. Rudge, efq. as a new fpecies of Lecythisy

which

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which it really appears to be. The eaves are wanting in
our fpecimen. Clujlers plentifully terminating the httle
branches at the ends of the main ones, bearing many flowers,
which are of a moderate fize, and feem to be yellow, their
etals rounded and blunt. The partial fa/ks are an inch
ong, {welling upwards, downy or glandular, naked. Ger-
men hemifpherical, downy, crowned with the fix calyx-
leaves, which are very fhort, rounded or heart-fhaped, blunt,
minutely fringed, very like thofe of a Mfyrtus or Eugenia.

9. L. bradeata. Willd. n. 8. (Couroupita guianentis ;
Aubl. Guian. 708. t. 282. Pekia fru€tu maximo globofo ;
Barrere France Equinoxiale, 92.)—Leaves ftalked, obo-
vate, pointed, entire. Cluflers lateral. Calyx with a pair
of acute braéteas at its bafe. Fruit of fix cells.—Native
of Cayenne, where the fruit is known by the name of the
cannon ball. This is a large free, with a thick rugged bark,
and white foft and indifferent wood, red in the middle.
The fhape of the /eaves feems moft to approach thofe of
E. grandiflora, and thefe two fpecies agree alfo in having a
pair of braéeas on each partial italk, juft below the calyx.
Thefe are acute in the prefent, blunt in the former. Both
alfo have a deciduous bractea at the bafe of each partial
ftalk. All this confirms the propriety of reducing them to
One genus, though the fruit of that now under confideration
has fix cells, and its coats are feparated by an intermediate
pulpy and fibrous fubttance, which may alfo be the caufe of
its lid not falling off, as in all the above-defcribed. L. brac-
geata is in flower and fruit nearly all the year round. Its
corolla is of a full rofe-colour, beautiful and fragrant. The
Sruit is as large as a cannon ball of 36 pounds, and Aublet
remarks that its weight is fuch as to render it dangerous in
falling. The pulp is red, acid, and not difagreeable, dif-
fufed, as the fruit ripens, through all the internal part,
among the feeds.

LECYTHUS, in Ancient Geography, atown of Greece,
in Eubea. Thucydides.

LECZENGA, in Geography, a river of Africa, which
runs into the Mozambique gulf, S. lat. 17° 20’.

LECZNA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Chelm ; 24 miles N.W. of Chelm.

LEDA Necus, a town of Abyflinia, in the province of
Gojam; 120 miles S.S.W. of Gondar.

LEDAH, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of Gang-

ur; 20 miles S. of Gangpour.

LEDBURY, an ancient borough, and market town in
the hundred of Radlow, aud county of Hereford, Eng-
land, is fituated on a declivity withina fmall valley, formed
by the Dog-hill and other eminences, about one mile welt
from the river Leddon, from which it derives part of its
name. The towa confilts chiefly of two ftreets, crofling
each other at right angles; the principal fireet runs north
and fouth, and has a middle row near the old market houfe.
This building is elevated on {trong oak pillars, and compofed
of timber and lath plaltered and white-wathed ; the beams
being coloured black. This mode of building is prevalent
in the more ancient parts of the town; and many of the
houfes have projecting ftories: the modern houfes are of
ted brick, and of a refpe¢table appeacance. The pavement,
even in the high ftreet, is very bad, and full of inequalities ;
the {mall ftones that form it being prefled into the {tiff clay,
which is the general foil of the county. Ledbury formerly
belonged to the fee of Hereford; and bifhop Bohun pro-
cured the charter of a market from king Stephen, to be
held on Saturdays ; but this having fallen into difufe, queen
Elizabeth granted a new charter for a Tuefday market, and
_two annual fairs; the tolls arifing from which were to be

givento the poor. This borough had once the privilege of

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fending two members to parliament, but furrendered the
right, on the plea of inability to f{upport them. The church,
which is a large edifice, of Saxon origin, confifts of a nave,
fide aifles, and chancel ; achapel called St. Catherine’s, and
a detached tower, terminated by a finely proportioned
{pire, about fixty feet high. Bifhop Foliot founded an hof-
pital in this town in the year 1232 for the maintenance of
poor men and widows ; it was refounded and further endowed
by queen Elizabeth. The hofpital is avery ancient timber
and platter building. Here are alfo a free-fchool, a charity-
{chool, and feveral alms-houfes. The clothing trade was,
at one period, very flourifhing in this town ; but the princi-
pal bufinefs now carried on is the manufacture of ropes, lines,
and facks. The cyder trade is very confiderable; great
quantities being made in the vicinity. Ledbury is dittant
from London 121 miles ; the inhabitants, as afcertained
under the aét of 1800, amounted to 3058; the number of
houfes being 618. The bifhops of Hereford formerly had a
palace here.

On the Dog-hill, to the north of Ledbury, is Hope End,
the feat of fir Harry Vane Tempett, bart. About two
miles fouth of the town is the Vineyard camp; the works of
which have been almoft defaced by the plough, and the area
is cultivated. Beauties of England.

LEDER, a lake of the county of Tyrol; 18 miles W.
of Trent.

LEDESMA, anancient town of Spain, formerly called
Bletifz, in the province of Leon, fituated four or five leagues
from the mouth of the Tornies, and defended both by nature
and art: In its jurifdi€tion are 380 villages, which have
about 16,000 houfes. To the E. of Ledefima and near it
is a medicinal bath, made by a Moor for the ufe of the pub-
lic. The water is moderately warm, and is reckoned good
for the cure of different difeafes, particularly the itch ; 18
miles W. of Salamanca.

LEDETSCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of
Czaflau ; 13 miles S. of Czaflau. N. lat. 49° 40’. E.long.
LS fa DBs

LEDETZ, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Bolef-
law ; feven miles S.E. of Jung-Buntzel.

LEDGER. See Book and Book-kEEPInc.

Lrpcers, among Builders. See Purtocs.

LEDGES, ina Ship, oak or fir {cantling, ufed in framing
the decks, which are let in the carlings athwart the fhip.
Thofe for gratings arch upwards, agreeable to the head
ledges, which form the Hatchways, &c.

LEDIANATA, in Geography, a bay or gulf of the
Frozen fea, on the coaft of Nova Zembla. N. lat. 76° go’.
E. long. 59° 14’.

LEDIANOI, a cape on the N. coaft of Nova Zembla.
N. lat. 78°. E.long. 73° 24'.

LEDIGNAN, «a town of France, in the department of
the Gard, and chief place of a canton, in the diltriét of
Alais. The place contains 666, and the canton 3965 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 1024 kiliometres, in 13 communes ;
15 miles N.W. of Nifmes.

LEDON, in Gardening. See Cistus.

LEDONG, in Geography, a town on the E. coaf of the
ifland of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 33’. E. long. 116° 42’.

LEDOREN, a fmall ifland on the W. fide of the gulf
of Bothnia. N. lat. 63° 12!. -E. long. 20° 56.

LEDOYRA, atown of Spain, in Galicia; 12 miles
N.E..of Santiago.

LE DRAN, Hesry Franeis, in Biography, a cele-
brated furgeon of the 18th century, was a‘ native of Paris,
where his father praGtifed the fame profeffion with confider-
able reputation, and was deemed the firft operator of his

302 time.

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time. He foon equalled his father in reputation; and
uniting with great dexterity, an excellent judgment and
much acutenefs of mind, learning, and experience, he not
only practifed with great ras 8 but was the author of
feveral works, which gave him a high rank among the fur-
geons of France. hefe are, “ Parallele des différentes ma-
niéres de tirer la pierre de la veffie,’? Paris, 1730. ‘‘ Ob-
fervations de Chirurgie, auxquelles on a joint plufieurs Re-
flexions en faveur des Etudians,’’ Paris 1731, two vols.
1zmo. Both thefe works were tranflated into other lan-
guages, and pafled through feveral editions. «‘'Traité des
Operations de Chirurgie,”’ ibid. 1731, 8vo. This was alfo
a valuable work, was tranflated into Englifh, and feveral
times reprinted. ‘* Reflexions fur les plaies d’armes a feu,”
ibid. 1737, &c. 12mo. A fhort treatife, but full of ju-
dicious and interefting obfervations, the refult of the author’s
practical obfervation during feveral campaigns, in which he
accompanied the French armies. ‘¢ Suite du parallele de la
taille,’ ibid. 1756, Svo. ‘* Confultations fur la plupart des
maladies qui font du reffort de la Chirurgie,’’ ibid. 1765 ;
another judicious and valuable work, which contributed to
fupport the eminent character of the author. But his laft
work, ‘'Traité économique de |’Anatomie du corps hu-
main,” ibid. 1768, was inferior to the reft, his genius feem-
ing to partake of the debility which age had now occafioned
in hisframe. Eloy. Di&. Hitt.

.LEDUM, in Botany, a name adopted from the Greeks,
whofe Axo is generally believed to be a fpecies of Ciftus.
Linnzus, in applying it to defignate a not very diffimijar
genus of fhrubs, whofe {cent is fo powerful as to be un-
pleafant and hurtful, offers an etymology expreflive of that
circumftance, a /edendo ; but fuch explanations have {carcely
more than the merit of a pun, and none in this cafe was
wanting. Linn. Gen. 218. Schreb. 294. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 2.602. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew.
ed. 2. v. 3. 48. Juff. 159. Lamarck Illuftr. t. 363.
Gertn. t. 112. Clafs and order, Decandria Monogynia.
Nat. Ord. Bicornes, Linn. Rhododendra, Sufi.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, minute, of one leaf,
with five teeth, permanent. Cor. of one petal, wheel-
fhaped, regular, in five deep, ovate, concave, rounded feg-
ments. Stam, Filaments ten, thread-fhaped, fpreading, as
long as the corolla ; anthers ovate-oblong, vertical, opening
by two terminal pores. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundifh ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens ; ftigma ob-
tufe. Peric. Capfule roundifh-oblong, of five cells, and
five valves, feparating from the bafe, their inflexed margins
forming the partitions. Seeds numerous, oblong, narrow,
their extremities acute and very thin, attached to five linear
pendulous receptacles, proceeding from the central column.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft. Corolla flat, in five deep re-
gular fegments. Capfule of five cells, fplitting from the
bafe ; partitions from the margin of the valves.

1. L. paluffre. Marth Ledum. Linn. Sp. Pl. 561. Fi.
Lapp. ed. 2. 127. Ehrh. Arb. 113. Fl. Dan. t. 1031.
(L. filefiacum ; Cluf. Pann. 69. Hilt. v. 1. 83. Ger.
em. 1288. Rofmarinum fylveftre; Camer. Epit. 546.)—
Leaves linear, revolute, woolly beneath.—Native of fpongy
bogs in the north of Europe, very plentiful in Lapland.
With us it flowers in April and May, being cultivated in
bog earth, like the fhrubs of North America. The /fem is
fhrubby, ereét, much branched in a determinate manner,
about two feet high; the young branches woolly. Leaves
{cattered, numerous, ftalked, an inch or more in length,
linear, obtufe, entire, revolute ; dark green and fmooth
above ; clothed with denfe rufty wool beneath. Flowers
numerous, in denfe, fimple, terminal, bra&teated corymbs,

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white and very pretty. The whole plant, efpecially when
bruifed, has a {trong aromatic oppreffive fcent, fomewhat
like hops, inftead of which the inhabitants of Dalecarlia are
faid by Linnzus fometimes to make ufe of it, but the confe-
quences are a molt pernicious kind of intoxication, with ob-
ftinate head-aches. The Swedes wath their oxen and {wine
with a decoétion of it, to killlice, and the fettlers in Lap-
land ftrew its branches among their grain to drive away
mice.—A procumbent. variety, a {pan long, is faid to be
found at Hudfon’s bay, juft as the birch grows humble, and
almoft proftrate, in the upper parts of Lapland.

2. L. /atifolium. Labrador Tea, or broad-leaved Ledum.
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2.65. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t. 464.
(L. groenlandicum; Fl. Dan. t. 567.)—Leaves elliptical,
revolute, woolly beneath. Stamens fearcely more than five.
—Native of bogs in Greenland, Labrador, Newfoundland,
&c. Differs from the laft chiefly in the broad form of its
leaves and the very con!picuous denfe rufty wool of their
under fide. The /famens are ufually from five to feven or.
eight, feldom ten.

3. L. duxifolium. Box-leaved Ledum. Bergius in AG,
Petrop. for1777. part 1.213. t. 3. f.2. Dryand. Leaves
elliptical, fmooth on both fides, nearly flat. Native of
Carolina and New Jerfey. Introduced to our gardens by
the celebrated Peter Collinfon in 1736. It is a much
{maller /brub than either of the foregoing, with eaves re-
fembling thofe of Azalea procumbens at firft fight. They
are about 4 of an inch long, elliptical or obovate, fmooth
on both fides, moft fhining above, their edges fcarcely revo-
lute, their midrib prominent underneath. Flowers white,
about a quarter of the fize of the firit {pecies.

Lepum, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the hardy
evergreen kind, as the marfh ciltus, or wild rofemary. The
{pecies cultivated is the marfh ledum, (L. paluttre.)

It has varieties with ere€t and decumbent branches.

Method of Culture.—Thefe plants are increafed by fowing
the feeds in pots filled with boy gy earth, or in fhady borders
of the fame kind of mould, in the {pring feafon. But the
beft method is to take up the plants in their native fituations,
with balls-of earth about their roots, and plant them in
horders of the above kind, keeping them well watered.

It is alfo found that layers of the young fhoots will fome-
times grow.

Thefe plants afford variety in fhady fituations, where the
foil is of the boggy kind.

LEDYARD, in Biography, a native of America, who
feems from his youth to haye indulged an invincible defire of
acquainting himfelf with the unknown, or imperfeétly dif-
covered regions of the globe. His hiftory is fo extraordinary,
that a detail of fome of its leading particulars cannot be un-
amufing to our readers. Having lived for feveral years with
the Indians of America, he had ftudied their manners, and
had praétifed in their {chool the means of obtaining the pro-
tection, and of recommending himfelf to the favour of favages.
In the humble fituation of a corporal of marines, to which
he fubmitted rather than relinquifh his purfuit, he had made
with captain Cook the voyage of the world; and feeling on
his return an anxious defire of penetrating from the north-
weftern coaft of America, which Cook had partly explored,
to the eaftern coait, with which he himfelf was perfeétly fami-
liar, he determined to traverfe the vaft continent from the
Pacific to the Atlantic ocean. His firft plan for the pur-
pofe was that of embarking in a veffel, which was then pre-
paring to fail, on a voyage of commercial adventure, to
Nootka found, on the weftern coaft of America; and with
this view he expended in fea-{tores the greateft part of the
money with which he had been fupplied by the liberality of

9 fir

LEDYARD.

fir Jofeph Banks, who has eminently diftinguifhed himfelf
in this way on other occafions for the promotion of every
kind of ufeful fcience. But this fcheme was fruftrated by
the rapacity of a cuftom-houfe officer ; and therefore Mr.
Ledyard determined to travel over land to Kamt{chatka,
from whence the paffage is extremely fhort to the oppofite
coaft of America. Accordingly, with no more than ten
guineas in his purfe, which was all that he had left, he croffed
the Britifh channel to Oftend, towards the clofe of the year
1786, and by the way of Denmark and the Sound, proceeded
to the capital of Sweden. As it was winter, he attempted
to traverfe the gulf of Bothnia on the ice, in order to reach
Kamtfchatka by the fhorteft courfe ; but finding, when he
came to the middle of the fea, that the water was not frozen,
he returned to Stockholm, and taking his courfe northward,
walked to the Arétic circle, and paffing round the head of the

ulf, defcended on its eaftern fide to Peterfburg, where
3 arrived in the beginning of March 1787. Here he was
noticed as a perfon of ‘an extraordinary charaéter; and
though he had neither ftockings nor fhoes, nor means to
provide himfelf with any, he received and accepted an invita-
tion to dine with the Portuguefe ambaflador. From him he
obtained twenty guineas for a bill, which he took the liberty,
without being previoufly authorized, to draw on fir Jofeph
Banks, concluding, from his well known difpofition, that he
would not be unwilling to pay it. By the intereft of the
ambaflador, as we may conceive to have been probably the
cafe, he obtained permiflion to accompany a detachment of
ftores, which the emprefs had ordered to be fent to Yakutz,
for the ufe of Mr. Billings, an Englifhman, at that time in
her fervice. Thus accommodated, he left Peterfburg on the
2ift of May, and travelling eaftward through Siberia,
reached Irkutfk in Auguit ; and from thence he proceeded
to Yakutz, where he was kindly received by Mr. Billings,
whom he recolleted on board captain Cook’s fhip, in the
fituation of the aftronomer’s fervant, but who was now en-
trufted by the emprefs in accomplifhing her fchemes of dif-
covery. He returned to Irkutfk, where he fpent part of
the winter; and in the fpring proceeded to Oczakow, on
the coaft of the Kamtfchatkan fea, intending, in the fpring,
to have paffed over to that peninfula, and to have embarked
on the eaftern fide in one of the Ruffian veffels that trade to
the weitern fhores of America ; but finding that the naviga-
tion was completely obftructed, he returned to Yakutz, in
order to wait for the termination of the winter. But whilit
he was amulfing himfelf with thefe profpects, an exprefs ar-
rivéd, in January 1788, from the emprefs, and he was feized,
for reafons that have not been explained, by two Ruffian
foldiers, who conveyed him in a fledge through the deferts
of Northern Tartary to Mofcow, without his clothes, money,
and papers. From Mofcow he was removed to the city of
Moialoff, in White Ruffia, and from thence to the town of
Tolochin, on the frontiers of the Polifh dominions. As his
conductors parted with him they informed him, that if he
returned to Ruffia he would be hanged, but that if he
chofe to go back to England, they wifhed him a pleafant
journey. Diftrefled by poverty, covered with rags, infelled
with the ufual accompaniments of fuch clothing, harafled
with continual hardfhips, exhaufted by difeafe, without
friends, without credit, unknown, and reduced to the mott
wretched ftate, he found his way to Konigfberg. In this
hour of deep diftrefs, he refolved once more to have recourfe
to his former benefaétor, and fortunately found a perfon
who was willing to take his draft for five guineas on the
prefident of the Royal Society. With this affiftance he ar-
rived in England, and immediately waited on fir Jofeph
Banks. Sir Jofeph, knowing his difpolition, and conceiving,

as we may well imagine, that he would be gratified by the in-
formation, told him, that he could recommend him, as he
believed, to an adventure almoft as perilous as that from which
he had juft returned ; and then communicated to him the
wifhes ef the Affociation for difcovering the Inland Countries
of Africa. Mr. Ledyard replied, that he had always deter-
mined to traverfe the continent of Africa, as foon as he had
explored the interior of North America, and with a letter of
introduction by fir Jofeph Banks, he waited on Henry Beau-
foy, efq. an active member of the fore-mentioned affociation.
Mr. Beaufoy fpread before him a map of Africa, and tracmg
a line from Cairo to Sennar, and from thence weftward in
the latitude and fuppofed direction of the Niger, informed
him that this was the route by which he was anxious that
Africa might, if poffible, be explored. Mr. Ledyard ex-
preffed great pleafure in the hope of being employed in this
adventure. Being afked when he‘would fet out? « To-
morrow morning’’ was his anfwer. The committee of the
fociety affigned to him, at his own defire, as an enterprife of
obvious peril and of difficult fuccefs, the tafk of traverling
from eait to welt, in the latitude attributed to the Niger, the
wideft part of the continent of Africa. On the 3oth of
June, 1788, Mr. Ledyard left London; and after a journey
of 36 days, feven of which were confumed at Paris, and two
at Marfeilles, he arrived in the city of Alexandria. On the
14th of Auguft, at midnight, he left Alexandria, and failing
up the Nile, arrived at Cairo on the 19th. From Cairo he
communicated to the committee of the fociety all the inform-
ation which he was able to colleé during his ftay there: and
they were thus fufficiently apprized of the ardent fpirit of
inquiry, the unwearied attention, the perfevering refearch,
and the laborious, indefatigable, anxious zeal with which he
purfued the object of his miffion. The next difpatch which
they were led to expe, was to be dated at Sennar: the terms
of his paffage had been fettled, and the day of his departure
was appointed. The committee, however, after having ex-
pected with impatience the defcription of his journey, received
with great concern and grievous difappointment, by letters
from Egypt, the melancholy tidings of his death. By a
bilious complaint, occafioned probably by vexatious delay
at Cairo, and by too free an ufe of the acid of vitriol and
tartar emetic, the termination of his life was haftened. He
was decently interred in the neighbourhood of fuch of the

Englifh as had ended their days in the capital of Egypt’
Mr. Ledyard, as to his perfon, {carcely exceeded the mid-
dle fize, but he manifelted very remarkable aétivity and
ftrength ; andas to his manners, though they were unpolifhed,
they were neither uncivil nor unpleafing. ‘ Little attentive
to difference of rank,’’ fays his biographer, ‘“ he feemed to
confider all men as his equals, and as fuch he refpe@ted them.
His genius, though uncultivated and irregular, was original
and comprehenfive. Ardent in*his wifhes, yet calm in his
deliberations ; daring in his purpofes, but guarded in his
meafures ; impatient of controul, yet capable of {trong en-
durance ; adventurous beyond the conception of ordinary
men, yet wary and confiderate, and attentive to all precau-
tions, he appeared to be formed by nature for achieve-
ments of hardihood and peril.””—« They who compare the
extent of his pilgrimage through the valt regions of Tar-
tary with the feantinefs of his funds, will naturally afk, by
what means he obtained a fubfiftence on the road? Ail that
I have ever learned from him on the fubje& was, that his
fufferings were exeeflive, and that more than once he owed
his life to the compaffionate temper of the women. This
remark is ftrongly confirmed by the following extract from
his account of his Siberian tour: « I have always remarked,
that women, in all countries, are civil, obliging, tender, and
humane :

LEE

humane : that they are ever inclined to be gay and cheerful,
timorous and modeft; and that they do not hefitate, like
men, to perform a generous aétion.—Not haughty, not ar-
rogant, not fupercilious ;_ they are full of courtefy, and fond
of fociety ; more liable, in general, to err than man ; but in
general, alfo, more virtuous, and performing more good
actions than he. ‘To a woman, whether civilized or favage,
I never addreffed myfelf in the language of decency and
friend{hip, without receiving a decent and friendly anfwer.
With man it has often been otherwife. In wandering over
the darren plains of inhofpitable Denmark, through honeft
Scveden and frozen Lapland, rude aud churlifh Finland, un-
principled Ruffia, and the qwide-/pread regions of the wan-
dering Tartar, if hungry, dry, cold, wet, or fick, the women
have ever been friendly to me, and uniformly fo ; and to add
to this virtue (fo worthy the appellation of benevolence),
thefe actions have been performed in fo free and fo kind a
manner, that if I was dry, I drank the fweeteft draught;
and if hungry, I eat the coarfe morfei with a double relifh.”’
Similar to this was the experience of Mr. Park. (See
Arnica.) Neverthelefs, though Mr. Ledyard found fre-
quent relief and affiftance from female attention and kindnefs,
he feems on many occafions to have endured the utmoft
preffure of diftrefs. <* I am accuftomed,” faid he, in his
lait converfation with the writer to whom we are indebted
for this account of him, “to hardfhips. I have known
bo:h hunger and nakednefs to the utmoft extremity of human
fuffering. I have known what it is to have! food given
me as charity to a madman; and I have at times been
obliged to fhelter myfelf under the miferies of that character
to avoid a heavier calamity. My diltreffes have been greater
than I have ever owned, or ever wi// own to any man. Such
evils are terrible to bear; but they never yet had power to
turn me from my purpofe. If I live, I will faithfully per-
form, in its utmott extent, my engagement to the fociety ;
and if I perifh in the attempt, my Aenour will ftill be fafe, for
death cancels all bonds.”? Proceedings of the Aflociation
for promoting the Difcovery of the Interior Parts of Africa.
London, 1790.

LEE, Naruanret, fon of a clergyman, was educated
at Weltminfter fchool under Dr. Bufby. He was admitted
a {cholar of Trinity college, Cambridge, in 1668, but quitted
the univerfity without a fellowfhip, and attempted to puth
his fortune at court. In this he was unfuccefsful, and then
began to write for the ilage. His firlt piece was the tra-

dy of Nero, produced in 1675, and frem this time, till
1681, he produced one tragedy every year, all which appear
to have had temporary fuecefs. He madea trial of his talents
as an actor, but did not fucceed in the ettempt. About
the year 1684, he was bereaved of his underitanding, an
affliction which proved fo fevere as to baffle the powers of
his medical friends, and which obliged his relatives to obtain
for him an afylumin Bedlam. Here he remained about four
years, during which he was able to write two tragedies.
He died, in 1690, fo poor, as to have been buried by the
parifh of St. Clement Danes. According to Addifon,
Mr. Lee was equal to any of his contemporaries in a natural
genius for tragedy, but his impetuofity led him into a turgid
ityle, approaching to bombaft, and he was apt to bury his
thoughts in fuch a cloud of words, that it was difficult to
difcern their beauty. He is reckoned to excel in reprefent-
ing the paflion of love, which he fometimes touched with
exquifite tendernefs and force. Two of his pieces only are,
at this time. ever brought on the ftage, viz. his * Theo-
dofius,”” and his ** Rival Queens.”? Biog. Brit.

Lex, in Geography, a river of Ireland, which rifes in the
mountains, on the weltern border of the county of Cork,

LEE

and having paffed Loughs Gougane-barra and Allun, flows
eaftward through the barony of Mutkerry. It receives in
its way the rivers Sullane, Dripfy, Blarney, and Bride, with
feveral {maller ftreams, and below the city of Cork, which is
built chiefly on iflands formed by it, it expands into that
capacious and beautiful harbour, called Cork harbour, (See
Cork.) There is alfo a {mall river of this name, which
runs into Tralee bay, in the county of Kerry.

Leer, a county of Virginia, in the S.W. corner of the
ftate, bounded 5S. by North Carolina, and W. by Kentucky:
its form is triangular, two fides being 60 miles long, and the
other about 30. In this county is Powel’s fertile valley,
but a third part of the county is mountainous. It contains
3295 free inhabitants, and 243 flaves. The chief town is
Jonefville.—Alfo, a fmall town in Strafford county, New
Hamphhire, about 12 miles N. of Exeter; formerly part
of Dover and Durham ; incorporated in 1766, and contain-
ing 978 inhabitants.—Alfo, a townthip in Berkthire county,
Maitfachufetts ; 140 miles W. of Botton; incorporated in
1777, and containing 1267 inhabitants. Houfatonick river
runs towards the fouth through this town.

Ler, a term varioufly ufed at fea; though its general ufe
be to fignify the part towards, or oppolite to the wind.

This expreffion is chiefly ufed when the wind crofles the
line of a fhip’s courfe, fo that all on one fide of her is called
to windward, and all on the oppofite fide, fo /ee-qward.
Hence,

Ler-Shore is that on which the wind blows; fo that to be
under the lee of the fhore, is to be clofe under the weather-
fhore, or under wind; or at a fhort diftance from the fhore
which lies to windward.

A-Lx the Helm. See A-Lex.

Ler, Harda. See Harp.

Lex-Hatch, take care of the, is a word of command to the
man at the helm, to take care that the fhip do not go to the
lee-ward of her courfe.

To Lrr-ward, denotes towards that part of the horizon
which lies under the lee, or whither the wind bloweth.

Ler-ward Ship, is one that is not faft by the wind, or
which doth not iail fo near the wind, nor make fo good way
as fhe fhould; or which is much to leeward of her courfe,
when failing clofe-hauled.

Les, 70 lay a Ship by the, or to come up by the Lee, is to
bring her fo, that all her fails may lie flat againft her mafts
and fhrouds, and that the wind may come right upon her
broadfide.

Leer-Fangs, are ropes reeved into the cringles of a yacht’s
or hoy’s fails.

Lex-Larches, fignify the fudden and violent rolls which a
fhip often takes to the leeward in a high fea, particularly
when a large wave {trikes her on the weather-fide.

Ler-Side, denotes all that part of a fhip or boat, which
lies between the matt and the fide fartheft from the direClion
of the wind ; or that half of a fhip which is prefled down to-
wards the water by the effort of the fails, as feparated from
the other half by a line drawn through the middle of her
length; that part of the ship, which hes to the windward of
this line, is accordingly called the weather-fde. Thus, ifa
fhip fails fouthward, with the wind at eafl, then is her ftar-
board, or right fide, the lee-fide ; and the larboard, or left,
the weather-tide. i532

Les-Way, or Lee-ward Way of a Ship, is the angle made
by the line on which the fhip fhoald run according to her
ceurfe, or the point of the compafs iteered upon, and the
real line of the fhip’s way occafioned by contrary winds, and
a rough fea.

All fhips are apt to make fome lee-way ; fo that in calting

BA up.

LEE

up the lop-board, fomething mufl be allowed for lee-way.
But the lee-way made by different fhips, under the fame cir-
cumftances of wind and fails, will be different ; and even the
fanie fhip, with different lading, and having more or lefs fail
abroad, will make more or lefs lee-way. ‘The ordinary rules
of allowing for it are thefe: they were given by Mr. John
Buckler to the late Mr. William Jones, who firlt publifhed
them about the year 1702.

1. When a fhip is clofe-hauled, has all her fails fet, the
water fmooth, and a moderate gale of wind, fhe is then fup-
pofed to make little or no lee-way. 2. Allow one point,
when it blows fo frefh, that the {mall fails are taken in.

. Allow two points, when the top-fail mutt be clofe-reefed.
4. Allow two points and a half, when one top-fail mult be
handed. 5. Allow three points and a half, when both top-
fails are to be taken in. 6. Allow four points, when the
fore-courfe is handed. 7. Allow five points, when trying
under the main-fail only. 8. Allow fix points, when both
main and fore-courfes are taken in. 9. Allow feven points,
when the fhip tries a-hull, or all fails are handed. When
the wind has blowed hard in either quarter, and fhifts acrofs
the meridian into the next quarter, the lee-way will be jef-
fened. But in all thefe cafes, refpe@t mutt be had to the
roughnefs oz the fea with the trim of the fhip ; and hence the
mariner will be able to correé& his courfe.

LEEA, in Botany, fo named by Linnzus, at the fug-
geftion of Profeflor David Van Royen of Leyden, in honour
of the late Mr. James Lee, of the Vineyard at Hammer-
fmith, author of an Introduction to Botany, of which the
firft edition appeared in 1760, the fourth in 1810. This
book, whofe principles are borrowed from Linneus, but
which is particularly valuable for its gloffaries and tables of
fynonyms, has been of primary ufe in making the Linnzan
fyftem popular here. 1ts author was one of the beit prac-
tical botanifts, and moft experienced and fuccefsful culti-
vators. He loved to encourage and affilt all who had a talte
for natural hiftory, and died generally efteemed, at an ad-
vanced age, in July 1795, leaving a fon in every refpe&
worthy to fuftain and extend hisreputation. Linn. Mant. 17.
Schreb. 638.796. Willd. Sp. Pl. v.1..1177. Mart. Mill.
Di&. v. 3- Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2. 50. Juff. 153.
(Aquilicia; Linn, Mant. 2. 146. Schreb. 154. 824.
Juff. 266. Lamarck. Illutr. t. 139. Gertn. v. 1. 275.
t. 57. f. 7.)—Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat.
Ord. Melia, Juff. >

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, coriaceous,
bell-fhaped, five-toothed, permanent. Cor. of one petal;
tube the length of the calyx; limb in five ovate, acute, re-
eurved fegments. Neétary attached to the infide of the
tube, ereét, pitcher-fhaped, fhorter than the tube, with five
notched lobes. Stam. Filaments five, conneéted with the
nectary, between the lobes, a little way down, incurved ;
anthers ovate, verfatile, cohering together before impreg-
nation and covering the ftigma. Pi. Germen fuperior,
nearly globular; ftyle fimple, fhorter than the neCtary ;
ftigma capitate. Peric. Berry orbicular, deprefled, with
five prominences, of one cell. Sveds five, gibbous at the
outfide, angular at the inner.

Eff. Ch. Corolla of one petal; limb in five fegments,
Nedtary of ong leaf attached to the tube, five-cleft, erect,
bearing the hamens. Berry inferior, with five feeds.

1. L. /ambucina. Elder-leaved Leea, Willd. n. 1.
{Aquilicia fambucina; Linn. Mant. 2. 217. Cavan.
Diff. 372. t. 218. Lamarck. Di&. y.1.217. Staphylea?
indica; Burm. Ind. 75. t. 24. f.2. Frutex aquofus fe-
mina; Rumph. Amboin. v. 4. 103. t.45. Nalugu; Rheede
Hort. Mal. v. 2. 43. t. 26.)—Stem furrowed and angular,

LEE

{mooth. Leaves f{mooth, doubly pinnate; the terminal
leaflet largeft.—Native of the Ealt Indies, from whence it
was procured forthe Kew garden, by Sir Jofeph Banks, in
1790 Itisaf{mooth /brub or {mall tree ten or twelve feet
high, with the afpeét of Elder; the branches tumid at the
infertion of the leaves, {triated and more or lefs angular.
Leaves alternate, large, doubly pinnated; leaflets ftalked,
oppofite, elliptic-oblong, pointed, veiny, ftrongly ferrated,
very {mooth, paler beneath; the odd ones largeft. Panicles
cymofe, oppofite to the leaves, pubefcent. Flowers {mall,
whitifh. Berries rather acrid, the fize of a pea, deprefled,
black, purplifh internally. A decoction of the roots or
wood feems, by the accounts given of its ufes, to be a valu-
able tonic medicine.

2. L. equata. Downy Leea. Linn. Mant. 124. (Ca-
joe toca of the Malays.)—Stem round, downy. Leaves
doubly pinnate, rough.—Native of the Eaft Indies, from
whence Mr. Lee received and cultivated it before the year
1777. We find no figure of this fpecies. Linnzus did not
diftinguifh it from the former, but they are very different.
In both the aves are bipinnate, or rather ternate in their
firlt divifion, pinnate in the fecond; but in this {pecies the
terminal leaflet is not larger than the reft, except in fome of
the lateral divifions, and all the leaflets, as well as their
ftalks, are rough with minute rather rigid pubefcence. The
ferratures are lefs {trong than in L. /ambucina.

3. L. crifpa. Wing-ftalked Leea. Linn, Mant. 124.
Meerburgh Ic. v. 1. t. 50. (LL. pinnata; Andr. Repof.
t. 355.)—Stem angular, with crifped wings. Leaves fimply
pinnate.—Native of the Hatt Indies, not, as Linnzus fup-
pofed, of the Cape of Good Hope. The roots are tuberous.
Stem {carcely fhrubby, remarkably bordered, as are the
leaf-ftalks, with parallel, partly crifped, wings. Leaves
pinnate, generally of two pair, with an odd one, of elliptical,
pointed, ftrongly ferrated and copioufly veined leaflets,
roughifh to the touch when dry, but not pubefcent. Floqers
much as in the former, with channelled, angular, or winged
ftalks. Each fegment of the corolla, according to Andrews,
is hooded at the point. We have feen'one leaf imperfeétly
bipinnate.

It appears, from the Linnean herbarium, that Linneus
originally deftined the name of Hippia for his Leea; but he
afterwards applied the former to a very different genus.
(See Hippra.) From the fame fource the identity of his
Leea and Aquilicia was firtt difcovered, and the latter name
gives place, as being the more recent, to fay nothing of
the claims of the former refpeting the perfon it com-
memorates.

LEEBYRAN, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Eaft
Indian fea, near the north-eait coaft of Borneo, N. lat. 6?
1. E. long. 118° r2!.

LEECH, in Zoology. See Hirupo.

The hiftory of this animal, and the ftru€iure of its parts,
by means of which it becomes ufeful to us, in fupplying very
happily the place of the lancet, with every other particular
circumitance of its life and food, have been very accurately
given by Mr. Morand, in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, in the year 1739.

The more vulgarly known particulars of this animal are
briefly mentioned by this gentleman; fuch are the cutaneous
annules of its outer coat, the beautiful arrangement of the
feveral rays, the colours, the pyramids, and points, with
which it is ornamented ; the avidity with which this creature
feizes the flefh of animals; the manner of its applying its
mouth; the vermicular motion obferved within it while
fucking, which refembles the common motion of degluti-
tion ; the tire they have been Enown to live in the water

without

LEECH.

without any vifible food; and the faculty they have, in
common with many other animals, of moving when cut into
feveral pieces: thefe the author fuppofes already f{ufficiently
known, and paffes on to what is lefs fo, the ftruéture of its
inner parts.

The part of this animal, by which it pierces the fkin of
any creature to get at its blood, is generally called, fimply,
its mouth; but it really confilts of five different parts, which
are confounded under that general name. Thefe are two
regular lips, a cavity, which is properly the mouth, certain
aultcameits to pierce with, others which ferve it for fucking,
and finally a fort of throat, or cefophagus, through which
it fwallows the blood. When the leech is in a ftate of rett,
its upper lip forms a regular femicircle, and the lower a por-
tion of a much larger circle.

When the creature lengthens its head to move, the femi-
circle of the upper lip becomes two oblique lines, the
junGtion of which makes a faliant angle, which the creature
applies to whatever it would fix itfelf to. That angle is
marked by a regular black {pot on the outer edge of the
lip. The extreme foftnefs of the fibres of this part makes
it very ferviceable to the animal, in that it readily affumes
any figure, according to the occafion of feizing any thing
folid, in order to move the reft of its body; or on the flefh
of an animal, to give opportunity to the piercing inftruments
to exert their force and action,

Whether it be for either of thefe purpofes, that the crea-
ture fixes its mouth, the two lips regularly fix, and make
in this ftate a fort of acetabulum, like the hollow of the
tail. This may be feen in their fixing on the fides of a
glafs-veffel in which they are kept, and the mouth, or aper-
ture between the lips, is diftin€ly feen. This mouth is
formed, like the lips, of fuch extremely fupple fibres, that
it takes the figure of the part to which it is applied, and
fixes perfeGtly clofe to it. When the lips are fixed on the
flefh, in order to fuck, this little mouth continues moveable
under them, and fearches over the compafs of flefh, inclofed
in the larger circle of the lips, for the fpot where it will be
eafieft to draw much blood.

Within this mouth is placed the inftrument for piercing
the fkin, which is more than the mere fucker of the gnat,
or the like kind of flies ; fince the quantity of blood to be
fucked by the leech, is much larger, and the aperture of
the veffel muft therefore alfo be larger. The fhape of this
weapon may be difcovered by examining the wound it leaves.
This is compofed of three cuts, making three rays, and
uniting in a centre, under equal angles. This ftructure of
the wound is mofl diftin@ly feen when the {welling is gone
down, and the fkin is clean; and this is ufually on the
fourth day after the application. The three openings are
then plainly feen not to be punétures, but abfolute wounds,
or cuts, as if made by a fine lancet. In examining the
creature, the organ, deftined for making the wound, is
found to be placed between the aperture of the lips and the
bottom of the mouth; and on cutting up the animal, and
drawing the finger carefully over this part of it, there is
felt a roughnefs like that of a fine file, which evidently is
owing to fome rough fubftance, of the hardnefs of bone.
This is, in reality, a number of fine and fharp teeth; and
when examined by a microfcope, they are found to be dif-
pofed in three feries on three ribs, or, as they may be called,
jaws ; each of which is placed along the middle of a ftrong
mufcle of its own length ; and thefe correfponding regularly
to atriangular opening, which the creature has in its mouth,
When that has feized on a proper part for the getting
blood, and is fixed, thefe mufcles exert their action, and
itrike in the teeth through the fkin.

Thefe are the inftruments which pierce the veffel which
is to afford the blood ; and for the receiving it into the body
of the animal, there is between thefe rows of teeth, or in the
common centre of the mouth, a {mall aperture ; and within
this there is a little body to be difcovered, which by its
motion feems very plainly to be a tongue, and which proba-
bly aéts as a pilton to take up the blood flowing from the
triple wound, in the centre of which it naturally ftands,
while the larger circle of the lips, &c. perform the office of
the body of the pump, and the blood is eafily, by this
means, conveyed into the body of the animal. Finally,
between the root ef the tongue and the beginnjng of the
ftomach, there is a {pace of two lines in length, in which it
is eafy to difcover two different arrangements of fibres; the
one fet are flat and plain, the others are circular. Thefe
evidently have a power of widening or contraéting the ca-
vity of the pump, and by that means facilitate its office ;
the plane ones contraéting in length, to enlarge the capacity,
and the circular ones determining the blood towards the
ftomach, by their power of contra¢ting the hollow, when
the blood is received. The blood from hence enters into @
membranaceous fort of fack, which ferves the animal for
the ftomach and guts, and occupies the greateft part of the
body of the creature, If the air is admitted into the body
by the mouth, it may be feen to make its way down a lone
gitudinal canal, and fill, as it goes, a number of facks, or
little bags, which are on each fide. Thefe veficles, receive
the blood, and becoming filled with it, fwell out the body
of the animal to a great fize. It remains here many months,
and nourifhes the creature; and if any thing is excreted
from it, it muft be merely by an infenfible perfpiration ;
fince the creature has no anus, fo far a’ can be yet dif-
covered, nor any aperture which can fupply the place of
one.

Leeches are able to live in oil; and when removed out of
this liquor into water again, they throw off a tender fkin,
or film, of the regular fhape of their body, and refembling
the fkin of an eel in miniature. Their living in oil feems a
proof, that their organs of refpiration are not placed on the
outfide of their bodies, as they are in many {mall animals,
which therefore die on being only rubbed over with oil.
But the leech feems to refpire by the mouth; and this may
be the more plainly difcovered, if the water, in which it is
kept, be gently heated; for then the animal, being uneafy,
breathes hard, and very vifibly.

If aleech be kept in an eight-ounce glafs phial, about
three-fourths filled with water, it will indicate the changes
of the weather, in the manner of a weather-glafs. Thus,
if the weather continues ferene and beautiful, the leech lies
motionlefs at the bottom of the phial, rolled in a fpiral form:
if it rains either before or after noon, it is found at the top
of its lodging, where it will remain until the weather be
fettled: if we are to have wind, the leech gallops about its
limpid habitation with amazing f{wiftnefs, and feldom refts
until it begins to blow hard: if a remarkable ftorm of
thunder or rain is to fucceed, for fome days before, it lodges
almoft continually without the water, and difcovers great
uneafinefs, in violent throws and convulfive like motions,
In froft, as in clear fummer weather, it lies conftantly at the
bottom ; and in {now, as in rainy weather, it dwells at the
very mouth of the phial. ark

The phial fhould be covered at the mouth with a piece of
linen rag, and the water fhould be changed once a week in
the fummer, and once a fortnight in the winter. Gent,
Mag. vol. xxiii. p. 28.

Lercn, Sea. See HirvupELLA marina.

Lyecu

LEECH.

Lerercn is alfo a name given by Boccone to a very parti-

eular water-animal, which he found fticking to the fides of

the xiphias, or {word-fith.

He calls it hirudo, or acus cauda utringue pennata, and ob-
ferves, that, it is flightly mentioned by Gefner, and by
Johnfon, in their books of fifhes. It is about four inches
long ; the belly is white and cartilaginous, and tranfparent ;
there is no regular head to be feen, but only a hollow fnout
in the place of the head; this is covered with a very hard
membrane, and differs extremely from the fin of the belly:
this fnout it thrufts up to the end into the body of the fifh,
and fucks its blood with it; it has a tail fhaped like a fea-
ther, and under it two flender filaments of fibres, longer than
its whole body. By means of thefe, when it is not faftened
to the body of the fifh, it clings to ftones, or fea-plants, to
prevent its being carried away by the motion of the water ;
and when it is on the body of the fith, thefe ferve it to hold
much more faftly with, than it otherwife could do. This
creature miferably afflifis the fword-fifh, but it is itfelf as
much tormented by an animal that preys on its blood and
juices. This is a fort of loufe, which is always found upon
it; it is of a brownifh colour, and it is generally found faf-
tened toward the tail of the creature, flicking as firmly
as a limpet to a rock; it is nearly of the bignelfs of a pea,
and when crufhed a little, will thruft out feveral flender
filaments. This leech is not found, fo far as has yet been
obferved, on any other fifh but the fword-fihh; nor this
Joule among other creatures, befides this leech. Phil,
Tranf. N° 10a.

Leecues, Utility of, in the Cure of Difeafes.—Bleed-

ing, or the taking away of blood, for the alleviation and

cure of difeafes, is frequently one of the moft powerful
means to which the phyfician and furgeon can have recourfe
for the relief of their patients. It is divided into general
and /opical ; the firft fignifying the evacuation, as made from
a large vein in the arm, or the temporal artery, the external
jugular véin, &c; the fecond denoting the evacuation of
blood direétly from the veffels of the part affected, or its
vicinity, by fcarifications, cupping, or leeches. In the ar-
ticle BreepinG are defcribed moft of the furgical methods of
taking away blood, with the exception of that by leeches,
which more properly belongs to the prefent place, and of
Cupping and A aieeaey: for an account of which the reader
is referred to thefe refpective terms,

The hirudo medicinalis, as the term denotes, is the proper

‘kind for medical purpofes ; and, when it has been caught in

a clear piece of water, is not full of blood, and is hungry,
in confequence of being kept for fome time in a veflel of
pure water, it is in the beft condition for ufe. According
to Schmucker, even the medicinal leech, if taken out of
unclear, muddy, ftagnant water, will caufe pain, fwelling,
and inflammation, after being applied, Vermifchte Chir,
Schriften, vol.i. p. 86. edit. 2.

With refpe& to the art of colleGting medicinal leeches,
the beft time for taking them is when they fpawn in the
earlieft warm weather of the year. June and July are ac-
counted favourable months, if there is a good deal of fun,
and the wind is either very ftill, or blows gently from a
foutherly point. It would be in vain to endeavour to catch
them in cold weather attended with northerly winds. The
hirudo medicinalis inhabits clear lakes and ponds in warm
fituations, and ftreams flowing through ,vallies. In cold
and woody countries, the horfe leech can only be met with.
The warmer the fituation of the water is, and the fatter the
foil, the thicker and larger are the leeches. ‘Thofe which
are caught in waters abounding with fifh, do not bite and
fuck fo well, as others taken out of poorer places, Freth

Vou, XX.

lively leeches bite the moft readily; but when they have
been kept a long while, or have been put out of temperate
into very cold water, they generally bite with lefs avidity.

With regard to the mode of applying leeches, the part on
which they are about to be put may firft be wafhed with
fome clean water and well dried. The leeches are then to
be placed on it with the fingers, either one by one, or all of
them togeibets by putting them firft into a tumbler, and
then applying this to the fkin, in the manner of a cupping
glafs. The leeches fhould generally be fuffered to fall off
the part fpontaneoufly, which they commonly do, as foon
as they are well diftended. But when the patient’s weak-
nefs, or any other circumftance, requires them to be more
{peedily removed, they may eafily be made to drop off by
{prinkling them with a little falt or fnuff. For the purpofe
of inducing leeches to bite with greater facility, fome prac-
titioners firft wet the part on which they are to be put
with a little milk, or milk and fugar.

On fome occafious, the application of leeches will pro-
cure as copious an evacuation as phlebotomy itfelf. The
quantity of blood which may fometimes be taken away by
twelve leeches, would furprife the inexperienced. When
the bites are expofed to the fteam of warm water, or fo-
mented after the leeches have dropped off, the bleeding may
often be kept up for an extraordinary length of time. The
writer of this article las known inftances, where furgeons
have been detained for nearly twenty-four hours, in employ-
ing means to fupprefs the continuance of the bleeding from
the bites of leeches on inflamed parts. In cafes of hernia
humoralis, ‘where the ferotum has been much reddened and
inflamed, he has often feen the hemorrhage, from the appli-
cation of leeches, laft a very unpleafant length of time.
Indeed, the records of furgery prove, that the bleeding from
the bites of leeches may even continue to a dangerous ex-
tent. Pelletan mentions a cafe, where an infant, four months
old, bled to death, in confequence of the application of fix
leeches to the cheft, fome women who were in attendance
having contented themfelves with merely wiping away the
blood with cloths, as faft as it owed out. (See his Clinique
Chirurgicale, tom. ii. p. 243.) In general, however, the
bleeding, after leeches have dropped off, readily ceafes, either
of itfelf or on ccld being applied; and it is only when the
part is highly inflamed, or exceffively vafcular, as we know
the fkin of a very young infant to be, that the fubfequent
hemorrhage is difpofed to continue long. In many inftances,
the continuance of the bleeding a certain time is a moft
defirable circumftance, as by this means a more effectual
quantity of blood can be taken away than could otherwife
be accomplifhed.

We learn from Galen, that Hippocrates was acquainted
with the medical utility of leeches. (De Hirudinibus ‘cam
comment. Sebizii). In inflammation of the liver, they
were preferred by Aretzus, of Cappadocia, to cupping-
glafles; and they are made frequent. mention of in the
writings of Diofcorides, Celfus, and Paulus fEgineta. Pliny
thought, that leeches might be employed with feveral in-
tentions, as, in plethoric cafes, they extract the blood like

cupping-glaffes, and, according to his conje‘tures, alfo

opened the pores. (Hift. Natural. 1. xxxii.c. 10.) Horace

has taken notice of thefe ufeful little animals in the follow-

ing line of his fatires. ;
‘Non miffura cutem nifi plena cruoris hirudo.””

The Arabian phyficians well knew the ufefulnefs of leeches,
and were in the habit of directing them to be applied in me-
lancholic and hypochondriacal cafes. Rhazes, in particular,
recites numerous cures which he effeéted with their affitt-

3k ance.

LEE

anee. Paracelfus uled to apply them in cafes of jaundice.
By the chemical practitioners of medicine, leeches were not
at all employed, becaufe they were accuftomed to reprobate
all evacuations of blood as ufelefs and hurtful ; and Van
Helmont would not fuffer them to be applied to an hemor-
rhoidal fwelling.

The ufe of leeches, in the praétice of phyfic and furgery,
appears to have been revived by Sennertus and Zacutus
Lufitanus.

It would be almoft an endlefs tafk to enumerate the great
variety of medical and furgical cafes in which leeches may
be ufed with advantage. We may itate, indeed, that in all
inflammatory affeétions they are frequently of confiderable
fervice. In inflammations about the throat, inthe abdomen,
thorax, or cranium, or in the limbs and more fuperficial
fituations, the benefit derived from the application of leeches,
can often be obtained by no other means, The great good
which they often do in inflammatory difeafes of the eye,
joints, and teftis, is acknowledged by every practitioner, as
well as the relief which they f{peedily afford in cafes of in-
flamed hemorrhoidal tumours. Their utility in inflammations
of the breaft, and in alleviating the pain, and even retarding
the progrefs of {chirrous {wellings of the fame part, deferves
alfo to be mentioned. That they fometimes prove even ca-
pable of curing and reducing many indurations of the breatt,
is a fact proved by daily experience. Nor mu{t we forget
the beneficial effects, frequently arifing from the application
of leeches in various examples of buboes, fcrofulous and
fympathethic, as well as venereal.

In the majority of cafes, however, we are not to imagine
that one application of three, four, or even a dozen leeches,
is enough to try their efficacy ; in general their application
mutt be repeated from time to time, and, in fome in{tances,
once or twice a-day, according to the urgency of the fymp-
toms.

In infants of tender years, and perfons who have a parti-
cular dread of venefeftion, leeches may be ufed for the
relief of all difeafes which require blood to be taken away ;

and this method of bleeding has the advantage of not being’

likely to induce fwooning, debility, and languor, by the
blood being drawn too fuddenly.

In many cafes, where the practitioner is fearful of ven-
turing upon general bleeding, the employment of leeches
may often be tried with greater fafety.

In painful affections of the ear and teeth, in inflammations
and {wellings of the gums, and in numerous inflammatory
difeafes affecting the parts about the neck and throat, topi-
cal bleeding with leeches proves of infinite fervice, either
alone, or in conjunction with general bleeding, according to
the nature and circumftances of the cafe.

In numerous inflances of extravafations of blood under
the fkin, ecchymofes, contufions, &c. leeches are frequently
applied with great benefit to the patient.

In cafes of quinfy, when deglutition has been quite ob-
ftruéted, and repeated venefection has proved unavailing,
Schmucker affures us, that he has found the application of
leeches attended with an extraordinary degree of efficacy.
The fame experienced praétitioner alfo obferves, that in
pleurifies, he has found topical bleeding with leeches even
more ufeful than blifters.

Whitlows, which can fo feldom be cured without fup-
puration, Schmucker has fometimes refolved, by applying
to them leeches and the faturnine lotion in an early flage of
the complaint.

This diftinguifhed furgeon likewife confirms, how fu-
periorly ufeful the application of fixteen or twenty leeches
to the perineum frequently proves in cafes of retention of

LEE

urine, when venefection, the warm bath, and other means
alone are ineffeétual. Vermifchte Chirurgifche Schriften,
vol. ii. art. 2.

Lescn, or Leercn of a Sail, in a Ship, the outward edge
or fkirt of the fail from the earing to the clew, or rather the
middle of the fail between thefe two.

The leeches of all fails, whofe tops and bottoms are pa-
rallel to the deck, and at right angles with the matfts, are
denominated from the fhip’s fide, and the fail to which they
belong, as the ftarboard leech of the main-fail, the lee-leech
of the fore-top-fail, &c. But the fails which are fixed ob-
liquely upon the mafts, have their leeches named from their
fituation with refpe€& to the fhip’s length ; as the fore-leech
of the mizen, the after-leech of the jib, or fore-ftay-fail,
&ec. Falconer.

Lexcu, or Leetch-lines, are certain ropes faftened to the
leeches of the main-fail and. fore-fail, and communicating
with blocks under the oppofite fides of the top, whence
they pafs downwards to the deck, ferving to trufs up thofe
fails to the yard, as occafion requires. See Braizs.

Lercu-rope, is a name given to that part of the bolt-rope,
to which the border of a fail is fewed. In all fails, whofe
oppofite leeches are of the fame length, it is terminated
above by the earing, and below by the clue. Falconer.

LEECHMAN, Witiam, in Biography, a learned and
excellent Scotch divine, was born at Dolphinfton, in La-
nerkfhire, in the year 1706. He was initiated in grammar-
learning at his native place, from whence he removed to the
univerfity of Edinburgh. Here he diftinguifhed himfelf by
his great proficiency in different branches of learning. He
began his theological ftudies in 1724, and in 1727 he was
introduced into the weftern part of Scotland, which was
deftined hereafter to be the principal fcene of his ufefulnefs.
He undertook the education of a young gentleman at
Caldwell, in Renfrewfhire, where he refided in the fummer
months, but during the remainder of the year he lived at
Glafgow, and was honoured with the friendfhip of pro-
feffors Hutchefon and Dunlop. About the beginning of
1731 he was licenfed as a preacher, but it was not till the
year 1736 that he had‘any profpe& of preferment. He
was now ordained minifter of Beith, and remained in the dif-
charge of the duties attached to that office during feven
years. In 1740 he was elected moderator of a meeting of
the fynod at Irvine, and opened the aflembly at Glafgow on
the 7th of April, 1741, with a fermon to the clergy “‘ On
the temper, chara€ter, and duty of a minifter of the gof-
pel.’’ This is thought to be one of the ableft charges ever
delivered from the pulpit: it has paffed through many edi-
tions, and is {till in very high reputation. In 1743 he
publifhed a much longer difcourfe on ‘The Nature, Rea-
fonablenefs, and Advantages of Prayer; with an Attempt
to anfwer the Objeétions againft it.”? This fermon, as well
as that juft noticed, excited great attention at the time of ©
the publication, and it has been frequently reprinted fince.
He was, about this time, invited to fettle with a congrega-
tion at Belfaft, in Ireland, with the promife of a better falary
than that which he enjoyed at Beith. This offer, upon due
deliberation, he declined, and he was fhortly after eleéted to
the profefforfhip of theology at the univerfity of Glafgow ;
an honour which he obtained only by the cafting vote of the
prefident. The oppofite party did all in their power to
prevent his being fixed in the fituation: they even com-
menced a procefs of herefy againft him, which had a direét
tendency to injure his reputation and ufefulnefs, and to ex-
pofe him to general odium. The charge was. founded on
the fermon on prayer, which his enemies confidered as having
laid too little f{trefs on the atonement and interceflion ‘a

Chrift.

LEE

Chrift. A paper of remarks was produced, confifting of
eight articles, of what they deemed heretical omiffions.
To each of the remarks the profeffor gave in written an-
f{wers, which were neither deemed {fatisfactory to the com-
mittee nor to the prefbytery, under whofe authority they
aéted. Mr. Leechman appealed to a higher court, viz. the
fynod, the members of which, after hearing all that could
be adduced on both fides of the queftion, almoft unani-
moufly determined, that there was no reafon to charge him
with any unfoundnefs in the paflages of the fermon com-
plained againft. « Mr. Leechman’s character, both as a
preacher and profeffor, fhone out the brighter after this
cloud was diffipated. Some of thofe who had appeared his
keeneft adverfaries in the church procefs, lived with him
afterwards on terms of fincere friendfhip: even the preju-
dices of the common people in Glafgow gradually fubfided ;
fo that he came to be confidered there, as he had always
been in every other place, a very acceptable preacher.’
Soon after he had been eftablifhed in the profefforfhip, he
took the degree of doétor in divinity. He continued in
the theological chair feventeen years, vindicating and efta-
blifhing the grand truths of natural and revealed religion,
in anfwer to the principal objeétions made to them by Mr.
Hume, lord Bolingbroke, and other {ceptical writers. He
had, in his le&tures, a remarkable talent of felecting what
was moft important and ftriking on every fubjeé& that he
handled : his arguments were folid, founded on indifputable
faéts ; and they were urged with a degree of warmth which
carried his auditors along with him; for they were addrefled
equally to the judgment and the heart. Dr. Leechman's
fame extended far and wide, the Divinity-hall at Glafgow
was crowded, in his time, with a greater number of {cholars
than any other in Scotland: and his numerous {cholars,
however they might differ in their fentiments on fpeculative
theology and church government, were all cordially united
in their affeGtion and veneration for their mafter. In the year
1761, Dr. Leeclman was raifed to the office of principal
of the univerfity of Glafgow by a prefentation from the
king. He had previoufly to this been in a very bad {tate
of health, and this change in his avocations was probably
the means of prolonging his valuable life for five-and-twenty
years. Though releafed from the more fatiguing part of
his duties, he could not remain inaétive, but entered warmly
into every fcheme for the benefit and improvement of the
fociety, propofed by other profeffors, and profecuted fome
{chemes of his own fuggeftion. He gave a lecture, for
fome time, once a week, to the ftudents in divinity, and
weekly leGtures to the whole univerlity. Dr. Leechman’s
faculties remained in full vigour amid{t the increafing in-
firmities of old age, and his tafte for valuable knowledge
continued asacute asever. His mind feemed to be ina great
meafure independent of all bodily infirmities and conneétions.
In September, 1785, he experienced a violent paralytic
ftroke, from the effeéts of which he {pcedily recovered:
but a fecond fhock of the fame kind in the following month
deprived him of the power of his whole left fide. Still he con-
tinued in the full poffeffion of his mental faculties, and was
as intelligent, judicious, and evenas acute as ever. Another
attack carried him off on the third of December, 1785,
when he was almoit eighty years of age. Dr. Leechman
committed nothing to the prefs, except nine fermons, which
went through feveral editions during his life-time. Thefe
were re-publifhed, with others, forming together two vo-
lumes, in the year 1789. To the firft of thefe volumes is
prefixed an account of the author, to which the reader is
referred for more particulars relating to Dr. Leechman.
LEEDS, in Geography, a populous market-town in the

Lik iE

wapentake of Skyrack, in the Wett Riding of the county
of York, England, is fituated on the north fide of the
river Aire, over which is a handfome {tone bridge. It is a
place of great antiquity, and its name is regiltered in the
Domefday furvey. Here was formerly a {trong cattle,
probably built by Ilbert de Lacy, which was befieged by
king Stephen in 1139 ; and here the unfortunate Richard LI.
was confined about the year 1399. No veftige of this for-
trefs remains ; but its {cite is faid to have been at a place
called Mill-hill. Leeds has long been diftinguifhed as a
clothing town; though the pre-eminence it now enjoys is
not of a very remote date. Leland fays it is « a pretty
market-town, fubfifted chiefly by clothing, reafonably well
builded, and as large as Bradford, but not fo quick as it.”
Its growth, however, probably foon became confiderable,
as It was incorporated by king Charles I. At the com.
mencement of the troubles of that reign, it was held for the
king by fir William Saville; but ied a fharp action, its
fortifications were ftormed by the forces which marched out
of Bradford under fir Thomas Fairfax. A fecond charter
was granted on the 13th of Charles II., under which the
town 1s now governed, The trade in woollen cloth, which
has raifed Leeds to its prefent confequence, is carried on
here to an extent unequalled in any place in the kingdom.
The cloth-markets are held only on Tuefdays and Satur-
days, and then only for an hour and a half each day ; and the
merchants are not allowed to buy, or even to look at cloth,
but at thefe appointed hours. At fix in the morning in
fummer, and feven in winter, the market-bell rings ; and in
a few minutes, without the leatt diforder, the whole market
is filled, and all the benches are covered with cloth, each
Proprietor at the fame time ftanding behind his own cloth.
As foon as the bell has ceafed the buyers enter, and having
fixed on certain lots, or pieces of cloth, they proceed in a
very expeditious and fecret manner to bargain for the fame.
(A particular account of the modes of tranfaGting bufinefs,
&c. is given in the Monthly Magazine, vol. iii. p. 123, and
vol. iv. p. 174.) Inthefe places it is related that from ten
to twenty thoufand pounds worth of cloth, and fometimes
more, is fold with a whifper only ; the laws of the market
are certainly more ftriétly obferved than in any other place
in England : the time of fale is terminated by another bell ;
and any merchant ftaying in the hall after the bell has ceafed,
forfeits five fhillings. This extenfive bufinefs, which ufed
formerly to be carried on in the open ftreet, is now con-
ducted in two halls, which have been built for the accom-
modation of the clothiers. The Mixed-cloth Hall, which
is the principal, was ereéted in 1758 ; it is a quadrangular
building, inclofing an open area of about an hundred yards
fquare, and is divided into feven partitions or ftreets, each
of which contains four rows of ftands; and thefe are the
freehold property of feparate manufa@turers. The whole
number of ftands is 1770. The White-cloth Hall, built in
1775, 1s partitioned in a fimilar manner, and contains 1210
ftands. Over the former building is an aflembly-room, and
over the latter a mufic-hall. The manufaGture of broad
cloth is now almoft wholly performed by machinery, which
has occafioned a confiderable reduétion in the price. By
this means, very few hands are wanted in the firlt ftages of
the manufaéture, particularly in carding and feribbling the
wool, and in fpinning it. ‘This circumftance, on the firft
introduction of machinery, deprived great numbers of peo-
ple of their cuftomary employment.

Previous to the reign of Charles I. Leeds had but one
church ; here are now, however, feveral ecclefiaftical edifices,
appropriated to the eftablifhed religion, and to different feéts
of Diffenters, The church of St. Peter, the original, is built

20P ia in

LEE

in the form of a crofs, with a tower in the middle ; and has
a painting in frefco of the Afcenfion, by Parmentier, who
prefented the town with this fpecimen of his genius. -St.
John’s church was erected in 1634, at the fole expence of
Mr. Harrifon, who alfo built a free-{chool and a market-
crofs, and was in other refpects a great benefactor to the
town. The church of the Holy Trinity, which is an ele-
gant ftru@ure, with a fpire, was built in the eighteenth
century. Eight other places of worfhip are appropriated to
the feveral denominations of diffenters. Here are three
alms-houfes, a charity-fchool, and an extenfive work-houfe,
in which children are taught the eafy branches of the woollen
manufature. A fpacious infirmary was built by fubfcrip-
tion in the year 1786. The ftreets, in the upper part of
the town, are narrow; but in the other parts they are
broad, and the houfes are moftly uniform, and many of them
elegant. Here are feveral large open fquares, the areas of
which are in fome cafes planted, and in others ufed as tenter
grounds. ‘The buildings are chiefly of brick, and covered
with white flate; and every {treet has a flagged foot-way on
each fide. The civil government of the town is vefted, by
the charter of Charles II., in a mayor, twelve aldermen, and
twenty-four common-council men.

Leeds is 192 miles diftant from London, and 25 miles
from York. Inthe year 1800, it contained, according to
the return made to parliament, 11,599 houfes, and 53,162
inhabitants: of the latter, 20,367 were ftated to.be em-
ployed in trade and manufacture, particularly that of
woollen’ cloth. Two fairs are held annually; and two
weekly markets, on Tuefdays and Saturdays, are well fup-
plied with all kinds of provifions. A confiderable pottery
is eftablifhed here, which furnifhes large quantities of earthen
ware, both for home confumption and exportation. By
means of the rivers Aire and Calder, and the Canal Naviga-
tion, Leeds has communication with Wakefield, York, and
Hull; from which latter place the woollen goods are ufually
fhipped to foreign parts. The carriage of coals from the in-
terior of Yorkfhire is alfo a great fource of traffic: thefe
are carried in veflels from 45 to 60 tons burthen, to Selby,
York, Howden, Hull, Beverley, and allsthe intermediate
towns fituated on the rivers Oufe and Humber. Three
miles from this town are the grand and piturefque ruins of
Kirkftall Abbey, feated on the banks of the river Aire.
For an account of thefe, with an interefting print, fee Day’s
‘Your in Yorkfhire, 8vo. 1805. Welt of the town is an an-
cient feat of the Vavaron family. Aikin’s Defcription of
the Country round Manchefter, 4to., and Monthly Ma-
gazine.

Leerps, a county of Upper Canada, bounded.on the eaft
by the county of Grenville, on the fouth by the river St.
Lawrence, and on the weit by the boundary line of the late
townfhip of Pittfburg, running north until it interfeé&ts the
Ottawa or Grand river, and thence defcending until it meets
the north-welternmoft boundary of the county of Grenville.
This county comprehends all the iflands in the river St.
Lawrence that are’near it. The greater part of it lies
fronting the St. Lawrence.—Alfo, a townfhip in the county
of Leeds, being the twelfth townfhip in afcending the river
St. Lawrence. It is watered by the Gananoque river,
which has a good harbour at its entrance. There is a port
of entry on the wet bank of the Gananoque, near its
mouth in the St. Lawrenee.—~Alfo, a town of America, in
the eaftern part of Gloucefter county, New Jerfey ; 4 miles
weft of the mouth of Mullicus river—Alfo, a town in
fennebeck county, on the eaft bank of Amerefkoggin
river, oppolite to the mouth of ‘T'wenty miles ftream, in the
town of Vurner, in Cumberland county —Alfo, a town, or

LEE

rather village, of Richmond county, Virginia, on the north
bank of Rappahannock river ; 70 miles N.E. of Richmond ;
near which is a famous courfe for horfe-racing.

LEEDSTON, a poft-town of Weftmoreland county,
Virginia; 1o5 miles from Wafhington.

LEEGELLAN, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea,
near the ea{t coaft of Borneo. N. lat. 4° 104 E, long,
118° gol.

LEEHEEM, a {mall ifland nearly north-eaft of Borneo,
N. lat. 6° 9’. E. long. 118° 16’.

LEEK, in Botany, Gardening, and the Materia Medica.
See ALLIUM.

Lerx, in Geography, a {mall ifland of Pennfylvania, in
Delaware river.

Lrek-Head, in the Manege. See Wanr.

LEEKE, or Lrex-in-the-Moorlands, formerly called Lee,
in Geography, a market-town and parifh in the hundred of
Totmanflow, and county of Stafford, England, is feated at
the northern extremity of that county, at the diftance o
154 miles from London, and 31 from Mancheiler. Here
are a weekly market on Wednefday, and feven annual fairs.
In the year 1800, this parifh contained 780 houfes, and
3489 inhabitants. Many of them are employed in the manu-
fa€ture of ribbons, filk-twift, and buttons; which may be
confidered the ftaple articles of the place. But of late years
this latter branch has very much diminifhed, and at prefent
the chief trade is in thrown filk, and the manufacture of
bandana and other handkerchiefs. The cotton bufinefs has
alfo been introduced, within thefe few years, into this town.
The church here is a large building, with a lofty fquare
tower. In the church-yard is an ancient ftone-crofs, the
fhaft of which is about ten feet in height. It has been called
Danifh, from ‘the imagery and fret-work,”” as Mr. Gough
obferves, with which it is ornamented. Near the town was
formerly a Ciftertian abbey, called Delacres, or Dieulacres,
which was founded in the year 1214 by Ranulph, earl of
Chefter ; to whom the lordfhip of this town formerly be-
longed. In the vicinity of Leeke are fome lofty bare crags,
called Leek-rocks and Henclouds. Blue-hills, in this neigh-
bourhood, abound with coal-mines; and a fatt-{pring iflues
from one of thefe hills. Eight alms-houfes were en-
dowed here-in 1696, by Mrs. Elizabeth Ath, for as many —
widows.

LEER, in Glafs-making, a fort of third furnace, in-
tended to anneal and cool, by proper means, the veflels when.
made. See FurNacE and Giass-HousE Furnace.

Leer, Lehr, or Lier, in Geography, a town of Ealt:
Friefland, on a river of the fame name, which {oon after.
jos the Ems; 11 miles S.of Emden. N. lat. 53° 12. E..
long. 7° 20'.

LEERDAM, a town of Holland, on the river Linghe,
which gave title of count to the noble houfe of Egmont, and.
afterwards to that of Naflau; 11 miles S. of Utrecht. N..
lat. 53° 55'. E. long. 4° 59/.

LEERSIA, in Botany, a genus of grafles, received its:
appellation from Dr. Swartz, in order, with peculiar pro-
priety, to honour the memory of John Daniel Leers, an
apothecary at Herborn in Naflau, author of the Mora Here
bornenfis, publifhed in 1775. This little oGavo volume,
now very rare, contains 1ixteen plates, in which all the
graffes are engraved by the hand of the author, with fuch
exquifite and minute precifion, that they will bear infpection.
with a magnifier, almoft like the plants themfelves, and are
unrivalled in natural hiftory. A life of the author by his
fon is prefixed to this book, by which we learn that he died.
December 7, 1774, aged 47. The narrative contains few
ilriking particulars, but the effufions of filial piety, with

y] which

LEE

which it abounds, muft ever be interelting, and do honour
both to the father and the fon. A fecond edition of this
work, from another hand, was publifhed many years after-
wards, of which the plates are extremely faulty and inaccu-
rate copies of the firfl, Swartz. Procr. 21. Ind. Occ.
v. 1, 129. Schreb. 818. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 325. Mart.
Mill. Di@, vy. 3. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. y. 1. 210.
Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 39. (Afprella; Schreb. 45.
Homalocenchrus; Mieg. Aét. Helvet. v. 4. 307. Hall.
Helvet. v. 2. 201. Allion. Pedem. v. 2. 232. Ehrhartia;
Wiggers Primit. 63.)—Clats and order, Triandria Digynia.
Nat. Ord. Gramina, Linn. Jul.

Gen. Ch. Calyx none. Cor, Glume of two clofed, boat-
fhaped, concave, comprefled ‘valves, often fringed with
prickles at the back, and nearly equal in length ; the outer
one larger, oblong, pointed; inner but half as broad, linear,
acute. Netary of two lanceolate acute leafets. . Stam.
Filaments three, in fome cafes one or fix, capillary, fhorter
than the corolla; anthers oblong. Pi/?. Gerinen fuperior,
ovate, comprefied ; flyles two, capillary, fhort; itigmas
feathery. Peric. none except the permanent clofed corolla.
Seed folitary, obovaic, comprefled.

Eff. Ch. Calyx none. Corolla of two clofed valtes.

Obf. Homalovenchrus, the name given to this genus by
_Mieg, was juitly, as compounded of another, thought ex-
ceptionable by Wiggers, who therefore preferred Lhrhartia ;
but the latter is now otherwife employed. (See Enr-
HARTA.) Dr. Solander it feems originally diitinguifhed
this genus from Pha/aris, and the name apphed to it by
Swartz, was adopted from his manufcripts. We cannot
account for the error of Wiggers, who afferts it to be gy-
nandrous, the {tamens growing out of the top of the germen.
We find no traces of any fuch infertion, which would be
truly fingular in a grafs. '

1. L.. oryzoides. | Swartz, Prodr. 21. Willd. n. 1.
(Phalaris oryzoides; Linn. Sp. Pl. 81. Swartz. Obf. 34.
Schreb. Gram. fafc. 2. 6. t. 22.—Panicle {preading. Flowers
fpreading, triandrous; their glumes fringed ut the keel. —
Native of watery places in Germany, France, Switzerland,
Aultria, Italy, and Perfia. Seguier fays it is frequent in
the rice-fields about Verona, ‘in weeding which this arafs
is detected, in its youngelt ftate, by its glaucous foliage,
and, at a more advanced period, by the minute prickles at
the edges of its leaves.” The roughnefs arifing from thefe
prickles feems the origin of the Italian name, /perella.
The roofs are perennial, with long runners. S¥ems four or
five feet high, leafy, ereét, {mooth, with hairy joints. Leaves
linear-lanceolate, pointed, ftriated, rough, efpecially at the
edges, flightly glaucous; with long, ftriated, roughifh
fheaths; and a fhort notched ftipuia. Panicle at firlt en-
veloped in the upper fheath, then fpreading, a fpan high,
with numerous, , drooping, compound, zigzag branches,
Flowers light green, very much refembling thofe of rice,
but {maller.

2. L. virginica.. Willd. n. 2. (L. oryzoides ; Michaux
Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 39... Oryza glumis carina hifpidis ;
Gronov. Virgin. ed. 1.153. Phalaris oryzoides; ed. 2.
714)—Panicle, loofe. Flowers moitly triandrous, ered,

*clofe-prefieds their glumes fringed at the keel.—Found in
Kentucky, Pennfylvania, and Carolina, Michaux. Inv
marfhes in Virginia, amongtt Sinilaces and Rubi, flowering
in Avguit., Clayton... Michaux thinks this is not fpecifically
diftinétfeom the former ; but Willdenow, who has obferved
them both'ina garden, faysthat, ‘ thongh much alike, they
are conftantly different. ‘he prefent has fhorter and broader
haves 5 a thorter panicle, whole branches are not zigzag but

LEE

flraight, and whofe flowers are clofely preffed to the ftalks.
The glumes are {maller, narrower, fparingly fringed. The
panicle of this is never covered by a leaf, but always expofed
and {preading."’ We have feen no f{pecimen of this Leerfia.
Willdenow enquires « wliether the Jamaica fpecies be the
fame with it ?”? By this he feems to mean, whether L. ory-
zvides of Swartz, which he had already quoted with a doubt
under the former, be this ZL. virginica. But Swartz no
where mentions the oryzoides as a Weft Indian plant. He
merely gives its character in italics, as ufual in his Prodromus,
to contraft it with his own new fpecies, and thereby indi-
cates it not to be a native of the Welt Indies.

3. L. hexandra. Willd. n. 4. Swartz. Ind. Occ:
Vv. 1. 131.—Panicle nearly ereét. Flowers alternate, clofe-
preffed, hexandrous; their glumes fringed at the keel, -
roughifh.—Native of watery places in the fouthern part of
Jamaica, where it was gathered by Browne arid Swartz.
Stem two feet high,*nearly ereét, with hairy joints, but
otherwife fmeoth, flender, leafy, fometimes a little branched.
Leaves rather glaucous, lanceolate, acute, {preading, flriated,
rough at the edges. Stipula pointed, beardlefs. Panicle
nearly erect, the branches a little fpreading in every dire¢tion,
by no means inclined to droop; the flowering part zigzag.
Flowers alternate, crowded, ere&, fo as to approach the
ftalk, purplifh, fmaller than in ZL. oryzoides, but otherwife
much like that fpecies. ‘The /famens however are conitantly
fix. It flowers in the fpring.

4. L. aufiralis. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 210.
—-Panicle loofe, with alternate branches ; thé lower o:es
divided. Flowers hexandrous ; their glumes fringed at the
keel, finely toothed at their ribs; fmooth at the fides.—
Gathered by Mr. R. Brown at Port Jackfon, as weil as in
the tropical part of New Holland. He thinks it fo near
the laft, as to be doubtful of their being diftiné.

Sx-Le lenticularis. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v. 1. 39.—
Branches of the panicle nearly folitary, their fecondary di-
vifions {piked. Flowers imbricated ; their glumes orbicular,
fringed. Native of marfhes in the country of the I'linois.
Michaux deferibes the g/wines as rather large, lenticular, and
confpicuoufly fringed. ’

6 L. monandra. Willd. n..3.. Swartz. Ind. “Occ. -
Vv. 1. 130.—Panicle fimple, loofe. Spikes remote, lax.
Flowers monandrous, fomewhat imbricated, fingle-ranked ;
their glumes roundifh, fmooth.—Obferved by Swartz in
chalky groves in Jamaica, flowering in the fpring. He
defcribes it as very different from all the other {pecies known
tohim. The /em is two or three feet high. Leaves long,. .
upright and fmocth, of abright green. FYoqwers the fize of
Millet-feed, green, {mooth, with only one flamen in each.

Lerersia, Hedw. Fund. v. 2. 88. See EncAtyrra.

LEERSTRAND, in Geography, a town of Norway 3. .
eight miles S.-W. of Drontheim. :

LEEKS, the groffeit and thickeft parts of ‘wine, oil, and 5
other liquors ; or the fediment found at the bdttom of the
veffel. See Lixivium.

The word comes fromthe French fe, and that either from
Timus,-mud, or from Lygus, one of the furnames of Bac-
chus; or, according to Du-Cange, from ca, a corrupt,
Latin word, Signifying the fame.

A kind of potufh, called cingres clavellati; is made with
the lees. of wine burnt, and prepared, ufed by dyers, &c: -
which ought to be remembered by people troubled with the
ttone, &c. .

The vinegar-makers make'a great trade of the lees of wine
dried, and made into cakes, after having {queezed out the -
remains of the liquor in prefles,

Alt

LEE

All the various kinds of lees, fuch as thole of wine, beer,
ale, oil, &c. may be made ufe of as manures, when they can
be had in fufficient quantities for the purpofe.

LEESBURG, in Geography, a poft-town of Maryland,
in America; 25 miles from Frederickftown.—Alfo, a poft-
town of Virginia, and the capital of Loudon county ;
fituated fix miles S.W. of the Patowmac, and containing
about 60 houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol; 20 miles from
Salifbury.

LEESNITZ, or Leenica, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Oppeln; 18 miles S.S.E. of Oppeln.

LEET, James, in Biography, was born at Geneva in
1560., He received the early part of his education at home ;
ftudied law under Cujas, and, through the influence of Beza,
obtained a chair in that faculty at Geneva in 1583. In
the following year he was made counfellor of ftate, and
the zeal and intelligence which he difplayed in the public
fervice caufed him four times to be appointed to the fyndi-
eate, or firft office in government, and likewife to be em-
ployed in important negociations; one of which was with
Elizabeth, queen of England, in order to obtain fome pecu-
niary aid for the republic. He was employed upon a fimi-
lar miffion to Holland, and obtained a fum from the prince
of Orange, and the ftates general, upon the condition that
the academy of Geneva fhould be re-eftablifhed. Leet fup-
ported this meafure, and delivered an oration “ De ftudiis
liberalibus publica ob mala non deferendis.”” “He was
employed to defend the rights of the republic with his pen
again{t the duke of Sayoy ; and he vindicated the Proteftant
religion in oppofition to the attacks of the prefident Favre.
He was author of various publications in jurifprudence, and
in polite literature. He died in 1611, highly refpected by
his countrymen as the model of a good citizen and magif-
trate. His principal works are, ‘* Thefaurus Juris Romani,
continens rariora meliorum Interpretum Opufcula;’’ five
vols. folio. His other publications confift chiefly of poems,
orations, pieces of biography, &c. Gen. Biog.

Leer, Leta, (leth, lethe, lathe,) is a term of Saxon ori-
ginal, and feems to be no other than the court of the Jathe ;
as the county court is the court of the county. For in an-
cient times the counties were fub-divided into /athes, rapes,
wapentakes, hundreds, and the like; and the fheriff twice
a year performed his ¢ourn or perambulation, for the execution
of juftice through the county. Afterwards the power of hold-
ing courts was granted to divers great men, within certain
diftriéts. And from hence, thefe courts, holden within par-
ticular parts of the county, have defcended-unto us without
variation, under the name of the ket, lth, or lathe courts.
See Court-/eet, and Franx-pledge.

- LEETAKOO, in Geography, alarge and populous city
‘of Africa, the capital of a tribe of Kaffers called ** Boo-
fhooanas,”’ and the refidence of their chief, fituated at the
diftance of 16 days’ journey beyond the Orange river in the
direction of N.E. from the Cape of Good Hope. The
palace of the chief, like the other houfes in the town, was
built in a circular form, being about 16 feet in diameter. The
lower part, to the height of four feet from the ground, was
ftone laid in clay, and wooden {pars erected at certain dif-
tances. On the eaft fide of the circle, about the fourth part
of the houfe was open, the other three-fourths entirely
clofed. A round pointed roof covered the whole in the form
ef a tent, well thatched with long reeds, or with the flraws
of the holcus. From the centre to the back part of the
houfe, a circular apartment is made off, with a narrow en-
trance into it, where the head of the family takes his nightly
reft; the other members of the family fleep in the fore part,

LEF

or between the large and {mall circles of the houfe. All the
houfes are enclofed with palifades; and the fpace between
thefe and the dwelling ferves for a granary, and ftore for
their grain and pulfe. Thefe granaries are con{truéed in
the form of oil-jars, of baked clay, the capacity of each
being at the leaft 200 gallons; and they are fupported on
tripods, compofed of the fame material, which raife them
about nine inches above the ground. ‘They are covered with
around ftraw roof ereéted on poles, and fufficiently high
to admit an opening into the jars, the upper edges of which
are from five to fix feet from the ground. Within and with-
out the town are plantations of that fpecies of Mimofa,
which conftitutes the principal food of the camelopardalis.
The city in its circumference is eftimated as large as Cape
Town, with all the gardens of Table valley ; but it is im-
poffible to afcertain the number of houfes, by a general fur-
vey, on account of the irregularity of the ftreets, and low-
nefs of the buildings; but they are fuppofed to amount to
between two and three thoufand, of the fame kind, but not
fo large, as that of the chief. The whole population, in-
cluding men, women, and children, were eftimated at between
ten and fifteen thoufand perfons. The fituation of Leetakoo
was calculated to be S. lat. 26° 30!, and E. long. 27°.

LEEUWE, or Leeuwen, a town of. France, in the de-
partment of the Dyle, called by the Flemings “ Sout.
Leeuwe,”’ fituated on the river Geeta, in the mid{t of a mo-
rafs; formerly a place of ftrength, to which perfons con-
demned to banifhment were fent ; 20 miles W.N.W. of
Liege.

LEEWA RD Istanps, fo called in contradiftinGion to
the Windward iflands, an appellation given to them from
their fituation in a voyage from the ports of Spain to Cartha-
gena, or Porto Bello. Thofe that lie to leeward extend
from Porto Rico to Dominica.

LEFCA, a town of the ifland of Cyprus, the refidence
of an aga and acadi. It was one of the four cities that
bore the name of Arfinde; 28 miles N.E. of Baffa.

LEFIKEH, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in the province
of Natolia; near it isa convent, which is the refidence of a
Greek bifhop ; 16 miles S.E. of Ifnik.

LEFOOGA, one of the Friendly iflands in the South
fea, near Hapaee; in reality forming with three other
iflands, viz. Haanno, Foa, and Hoolaiva, a group, diftin-
guifhed by the general name Hapaee. Each is about fix or
feven miles long, and of a fimilar height and appearance.
Lefooga is joined by a reef to Foa. Lefooga is in feveral
re{peéts fuperior to Annamooka ; its plantations were more
numerous and more extenfive. Towards the fea, indeed, on
the eaft fide, the country is {till wafte, which is probably
owing to its fandy foil, as it is much lower than Annamooka
and its furrounding ifles. ‘Towards the middle of the ifland
the foil was better, and here were exhibited confpicuous
marks of confiderable population, and improved cultivation.
The plantations were regularly fenced, and the fences, in a
manner running parallel to each other, fermed {pacious pub-
lic roads, not only convenient but ornamental. Large {pots
were covered with the paper mulberry trees, and the
plantations were generally ftocked with fuch roots and fruits
as are the natural produce of the ifland. At one place wasa’
houfe, four or five times as large as thofe of the common
fort, to which, it is fuppofed, the people refort on certain
public occafions. Near the landing place was obferved a’
mount, two or three feet high, covered with gravel; and
upon it f{tood four or five {mall huts, in which, as the natives”
faid, the bodies of fome of their principal people had been
interred. This ifland is not above feven miles long ; and, in

fome

LEG

- fome places, not aboye two or three broad. ‘The reef on the

eaft fide, confiderably broad, and on which the fea breaks
with great violence, is a continuation of that which joins

Lefooga to Foa, not above halfa mile diftant ; and at low

water, the natives can walk on this reef, which is then

partly dry, from one ifland to the other. The fhore itfelf
is either a coral rock, fix or feven feet high, or a fandy
beach ; but higher than the welt fide, which is not, in ge-
neral, more than three or four feet from the level of the fea,
with a fandy beach through its whole length. S. lat. 19°
47'. _E. long. 185° 40’.
LEFT, a town on the N. coatt of the ifland of Kifhma ;
12 miles N.E. of Kifhma.

LEG, Crus, in Anatomy. See ExTREMITIES.

Lec, Amputation of, in Surgery. See AMPUTATION.

Lee, Diflocations of. See Luxation.

Lee, Fradures of. See Fracture.

Lee,‘ Mortification of. See GANGRENE.

LEGACY, Lxcatum, in the Civil Law, a donation by
teftament ; anfwering to what in common law is called a
demife ; and the perfon to whom it is given is ftyled the
legatee.

* Legacy is ufually defined fome particular thing given by
a laft will and teflament ; becaufe if a man thus difpofe, or
transfer his whole eftate to another, it is called hereditas ;
and he to whom it is given is called heres. Though in com-
mon law, the diitinétion is this: that he to whom all a man’s
lands and hereditaments defcend by right of blood, is heres
natus ; the other, to whom it is bequeathed, is called heres

‘adus. .

This bequett transfers an inchoate property to the legatee ;
but the legacy is not perfect without the affent of the execu-
tor; for if I have a general or pecuniary legacy of 100)., or
a fpecific one of a piece of plate, I cannot in either cafe
take it without the confent of the executor. (Co. Litt. r11.
Aleyn. 39.) For all the chattels are vefted in him; and it
is his bufinefs firft of all to fee whether there is a fufficient
fund left to pay the debts of the teftator; the rule of equity
being, that a man mutt be juft before he is permitted to be
generous, or, as Bracton exprefles the fenfe of our an-
cient law, “de bonis defun@i primo deducenda funt ea
quz funt neceffitatis, et poftea que funt utilitatis, et
ultime que funt voluntatis.’’ In cafe of a deficiency
ef affets, all the general legacies muft abate in due pro-
portion to pay the debts; but a fpecific legacy, as of a
piece of plate, a horfe, or the like, is not at all to abate,
unlefs there be not fufficient without it. A fpecific legacy
is where, by the affent of the executor, the property of the
legacy will veft. Asin one way there is a benefit to a fpeci-
fic legatee, that he fhall not contribute, in cafe of a deficien-
cy, to pay all the legacies, fo there is a hazard in another
way: e. g. if fuch fpecific legacy, being a leafe, be eviéted ;
or being goods, be loft or burnt ; or, being a debt, be loft by
the infolvency of the debtor ; in all thefe cafes, fuch fpeci-
fic legatee fhall have no contribution from the other legatees,
and therefore fhall pay none towards them. (1 P. Wms.

539-) Hence a queltion of fome importance has arifen,
viz. whether a legacy was Specific or general? A {pecific le-
gacy ({triétly fpeaking) is faid by lord Hardwicke (1 Atk.
417.) to be a bequett of a particular chattel, /pecifically de-
{cribed and diftinguifhed from all other things of the fame
kind; or, in other words, an individual legacy. Money,
fufficiently diftinguifhed, may be the fubje& of a fpecific
bequelt ; as money in a certain cheft, or a particular debt.
So a bequeft of a part of a fpecific chattel may be equally
a fpecific legacy. (3 Atk. 103.) Legatees, however, of
{pecific parts, though not liable to abatement with general le-

LEG

tees, mutt neverthelefs abate proportionably among them-
elves, upon deficiency of the fpecific thing bequeathed
(2 Vez. 563.) ; or on deficiency of the general affets for
payment of debts. (1 P. Wms. 403.) And fpecific lega-
tees of diftin& chattels fhall abate proportionably on a defi-
ciency of general affets. 2P. Wms, 382.

On the other hand, a mere bequett of quantity, whether of
money or any other chattel, is a general legacy ; as of a quan-
tity of ftock (1 Atk. 414. 2 Vez. 562.) ; and where the
teftator has not fuch ftock at his death, it is a direGion to
the executor to procure fo much ftock for the legatee.
(Talb. 227.) The purpofe to which a general legacy is to
be applied will not alter its nature. (1 P. Wms. 539-) Per-
fonal annuities given by will are general legacies. 3 Atk,
693. 2 Vez. 417. See Execurorand Lecarer.

With regard to the payment of legacies, ifa legacy when
due be paid to the father of an infant, it is no good pay-
ment: and the executor may be obliged in equity to pay it
again ; and where any legacy is bequeathed to a feme-co-
vert, paying it to her alone is not fufficient, without her
hufband. 1 Vern. 261.

Executors are not bound to pay a legacy without fecurity
to refund ; and if fentence be given for a legacy in the eccle-
fiaftical court, a prohibition lies, unlefs they take fecurity
to refund. (2 Ventr. 358.) As an executor is not obliged
to pay a legacy without fecurity given him by the legatee to
refund, if there are debts, becaufe the legacy is not due
till the debts are paid, and a man muft be juit before he
is charitable ; fo in fome cafes, the executor may be com-
pelled to give fecurity to the legaté¢e for the payment of his
legacy ; as where a teftator bequeathed 1000/. to a perfon,
to be paid at the age of 21, and appointed an executor, and
died ; afterwards the legatee exhibited a bill in equity againft
the executor, fetting forth that he had wafted the eftate, and
praying that he might give fecurity to pay the legacy when
it fhould become due: and it was ordered accordingly.
1 Ch. Rep. 136. 257.

If a legacy is devifed, and no certain time of payment is
fixed, and the legatee is an infant, he fhall have intereft for
the legacy from the expiration of one year after the teftator’s
death ; but if the legatee be of full age, he fhall have no
intereft but from the time of the demand of his legacy.
Where a legacy is payable at a day certain, it mult be paid
with intereft from that day. (2 Salk. 415. 2 Nelf. Abr.
1114.) (See Lapfed Luecacy, and Inrerxst on Legacies.)
It has been decreed in equity, that although a legacy be
devifed to be paid at a certain time, it carries intereft only
from fuch time as it is demanded. A perfon having a lega-
cy, of which he was unapprized till a great while afterwards,
when the executors publifhed it in the gazette ; here chan-
cery would allow no intereft, but the bare debt. Pr.
Chane. 11.

As legacies are gratuities, and no duties, aétion will not
lie at common law far the recovery of a legacy ; but remedy
mutt be had in the chancery or fpiritual court. (Allen. 38.)
If a legacy is payable out of the land, or its profits, an ac-
tion on the cafe lies at common law ; but the ufual remedy
isin chancery. (Sid. 44. 3 Salk. 223-) By chief juftice
Holt, a legatee may maintain an action of debt at common

‘law, againit the owner of land, out of which the legacy is

to be paid ; and fince the ftatute of Wills gives him a right
by confequence he fhall have an aétion at Jaw to recover it.
(2 Salk. 415.) Itis now, however, pefitively determined,
that no a¢tion at law lies for a legacy ; the court of chan-
cery being the proper jurifdiction for that purpofe. (5 Term
Rep. 690.) Anexecutor being in equity confidered as a

truftee for the legatee, with refpeét to his legacy, and asa
10 truftee

LE‘G

truftce in certain cafes for the next of kin as to the undif-
pofed farplus, we hence derive the true ground of equitable
jurifdiction in enforcing the payment of a legacy, or diftri-
hiniat of perfonal eftate. (1 P. Wms. 544. 575.) ‘The
{piritual court adminilters redrefs in the cafe of fubtraétion,
or the withholding or detaining of legacies, as a confequen-
tial part of their teftamentary ‘orifdiction ; but in this cafe
the courts of equity exercife a concurrent jurifdiGtion, as in-
cident to fome other {pecies of relief required ; and as it is
beneath the dignity of the king’s courts to be merely aux-
iliary to other inferior jurifdictions, the caufe, when once
brought there, receives there alfo its full determination.
Blackit. Com. b. iii.

Wherea teftator gives his debtor a legacy greater than his
debt, it thall be taken in fatisfaGtion of it ; though where
the legacy is lefs, it thall not be deemedas any part thereof ;
but as a legacy isa gift, the legatee has been fometimes de-
creed both. (1 Salk. 195. 2 Salk. so8.) If a- greater
lezacy is given by a codicil, to the fame perfon that was
legatee in the will, it fhall not be a fatisfaction, unlefs fo ex-
prefled. (1 P. Wms. 424.) Although a legacy is a gift,
yet upon a principle already ftated, that a man fhould be
jult before he is kind, a bequeft of the fame fum by the
debtor to the creditor, fhall be applied in fatisfaftion of the
debt. (Pr. Ch. 394. 2P. Wms. 130. 3 P. Wms. 354.
rv Vez. 123. 4 P. Wms."616.) Yet when there are affets,
and the teftator intended both, it may be as good equity to
confider him as both juft and kind; and the conftruGion of
making a gift a fatisfaction has, in many cafes, been carried
too far, (1 Salk. 155. & P. Wms. 410. 2 P. Wms. 616.)
Cafes of this nature depend upon circumftances ; and where
alegacy has been decreed to go in fatisfaction of adebt, it
muit be grounded upon fome evidence, or at leaft a {trong
prefumption that the teftator did fo intend it; fora court of
equity ought not to hinder a man from difpofing of his own
as he pleafes ; and therefore the intention of the party is to
be the rule; for where he fays he gives a legacy, the
court cannot contradict him, and fay he pays a debt. (Treat.
Eq. lib. 4. p. 1. c.1. §.5.) Jacob's Law Di&. by Tom-
Ins, tit. Legacy. See Wi.

Lrcacy, Contingent. See ConTINGENT.

Lecacies, Jntereff on. See INTEREST.

Lecacy, Lapfed, is where the legatee dies before the tef-
tator, in which cafe the legacy fhall fink into the refiduum.
(See Contincent.) A legacy to be paid, when he at-
tains the age of 21 years, is a veffed legacy ; an intereft
which commences in prefenti, although it be folvendum in fu-
éuro ; and if the legatee dies before that age, his reprefenta-
tives fhall receive it out of the teftator’s perfonal eftate, at
the fame time it would have become payable, in cafe the le-
gatee had lived. But if fuch legacies be charged upon a
seal eftate, they fhall lapfe for the benefit of the heir; for
in regard to devifes affecting lands, the ecclefiaftical court
hath no concurrent jurifdi€tion with chancery. And yet
where rooo/. was given by a perfon out of lands to his
daughter, and intereft to be computed from his death, &c.
here, though the legatee died before the time appointed for
paying the fame, it was held the legacy fhouldbe raifed not-
withitanding, and the lord chancellor faid that this legacy
was a velted one, (2 Vern. Rep. 617. Barnardift. 328.
330-) Incafe of a velted legacy, due immediately, and
charged on land, or money in the funds, which yield an im-
mediate profit, intereft fhall be payable thereon from the
teftator’s death. See Interest on Legacies, and LEGATER.

Leeactes, Subtradion of. See SupTRACTION.

Lecacy, in an Ecclefaftical Senfe, was a foul-feat, a be-
gueft to the church, or accuftomed mortuary; which was

LEG

to hold good, even though the teftament itfelf were declared
null and invalid. :

LEGAL Column, Gconomy, Subrogation, and Tutorage.
See the feveral fubftantives.

LEGALIS, Homo, in Law,a perfon who ftands reéus
in curia, not outlawed, nor excommunicated, nor infamous.
And in this fenfe are thofe words fo often ufed, probi et les
gales homines.

Hence, alfo, legality is taken for the condition of fuch a
man.

LEGATA, fem. Lecare, plu. in Mufic. Sce Nort
and SyNcopaTion.

LEGATE, a prelate, whom the
fador to any fovereign prince.

The term legate comes from /egalus, which Varro derives
from fegere, to chao/e; and others from Jegare, delegare, to
Jud, or delegate. Wicquefort.

There are three kinds of legates; viz. legates @ Jaterey
legates de Jatere, and legates by office, or legati nati.

Of thefe, the moft confiderable are the legates a Jatere ;
fuch are thofe whom the pope commiffions to take his place
in councils; who are thus called, becaufe the pope never
gives this office to any but his greatett favourites and confi- «
dants, who are always at his fide, a /atere ; that is, to the
cardinals. ;

A legate a /atere may confer benefices without mandate,
legitimate baftards to hold offices, and has a crofs carried
before him as the enfign of his authority.

The legates de /atere are thofe who, not being cardinals, are
yet Slate with an apottolical legation.

Lecates by office, legati nati, are thofe who have not any
particular legation given them ; but who, by virtue of their
dignity, and place in the church, become legates. Such
are the archbifhop of Rheims and Arles. But the authority
of thefe legates is much inferior to that of the legates a /a-
tere. The power of a legate is fometimes alfo given with-
out the title ; fome of the nuncios are invefted with it.

Leeate, Court of the. See Court.

LEGATEE, or Lrcarary, in Law, the perfon to
whom a legacy is left; which every perfon is capable of
being, unlefs particularly difabled by the common law or
ftatutes, as traitors, and fome others.

Formerly Papifts were under feveral difabilities, both as
to purchafing lands, and taking them by defcent or devife ;
but in thefe more liberal and enlightened times, fuch dif-

* abilities are removed, and Papifts, or as we fhould rather
call them, Roman Catholics, are rendered capable ¢ pur-
chafing and devifing lands, and having them by defcent,
purchafe, and devife, on taking the oath prefcribed to them
by 18 Ges. III. c. 60.

It feems to be ‘neceflary that a legatee fhould be born at
the time of making the will; and it has been adjudged,
where legacies were given to a man’s children, that thofe
who were born afterwards fhould have no fhare. (2 Bullt.
153.) But it has been otherwife decreed in chancery.
(1 Ch. Rep. 301.) The general rule with regard to lega-
tees is, that if the legatee die before the teftator, or before
the condition upon which the legacy is given be performed,
or before it be velted in intereft, the legacy is extinguifhed.
laisse Eq. lib. 4: part 1. c. 2.) Buta bequeft may be fo
pecially framed as to prevent the death of the legatee from
occafioning a lapfe of the legacy. (3 Atk. 572. 530.)
Nor will the rule extend to a legacy bequeathed to two or
more ; for though, by the civil law, there is no furvivorfhip
among legatees, yet it is fettled that a legacy to two or
more is not extinguifhed by the death of one, but will veft
in the furvivor, (Gilb. Rep.137. 2 Atk. 220.) Nor mu

the

pope fends as ambaf-

LEG

the rule éxtend to thofe cafes where the legacy is given
over after the death of the firft legatee ; for in fuch cafes
the legatee in remainder fhall have it immediately. (1 And.
33- pl. 82. 2 Vern. 207. 1 P. Wms. 274. 3 P. Wms. 113.
Pr. Ch. 37. Mofch. 319. 2 Vern. 378.) Nor will a legacy
lapfe by the death of the legatee in the teftator’s life-time,
if he be to take asatruftee; (See 1 Vez. 140; and 2 Vern.
468.) in which latter cafe the point is doubted. When a
father makes provilion for a child by his will, and afterwards
gives to fuch child, being a daughter, a portion in marriage ;
or, being a fon, a fum of money to eftablifh him in life, (fuch
portion or fum being in amount equal to, or greater than,
the legacy,) it is an implied ademption of the legacy ; for
the law will not intend that the father defigned two portions
to one child. (1 P.Wms. 680. 2 Ch. Rep, 85. 2 Vern.
115.257. 2 Atk. 216. Ambl. 325. 2 Bro. C.R. 307.)
But this implication will not arife, if the provifion by the
will be by bequeft of the refidue (2 Atk. 216.); or if
the provifion in the father’s life-time be fubject to a contin-
gency (2 Atk. 4grt.), or be not eju/dem generis with the le-
gacy (1 Bro. C. R. 425.) ; or if the teftator be a ftranger
(2 Atk. 516. 2 Bro. C. R. 499.) ; and fuch implication is
always liable to be refuted by evidence. 2 Atk. 516.
2 Bro. C. R. 165. 519.

A bequeft of money to one at the age of 21, or day of
marriage, without faying, fo be paid at that time, the legatee
dying before the term, is a lapfed legacy ; and fo it would
have been, if the devife had been to her when fhe fhall marry,
er when a fon fhall come of age, and they die before.
(Godb. 182. 2 Vent. 342.) But a devife of a fum of
money, fo be paid at the day of marriage, or age of 21
years, if the legatee die before either of thefe events happen,
fhall go to the legatee’s adminiftrator, becaufe the legatee
had a prefent intereft, though the time of payment was not
yet come ; and it isa charge on the perfonal eftate which
was in being at the teitator’s death; and if it were difcharged
by this accident, then it would be for the benefit of the exe-
cutor, which was never intended by the teftator. (2 Vent.
366. 2 Lev. 207.) If the legacy be to the legatee payable
io him at a certain age, and the legatee die before he attain
that age, this is a velted and tranfmiffable intereft in the
legatee. (2 Vent. 342. 2 Ch. Car. 155. 3 Vern. 462.
3 P. Wms. 138. 2 Vern. 199.) Otherwife, if the legacy
be to the legatee generally, at or when he attains fuch age.

(2 Vent. 342. 2 Salk. 415. 1 Eq. Ab. 259, 6. 1 Bro.
C. R. 119.) If the legacy be made to carry interett,
though the words fo be paid or payable are omitted, it is a
velted and tran{miffable intereft. (2 Vent. 342. 2 Ch. Car.
155. 2 Vern. 673. 2 Vez. 263. 3 Atk. 645.) So if the
bequett be to A. for life, and after the death of A. to B.,
the bequeft to B. is vefted upon the death of the teftator,
and will not lapfe by the death of B. in the life-time of A.
(2 Vent. 347. 1 P. Wms. 566. 2 Vern. 378. Ambl. 167.
1 Bro. C. R, 119. 181.) A perfon by will, &c. gives a por-
tion or legacy to a child, payable at 21 years of age, out of a
real and perfonal eftate, and the child dies before the legacy
becomes payable; in that cafe, fo much of it as the perfonal
eltate will pay, fhall go to the child’s executors and ad-
miniftrators; but fo far as the legacy is charged upon the
land, it is faid that it fhall ‘fink. (z P. Wms. 613.) Ja-
cob’s Law Dié. by Tomlins, vol. ii, See Lecacy and
Executor.

~ Lecarer, Refiduar;, is the perfon to whom the refi-
duum, or what remains of an eftate, after funeral charges,
debts, and legacies, are paid, is left by will. See Exr-
CUTOR.

VoL, XX

LEG

LEGATINE Constitutions. See Coystrrutions.

LEGATIS Tevxementis. See TeNementis. :

LEGATO, Jtal., in Mufic, bound, tied, conneéted, fuf-
tained.

LEGATORY, or Lecarary, a term ufed in {peaking
of the government of the ancient Romans: Auguttus di-
vided the provinces of the empire into confular, legatory,
and prefidial. The legatory provinces were thofe of which
the emperor himfelf was governor, but where he did not
refide, but adminiltered affairs by his lieutenant, or legatus.

Lrcarory, or Legatary, the fame with legatee of a
will. (27 Eliz, cap. 16.) It is derived from the Latin 4ga-
tarius.

LEGATUM, in an Lcchfiaflical Senfe, was a legacy

iven to the church, or accuftomed mortuary.

LEGATURA, Jtal., in Modern Mufic, implies a
binding note; as when the bar goes through the middle of
the note, or two notes of the fame kind are tied together
by a femicirle.

The bar is feldom drawn through the head of the note,
except in alla breve time: notes of lefs value are linked to-
gether by a femicircle, or tie. See Syncorarion.

qe =

In old church mufic, before the ufe of bars, and when
the notes were chiefly fquare, fuch as the farge, the Jong,
and the dreve, the laws of ligature conftituted the moft diffi-
cult and tedious part of a practical mufician’s ftudy. The
value or length of a note, in the fifteenth or fixteenth cen-
turies, was changed, by the pofition of the tail being up-
wards or downwards, on the left or right fide of a note, or
in the middle of ameafure. In the mufic-fchool at Oxford,
a fet of mafs books is preferved, containing compofitions by
Dr. Fairfax, Taverner, and other old Englifh matters, of
Henry VII.’s and Henry VIII.’s time, that are totally un-
intelligible, except to very curious and ftudious profeffers,
who have made the ligatures their peculiar ftudy.

Ligatures were ufed by the early contrapuntifts, in vocal
mufic, to conneét fuch founds as were to be fuftained or
fung to one fyllable, as is done at prefent by femicircular
marks, called binding-notes, and flurs. The rules for thefe
are too numerous and vague to be explained without a long
difcuffion, and their powers will perhaps be belt compre=
hended in the examples of ancient compofition of different
parts, in partition, and barred. However, it may be ufeful
to thofe who undertake to decypher fuch mufic, to re-
member that all the fquare notes in ligature, with tails or
the right hand, defcending, are longs; on the &ft, breves ;
and all with tails on the deft, afcending, ave femibreves.
Square notes, without tails, in ligature, are in general
breves, though there are fome exceptions to this rule, for
which it is not eafy to affign a caufe.

ptiie 11 6 Jas Ligatures

LEG

LEG:

Ligatures explained by equivalent Notes.

Black, fquare, and lozenge notes, when mixed with white,
are diminifhed one-fourth of the value they have, while open

Expl.

Expl. Expl. Eapl.

or vacuate.
{ruck twice, in the following proportions ;

And a note partially black, or demivacuate, is”

Expl.

£ xpl .

LEGATUS, among the Romans, a military officer,
who commanded as deputy of the chief general.

Of thefe there were divers kinds; viz. a legatus in the
army under the imperator, or general, anfwermg to our
lieutenant-general ; and a legatus in the provinces, under the
proconful, or governor.

When any confiderable perfon among the Roman citizens
had occafion to pafs through any of the provinces, the fenate
gave him the title of legatus; that is, of envoy from the fe-
nate, to the end that he might be received with the greater
refpe&t, and that the cities and towns, through which he
travelled, might defray his expences. This they called a
free legation, libera legatio ; becaufe the perfon was not in-
cumbered with any truft, and might lay it afide as foon as
he pleafed. .

LEGAU, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, belonging
to the abbey of Kempten; 2 miles N.N.W. of Kempten.

LE/GE!, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Loire, and chief place of a canton, in the diltrift of
Nantes; 21 miles S. of Nantes. ‘The place contains 2893,
and the canton 5227 inhabitants, on a territory of 167; ki-
liometres, in 5 communes.

LEGEM, ad communem, entry, in Law, a writ of entry
which lies where tenant for term of life, or for term of
another’s life, or by courtefy, &c. aliens and dies, when he
in the reverfion fhall have his writ againft any one that is
in poffeffion of the land. New Nat. Brev. 461. See
Entry.

Lurcem facere, to make law, or oath; and degem habere,
is to be capable of giving evidence upon oath: <«¢ Minor
non habet legem.”? Selden’s Notes on Heng. 133. ;

LEGEND, Lercenna, was originally a book ufed in
the old Romifh churches, containing the leffons that were to
be read in divine fervice.

Hence alfo the lives of faints and martyrs came to be called
legends ; becaufe the chapters were read out of them at
matins, and in the refediories of the religious houfes.

The firft Greek legend which is known 1s that of Simon
Metaphraftus of the tenth century, who writ the lives of
faints adapted to every day of the year. The firft Latin
legend is,

Lecenp, Golden, or a collection of the lives of the faints,
compiled by James de Varafe, better known by his Latin
name of J de Voragine, vicar-general of the Dominicans,
and afterwards archbifhop of Genoa, who died in 1298.

Tt was received into the church with great applaufe,
which it maintained for two hundred years; but, in effect, it

is fo full of ridiculous and romantic accounts, that the Ro-
manifts themfelyes are now generally afhamed of it. The
word legend itfelf is, on that account, come into difrepute.

Lecenp is alfo ufed by authors to fignify the words or
letters engraven about the margins, &c. of coins.

Thus, the legend of a French crown is, sIf NOMEN
DOMINI BENEDICTVM ; that of a moidore, IN HOC SIGNO
vinces: on thofe of the laft emperors of Conflantinople,
we find IESVS CHRISTVS BASILEVS BASILEON; IHS XFS NICA,,
IESVS CHRISTVS ViNcIT. For a brief hiftorical account of
the legend on coins, and the method of engraving it; fee
the article CoInAGE.

Lecenp is alfo applied to the infcription of medals, which
ferve to explain the figures or devices thereof.

In ftriGtnefs, the legend differs from the infcription ; this
laft properly fignifying words placed on the reverfe of a
medal, in lieu of figures. When the letters or words of a
medal occupy the field, they are called an in/crittton ; but
when they run round the margin, on either fide of the
figures, or on the éxergue, they are denominated a /egend.

It feems as if the ancients had intended their medals fhould
ferve both as images, and as emblems: the one for the com-
mon people, and the other for perfons of taite and parts;
the images to reprefent the faces of princes; and emblems
to reprefent their virtues, and great a¢tions: fo that the le-
gend is to be looked on as the foul of the medal, and the
figures as the body. d

Every medal has properly two legends; that on the front,
and that on the reverfe. The firft generally ferves only to
diftinguifh the perfon by his name, titles, offices, &ci; the
latter is intended to exprefs his noble and virtuous fenti- ©
ments, his good deeds, and the advantages the public has
reaped by him. This, however, does not hold univerfally ;
for fometimes we find the titles fhared between both fides,
and fometimes alfo the legend. __

In the medals of cities and provinces, as the head is
ufually the genius of the place, or, at leaft, fome deity
adored there, the legend is the name of the city, province, '
or deity, or of both together; and the reverfe is fome fym-
bol of the city, &e. frequently without a legend ;. fometimes
with that of one of its magiltrates-

The ordinary fubjeéts of legends are, the virtues of
princes, the honours they have received, confecrations, fig-
nal events, public monuments, deities, public vows, privi-,
leges, &e. aa

Legends and infcriptions of medals are either in Latin or
Greek. The Greek character, confifting of majufcule, or

i capital

LEGEND

wapitalletters, appears uniform on all the medals; no change
er alteration being fcund in confronting the feveral charac-
ters; though it is certain there was in the ordinary ufe and
pronunciation. All we obferve on medals is fometimes a
mixture of Greek and Latin letters.

Upon many’ of the coins ftruck in the Greek cities, we
find the legend of the obverfe in Latin, while that of the
reverfe is in Greek. The reafon of this, fuggefted by Mr.
Pinkerton, feems to be, that the magiftrate of fuch country
‘mint, not having any portrait of the emperor, fent to Rome
for one, which was returned in a die ready cut with the le-
geod. To this a reverfe was made by the Greek artifts ;
the magiltrate inclining to fave the expence of cutting an-
other obverfe. This opinion is confirmed by the fa&, that
few or no coins occur with Latin legends on,the reverfe, and
Greek in front: befides, the dies are hattily done, and after
the manner of different mints.

The charaéter was preferved in all its beauty till the time
of Gallienus.

From the time of Conftantine, and for the fpace of five
hundred years, the Latin tongue was alone ufed in the le-
gends of medals, even in thofe {truck at Conttantinople.
Michael began the firft, whofe legend-was in Greek ; and
from his time the language, as well as the characters, began
to alter for the worfe. See Mrpat. :

The Latin legends are all read from the left to the right ;
but the legends of fome Greek medals are wrote the contrary
way, from the right to the left. The letters of the circular
legends are commonly placed with the bottoms inward ; but
fometimes with the bottoms towards the edge.

It is obferved by Mr. Pinkerton in his excellent “ Effay
on Medals,” that the legends of the earliett Greek writers
are very brief, rehearfing only the initials of the city or
prince: as AOE, money of Athens; =Y, money of Sybafis,
&c.: afterwards, A, money of Archelaus, king of Mace-
don; ©, money of Philip. Afterwards the name was put at
fulllength ; as ®TAITIMIOY, coin of Philip of Macedon ; and
“Alexander the Great has the title of BASIAEY®, or king.
In procefs of time, the Syrian and Egyptian kings, the
fucceffors of Alexander, added fome epithet of praife, as
EYEPTETHS, beneficent, or the like, together with the
year of their era in which the coin was ftruck. In this ftate
the Greek coinage remained, till the Roman empire fwal-
lowed up all the kingdoms and cities which ufed that lan-
guage. ‘ Under the dominion of the Roman emperors, the
Greek mint afflumed more of the Roman form, then more
perfect, as to legend, than their own. On the face they
gave the Roman emperor or emprefs, with their titles ; the
founder of their city, with his name; the fenate or the
people of Rome, who had proteéted them; or the ideal
buft of the genius of their city: while the reverfe prefents
us with a legend indicative of the name of the magiftrate
under whom the money was {truck ; of fome treaty entered
into with one or more neighbouring ftates; of the river or
dvity reprefented, and the like.” The Greek artifts, as
the fame ingenious writer obferves, to their honour, even
when their mint was deprefled by the Roman power, feldom
or never explain by their legends the reverfes of their coins ;
commonly, and almoft univerfally, putting for the legend
of the reverfe the name of the city, frequently adding that
of the magiftrate. The fymbols of their deities were fa-
miliar, and needed no explanatory legend. Per/onifications,
rare on Greek coins, except of their cities and rivers, are
commonly accompanied by an illuftrative legend; and the
Egyptian coins have alfo fimilar legends. The Grecian
evins of cities feldom exprefs more in their legends than the
same of the town, geverally contracted till the Roman

times. When the Roman empite fwallowed up the Grecian,
the legends on Greek coins were as much diflinguithed by
their length as they had before been by their brevity. The
titles of the emperors are tranflated from the Latin as li-
terally as poffible, as AYTOKPATQP for Imperator, KAIZAP
for Cxfar, &c. In order to exprefs Latin founds, the
Greeks were often obliged to put their own enunciation of
the fame word, in characters’ very different from the Latin,
as KOYINTOS for Quintus. On the reverfes of Greek im-
perial coins, the legends are very various; fuch are KOI-
NON, the community ; OMONOIA, the alliance; AYTO-
NOMOI, living by their own laws ; EAEY@EPOT, free, &c.
Inferiptions filling the whole field of the reverfe are not fo
common in Greek coins. Some few, however, occur, par-
ticularly upon thofe of Smyrna. Our author further ob-
ferves, that the noted S.C., fignifying Senalus Confulto, by
decree of the fenate, and exprefling the authority of the
fenate of Rome for itriking any coin, never appears upou
thofe of gold er filver, in the fame fenfe as when it occurs
upon thofe of brafs. He fuggefts, that the Roman em-
perors had the fole difpofal of the gold and filver coinage,
but left that of brafs entirely to the fenate. ‘The Roman le-
gends refembled, for fome time, in their fimplicity thofe of the
Greeks; but gradually proceeded to more explicit length,
and in time from elegant and fimple veracity degenerated into
flattery. This remark is ftriétly applicable to the legends
of the obverfe ; whereas thofe of the reverfe began to flatter
as foon as there was a prince, ‘¢ an idol upon whofe altar to
burn the cloudy perfume.'’ Clemency and moderation are
found upon the medals of Tiberius, and equivalent virtues
upon thofe of Titus. The reverfes of the firft imperial
coins are not, however, wanting in adulation; which, fays
Mr. Pinkerton, is not to be wondered at, ** when we con-
fider.that Virgil and Horace, men of the moft enlightened
minds, whatever may be decided of their claim to genius,
were yet capable of even forgetting the found dignity of
poetry, and proftituting it at the bloody footftool of a ty-
rant. What Montefquieu fays of the Englifh, that if ever
they were reduced to be flaves, they would prove the
meanett of all flaves, was exemplified in the condué of the
ancient Romans.’’ In procefs of time, “a fucceffion of
virtuous monarchs authorized the reverfes fo foreign to moft
of their predeceffors. S. P.Q.R. oprimo Princip, fo
common on the coins of Trajan, is not flattery, but glory.
All the virtues appear without impropriety on the medals of
Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonini. But in pro-
portion as the empire declined, the more common are flat-
tery and grofs impropriety in the legends of the Roman
coin”? The Greeks alfo even furpafled the Romans them-
felyés in the bafe art of adulation. ‘ The legends of the
Roman imperial coins are defervedly celebrated for their
beautiful fimplicity, and emphatic brevity, fo as to be ac-
counted models of the kind.’’ Mr. Pinkerton has fubjoined
feveral inftanees to this purpofe. The compals of a coin is
fo fmall, that artifts have always been obliged to ule ab-
breviations in the legends and infcriptions. ‘This circum-
ftance occafions confiderable difficulty in interpreting them.
Mr. Pinkerton, in the appendix to his valuable work, has
furnifhed an explanation of thofe that molt commonly occur.

Dr. Coningham, in his Tract on Modern Medals, cited by
Mr. Pinkerton, enumerates five kinds of improper legends
on modern medals; viz. poetical, impious, jingling, intri-
cate, and abufive. Of the firfl kind he inftances a French
medal, ftruck on occation of fome advantage over the Engilifh
at fea, MATURATE FUGAM, which, he fays, reminds us of Virgil
and not of the action. Mr. Addifon, in his third dialogte
on medals, vindicates poetical legends. But Mr. Pinkertoa

3Q2 juilly

L E.G

juftly obferves, that medals are certainly meant to be hiflo-
rical, and that poetry has in it fomething alien to hiftory and
deitruétive of its reality ; and he adds, that the ancients do
not afford a fingle example of a poetical legend on a medal.
Of the jingling kind of legend is that of Franeis Morozini,
Jupiter with an urn, GAUDET FLUMINE NON FULMINT, and
alfo that of Richard Cromwell, NoN DEFICIENT OLIV,
confounding the clive-tree with Oliver Cromwell. To the
intricate kind is referred the chronological coin of Guitavus
Adolphus, king of Sweden, CurIstVs DVX ERGO
TrIVMpHVs, the numeral letters making the year 1632.
Of the abufive kind is the Dutch medal on their ftadtholder,
QUANTUM MUTATUS AB ILLO, and Louis X1V., vino
IMMORTALI CUM FISTULA Is ANo. To thefe long legends
might be added. The ancient legends are remarkable for
iimple brevity and energy ; and the belt of the modern clafs
are formed ou their model.

For further particulars we refer to Mr. Pinkerton’'s “ Ef-
fay on Medals,’ 1789, vol. i. § 12. vol. ti, § 18. See
Mepbats.

LEGER, Anruosy, in Biography, a learned Piedmon-
tefe, was born in the year 1594. , After purfuing his ftudies
at Geneva, he entered the work of the miniflry, the duties
of which he difcharged many years with great punctuality.
In 1628 he went to Conftantinople, as chaplain to the am-
baffador of the States-general in the Ottoman Porte, and
there became intimately conneéted with the celebrated Cy-
rillus, On his retarn to Piedmont in 1637, he was chofen
pattor of the church of St. John, a fituation which he re-
tained fix years ; during which he difplayed much talent and
leafning in the defence of the Proteftant faith. In 1643, he
was profcribed by the duke of Savoy, and was obliged to
feek for fafety in Geneva, where he not only exercifed his
profeffion, but was clected profeffor of the Oriental lan-
guages, and of divinity. He diced in 1661, at the age of
fixty-feven. He publifhed at Geneva an edition of the New
Teftament in two vols. 4to. in the Greek and French lan-
guages. He left a fon of the fame name, celebrated as an
eloquent preacher, who died in 1719, and after his death
five volumes of his fermons were publifhed. Moreri.

Lxcer, Jown, nephe» of Anthony, was born in 16155
and educated for the profeffion of the miniftry, was chofen
to fucceed his uncle when he was obliged to fly for his life to
Geneva. In this church he continued his labours till the
year 1655, when the perfecution of the WALDENSES (which
fee) broke out with great rage. Leger made his efcape to
France, and from thence he tranfmitted an affe&ting account
of the cruelties perpetrated on the Proteitants to Oliver Crom-
well, who fent an extraordinary ambaflador to the duke of
Savoy, to remonitrate with him on thofe proceedings. Leger
likewife applied to the king of France, and to the Proteftant
itates, foliciting their interference in behalf of his country-
men. A treaty, now agreed on, feemed to promife future
fecurity and toleration. Leger was at the jigning of this
treaty, which being very fhortly broke, and new oppref-
fions and perfecutions let loofe on the inhabitants of the
vallies, he was eppointed deputy general to feveral Protef-
tant powers to folicit again their mediation with the duke
of Savoy. This gave fuch offence to the court of Turin,
that Leger was proclaimed a traitor, and his houfe or-
dered to be razed to the ground. He now became paftor
of the Walloon church at Leyden, and in 2664, he vifited
Secretly the vallies, carrying. with him confiderable fums- of
money collected from the Proteftants, for the relief of his
perfecuted countrymen. He was author of a valuable hiftory
the Evangelical churches in the vallies of Piedmont.

oreri.

LEG
LEGEREMENT, Fr. in Muj/ic, indicates a movement

more lively than gay ; it is the mean between gay and quick,
anfwering nearly to vvace in Italian.

LEGER-LINE is ufed to fignify a line added to the
{taff of five lines, when the afcending and defcending notes
run yery high or very low. We often meet with feveral of
thefe Jines both above and below the fkaff.

LEGGE, Groxaz, in Biography, baron of Dartmouth,
and an eminent naval commander, was born about the year
1647. The family derive their origin from Italy, but have
for feveral centuries been refident in this country. Thomas
Legge, from whom George defcended, was lord mayor of
London in the years 1346 and 1353. The fubject of this
article, being intended early for the fea-fervice, was brought
up under admiral Spragge, and at the age of twenty ob-
tained the command of a fhip. In 1673 he was appointed
governor of Portfmouth, matter of the horfe, and held an
office under the duke of York. In 1682 he was raifed to
the peerage, and in the following year was fent to raze the
fortifications of Tangiers. By James II. he was appointed
matter of the horfe, general of the ordnance, and conttable
of the Tower. He had alfo the command of the fleet at
the time of the prince of Orange’s invaiion, but was pre-
vented from aéting by contrary winds. At the revolution
he was committed to the Tower, where he died in 1691, at
the age of 44. Englifh Peerage.

Lecce, Evizaseru, the eldeft daughter of Edward
Legge, efq. an anceltor of the preceding, and alfo of the
prefent earl of Dartmouth, was born in 1580: She ftadied
the ancient and feveral of the modern languages, and had a
fine poetical genius, but became blind by much ftudy. She
lived chiefly in Ireland, and died unmarried at the age of 105,
Her family were remarkable for longevity. One of her bro-
thers lived to 109, one fifter to be more than 100, and an-
other died in her 112th year.

LEGGIADRO, LrgerapramsnTes, Jtal. in Mufic, im-
plies gaily, lively, brifkly. See ALLEGRO.

LEGHEA, in Geography, a town of Nubia; 16 miles
W.N.W. of Dongola. N. lat. 20° 6!, E. long. 29° 30’.

LEGHENICH, or Leckenicu. See Lecxnicu.

LEGHI, a town of Arabia, in the province of Yemen ;.
56 miles E.N.E. of Aden.

LEGHORN, or Livorno, a confiderable, regular, well-
built, fortified and flourifhing city and fea-port of Etruria
(formerly the grand duchy of Tufcany) ; and, on account
of its canals, called the New Venice. It isa bifhop’s fee, de-
fended by a caftle, two {mall forts, anda broad ditch, fitu-
ated in a marfhy and infalubrious territory on the fea-coait,
oppofite to Malora, a fmall iffand, and diltant about 14.
miles from Pifa. The canals that interfeé its environs have
rendered the marfh fit for culture, and in fome degree con-
tributed to its greater falubrity. Its flreets are ilraight,
uniform, and fpacious ;, and many of the buildings are not
inelegant.. The town. is of a fquare form,. and 12,790 feet
in circuit, and contains a ducal palace, many religious houfes,
and from 40,0C0 to 50,000 inhabitants,. of whem 45,000 are
Jews, who live ina particular part of the city, are allowed a.
handfomefynagogue, and though fubje& to heavy impofts, are.
in a profperous ftate, as the greateft part of the commerce of.
the city is conduted by them. ‘The Greeks and Armenians:
have each their peculiar church, moft of them acknowledg-
ing the pope’s fupremacy. The free Turks and Turkih.
flaves havea mofque ; but the Proteftants are not permitted:
the public exercile of their religion,. the Englifh excepted,.
who are allowed to have a chaplain, becaufe of all foreign
nations they are the beft cuftomers to Leghorn. Other
Proteftants make ufe of chaplains of fhips. Proititutes are

5 reftritted

LE .G

refbricted to ® particular quarter, confifting of feveral ftreets.
‘The heavy taxes payable to the government, from various
neceflaries brought into the town from the continent, together
with monopolies of brandy, tobacco, and falt, render pro-
vilions and other commodities very dear. ‘The inhabitants
carry on an extenfive trade, which is much promoted by the
freedom of the port; every bale of goods, great or {mall,
paying only two-pialtres or feudi. ‘The harbour, which is
fecure, is divided into the outward and inward ;. the latter
ferving merely for four or five gallies, which are fometimes
fent to fea againft the corfairs, under the command of a
knight of St. Stephen. In the open place before this harbour
ftands a marble ftatue of Ferdinand J., and at the angles of
the pedeltal are four brazen flatues, of a gigantic fize, re-
prefenting four Turkith flaves in chains. ‘he outward har-
bour is formed by a mole or dam, 600 common paces in
length, well paved, with a partition in the middle, that ferves
to fhelter the fhipping from the wind on one fide. ‘Phe mole
ferves alfo for an occafional promenade. The harbour has
not fufficient water for large fhips, which therefore lie out
of the mole, moored to pillars and large iron rings; and
they are thus fafer than if they were in the harbour. ‘The
road, for a mile or two, is good, but not fecure again{t winds
and corfairs. Without the harbour on arock isa light-houfe,
where 30 burning lamps are contained in one lanthern, and
onthe fhore, not far from it, is a lazaretto, where quaran-
tine is performed by perfons and goods, that come from
fulpected places. (See ILazanrrro.) The power of the in-
quilition at Leghorn extends only to Roman Catholics, and
comprehends only cafes of religion. In June 1796 the
French took poffeffion of this town, and deftroyed the
fortifications. N. lat. 43° 32’. E. long. 10° 16’.

The principal monies of account at Leghorn are the
lira and pezza; the former being chiefly ufed in domef-
tic trade, and the latter in foreign commerce and ex-
changes. ach of thefe is dividedinto 20 parts called foldi,
and the foldo is {ubdivided into 12 parts called denari. The
pezza of Leghorn was originally the Spanith pefo, and hence
it is called the pezza de otto reali by the Italians, the
pialtre by the French, and dollars by the Englifh. This
pezza, valued in filver, is worth 463d. fterling, but valued
in gold, it is-worth 49d. fterling ; which is the intrinfic par
between London and Leghorn, as bills in the latter place
are paidin gold. The lira is either the lira moneta lunga,
or the lira moneta buona ;. the former being an imaginary
money of account, and the latter the real money of all Tuf-
eany. The lirais, as in Florence, according to the rate of
coinage, worth about 8d.

Accounts on Leghorn are underftood to be in moneta
lunga ;. and 23 lira moneta buona are worth 24 lira moneta
lunga. he lira has its fubdivifions. ‘he pezza is worth
54 lira moneta buona; or fix lira moneta lunga. Foreign
bills in Leghorn, unlefs particularly excepted, muft be paid
in gold, that is, in Florence fequins or rufponi, by weight.
No days of grace are allowed ; but bills are paid three times
a week at the ‘* Stanza,’’ a place where merchants meet on
Mondays,. Wednefdays, and Fridays. In freighting fhips
at Leghorn, 20 chelts. of fruit, 26:barrels of oil, 44 bar-
rels of wine, sGoolb. of alum, are reckoned one: laft, or
two tons.. See Kelly's Univerfal Cambift. vol. i:

LEGINAYW, a town of Pruffia, in the province of Er-
meland; 22 miles S.E: Heilfberg.

LEGION, a kind of regiment, or body of forcesy.

of a number of which the Roman armies were chiefly com-
posed.
The word comes from the Latin legere, te.choofe ;. becaufe

LEG

when the legions were raifed they made choice of fuch of
their youths as were the moit proper to bear arms.

The number of foldiers and officers of which the legion
confilled, was different at different times : but it is impoflible
to determine the precife time and manner of their alteration.
In the time of Romulus, the inftitutor of this corps, each
legion contained three thoufand foot, and three hundred
equites, or horfe : thefe were divided into three bodies, which
make as many orders of battle ; each bedy confifting of ten
companies, or manipules, ranged at fome diftance from each
other, though in the fame front. Each body had two gene-
ral officers to command it, called tridunes ; and each manipule,
two centurions.

Under the confuls, the legion confifted of four thoufand,
or four thoufand two hundred foot foldiers, who made four
bodies, commanded by a conful, or one of his lieutenants ;
and each legion had its fhare of cavalry, which was three
hundred horte.

About the year of Rome 412, it was compofed of five
thoufand foot; which was the number of a legion during
Julius Cefar’s wars with the Gauls. Under Augullus,
each legion confifted of fix thoufand one hundred foot, and
feven hundred and twenty-fix horfe. After his death, they
were reduced to five thoufand foot and fix hundred horte.
Under Tiberius, the legion was raifed again to fix thoufand
foot and fix hundred horfe. In the time of Septimius Seve-
rus, the legion was compofed of five thoufand men: under
the following emperors, it was the fame as it had been under
Anguttus.

In the time of Marius, thofe four divifions of the legion
which had taken place under the confuls, were unite# inte
one, and augmented ; and cohorts were appointed frem five
to fix hundred men, each under the command of a tribune.
Each cohort confifted of three companies of manipules,
each manipule of two centuries, and the legion was divided
into ten cohorts, who made as many diftinét battalions, dif-
pofed in three lines; fo that the legion, then, confifted of
fix thoufand men.

Hfidore tells us, that the legion confifted of fix thoufand
men, and was divided into fixty centuries, thirty manipules,
twelve cohorts, and two hundred troops. According to
the French academy, the legion confifted of fix thuufand
foot, and feven hundred and twenty-five horfe. The legion
confilted of four forts of foldiers, who differed in their
age, arms, and names: they were called Velites, Haflati,
Principes, and Triarii. (See Arms.) Till the deftruction at
Carthage, thefe were citizens of Rome, but after the Social
War, the freedom.of the city was granted to other towns
in Italy, and legionary troops were raifed. which were called
Roman, becaufe as they fhared. the privilege of. Roman citi-
zens, they were incorporated in.the republic.

The legions were by far the moft confiderable part of the
Roman army ;, their number, in the time of Avguftus, was
thirty-three; they were compofed wholly of. Roman citizens.
The allies formed a.body of auxiliary forces. See the fe-
quel of this article.

The ftandard borne by the legions was various; at firft,.
a wolf, in honour of that which fuckled Romulus; after
wards an hog; by reafon,. fays Fettus,. war is only. under--
taken with a view to-peace, which.was concluded by facri<-
ficing ahog. Sometimes they bore the minotaur, to remind.
their generals, that their defigns were to be kept fecret,.
and inacceffible as the minotaur in the labyrinth. They.
alfo bore a horfe, a boar, &c. Pliny tells us, that Marius
was the firft who changed all thefe ftandards into eagles,
See Eacte.

The different legions were diftinguifhed, according to the

order-

LEGION.

order in which they were raifed, into firft, fecond, and third,
&c. by the names of the emperors who formed them into
legio Auguita, Claudia, Flavia, Trajana, &c. by the pro-
vinces where they had ferved, as legio Parthica, Macedonica,
&c. and by fome famous exploit or difplay of valour.

We fhall here fubjoin’ fome further particulars relating to
the conititution and military fervices of the imperial legion.
It was compofed of infantry and cavalry. ‘The heavy-
armed infantry, which compofed its principal ftrength, was
divided into ten cohorts (fee Conorr), and lifty-five com-
panies, under the orders of a correfpondent number of tri-
bunes and centurions. The firft cohort, which always
claimed the poft of honour, and the cultody of the eagle;
was formed of 1105 foldiers, the moft approved for valour
and fidelity. The remaining rine cohorts confifted each of
555, and the whole body of legionary infantry amounted to
6100 men. ‘Their arms were uniform, and admirably
adapted to the fervice which they were required to per-
form; they confifted of an open helmet, with a lofty crelt,
a breaft-plate, and coat of mail; greaves on their legs; and
an ample buckler on their left arm. The buckler was of an
oblong and concave figure, four feet in length, and two and
a half in breadth, formed of a light wood, covered with a
bull’s hide, and ftrongly guarded with plates of brafs. Be-
fides a lighter fpear, the legionary foldier grafped in his
right hand the formidable pilum (which fee); and as foon as
he had darted this from his hand, he drew his fword, and
rufhed forward to clofe with the enemy. His {word was a
fhort well-tempered Spanifh blade, that carried a double
edge, and was alike adapted to the purpofe of pufhing or
ftrikffig ; but the foldier was always inftru€ted to prefer the
former ufe of his weapon, as his own body remained lefs ex-
pofed, while he inflifted a more dangerous wound on his ad-
werfary. See Veget. de Re Mil. l.ii. c. x. Lipfius de Militia
Romana. I. iii. c. 2—7. ;

The legion was ufually drawn up eight deep; and the
segular diftance of three feet was left between the files as
well as ranks.

The cavalry, which was neceflary for perfeting the force
of the legion, was divided into ten troops or {quadrons :
the firft, as the companion of the firft cohort, conlilted of
132 men; whilft each of the other nine amounted only to
66. The entire eftablifhment formed a regiment, according
to the modern expreffion, of 726 horfe, naturally connected
with its refpetive legion, but occafionally feparated to aét
in the line, and to compofe a part of the wings of the
army. The cavalry of the emperors was not compofed,
like that of the ancient republic, of the nobleft youths of
Rome and Italy, who, by performing their military fervice
on horfeback, prepared themfelves for the offices of fenator
and conful; and folicited, by deeds of valour, the future fuf
frages of their countrymen. Since the alteration of manners
and government, the moft wealthy of the equeltrian order were
engaged in the adminiftration of juftice and of the revenue ;
and whenever they embraced the profeffion of arms, they
were immediately intrufted with a troop of horfe, or a co-
hort of foot. Trajan and Adrian formed their cavalry from
the fame provinces, and the fame clafs of their fubjedts,
which recruited the ranks of the legion. The horfes were
bred, for’ the moft part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The
arms of the Roman troopers confifted in a helmet, an ob-
Jong fhield, light boots, and a coat of mail. A javelin,
and a long broadfword, were their principal weapons of of-
fence. The ufe of lances and of iron maces they feem to
have borrowed from the’ barbarians. Confiderable levies
were regularly made by the Romans among the provincials :
aad many dependent princes and communities, difperfed

round the frontiers, were permitted, for a while, to hold
their freedom and fecurity by the tenure of military fervice.
Even feleét troops of hoftile barbarians were compelled or
perfuaded to confume their valour in remote climates, and
for the benefit of the ftate. All thefe were included under
the general name of auxiliaries ; and their number was feldom

_ inferior to that of the legions themfelves. By this inftitu-

tion each legion, to which a certain proportion of auxili-
aries was allotted, contained within itfelf every fpecies of
lighter troops, and of miflile weapons; and was capable of
encountering every nation, with the advantages of its re{pett-
ive arms and difcipline. Nor was the legion deftitute.of
what, in modern language, would be ftyled a train of ar-
tillery. It confifted in ten military engines of the largett,
and 55 of a {maller fize ; but all of which, either in.an ob-
lique or horizontal manner, difcharged itones and darts with
irrefittible violence.

The camp of a Roman legion prefented the appearance
of a fortified city, See the defcription of it under Camp.
In their march, the legionaries carried their arms, and alfo
kitchen furniture, iaftruments of fortification, and provilion
for many days. ‘Thus laden, they advanced by a regular ttep,
to which they were trained, near twenty miles in about hx
hours. On the appearance of an enemy, they threw afide
their baggage ; and by eafy and rapid evolutions converted
the column of march into an order of battle. The flingers
and archers fkirmifhed in the front; the auxiliaries formed
the firft line, and were feconded or fuftained by the flrength
of the legions: the cavalry covered the flanks, and the mi-
litary engines were placed in the rear. :

As to the number of the legions, we may compute, that
the legion, which was itfelf a body of 6831 Romans, might,
with its attendant auxiliaries, amount to about 12,500 men.
The peace eftablifhment of Adrian and his fucceffors was
compofed of no lefs than 30 of thefe formidable brigades ;
and moft probably formed a ftanding force of 375,000 men.
As to the pofition of the legions, they were encamped on
the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the
barbarians. As their ftations were, for the moft part, fixed
and permanent, the troops may be confidered as diftributed
in the fellowing manner. Three legions were fufficient for
Britain. The principal ftrength lay upon the Rhine and
Danube, and confifted of fixteen legions, in the following
proportions: two in the Lower and three in the Upper
Germany ; one in Rhetia, one in Noricum, four in Pan-
nonia, three in Meefia, and two in Dacia. The defence of
the Euphrates was entrufted to eight legions, fix of which
were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia.
A fingle legion maintained the domettic tranquillity of each
of the large provinces of Egypt, Africa, and Spain. Italy
was not left deftitute of a military force. About 20,000
chofen foldiers, diftinguifhed by the titles of «* City Co-
horts”? and “ Pretorian Guards,’ Watched over the: fatety
of the monarch and the capital.

Under Conilantine and his fucceffors, the legions were
very confiderably reduced. . When /even legions, with fome
auxiliaries, defended the city of Amida againft the Perfians,
the total garrifon, with the inhabitants of both fexes and
the peafants of the deferted’ country, did not exceed the
number of 20,000 perfons. Hence we may infer, that: the
conftitution of the legionary troops, to which they partly
owed their valour and difcipline, was diffolved by Conftan-
tine ; and that the bands of Roman infantry, which itill af-
fumed the fame names and the fame honours, confilted onl
of 1000 or 1500 men. Neverthelefs, the fucceffors of Con-
ftantine indulged their loye of oftentation, by iffuing their
orders to 132 legions, infcribed on the mufter-roll of their

aumerous

LEG

numerous armies, Under them the complete force of the
military eftablifhment was computed at 645,000 foldiers.
Gibbon’s Decl. &c. Rom. Emp. vol. i. and ni.

Lecion, Square, legio quadraia, was a legion confilting
of four thoufand men.

‘Lecionum, Domeflicus. See Domesticus.

Lecion, Thundering. Sce ‘THUNDERING.

Lecion, Zheban, isa name given by fome authors to a
legion of Roman foldiers, who refolving not to facrifice to
idols, fuffered martyrdom under the emperors Dioclefian
and Maximilian, about the year of Chrift 297. But the
whole account of them feems to be fabulous.

LEGISLATOR, Lawaiver, a perfon who frames
the laws of a kingdom or {tate founded by him.

The principal ancient legiftators are—Motes, legiflator
of the Hebrews; Mercurius Trifmegiftus, and Bocchyris,
of the Egyptians; Italus, of the CEnotrians; Thefeus,
Draco, and Solon, of the Athenians; Zoroafter, of the
Baétrians ; Charondas, of the Cappadocians ;.and Charon-
das, or Phaleas, of the Carthaginians: Androdamas, of the
Chalcidians ; Eudoxus, of the Cnidians; Phido, of the
Corinthians ; Minos, of the Cretans; Pythagoras, of the
Crotoniates, and mof{t of the cities of the Grecia Major ;
Parmenides and Zeno, of Elea, in Lucania; Xamolxis, of
the Gete; Phoroneus, of the Greeks; Bacchus, of the
Indians; Saturn, of Italy; Macarius, of the ifle of Lef-
bos; Zaleucus, of the Locrians; Nicodorus Athleta, of
the city of Mutina; Hippodamia, of Miletus; Charondas,
of Rheggio; Lycurgus, of the Lacedemonians ; Archy-
tas, of Tarentum; Philolaus, of the Thebans.

At Rome the people were in a great meafure their own
legiflators ; though Solon may be faid, in fome fenfe, to
have been their legiflator, as the decemviri, who were
created for the making of laws, borrowed a great number
from thofe of Solon.

With us the legiflative power is lodged in the king, lords,
and commons aflembled in parliament ; which fee.

LEGITIMATE Cuixp, a child born in lawful wed-
lock, or within a competent time afterwards. * Pater eft
quem nuptie demonftrant” is the rule of the civil law ; and
this holds with the civilians, whether the nuptials happen
before, or after, the birth of the child, With us in Eng-
land the rule is approved; for the nuptials muft be prece-
dent to the birth. See BasTarp. °

Leaitimate Delivery. See Detivery and Lazour.

Leeitimate Tertign. See FEVER.

LEGIPIMATION, an a& by which natural or illegi-
timate children are rendered legitimate. See Basrarp,
&e.

By the French law, the father and mother, by marrying,
render their children, begotten before marriage, legitimate ;
and this is called kegitimatio per fubfequens matrimonium.

The right of legitimation was a thing unknown to princes
till the time of Coaftantine; but, fince his time, has been
exercifed by moft of them. The Greek emperors invented
feveral kinds of legitimation.

Anaftafius put it in the power of the father to legitimate
his natural children by a bare adoption, provided he had no
legitimate children. But Juftin, by his conttitution, and
Juftinian, by his Novel 74, abolifhed this legitimation, as
fearing the too eafy accels to legitimation. fhould encourage
concubinage.

In lieu of this, he eftablifhed a way of legitimation by the
emperor’s letters. This rendered baftards capable of attain-
ing to honours, and even of fucceeding to inheritances, pro-
vided the perfons were legitimated with the confent of their
father and mother ;. which is agreeable to the canon law.

Dr G

LEGIUNCARA, in Geography, a town of Naples, ix
the province of Bari; 21 miles IN.W. of Matera.

LEGNA, Asy2, among the Ancients, a name given to
the borders of the /oga and paliium, that were on each hand ;.
the extremities above and below being called ora.

LEGNANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the
Veronefe, on the Adige. ‘The two divifions of this place
are conneéted by a drawbridge; the eaftern part is called
Porto, and the weftern Legnano. It has feveral menaite-
ries, anda playhoufe. It is a populous town, and carries
on a confiderable trade by means of a corn-market held every
Saturday, and a canal, running from Legnano to Oftiglia,
in the territory of Mantua, ‘This was formed in 1762, be-
tween the Adige and the Po; and for the better fecurity of
its navigation, fluices have been con{lructed at both its ends.
The French took poffeffion of it in 1799; 22 miles E.S.E,
of Verona, N. lat. 44° 50!. E. long. 11° 18'.

LEGNOTIS, in Botany, fo named by profeffor Swartz,
from Aryyiios, fringed, becaufe its petals are curioufty laci-
niated and fringed. Schreb. 357. Swartz. Prod. $4 Ind.
Occ. y. 2. 969. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1171. Mart. Mill.
Dict. v. 3. (Caffipourea ; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 528. t. 2116
Juff. 432. Lamarck. Iluftr. t. 406. )—Clafs and order, Poly-
andria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, bell-fhaped,,
four or five-cleft half way down, permanent; fegments
ovate, acute, erect. Cor. Petals four or five, longer than
the calyx ; claws flender, almoft as long as the calyx, in-
ferted into the receptacle; borders ovate, very much fringed,,
villofe. Stam. Filaments fixteen or twenty, thread-fhaped,
equal, the length of the calyx, inferted into the receptacle ;.
anthers oblong, ereét. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, roundith ;
ftyle cylindrical, as long as the ftamens ; ftigma capitate.
Peric. Capfule large, elaltic, triangular, with three cells and:
three valves. Sveds folitary, convex on one fide, angulated
on the other.

Obf. Sometimes the number of cells and valves in the
fruit is liable to variation

Eff. Ch. Capfule fuperior, of three cells. Petals inferted
into the receptacle, very much fringed or torn.

1. L. elliptica. Swartz. Prod. $4.. Willd. n. 1.—Leaves.
elliptical. Flowers on foot{talks.—A native of lofty moun-
tains in Jamaica, flowering in May and June.—This is a ¢ree
from ten to thirty feet in height, having a {mooth, brown
bark. Branches determinately fubdivided, ereét, {mooth 5,
the {maller ones flightly compreffed. Leaves on footftalks,
oppofite, ovate-acuminate, or oblong-lanceolate, entire,
fearcely nervofe, fmooth on both fides, fomewhat. rigid ;
footitalks fhort, flat above, roundifh underneath. * Stipulas
fmall, ovate, membranaceous, downy, deciduous, between
the footitalks. F/ower-/falks axillary, from three to five,
fimple ; fcarcely fo long as the leaf-ftalks, with a few mi-
nute {cales at their bafe. Cap/ule fmooth, white and’ downy
within. F/owers. flefh-coloured, villofe with white hairs.

Obf. The downy ftyle becomes elongated to twice the
length of the calyx, after flowering. :

2. L. Caffipourea. Swartz. Prod. 84. Willd. n. 2, (Caffi-
pourea guianenfis; Aubl. Guian. t. 211.)—Leaves ovate.
Flowers feffile.-—A native- ef moift places in Cayenne,,
flowering in January.

A’ middling-fized tveey with a grey bark, about five feet
in height, brauched at the fummit: /maller branches oppofite,,
knotty. Its woodis white. Leaves iffuing from the knobs,
ovate, acute, {mooth, entire, nearly feffile, accompanied at
their bafe by two very minute /ipulas. Flowers axillary, ini
tufts, white, fefhile, firuated between two oppofite Lraéeas.

LEGOUZIA, Juff. 450, a name deftined by M. Du-

2: randes,

LEG

rande, for thofe Campanule which have a nearly flat, or
wheel-fhaped corolla, and an oblong prifmatic capfule,
which L’Heritier has likewife feparated from Campanula,
under the appellation of Pri/matocarpus. See CAMPANULA,
ection * *,

LEGRAD, in Geography, a town of Croatia, at the
union of the Muner and Drave; 15 miles E. of Varafdin.
N. lat. 46° 30!. E. long. 167 54’.

LE GRAND, a confiderable river of America, in the
ftate of Ohio, which rifes within a few miles of the W. ex-
tremity of lake Erie, and purfuing a N.N.W. courfe for
nearly too miles, and then turning to the W., difcharges
itfelf into lake Michigan. At its confluence with the lake
it is about 250 yards wide.

LEGRENZI, Don Grovannt, in Biography, an able
matter and fertile Italian compofer of the feventeenth cen-
tury. He wasa native of Bergamo, and produced for the
different theatres of Venice fifteen operas between the years
1664 and 1684. He was likewife a favourite compolfer of
cantatas, of which he publifhed at Venice two books: one
of ten, in 16743 and a fecond book containing fourteen, in
1679. During his youth he was fome time organilt of Santa
Maria Maggiore, in his native city of Bergamo; then maettro
di cappella of the church Dello Spirito Santo, in Ferrara;
and laftly of St. Mark's at Venice, and matter of the Con-
fervatorio de Mendicanti. He was the matter likewife of
the two great muficians, Lotti and Francefco Gafparini,
both of whom are faid to have refided in his houfe at
Venice in the year 1684, in order to receive his inftru€tions.
He was alfo an in{trumental compofer, and among the
moft early trios for two violins and a bafe, may be numbered,
© Suonate per Chiefa,’’ by Legrenzi, publifhed at Venice,
16553 “ Suonate da Chiefa e Camna,”’ 1656; * Una
muta di Suonate,’? 1664; and ‘ Suonate a due Violini e
Violone,” 1677. Of this laft work we are in poffeffion, and
upon viewing it, find, that though Legrenzi has introduced
into thefe pieces fome of the be{t melody of the times, and
there is confiderable merit in the texture and contrivance of
the parts, yet, for want of the knowledge of the bow, and
the particular energies and expreflions of the violin, thefe
compofitions have been long fince juftly fuperfeded and
effaced by fuperior produtions of the fame kind.

LEGS, the lower extremities of the bodies of moft ani-
mais, ferving them for fupport and motion. See Ex7Remi-
rizs. See alfo references under Luc. .

Lzcs, in the Manege, the members that fupport a horfe’s
body, and perform the motion when he goes. Of the four
regs, the two before have feveral-parts, each of which has a

peculiar name; fo that by ithe name of fore-legs, we com-,

monly underftand that part of the fore-quarters that extends
com the hough to the paftern-oint, and call it the /hang ;
the part that correfponds to this in the hind-quarters is
-alled the inflep. But in common difcourfe we confound the
fore and the hind-quarters ; and without any diftinétion fay
the four legs of a horfe. The French call a horfe droit fur
lez jambes, 4. e. ttraight-membered, or ftraight upon his legs,
when the fore-part of the paftern falls perpendicularly upon
the coronet, and the fhank and the pattern are in a ftraight
ime. See Srraicut and Lone-jointed. See alfo Horse.
The horfeman’s legs are likewife of fingular concern in
the manege, for the a¢tion of thefe given feafonably, and
with a little judgment, conftitutes one of the principal aids,
which confifts in approaching more or lefs with the calf of
the leg to the horfe’s flank, and in bearing it more or lefs
off as there is occafion, This aid a horfeman ought to give
very nicely, in order to animate a horfe: and it is fo much

LEG

‘the finer, that it is hidden and private: for in ftretching the

ham he makes the horfe dread the {fpur, and this aid has as
much effect as the {pur itfelf. See Arn.

Lees, in Rural Economy, are the extremities that form
the fupport of animals. In horfes they fhould have a due
proportion to that of the body. The fore-legs are fubjeét
to many infirmities, as being the parts that fuffer moft, and
are commonly the weakelt. It is a mark of bad legs when
they appear altogether ftraight, or, as if they were of one
piece. A horfe is faid to be ilraight upon his legs, when
from the knee to the fore-part of the coronet, the knees,
fhank, and coronet defcend in a ftraight or plumb-line, and
the paftern joint appears more, or at leaft as much advanced
as the reft of the leg; fuch legs are like thofe of a goat,
making a horfe apt to trip and fall; fo that in time the
pattern is thruft quite forward out of its place, and the horfe
becomes lame and liable to flumble.

Horfes which are ftraight upon their legs are quite con-
trary to thofe that are long-jointed, that is, whofe pafterns
are fo long and flexible, that in walking, they almoft touch
the ground with them. And it is a greater imperfection
than the former, becaufe fome remedy may be applied to
them; but there can be none for thefe : befides it is a fign
of little or no ftrength, fuch horfes not being fit for much
fatigue. Some horles, though they be long-jointed, do not
bend their patterns in walking ; fuch hories gallop and run
with greater eafe to their riders than fuch as are fhort
jointed.

In the language of the ftable a horfe is faid to want the
fifth leg when he is tired, and, bearing upon the bridle, lies
heavy upon the rider’s hand, fo as to produce much fatigue.

Lees, Arched. See Ancuen.

Lecs, Compaffes of three. See COMPASSES.

Lees, Hyperbolic. See Hypraporic.

Lees, Long, in Natural Hiflory. See Tieura.

Lees of the Martinets, ina Ship, ave ufed for thofe fmall
ropes which are put through the bolt-ropes of the main and
fore-fail, in the leech of each. They are above a foot in
length, and at either end are f{pliced into themfelves ; they
have alfo a {mall eye, into which the mattinets are faftened
by two nitches, and the end is {eized into the ftanding part
of the martinets.

Lees of a Triangle. —When one fide of a triangle is taken
as a bafe, the other two are called legs. See TRIANGLE.

LEGUEVIN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Upper Garonne, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrict of Touloufe; nine miles W. of it.
The place contains 6689 and the canton 9549 inhabitants, on
a territory of 1174 kiliometres, in 10 communes.

LEGUIGNO, a town of the duchy of Parma; 18 miles
S.S.E. of Parma.

LEGUME, ia Botany, legumen, the pod proper to the
pea or papilionaceous tribe of piants, thence termed, by fome
writes, leguminous. (See Lecumixos®.) The Latin word
legumen is faid by the ancients themfelves to be derived from
lego, to gather; becaufe fuch fruits are gathered or plucked
from their ftatks, not reaped nor mown, ‘They are termed
in Englith pul.

This fort of feed-veffel is always folitary and fimple,
formed of two moftly oblong, equal, more or lefs coriaceous,
parallel valves, without any diftiné longitudinal partition, and
bearing the feeds along one of its margins only. The top
is terminated by the remains of the {tyle, which is fhort, and
placed obliquely, or out of the axis; the bafe is fomewhat
contra¢ted towards the ftalk. One of the margins, where
the feeds are inferted, is generally rather fhorter than the
other, and externally more furrowed, the other being often

rounded

LEG

rounded or wavy, and more compreffed. There are, how-
ever, various fhapes of legumes, fome of which are peculiar
to certain genera, as the fpiral ones of different fpecies of
Medicago and Scorpiurus ; the cylindrical, prifmatic, or
rhomboid ones of other genera. Such differ effentially
from that kind of feed-veffel termed a /iligua, or pod pro-
perly fo called, in having the feeds at one margin only,
whereas the /iligua has them arranged along both. The
furrowed edge of the legume, which bears the feeds, is
called the future.

‘The capfules of Helleborus, and fome other plants allied
thereto, termed by Linnzus rather incorrectly multifilique,
are juftly indicated by Gertner as approaching to the defi-
nition of legumes. They differ, however, in confifting each
but of one valve, and in not being folitary or fingle in each
flower, except the inftance of a few f{pecies of Lark{pur,
Delphinium, which differ from the natural character of their
genus, in having one inftead of three germens and feed-
veffels ; but analogy here teaches the true nature of the
part in queltion. We are, indeed, obliged to have recourfe
to the fame guide in a few papilionaceous genera, whofe
feed-veflel, otherwife a true legume, contains but one feed,
as in moft fpecies of Trifolium, or whofe valves do not fe-
parate, but become thickened and hard, as in Perccarpus, or
leathery, as in Viminaria.

When a legume is divided into feveral cells, it is either by
an inflexion of its valves, as in Affragalus and Mirbelia, or by
tran{verfe conftri€tions, as in Vicia and Geniffa, or even
membranous tranf{verfe partitions, as in Securidaca and Caffia.
Some, however, are ftill more diftin@tly divided, feparating
as they ripen into diftin& joints, each of which contains a
fingle feed, and does not in general burit till that feed forces
its way by vegetating, as in Hedy/arum, Scorpiurus, and Hip-
pocrepis. This latter kind of legume has lately been con-
' fidered as a peculiar fort of pericarp, and called /omentum ;
but the gradations leading to it are’ fo imperceptible, that
unlefs a multitude of other diftin@ions were made, we do not
fee the eligibility of this.

Several legumes are internally fpongy, flefhy, or pulpy,
in which refpeéts they vary greatly in the progrefs of their
growth, as the bean (Vicia Faba), the Tamarind, the Cera-
tonia, the Hymenaa, &c.

- Amid all the diverfities of ftru€ture in this kind of peri-

carp, it is moft difficult to admit as a legume the three-valved .

feed-veffel of Gertner’s Moringa ; our HyPERANTHERA.

LEGUMINOS4Z, a natural order of plants, fo called
from the nature of their fruit. (See Lecume.) Itisthe 93d
order of Juffieu’s fyftem, the 11th of his 14th clafs, and
embraces the Linnean Papilionacee and Lomentacee.

For the detailed charaGter of Juffieu’s 14th clafs, fee
FicoipEx. It has two cotyledons, many petals, and ftamens
inferted into fome part of the calyx.

The Leguminofe are thus defined.

Calyx of one leaf, varioufly divided. Corolla of many
petals, rarely either wanting or monopetalous, inferted into
the upper part of the calyx, below its divifions. Petals
fometimes five, rarely fewer, regular and nearly equal; but
more frequently four, and irregular, all together imitating
the fhape of a butterfly, whence the term papilionaceous

-flower ; of thefe the upper and outer one is the ftandard,
vexillum, half embracing the reft, and moftly exceeding them
in dimenfions ; the next two are the wings, ale, which are
lateral ; the lower and innermott is the keel, carina, which
is either fimple or divided. Stamens ten, rarely more or

fewer, inferted into the calyx under the petals, their fila-
ments fometimes diftin&t, or flightly united at their bafe, or
more frequently diadelphous, (fee DtapELPura,) that is,

Vou. XX.

LEG

confifting of nine united into a tube, which is flit lengthwife
under the ftandard, with a tenth applied clofe to that fiffure,
or the whole are really monadelphous, the tube being un-
divided and decandrous; the anthers are diftiné&, often
roundifh and {mall, fometimes oblong andincumbent. Ger-
men fimple, fuperior; ftyle one ; ftfgma undivided. Fruit
in a few inftances capfular, of one cell, with {carcely more
than one feed, either of two valves, or not burfting atall ; in
moft it is leguminous, as the name of the order implies,
longifh, of two valves, (of three in Moringa, or Hyperanthera,
of four in one fpecies of Mimo/a,) the feeds affixed to one
of the lateral futures ; fometimes it is of a fingle cell, with
one feed or feveral, fometimes of many cells feparated by
tranfverfe partitions, each cell containing one feed, and all
beiag occafionally pulpy. In the polypetalous irregular
genera the radicle of the corcu/um or embryo inclines towards
the lobes, and there is no perifperm or albumen ; in thofe
with more regular flowers the radicle is {traight, and there
is a perifperm, or thickifh membrane, enfolding the embryo ;
the lobes of the feed are moftly changed into feminal leaves,
according to the ufual mode of dicotyledonous vegetables,
but fometimes they remain diftin@t below the firlt leaves.
The ftem is either herbaceous, fhrubby or arboreous, branched
for the moft part in an alternate manner. Leaves furnifhed
with ftipulas, alternate, in a very few inflances imperfe@ly
oppolite, fometimes fimple, but oftener ternate, or fingered,
or once or more pinnate. The flowers are varioufly dif-
pofed.

The feGtions are eleven.

1. Corolla regular. Legume of many cells, moftly of
two valves, with tranfverfe partitions, the feeds folitary in
each cell. Stamens feparate. Thefe are trees or fhrubs,
with abruptly pinnate leaves. The fe€tion contains Mino/a,
Gleditfia, Gymnocladus, Macrolobium of Schreber, Ceratonia,
Tamarindus, Parkinfonia, Schotia of Jacquin, and Ca/fia.—
To thefe may be added 4fxelia, Smith Tranf. of Linn. Soc.
Vv. 4. 221.

‘ Corolla regular. Legume of one cell, and two valves.
Stamens ten, feparate.—Trees or fhrubs, with abruptly pin-
nate leaves. (In Hyperanthera they have terminal leaflets,
and the legume has three valves. )

This comprehends Hyperanthera, (Moringa of Juffieu,)
Profopis, Hematoxylum, Dimorpha, of Schreber, Cubea of the
fame, Adenanthera, Poinciana, Cafalpinia (the two laft being
really one genus) and Guilandina.

3- Corolla fomewhat irregular. Stamens diftin&, or only

conneGted at their bafe. Legume of one cell and two
valves.—Trees or fhrubs, with leaves either abruptly pin-
nate, or merely conjugate, or quite fimple.
- Here are Dipteryx and Dimorpha of Schreber, with Cyno-
metra, Hymenea and Bauhinia of Linneus, and Ginannia of
the former. Juffieu admits Vouapa of Aublet, which
Schreber unites to Outea of the fame author, bas own Ma-
crolobium ; fee fe@. 1.

4. Corolla irregular, papilionaceous. Stamens diltiné,
or rarely connected at their bafe. Legume moftly of one
cell, and two valves.—Trees or fhrubs ; their leaves either
fimple, or ternate, or pinnate, with an odd leaflet.

Juffieu here enumerates oily Cercis, Rittera of Schreber,
Anagyris, Sophora, Mullera, and Coublandia of Aublet, the
charaGer of which laft is very puzzling. But to this fec-
tion belongs a numerous tribe of New Holland genera,
eftablifhed by Dr. Smith, in the Annals of Botany,
and in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. g. 245. ‘hele are Puttenza,
Aotus, Gompholobium, Chorozema, Daviefia, Viminaria (though
the legume of this laft does not burit), Spazrolobium, Dillwy-
nia, Mirbelia (though the legume has two cells), and Cali/-

3R tachya.

LEG

tachya. To thefe, moreover, are to be added feveral genera
from the new edition ef Hort. Kew. v. 3; Edwardfia, Or-
mofia, Thermopfis, Virgilia of Lamarck, Cyclopia, Baptifia,
Podalyria, Podolobium, Oxylobium, Brachyfema, Burionia,
Jackfonia (fee the latter in its place), Eutawia, Sclrothamnus,
Gajlrolabium, and Euchuus.

5. Corolla irregular, papilionaceous. Stamens ten, dia-
delphous. Legume of one cell and two valves.—Shrubs or
herbs; their leaves fimple or ternate, or rarely fingered ;
the ttipulas fometimes {carcely difcernible, fometimes con-
{picuous, either attached to the bottom of the footilalk, or
diltinet from it.

This ample fe€tion contains Ulex, Afpalathus, Borbonia,
Liparia, Geni/ta (the latter including Spartium of Linneus),
Cytifus, C rotalaria, Lupinus, Ononis, Arachis, Anthyliis, Dalea,
Pforakea, Trifolium, Melilotus, Medicago, Trigonella, Lotus,
Dolichos, Phafeolus, Eryikrina, Clitoria, and Glycine. —Here
are to be added Platylabium, Bojffica and Poiretia of Smith in
Tr. of Lian. Soe. v. 9.301, allo Butea of Keenig and Roxburg,
and FYallia of Thunberg, with doubtlefs many more.

6. Corolla, Stamens, and Legume as in the latt. Herbs
or firubs, or {mall trees, whofe leaves are pinnate with an
odd leaflet. In a few the legume has two cells.

Abrus, Amorpha (remarkable for wanting both wings and
keel), Pifcidia, Robinia, Caragana, Affragalus, Phaca, Bifer-
rula, Colutea, Glycyrrhiza, Galega, and Jadigofera.

7. Cor. Stam. and Legume as in the two laft.—Herbs,
with pinnate, or conjugate, or fometimes fearcely any, leaves,
the common footitalk ending in a tendril; ftipulas diftinét
from the footftalk.

Lathyrus, Pifum, Orobus, Vi icia, Faba, Ervum, and Cicer.

8. Cor. and Stam. as in the three lait. Legume com-
pofed of fingle-feeded joints.—Herbs or thrubs, rarely trees ;
leaves fimple or ternate, or more frequently pinnate with an
odd one ; ‘lipulas diftin from the leaf-ftalk.

Scorpiurus, Ornithopus, Hippocrepis, Coronilla, Hedyfarum,
SE fchynomene, and Diphy/a. Here belongs Smithia of Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 1.

9- Corolla as before. Stamens moftly ten, diadelphous.
Legume capfular, of one cell, often not burfting, with
fearcely more than one feed.—Trees or fhrubs ; leaves
generally pinnate with an odd one ; ftipulas diftinét from the
tootftalk, foon falling.

Dalbergia, Amerimnon of Browne's Jamaica, Galedupa of
Lamarck, Andira of the fame, Geoffrea, Deguclia of La-
marck, IWifolia, Dipteryx of Schreber, Acourca of Aublet,
and Pierocarpus, are the genera clafled here by Juffieu, which
have all a general affinity to each other.

10. Corolla irregular (fometimes wanting}. Stamens
ten, diftingt. Legume capfular, of one cell, generally not
buriting, containing a fingle feed.—Trees or thrubs ; leaves
either pinnate with ar odd one, or fimple;, flipulas diftiné
from the footftalk, foon falling.

Cradia of Schreber, Detasium of Juffieu, Copaifsra, and
Myroxylum.—According to the definition of this fection,
Vimiraria belongs to it ; but is:too unlike the reft, and too
clofely allied in habit and character to the plants with
which we have placed it in fect. 4, to be feparated: from
them.

1. Juffiew concludes here with four genera, termed by
him “ akin to the /eguminofe.”” ‘Thefe are Securidaca, which
feems to belong properly to feét.9, Brownea, Zygia of
Browne’s Jamaica, and Aruna of Schreber.

Tt will eafily be perceived that this arrangement requires
much correétion and reformaticu, in confeguence of difco-
veries fubfequent to its publication, The whole order is

6

LE!

fo natural, that its fubdivifions are proportionably difficult to
be devifed, and the fame may be faid of its generic diltinc-
tions. If Linneus was obliged, by the laws of his artificial
fyftem, to offer great violence to this order, as Juffieu and
others have not failed to obferve, his clals Diadelphia does
honour to his penetration, and to the comprehentive fyf-
tematic powers of his mind.

LEGUMINOUS Frowens. See Frowrr.

Lecumixous Plants, in Gardening, a term applied to all
fuch as are of the pulle kind, as thole of the pea, bean, and
other fimilar defcriptions.

LEHE, in Geography,a town of the duchy of Bremen;
32 miles N. of Bremen.

LEHEIM, a town of Heffe-Darmftadt ; 8 miles W. of
Darmttadt.

LEHI, in Scripture Geography, acity of Paleftine, in the
tribe of Dan, near Eltak or Eltaka. This was a facerdotal
city, given to the fons of Cohath. Here Samfon flewa
thoufand Philiftines with the jaw-bone of an afs.

Luu, Lehigh, or Lecha, in Geography, a river of Ame-
rica, which rifes in Northampton county, Pennfylvania,
about 21 miles E. of Wyoming Falls, in Sufquehanna river,
and paffing, by a circular courfe, through the Blue moun-
tains, difcharges itfelf into De‘aware river, on the S. fide of »
Eulton, 11 miles N.E. of Bethlehem. Its courfe is about
75 miles, and it is navigable 30 miles.

LEHMKUHLEN, a town of Holftein; § miles S.W.
of Lutkenborg.

LEHRBERG, a town of Germany, in the margra-
vate cf Anfpach, on the Unter Retzat; 5 miles N.W. of
Anfpech. ;

LEHSO, a town of Arabia Deferta; 140 miles S. of
Cathem. f

LEHSTEN, or Lenesren, a town of Saxony, im the
principality of Altenburg, celebrated for its quarries of
ftate ; 45 miles S.S.W. of Altenburg. N. lat. 50° 25%.
E. long. 11° 35/.

LEHTIMAKT. a town of Sweden, im the government
of Wala; 65 miles E.S.B. of Wafa-

LEIBEN, a town of Auftria; 10 miles W.N.W. of
Crems.—Alio, a town of Auftria; 14 miles S.W. of
Crems. >

LEIBLINGEN, or Lyptincex, atown of Germany,
in the lordfhip of Natenberg; 6 miles E. of Tuttlingen.

LEIBNITZ, Goprrey Witt1am pe, in Biography,
an eminent German philofopher and mathematician, was
born at Leipfic in the year 1646. He lof his father
when he was very young, and of courfe the care of his edu-
cation devolved on his mother. She placed him under able
matters, who had been colleagues to his father inthe univer-
fity, of which he had been profeffur of moral philofophy, and
fecretary. ‘The fon made a very rapid progrefs in the differ-
ent branches of fcience and learning. He not only became
a decp-claffic, but availed himfelf of the advantages of a
large and well chefen library, which his father had left him,
and read ali the books which it coatained in regular order, as
the poets, orators, hiftorians, civilians, philofopmers, ma-
thematicians, and divines. Such was his application, that
he could repeat the works of the principal poets, and-fo te-
nacious was his memery, that even in old age he could, with-
out hefitation, run through the whole of the /neid, without
miffing a line ora word. He had a talent for making verfes,
and is faid to have compofed three hundred in one day.
When he was fifteen years of age he became a ftudent in the
univerfity of Leipfic, where he profecuted, with great fuc-
cefs, the various fludies of the law, medicine, philofophys
and theology. Having finished his ftudies at Jena, ea

cips

LEIBNITZ.

cipal objects of his attention were hiftory, law, and the ma-
thematics. He was particularly attached to the writings of
Pilato and Ariltotle, and is faid tohave {pent whole days in
meditation, in a forelt near Leipfic. He principally devoted
himfelf to the ftudy of the law, and took his degree of ba-
chelor in 1665, and in the following year he fupplicated for
his degree of do&tor, which was refufed, under the pretence
that he was too young, being then only in his twentieth year,
but it was imagined that the real caufe was his having aban-
doned the tenetsof Ariftotle and the fchoolmen. Offended
at this treatment, he went to Altdorf, where he maintained
a thefis, ‘¢ De cafibus perplexis,”’ and in the difputations on
this occafion, he difplayed fuch uncommon abilities, that he
had the degree of dottor inftantly conferred upon him, and
was even offered a profeffurfhip extraordinary in law, which
he declined. He about this period publifhed a work, entitled
«« Ars Combinatoria,” intended to fhew in what manner uni-
verfal arithmetic may be applied to other fciences. This was
accompanied with “ A mathematical Demonitration of the
Exittence of God.”? From Altdorf Leibnitz went to Nu-
remberg, to vifit the learned men in that univerfity. He was
at this plece initiated in the myfleries of Alchemy. From
Wuremberg he went to Mentz, and publifhed, in 1668,
“Nova Methodus Docende Difcendeque Jurifprudentiz,”’
which gained him great applanfe. He next fhewed himfelf
as a politician, and wrote a treatife to induce the Poles to
choofe the eleGor-palatine their king, which fo pleafed the
elector, that he invited the awtl-or to refide at his court,
which invitation he would-have accepted, had he aot at the
fame time obtained the office of counfellor of tue chamber of
review in the chancery of Mentz. In 1670 he reprinted,
with a preface and notes, the treatife of Marius Nizolius de
Berfello, ** De veris Principiis, et vera ratione Philofo-
phandi contra Pfeudophilofophos,” to which he fubjdined a
letter, “« De Ariftotele recentioribus reconciliabili.”? In the
year 1672, Leibnitz went to Paris, to manage fome affairs at
the French court: here he became acquainted with the greateft
mathematicians in th2t metropolis, and made further and
confiderable progrefs in the {tudy of mathematics and philo-
fophy. Here alfo he met with Pafcal’s arithmetical machine,
the defeéts of which he foon difcovered, and to obviate thefe
he inyented a new one, which was highly approved by the
minifter Colbert, and the Academy of Sciences. He was
offered a feat in this bedy with a penfion, and had the pro-
fpect of many other advantages if he would fetrle at Paris,
but to attain this eminence he muft embrace, or be fuppofed
to embrace, the Catholic religion, which neither honours nor
emoluments could induce him to do. In 1673 he came to
England, and became acquainted with Mr. Oldenbure, the
fecretary, and Mr. Collins, a diftinguifhed member of the
Royal Society ; from whom it was faid he received fome
hints of the method of fluxions, which had been invented in
4664, or 1665, by Mr. Ifaac Newton. Leibnitz improved
thefe hints, and under the name of “ calculus differentialis”
he gave the fame method of analyfis with fluxions. (See
Kei and Newron.) While Mr. Leibnitz was in England
he loft his patron, the eleGtor of Mentz, and with him a pen-
fion which that prince had allowed him. He returned to
France, whence he wrote to Frederic duke of Brunfwic
Lunenburg, informing him of his circumftances. This
prince immediately appointed hima member of the Aulic
council, with a regular falary, but he permitted him to re-
main at Paris, till his arithmetical machine fhould be perfect-

d. When he entered upon his office at Hanover, one of his
earlieft cares was to furnith the prince’s library with the belt
bocks in the various branches of {cience and literature. In
1677 he fir mentioned his mathematical invention of diffe-

rentials to Newton, who had. previoufly to this written to
Leibnitz an account of his invention of fluxions ; about the
fame period, he gave an account of fome difcoveries in op-
tics and mechanics, deferibing a new method of polifhing
glaffes. THe became a conftant contributor to the ‘* Aéta
Eruditorum” of Leipfic, aad among other pieces he pub-
lithed in this work « Thoughts on Knowledge, Truth, and
Ideas." He next undertook a hiftory of the houle of
Brunfwic, and to render himfelf more competent to the tafk,
he travelled over Germany and Italy, colle¢ting materials.
In paffing from Venice to Mefola, a terrible ftorm arofe,
during which the pilot, imagining that he could not be ua-
derflood by a German, whom, as a heretic, he regarded as
the caufe of the tempett, progofed to ftrip him of his clethes
and money, and throw him overboard. Leibnitz, hearing
the converfation, without the leaft emotion, drew a fet of
beads from his pogket, and began turning them over with
reat feeming devotion, ‘Ihe artifice fucceeded; one of the
failors obferving to the pilot, that fince the man was not
an heretic, he ought not to be drowned. Leibnitz returned
to Hanover in 16g0, where he purfued with great induftry
feveral objects of very different kinds. In a theological dit-
pute he appeared the friend of toleration, and in 1693 he
publifhed a work on the law of nations, entitled “ Codex Ju-
ris Gentium Diplomaticus."” He next wrote his treatife
* De ipfa natura, five Vi infita,”? which was intended to im-
prove and correét the philofophical notion of fubllance ; and
he likewife conceived thé idea of a new fcience of forces, in
whichthe laws of mechanics, and the meafure of living
forces might be clearly defined. Yhis feience he denomi-
nated Dynamics (which fee), and infer-ed a fpecimen of it in
the “ Acta Eruditorum.”" He publithed “ Thoughts on
Locke’s Effay on the Human Underltanding,”” in which he
controverted that philofopher’s opinions on innate ideas, fub-
ftance, a vacuum, and other fubjeéts ; communicated to the
world his ingenious invention of binary arithmetic ; and
wrote a reply to Bayle in defence of his dottrine of pre-
eltablifhed harmony. Without attempting to follow our au-
thor in all his publications, which were very numerous and
important, we may obferve that he fpent much time in the
invention of an univerfal language ; but did not live to com-
plete his defign. In 1710 he publifhed « A Differtation on
the Goodaefs of God, the Liberty of Man, and the Origin
of Evil.”” The writings of Leibnitz had long rendered his
name famous in every part of Europe ; he had honours be-
ftowed upon him by feveral other priaces, befides the electors
of Hanover and Brandenburg, and in 1711 he was made Aultc
counfeiler to the emperor, and at the fame period the czar
Peter the Great appointed him privy counfellor of juftice,
with a penfion of a thoufand ducats. In 1714 his patron,
the elector of Hanover, was raifed to the throne of Great
Britan, and in a fhort time Leibnitz pailed over to England,
where he received new marks of favour and friendfhip, and
frequently made his appearance at court. It was during this
vilit, that, at the defire of the princefs of Wales, after-
wards queen Caroline, he engaged in a difpute with the cele-
brated Dr. Samuel Clarke, upon the fubje& of free will and
other important metaphyfical topics. ‘This controverfy con-
tinued till the death of Leibnitz, which event took place in
1716. He was author of many other works befides thofe
already mentioned. His intelleCtual abilities and attainments
entitle him to be ranked among thofe univerfal geniufes which
ut.once furprize and benefit the world: With great ftrength
of underftanding, an excellent faculty of invention, and a
moft capacious and retentive memory, he united an uncom-
mon degree of indultry. Hence he was enabled nat only ta
acquire much general knowledge, but to become eminent in
BRI '2 attains

LE

attainments of various kinds. The improvements which he
made in the higher geometry and algebra, rank him among ma-
thematicians of the firlt clafs. He thoroughly underftood the
doétrines of philofophy, both ancient and modern, and caft
new light upon almott every branch of knowledge. In theo-
logy he was well read in the writings of the Chriftian fathers,
and in the controverfies of his own times. On _ hiftory and
jurifprudence he wrote in fuch a manner as might leada
reader to fuppofe that thefe fubjeéts were his chief or only
ftudy. The philofophy of Leibnitz is a fyftem formed
partly on the Cartefian, and partly in oppofition to the
Newtonian theory. After the difpute refpecting the dif-
covery of fluxions, he became the violent, oppofer of
our great philofopher. He even charged his fy{tem with
having an impious tendency, becaufe it aflerted that the
fabric of the univerfe, and the courfe of nature, would
not continue for ever in its prefent fate, but would
require, in procefs of time, to be re-eftablifhed, or renewed
by the hand of its former. According to his own principles,
deduced, as he thought, from the wifdom and goodnefs of
the deity, and his principle of a fufficient reafon, he concluded
the univerfe to be a perfe€t work, or the beft that could
poflibly have been made; and that other things, which are evil
or incommodious, were permitted as neceflary confequences
of what was beft; that the material fyltem, confidered as
a perfect machine, can never fall into diforder, or require to
be fet right; and that to fuppofe that God interferes in it,
is to leffen the fkill of the author, and the perfection of his
work. Among many other of his notions (for an account
of which fee Lerpyirzian Philofophy) we may add this, that
the aéts of, the foul and body proceed by neceffary laws :
the foul in its perceptions and volitions, and the body in its
motions, without affe€ting each other ; but that each is to
be confidered as a feparate independent machine. The voli-
tions of the mind are followed inftantly by the defired mo-
tions of the body, not in confequence of thofe volitions in
the lealt, but of the nice and well-adjufted machinery of the
body. The impreflions produced in the fenfory have no ef-
feét on-the mind, but the correfponding idea arifes at that
precife time, in confequence of a chain of caufes of a dif-
ferent kind. Moreri, Maclaurin, &c. See LEIBnitziaAn
Philofophy.
Leienitz, in Geography, a town ot Saxony, in the
margravate of Meiffen; 4 miles S. of Drefden.—Alfo, a
town of the duchy of Stiria, on the Sulm; 16 miles S. of
Gratz,
LEIBNITZIAN Puitosorny, or the philofophy of
Leibnitz, is a fyftem of philofophy formed and publifhed by
its author in the 17th century, partly in emendation of the
Cartefian, and partly in oppofition tothe Newtonian. The
bafis of Mr. Leibnitz’s philofophy was that of Des Cartes ;
for he retained the Cartefian fubtile matter with the uni-
verfal plenitude and vortices ; and reprefented the univerfe
as a machine that fhould proceed for ever, by the laws of
mechanifm in the moft perfect ftate, by an abfolute inviolable
neceflity, though in fome things he differs from Des Cartes.
After fir ifaac Newton’s philofophy was publifhed in 1687,
he printed an effay on the celeltial motions (Aét. Erud.
1689), where he admits of the circulation of the ether with
Des Cartes, and of gravity with fir Ifaac Newton; though
he has not reconciled thefe principles, nor fhewn how gravity
arofe from the impulfe of this ether, nor how to account
for the planetary revolutions and the laws of the planetary
motions in their re{peCtive orbits. That which he calls the
harmonical circulation is the angular velocity of any one
planet, which decreafes from the perihelium to the aphelium
in the fame proportion as its diftance from the fun increafes ;
10

yO

but this law does not apply to the motions of the different
planets compared together; becaufe the velocities of the
planets, at their mean diftances, decreafe in the fame pro-
portion as the fquare roots of the numbers exprefling thofe
diftances. Befides, his fyftem is defe@tive, as it does not
reconcile the circulation of the ether with the free motions
of the comets in all dire¢tions, or with the obliquity of the
planes of the planetary orbits; nor refolve other objections
to which the hypothefis of the plenum and vortices is liable.
Soon after the period juft mentioned, the difpute com-
menced concerning the invention of the method of fluxions
(which fee), which led Mr. L.eibnitz to take a very decided
part in oppofition to the philofophy of fir Ifaac Newton.
See Lrisnitz. ;

The perfeétion of the univerfe, by reafon of which it is
capable of continuing for ever by mechanical laws in its
prefent ftate, led Mr. Leibnitz to diftinguifh between the
quantity of motion and the force of bodies ; and, whilft he
owns, in oppofition to Des Cartes, that the former varies, to
maintain that the quantity of force is for ever the fame in
the univerfe, and to meafure the force of bodies by the
{quares of their velocities. See Force.

This fyftem alfo requires the utter exclufion of atoms, or
of any perfectly hard and inflexible bodies ; the advocates
of it allege, that, according to the law of continuity, as
they call a law of nature invented for the fake of the theory,
ail changes in nature are produced by infenfible and inf-
nitely fmall degrees ; fo that no body can, in any cafe, pafs
from motion to reft, or from reft to motion, without paffing
through all poflible intermediate degrees of motion ; whence
they conclude that atoms or perfectly hard bodies are im-
poflible : becaufe if two of them fhould meet with equal
motions, in contrary directions, they would neceffarily {top
at once, in violation of the law of continuity.

Mr. Leibnitz propofes two principles as the foundation
of all our knowledge; the firft, that it is impoffible for a
thing to be, and not tobe, at the fame time, which, he
fays, is the foundation of {peculative truth: the other is,
that nothing is, without a /ufficient reafon why it fhould be
fo, rather than otherwife : and by this principle, according
to him, we make a tranfition from abitra¢ted truths to na-
tural philofophy. Hence, he concludes, that the mind is
naturally determined, in its volitions and eleCtions, by, the
greateft apparent good, and that it is impoffible to make a
choice between things perfectly like, which he calls indif-
cernibles ; from whence he infers, that two things perfecily
like could not have been produced even by the Deity : and
he reje€&ts a vacuum, partly becaufe the parts of it muft be
fuppofed perfeétly like to each other. For the fame reafon
alfo he rejeéts atoms, and all fimilar particles of matter: to
each of which, though divifible in infinitum, he afcribes a
monad ( A&t. Lipfiz 1698, p. 435.), or active kind of prin-
ciple, endued, as he fays, with perception and appetite.
The effence of fubftance he places in action or aétivity, or,
as he expreffes it, in fomething that is between aéting and
the faculty of acting. He affirms abfolute reft to be im-
poffible, and holds motion, or a fort of ni/us, to be effential
to all material fubftances. Each monad he defcribes as re-
prefentative of the whole univerfe from its point of fight ;
and after all, in one of his létters he tells us, that matter is
not a fubftance, but a /ub/fantiatum, or phenomené bien _fondé.
(See Monav.) He frequently drges the comparifon be-
tween the effects of oppofite motives on the mind, and ot
weights placed in the {cale of a balance, or of powers aét-
ing upon the fame body with contrary diregtions. His
learned antagonilt Dr. Clarke denies that there is a fimili-
tude between a balance moved by weights, and a mind acting

, upon

LEI

upon the view of certain motives ; becaufe the one is en-
tirely paffive, and the other not only is aéted upon, but
aéts alfo. The mind, he owns, is purely paflive in receiv-
ing the impreffion of the motive, which is only a perception,
and is not to be confounded with the power of aéting after,
or in confequence of, that perception. The difference be-
tween a man and a machine does not confit only in fenfation
and intelligence ; but in this power of aéting alfo. The
balance, for want of this power, cannot move at all, when
the weights are equal ; but a free agent, he fays, when
there appear two perfectly alike reafonable ways of a@ing,
has till within itfelf a power of choofing ; and it may
have ftrong and very good reafons not to forbear. Col-
leG&tion of Papers which pafled between Mr. Leibnitz and
Dr. Clarke in 1715 and 1716, &c. 8vo. 1717, p. 121. See
Liserry. :

The tranflator of Mofheim’s Ecclefialtical Hiftory ob-
ferves, that the progrefs of Arminianifm has declined in
Germany and feveral parts of Switzerland, in confequence

‘of the influence of the Leibnitzian and Wolfian philofophy.

Leibnitz and Wolf, by attacking that liberty of indiffer-
ence, which is fuppofed to imply the power of aéting not
only without, but againit motives, ftruck, he fays, at the
very foundation of the Arminian fyfem. He adds, that
the greateft poffible perfeétion of the univerfe, confidered
as the ultimate end of creating goodnefs, removes from the
doGrine of predeitination thofe arbitrary procedures and
narrow views, with which the Calvinifts are fuppofed to
have loaded it, and gives it a néw, a more pleafing, anda
more philofophical afpe&. As the Leibnitzians laid down
this great end as the fupreme objet of God’s univerfal do-
minion, and the fcope to which all his difpenfations are
dire&ted ; fo they concluded, that, if this end was propofed,
it mult be accomplifhed. Hence the dorine of neceffity,
to fulfil the purpofes of a predeftination founded in wifdom
and goodnefs; a neceflity, phyfical and mechanical, in the
motions of material and inanimate things, but a recefflity,
moral and {fpiritual, in the voluntary determinations of intel-
ligent beings, in confequence of prepollent motives, which
produce their effe€ts with certainty, though thefe effets be
contingent, and by no means the offspring of an abfolute
and effentially immutable fatality. Thefe principles, fays the
fame writer, are evidently applicable to the main do¢trines
of Calvinifm; by them predeitination is confirmed, though
modified with refpect to its reafons and itsend; by them
irrefiftible grace (irrefiftible in a moral fenfe) is maintained
upon the hypothefis of prepollent motives and a moral ne-
ceffity ; the perfeverance of the faints is alfo explicable
upon the fame fyftem, by a feries of moral caufes pro-
ducing a feries of moral effeéts. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt. by
Dr. Maclaine, vol. v. p. 464. 8vo. edit.

For an account of Leibnitz’s famous doGtrine of a pre-
cflablifoed HARMONY, we refer to that article ; and for his
account of monads to Monaps.

See on the fubje€t of this article Maclaurin’s View of
Sir Ifaac Newion’s Philofophical Difcoveries, &c. book i.
chap. 4. or p. 79, &c. gto. edit. Brucker’s Hiftory of
Philofophy, by Enfield, vol. ii. p. 556, &c.

LEICESTER, commonly pronounced Lefer, in Geo-
graphy, the county town of Leicelterfhire, England, was
tormerly written Lege-ceftria, Legeocefter, and in the Saxon
Annals Leger-ceafter; and during part of the heptarchy
it was a city. Without referring it to a Britifh origin, or
€btering into a difcuffion refpecting the derivation of its
name, and of its civil privileges from king Leir, it will
amply fatisfy every rational enquirer to commence its hif-
tory at that period when the Romans had {fettled themfelves

LEI

in this ifland, and held the natives in military fubordination.
As thofe conquerors marched from the fouth-ealt, towards
the central and northern parts of the country, they could
not have obtained pofleffion of this diftri@, till the inter-
mediate places between it and the fea were fubjugated, and
competent garrifons eftablifhed. Having accomplifhed this,
and overpowered the Coritani, they took poffeffion of the
chief town of that people. This town, or ftrong hold, was
the fcite of the prefent Leicelter, and, at the time of its
conquelt, was denominated Ratz in the Itineraries of Richard,
Antoninus, and Ravennas ; but Rag in fome other writings.
“The real name, therefore,” fays Mr. Whitaker, * muft
be equally Rate and Rage ; the former implying the town
to be fixed upon the currents, the latter importing it to be
the capital of the kingdom.’’ That the Romans had a per-
manent {tation here is unequivocally manifefted by the teffel-
lated pavements, and other remains that have been difcovered
at different periods: and, according to Antoninus, Ratz
was one of their ftipendiary towns. ‘The fofs-road in its
way from Londinio, London, to Lindum, Lincoln, came
by Vennone ; whence to Rate was twelve miles, and thence
to Verometum thirteen miles; and thefe diftances very nearly
correfpond with thofe between Claychefter, Leicefter, and
Willoughby. That this {tation was formed on the northern
bank of the Soar, that an artificial channel was cut for the
water to flow up to, and conflitute one boundary of the fta-
tion, and that the Romans were fettled here for fome length
of time, are circumftances eafily proved, as ample evidences
remain, and are recorded in fupport of thefe inferences.
Many teffellated pavements, coins, urns, and other domettic
and military relics of the Romans, have been difcovered at
different times: fome of which are ftill carefully preferved as
memorials of ancient art, but many of the moft interefting
objets muft have been deftroyed during the ravages of war
which Leiceiter experienced under the Saxons, Danes, and
Normans. Of the Mofaic pavements, that which was
found in a cellar nearly oppofite the town-prifon, in the
year 1675, is the moft worthy of notice. But the mott
curious relic of antiquity, and one that has provoked the
molt copious differtations, is the mi/liary, or Roman mile-
ftone, which was difcovered in 1771, on the fide of the
Fofs-road, at the diftance of about two miles north of the
town, and thence removed into the town at the expence of
the corporation : by this itene the ftation of Rate is clearly
defined. In different parts of the town, and at diftant
periods of time, a great number of Romar coins have been
found: among which were feveral with the names of Titus,
Trajan, Dioclefian, Conftantine the Great, Conftantine Junior,
Conttantius, Hadrian, T'heodofius, Honorius, &c: Here is
alfo a curious fragment of Roman archite&ture, commonly
called the Jewry wall; confilting of a mafs of brick-work,
{tones, and rubbifh, with dilapidated arches turned entirely of
tiles, bound together by a large quantity of mortar. About
a quarter of a mile fouth of the Infirmary are fome artificial
banks, known by the name of radykes, or rawdykes:
thefe were formerly about four yards in height, and con-
fifted of two parallel mounds of earth, extending 67 yards
in length, at the diitance of fifteen yards from each other.
If thefe remains are not peculiarly worthy notice as works
of art, they are curious as veftiges of remote times, and of
a particular people.

The hiltory of Leicefter, during the Saxon heptarchy,
is very vague and uncertain, though, from the concurrent
teftimony of all writers, it was certainly a place of confider-
able note from the departure of the Romans to the time of
the Norman conqueft. According to Godwin, a bifhop’s
fee was transferred from Sidnacefter to Leicetter in the year

737-

LEICESTER.’

937. Atthis period the Saxon kingdom of Mercia had,
acconding to fome authors, three epifcopal fees: Lichfield,
Dorchefter, and Leicefter, From the Saxon annals, it ap-
pears that Ethelfrid, king of Northumberland, being an
avowed enemy to Chriltianity, marched an army to Leicetter,
where he made a great flaughter of the inhabitants. Jowal-
lenfis relates that Ethelred, kine of Mercia, and his queen
Elfreda, who was daughter of Alfred the Great, repaired
the town about the year gor, and rebuilt and enlarged the
walls, which were now made to inclofe the caflle ; previous to
that period the caftle appears to have been on the outlide of
the town. On the conguett of England by William the
Norman, Leiceiter oon became part ot the royal demefne,
and a caftle was either newly ereéted, or enlarged and
ftrengthened to enfure the fubmiffion of the inhabitants, and
thofe of the furrounding country. On the death of the
conqueror, Leicefter citadel, being held- by the adherents
of duke Robert, was nearly demolifhed by the fuccefsful
partizans of William Rufus. In the reign of Hemy I.
‘Robert, earl of Leicefter, repaired, enlarged, and fortified
the caftle, which he made his principal refidence. He was
very liberal to the town; as was alfo his fon Robert Boffu ;
but the arrogant behaviour of the latter to the king in-
volved this place in broils and war; it being the praétice in
thofe times for fovereigns to revenge themfelves, for the
offences of the nobles, on the people and places immediately
sunder the patronage of the offenders. This was fatally ex-
perienced in the reign of Henry II. when earl Robert
Blanchmains, leazuing with the king’s fon in his unnatural
rebellion, Leicefter, the chief refort of the difaffeGed, was,
after a lonts fiege, almolt de!lroyed, and the ca‘tle reduced
toa heap of ruins. Scarcely any thing now remains of the
latter building, but an artificial mound, or the earth work
of the keep, near which is a part cf the town with fome an-
cient buildings, called “the Newark,” or New-work.
“This name appears to have been given to diftinguith it from
the caltle with its original buildings, which was confidered
as the old works. 'T'he Newark is faid to have been founded
‘by Henry, third earl of Lancalter, and his fon Henry, the
firft duke of that name. By thefe two noblemen fome large
‘buildings were ere€ted here; and John ef Gaunt, who was
earl of Leicefter, added confiderably to the pile. When
completed, the whole muft have formed a grand difplay ;
but nearly all of thefe have fallen beneath the de. aftating
hand of man, and the flowly devouring tooth of time. From
the remains of the farrounding wails, it is prefumed that the
Newark was an inclofed area, bounded on the north by the
-caftle, on the fouth by fields, to the weft by a branch of the
river Soar, and to the ea{t by a fireet of the fuburbs. At
this fide is {till remaining a large ealtellated gateway, called
the magazine, which name it obtained in 1682, when it was
purchated by the county, and applied to the ufe of the train
bands. Throfby fays it ‘was built with the New-works,
by the founder of the hofpital and collegiate church.”? ‘This
gateway has adarge pointed arched entrance with a {mall
poftern door way, and communicates with an area nearly
furrounded with buildings?
Among the ancient religious houfes and foundations of
this town, the abbey was formerly of great local im-
portance ; but its buildings are nearly levelled with the
earth which covers the afhes of its inhabitants. It is faid
to have been founded in the year 1143 by Robert Boflu,
earl of Leicefter, who became one of the regular canons on
his own foundation. The abbey foon acquired celebrity,
and obtained numerous privileges. It was pofleffed of lands
in thirty-fix parifhes in and about Leicetler, and in moft of
fhe manors in this and many othercouatics. Several kings

of England, and other diftinguifhed perfonages, were enter-
tained and lodged at this houfe in a grand and fumptuous
ftyle. The once great and magnificent cardinal Wolfey died
at this abbey, November 29th, 1530.

In this town was formerly a mintages and the feries of
coins that have been colleéted, prove that at the Leiceftor
mint, a regular fucceffion of coinage has been produced from
the reign of the Saxon king Athelftan down to Henry IT.
This feries has been engraved in Mr. Nichols’s valuable hif-
tory of this town.

The firX charter granted to Leicefter was by king Joha
in the firlt year of his reign; and at the fame time Pabaes
Fitz-Parnel, earl of Leiceiter, invefted the burgeffes with the
power of buying and felling lands, &c. A charter, granted
in the following reign by earl Simon de Montfort, fhews the
peculiar intolerance of the times ; it {pecifies that **no Jeq,
or Jezve/i, in my time, or in the time of any of my heirs, to
the end ef the world, fhall inhabit, or remain in” the town
of Leicelter. Henry VII. by charter dated 1504, con-
firmed all the previous privileges, and empowered the jultices
to take cognizance of trealons, murders, felonies, &c. A
charter by queen Elizabeth fpecifies that the borough of
Leicefter is very ancient and populous, and from remote
times has been a borough incerperate ; and the former liber-
ties and immunities are {pecified and extended. ‘The corpo-
ration are thereby empowered, among other privileges, to
refufe the building of malt-kilns within the diltance of thirty
yards from any other building. This charter alfo grants a
market for wool-yarn and worfted, and for other commo-
ditics. All fines and amercements were ord:r:d te be ap-
plied to the ule of the poor. The corporation confifts of a
mayor, recorder, fteward, bailiffs, twenty-four aldermen,
forty-eight common-councilmen, and a town clerk ; the free.
men are toll-free of ali the markets and fairs in England.
As a parliamentary borough, Leicefter has returned two
members to the national councils from the time of Edward I,
One of the reprefentatives was formerly elected by the
«¢ mayor and his brethren,’’ and the other by the commonalty.
This mode having se i much popular diflurbance,
Henry VII. ordained that ‘the mayor and his brethren
fhould choofe forty-eight of the mot difcreet inhabitants of
the town,””? who fhould eleé& all officers for the borough, and
members of parliament. Thus it continued till the reign of
Charles II. ; from which time the right of election has been
velted in “the freemen, not receiving alms, and in the in-
habitants paying {cot and lot.’? The number of voters is
about 2000.

At the time of the Norman conquelt, there appear to
have been fix churches in this town ; and it would be highly
interefting to the archite€tural antiquary to afcertain if either
of the prefent ftrudtures contains any part of the building
then ftanding. Of the religious edifices now remaining, Sr.
Nicholas’s church is efteemed the moit ancient. It ftands
contiguous to the Jewry-wall, and appears to have been
partly conftrnéted with the bricks, tiles, &c. taken from
the fallen parts of that building ; whence fome antiquaries
have thought that they are both parts of the fame ftructure,
or built about the fame period. The church of St. Mary,
diftinguifhed by the addition of infra or juxta caltrum, is a
large pile of irregular building, compoted of various fpe-
cimens, or {ftyles of architecture, from a very early period
to a late one, when all ftyles were difregarded. Thefe va-
rieties tend to mark ‘the difaiters of violence, accident, and’
time,’”? and prove that the neighbourhood of the cathe,
within the outer ballinm, or precinét of which it {tood, was
often moft dangerous. ‘Chat there was a church on this fpot
in the Saxon times feems almoit certain, drom fome bricks,

; apparently

LES

apparently the workmanfhip of that people, found in the
» 3pp x P j
chancel; and the chevron work round the windows of the
chancel proves that the firft Norman earl of Leicefter, Ro-
bert de Bellomont, conftru&ed a church on a plan nearly
like the prefent, and adorned it with the architecture of his
time. ‘lhe interior of this church is fpacious ; and on the
fouth fide of the nave is a fingularly large femicircular arch,
having afpan of thirty-nine feet. The fouth aifle is faid by
Mr. Carte to have been built by John of Gaunt. At the
eaft end of this aifle was a chapel, or choir, held by guild, or
fraternity, called the Trinity guild. This was founded, in
Huuiry Vilth’s reign, by fir Richard Sacheverele, and the
good lady Hun me Refpecting this guild, the follow-
ing lilt of an om bought in for the year 1508, will ferve
to fhew the value of money, and prices of provilions at that
period. “A dozen of ale, 20d.; a fat wether; 25. 4d. ;
feven lambs, 7s.; fourteen goflings, 4s. 8d. ; fifteen capons,
5s. 3 half a quarter of malt, 2s.; four gallons of milk, 4d. ;
a piz, 5d.” At the weft end of the church is a handfome
tower, furmounted by a lofty and elegant fpire. The lat-
ter has twice fuffered from ftorms. Near the north door of
this church isa paflage leading under an old building which
formsa gateway to an area called the caftle yard. Oppolite
_ this gateway is a building, partly ancient, partly modern,
within which is a large hall feventy-eight feet in length, Gfty-
one in width; and twenty-four feet high. ‘This hall, during
the reign of Lancaitrian princes, was the fcene of frequent
patliaments; at prefent itis ufed only for holding the affizes
and other county meetings. The church of All Saints is a
fmall modern ftruéture, confifting of a nave and two aifles,
all nearly of the fame length. ‘Vhe church of St. Martin,
formerly called St. Crofle, is a large old building, confitting
of a nave, three aifles, and a tower, with a lofty crocketted
fpire. This church, being the largeft in the town, and even
_ inthe whole county, is ufed at all the public meetings of the
diltriG for the bifhop, judges, &c. The churchwardens’
accounts re{pecting this ciurch and parifh are copious and
well preferved. They begin in 1544, and contain many
curious notices, defcriptive of the peculiar manners and
cuftoms of the different times. In this church was held St.
George’s guild, a fraternity which was invefted with peculiar
rivileges, and annually ordained a fort of jubilee in tiie town,
called “the Riding of St. George.’? It contained alfo
another guild called Corpus Chriiti, which Mr. Threfoy
fays, “‘was the moit ancient and principal in Leicefter.’””
The regifler of this parifh records the calamitous effe&ts of a
plague which raged here in the years 1610 and 1611, during
which period 166 perfons were buried. In the marriage re-
gilter is anentry of the names of Thomas Tiliey and Urfula
Ruffel, the firlt of whom being “ deofe and alfo dombe, it
was agreed by the bifhop, mayor, and gentlemen of the
town, that certain figns and aétions of the bridegrsom fhould
be admitted inftead of the neceflary words.’ St. Mar-
garet’s church, according to Leland’s account, is “the
faireft church in that place, which once was a cathedral
church, and near which the bifhop of Lincolne hath.a palace,
whereof little yet ftandeth.”? This edifice coniitts.of a nave,
fide aifles, chancel, and a handfome tower, and was annexed
as a prebend to the college of Lincoln by, the bifhop of that
diocefe, at the time when the other churches were given to
the abbey. [efides thefe churches, here are chapels. or
meeting-houfes for different fects of diffenters, prefbyterians,
independents, and baptifts. The county gaol, erected in
e year 1791, at the expence of fix thoufand pounds,
cupies the {cite of an old prifon, and is built after
the plan recommended by Mr. Howard, with folitary cells,

&c. The towa.gaol. isa. commodious ftone building, de-

LEI

figned by Mr. Johnfon, a native of this town, and executed
by Mr. Firmadge in 1792. The other public buildings are
a free grammar fchool of great antiquity ; feveral charity
{chools ; various hofpitals ; an afylum for indigent lunatics ;
an exchange for public bufinefs; the hotel, now ufed as
affembly rooms; and a commodious theatre. Among the
curiofities of the town, is the old wooden bedftead faid to
have belonged to king Richard, and on which he flept, or
rather reclined, the night preceding the battle of Bof-
worth.

The principal, and almoft only article of manufacture in
Leicetter, is that of ftockings, which has been an eltablifhed
and ttaple commodity here for above two centuries. It finds
employment for a great number of perfons, as holiers,
ftocking-makers, wool-combers, dyers, frame-{miths, comb-
makers, winders, fizers, feamers, fp inners, hobbiners, finker-
makers, {tocking-needle-makers, &c. &c. Mr. Throfby
{tates that in Leicefler there were “ upwards of feventy ma-
nufacturers, called hofiers, who, it is computed, employ
3000 frames ; including the wrought goods they individually
purchafe ; about 6000 perfons being direéily or indirectly
employed in this great bufinefs.”? ‘This town and its vici-
nity, with Nottingham and its neighbourhood, are the prin-
cipal places in England for the manufacture of ftockings ;
the latter is the moft noted for filk, and the finer fort of
goods, while the former is chiefly devoted to the coarfer
articles, of which a very large quantity is annually made.
The trade at prefent is very flourifhing, and in the “ Waik
through Leicelier’’? it is ftated ‘that 15,000 dozen per
week” of itockings are made on an average. (See Srock-
1ncs.) Leicefter is g7 miles diltant from London: the
market is held on Saturdays; and feven fairs annually ; all
ona very large fcale. ‘This town was returned to parlia-
ment in the year 1801 as containing 3290 houfes, and
16,953 inhabitants. «

Among the natives of this town, of literary eminence, is
Dr. Richard Farmer, who was born ia 1735, and died in)
1797- Nichols’s Hittory and Antiquities of Leicefterfhire,
feven vols. folio. A Walk through Leicefter, 12mo. is an
interefting and well written topographical work.

Leicesrer, a townfhip of America, in Addifon county, -_
Vermont, fituated on the eaft fide of Ozter creek, containing
522 inhabitants.

Leicester, called by the Indian natives Tow/uid, a con-
fiderable po't-town in Worcefter county, Maflachufetts,
containing 1103 inhabitants; fituated upon the poft-road
from Bofton to Hartford, New York, and Philadelphia >
6 miles W. of Worcelter, and 54 W. by S. of Boiton;.
fettled in 1703, and incorporated in 1720 or F721. It has-
three meecting-houfes for Congregationalilts,. Anabaptifts,
and Quakers; and an academy incorporated in 1784, and -
well endowed. Wool-cards are manufactured in this town..-

LEICESTERSHIRE, called in the. Domefday Sur-
vey Ledeceftrefcire, is an inland county, fituated nearly in the
middie of England, and environed by the counties of Rut-
land.and Lincoln to the eaft, Nottingham and Dérby on the
north, Staffordfhire and Warwickfhire to. the weft,’ whiilt
part of the latter county and Northamptonfhice attach to the
fouthern border. Apart of the great Roman road, called
Watling-ttreet, appears to have formed a regular. divifion -
between Leiceiterfhire and Warwickfhire.. The diitri@ in-
cluded within thefe boundaries was, at an.early period, a
part of the territory belonging to the Coritani. After the
Romans had fubjugated the Britons, and had eitablifhed »
colonies in different parts of the ifland, this county was in- -
cluded within the province of Flavia Cefarienfis, and had“
military ftations eltablifhed at Rate. (Leicefter) ; Verno~~

metum,.

LEICESTERSHIRE,

metum, on the northern border of the county; Benonz,
near High-Crofs; and Manduefledum, at Manceter. Thefe
flations were connected by regular artificial roads, or military
ways, known by the names of Watlipg-Street, Fofle-Way,
and Via Devana. The firft enters this county at Dow-
bridge or Dovebridge, on the Northamptonfhire border,
where the {tation called Tripontium was fixed: hence to
Mandueffedum it paffed nearly in a ftraight line, having the
fmall {tation of Benona on its courfe. Near this place the
Foffe-Way interfeéts it at right angles, and pailes on to
Rate ; whence it continues in a northerly diretion to Ver-
nometum, and thence on to Margidunum, a ftation near Eaft
Britford, in Nottinghamfhire. After the Romans had eva-
cuated the ifland, this diftrict became part of the kingdom
of Mercia; and when the fubdivifion of the Anglo-Saxon
provinces into counties was eltablifhed, and bifhops’ fees
ereGted, the town of Leicefter was conftituted the feat of
* the diocefan. The Mercian kingdom was divided into
fouthern and northern; and the inhabitants of Leicefterfhire
were denominated Mediterranz, or Middle Angles. They
were frequently harafled by the invading Danes, who en-
tering the diftriét from the eaftera coaft, laid the whole
country under contribution between the German ocean and
Leicelter; and having conquered this place, eftablifhed
themfelves here for fome length of time: indeed, Leicefter
was confidered as one of their five chief cities in the ifland.
After the Norman invafion in 1066, Leicefterfhire expe-
rienced ‘a complete revolution in its civil and manorial pri-
vileges ; as the conqueror divided it among his relations and
adherents. Two hundred and twenty-eight lordfhips, the
chief parts of the county, were allotted and parcelled out to
different Norman chiefs ; who again regranted various allot-
ments to their followers and dependants, to be held of them
by knight’s fervice. The king, the archbifhop of York,
and the bifhops of Lincoln and Conftance, were alfo pof-
feffed of landed property in the county ; and fome was annexed
to the abbies of Peterborough, Coventry, and Croyland.
The Norman chiefs, in order to fecure their newly-acquired
pofleffions, foon built, on their refpective eftates, ttrong and
magnificent caftles, which might at once fecure themf{elves,
and keep the conquered Englith in awe. The feveral town-
fhips, in which fuch caltles are known to have been erected,
with the names of the founders, are Leicefter, Mount Sorel,
Whitwick, and Shilton, founded by the earls of Leicefter ;
Groby and Hinckley, by Hugo de Grentemaifnell; Do-
nington, by Euftace baron of Halton; Melton, by Roger
lord Mowbray ; Raveniton, by Goesfrid Hanfelin; Sauvey,
by lord Baflet of Weldon; and Thorpe, by Ernald de Bois.
Moit of thefe caftles, during the unquict reigns of Henry I.,
John, and Henry III., being held by the rebellious barons,

and rendered receptacles of thieves and freebooters, were,,

by command of the latter king, utterly demolifhed; and
though fome of them were afterwards rebuilt, yet at this
day there is not one of them remaining entire, and even the
ruins of moft of them are entirely defaced. The Norman
chiefs, after fettling their pofleffions, and fortifying them-
felves within their refpeCtive domains, next dire¢ted their at-
tention to the religious habits and prejudices of the times ;
as to fecure the favour and influence of the monks, in an age
when they were almoft omnipotent, or at leaft could com-
mand and intimidate the whole community, was a neceflary
branch of military policy, which the provincial barons
neither overlooked nor negleéed. Accordingly, part of
their eftates were appropriated to the foundation of abbies,
priories, nunneries, and other monattic eftablifhments. In
this county were founded four abbies, at Croxton, Garen-
don, Leicefter, and Olvefton; twelve priories, at Belvoir,

Bradley, Bredon, Charley, Hinckley, Kirkby Beler, Laund;_
at Leicefter were four, for Eremites, Black Friars, Grey
Friars, and Auttin Friars ; and Ulvefton; two nunneries at
Gracedieu and Langley; two collegiate churches in Lei-
cefter ; and various Bed chapels, hofpitals, preceptories, and
chantries, in different parts of the county.

At the time of compiling that great national work, the
Domefday Survey, Leicelterfhire was divided into four wa-
pentakes or hundreds; Framland, Guthlaxton, Gartre, and
Gofcote : and thus it continued till the 20th of Edward ITL.,
when an additional hundred, Sparkenhoe, was taken out of
Guthlaxton ; and aftewards Gofcote was divided into two,
denominated, from their fituations, Eaft and Weft Gofcote.
In thefe fix hundreds are 196 parifhes, and 12 market-
towns, viz. Leicefter, Afhby de la Zouch, Bofworth, Hal-
laton, Harborough, Lutterworth, Melton Mowbray, Mount
Sorel, Billefdon, Hinckley, Loughborough, and Waltham
on the Wold. The whole county is within the ecclefiattical
jurifdiGion of the fee of Lincoln, and in the province of
Canterbury ; under one archdeacon, and fix deaneries. Mr.
Nichols ftates, from the Domefday Survey, that the whole
county, at the time that record was compiled, contained
34,000 inhabitants. ‘The number returned to parliament,
under the population aét of the year 1800, was 130,081; of
whom 23,823 are ftated to be employed in agriculture, and
42,036 in trade and manufaétures: the number of houfes
being 26,734. The reprefentatives in parliament are but
four: two for the county, and two for the borough of Lei-
cefter. The circumference and extent of the county have
not been fatisfactorily defined. Mr. Nichols ftates the
former to be * about 150 miles 5”? whilft Mr. Monk fets the
fame down at ‘ about 96 miles.’? The fuperficial contents
are eftimated at about 540,000 acres. re

This county has not any rivers of importance ; but thofe
which pafs through it are convenient and ornamental. The
chief are the Soar, the Swift, the Welland, the Avon, the
Wreke; and the Anchor. The Soar, anciently called
Leire, which is the largeft of thefe, rifes from two heads or
fources in the fouth-weftern part of the county, and, after
receiving a {mall tributary ftream near Whetitone, pafles by
the weft and north fides of the town of Leicefter,

Leicefterfhire being more an agricultural than a com-
mercial diftri€t, and deprived of any particular mines, has
uot equally participated with many other Englifh counties
in canal navigation. Some plans for this purpofe have been
projected at different periods, and a few have been executed.
In 1782, a bill was brought into parliament for making a
navigable canal from Chilver’s Coton in Warwickfhire, to
pafs through a great part of Leicefterfhire ; but being op-
pofed by a variety of interefts, it failed of fuccefs. In
1780, another bill was introduced for opening a canal com-
munication between Loughborough and Leicefter; but it
was thrown out on the fecond reading. In 1791, another
application was made with better fuccefs; and an a&t was
obtained for making the faid communication ; the proprietors
are ftyled in this aét, “ the company and proprietors of the
Leicefter Navigation”? In the fame year, another aét was
obtained for makiug navigable the rivers Wreke and Eye:
and in 1793, a bill was pafled for making the «* Oakham
Canal,’ from a town of that name in Rutlandfhire, to
Melton Mowbray. ;

The whole of Leicefterfhire prefents nearly a flat furface,
and is chiefly appropriated to the grazing fyftem. It has
obtained peculiar celebrity, among agriculturifts, for a
breed of fheep, diftinguifhed by the name of the fhire: and
the late Robert Bakewell of Difhley, acquired for him-
felf and the county much popularity, by the open

‘ an

LEV!

_ and improvments he made in the breed of cattle and er:
Among the different breeds of fheep in the county, the Old

_ Leicetter, the Foreft, and the New Leicefter, or Difhley,
conftitute the principal forts, and of them the latter is in
the higheft repute. ‘The extraordinary price for which many
-of the New-Leicefter-fheep have been fold at public auc-
tions, and the large fums for which fome of the rams and
bulls have been let out for the feafon, ferve at once to fhew
their eftimation in public opinion, and the laudable zeal that
prevails for improving the breeds of cattle, &c. At an auc-
tion of ewes, belonging to Thomas Pagett, efq., in the
year 1793, the following fums were given :—Five ewes, at
62 guineas each; five, at 52 guineas each; five, at 45 gui-
neas each; ten, at 30 guineas; and feveral at 25, 20, and
16 guineas each. One of thefe fheep, which was killed at
Welsrave in Northamptonbhire, was of the following weight:
the carcafe 144lb., blood slb., fat 164lb., head and entrails
talb., fkin 18lb. ; making in the whole 19541b. It is no
uncommon thing to falt down the mutton as a fubjtitute for
bacon. In the year 1793, Mr. Pagett fold feveral bulls,
heifers, cows, and calves, by public au€tion, when fome
were bought at the following very extravagant prices: a bull,
called «* Shak{peare,”’ defcribed in the catalogue as ‘ (bred
by the late Mr. Fowler) by Shakfpeare, off young Nell.
Whoever buys this lot, the feller makes it a condition, that
he fhall have the privilege of having two cows bulled by
him yearly”—Four hundred guineas : a bull calf 31 guineas ;

_ a three years old heifer 70 guineas; others at 35 and 32
guineas each; a two years old heifer at 84, and another
at 60 guineas.

It will be difficult to define the foils of the whole county.
Very little of the land can with propriety be ‘called a mere
fand or gravelly foil; nor is there any great quantity that
may properly be called clay. The beft foil is upon the
hills ; and the worft, or neareft approaching to the clay or
cold lands, in the vallies; though there are many excep-
tions to this rule. ‘The foil, or what the farmers generally
call mould, is generally deep, which makes it very proper
for -grafs ; fuch deep foils not being very foon affected by
dry weather. About Lutterworth, fome part is a light
rich loam, excellent for turnips and barley ; a part ftiff,
inclining to marle, or rich clay; the remainder, chiefly
a fort of medium between both, with a fubfoil inclining to
marle, bearing excellent crops of oats and wheat, and good
turnips alfo, though not fo well adapted for being eat off
the land by fheep. Moft of the land round Hinckley is a
good mixed foil, bearing good crops of grafs. Athby-
de-la-Zouch, and the northern parts of the county, exhibit
various foils, fand, gravel, loam, and clay. In Melton
Mowbray the foil is in general a heavy loam; and imme-
diately underneath a very {tiff impervious clay, mixed with
{mall pieces of lime-{tone. Thefe lands are very wet in
winter, and the turf fo tender, as {carcely to be able to
bear the treading of fheep, without injury. At Market
Harborough the foil is in general a very itrong clay, chiefly
in grafs.

Since the commencement of the laft century, cheefe has
become an article of fome importance to the Leicefterfhire
farmers; and a large cheefe-fair is annually held in the
county-town. Among the different forts manufactured in
the county, that called Stilton cheefe is deemed the fineft,
and confequently obtains the higheft price. It acquired the
title of Stilton from a place of that name, on the great
North road in Huntingdonthire, where it is well known to
have been firft publicly fold by retail. This cheefe is fome-

times called the Parmefan of England, and is ufually formed
in {quare vats. The cheefes feldom weigh more than twelve

Vor. XX.

LEI

pounds each, and from that to fix pounds is the general
average weight. ‘They are fometimes moulded in nets, but
this mode is not deemed fo eligible as that of the vat. A
confiderable quantity of this cheefe is made on the farms
about Melton Mowbray.

Leicefterfhire is defcribed by Mr. Marhhall, in his «* Rural
Economy,’’ a3 a very fertile diftriét ; and the only parts
which are not abfolutely in good cultivation, are Charn-
wood-Foreft, alfo a traét of land inthe northern part of
the county, called the Wolds or Woulds, and another
fimilar traét on the fouthern fide. Nichols's Hiftory and
Antiquities of Leicefterflire, 7 vols. folio.

LEIDENSDORYF, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmeritz ; 20 miles W. of Leitmeritz.

LE JEUNE, in Biography. See CLaupe.

LEIGE.. See Lisce.

LEIGH, Sir Epwarp, in Biography, was born at
Shadwell, in Leicefterfhire, in the year 1602. He received
the rudiments of learning at Walfal, in Staffordfhire, and
in 1616 was entered a commoner of Magdalen-hall, in the
univerfity of Oxford. From the univerfity, he went to
ftudy the common law in the Middle Temple. When the
plague broke out in 1625, he went into France for a fhort
time, and returning thence, he applied himfelf moft feduloufly
to his ftudies, which comprized not only the law, but divinity,
hiftory, and the learned languages. During the civil wars
he was chofen member of parliament for the town of
Stafford, and was one of the perfons appointed to fit in the
affembly of divines. He was greatly diftinguifhed for the
talents and learning which he difplayed in the debates of
that aflembly. In the year 1648, when the Prefbyterian
party was excluded from the houfe by the army, he was in
the number of profcribed members, and was for fome time
kept in confinement. From the period of his liberation till
the reftoration, he chiefly employed himfelf in profecuting
his literary ftudies, and in publifhing various works, which
difcover profound erudition and general knowledge. He
died in 1671, at the age of 69. He was author of “ Se-
le&ted and choice Obfervations concerning the twelve Cx-
fars ;”? “© Anale&ta Cafarum Romanorum;’”? “ A Treatife
of divine Promifes ;?? “Critica Sacra,” in 2 vols. 4to ;
«¢ Annotations on all the Books of the New Teftament ;’”
« A Philological Commentary, or an Illuitration of the moft
obvious and ufeful Words in the Law;” “ A Syftem of
Divinity ;”? “* Annotations on the five poetical Books of
the Old Teftament, viz. Job, Pfalms, Proverbs, Eccle-
fiaftes, and Canticles ;”? ** Choice Obfervations on all the
Kings of England, from the Saxons to the Death of King
Charles I.’? Gen. Biog.

Lerieu, Cuar es, a phyfician of the feventeenth century,
was born at Grange, in Lancafhire. He graduated at
Cambridge, and afterwards praétifed in London with con-
fiderable reputation. He was admitted a member of the
Royal Society in May 1685. He left the following works:
«©The Natural Hiltory of the Counties of Lancafhire,
Chefhire, and Derbythire, &c.’’? Oxford, 1630, folio. Lon-
don, 1700, with plates. <“¢ Phthifiologia Lancaitrienfis,
cum tentamine philofophico de Mineralibus Aquis in eodem
comitatu obfervatis,”’” London, 1694, 8vo. Exercita-
tiones quinque de Aquis Mineralibus, ‘hermis calidis, Mor-
bis acutis, Morbis intermittentibus, Hydrope,’”? ibid. 1697.
“ Hiftory of Virginia,” drawn up from obfervations
made during a refidence in that country, Lendon, 1705,
I2mo.

Lerten, Weft, in Geography, a market town in the
hundred of Weft Derby, Lancafhire, England, is fituated
fix miles from Wigan, and 198 from London, The church

35 ie

LEI

‘is a handfome ftruQure, with a fquare tower ; the body be-
ing fupported by two rows of pillars. Leigh has a con-
fiderable manufacture of fuftian and other cotton ftuffs ;
and by its canal navigation, which communicates with the
rivers Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Oufe, Severn, Humber, Thames,
Avon, &c. it carries on an extenfive traffic. Coals are
abundant ; and the dairies round the town produce excellent
cheefe, The town, according to the official report in 1801,
contained 277 houfes, and 1429 inhabitants. A weekly
market is held on Saturdays; and a fair on the 26th of
April. The parifh te of great extent, and contains the
townfhips of Aftley, Bedford, Pennington, and Tyldefley,
the hamlet of Shackefley, and the chapelry of Chowbent,
inhabited altogether by nearly 13,000 perfons.

The chapelry of Chowbent has greatly increafed in
houfes and population within the laft 20 years. Its chapel,
though regularly confecrated by the bifhop of Sodor and
Man, is exempt from epifcopal jurifdi€tion, and the patron-
age is vefted in the proprietor of Atherton Hall, which
formerly was the feat of a family of that name, but is now
the property of the Hon. T. Powis. The houfe, which

was built by Gibbs, is large, and has a {pacious cubical en-

trance hall. A plan of this manfion is given in the ‘ Vitru-
vius Brittanicus.”’

The townfhip of ‘T'yldefley has grown up with the manu-
faCtures of the county. A family of that name was feated
here fo early as the reign of Henry ILI. Of this family
was fir Thomas ‘Tyldetley, who fignalized himfelf dur-
ing the troubles of Charles I.’s reign, and fell in the
battle of Wigan lane, Auguft 25, 1650. He was buried
in Leigh church; and on a pillar near Wigan is fixed a
brafs plate, with an infcription to perpetuate his memory.
Beauties of England, vol. ix.

Leicn’s Jfland. See Cocoa-nut Jfland.

LEIGHLIN, a bifhopric of Ireland, in the pro-
vince of Dublin, founded in 632, and united with Ferns
in 1602. The united bifhopric comprifes the whole
counties of Carlow and Wexford, with part of the Queen’s
county, Wicklow, and Kilkenny. There are 232 parifhes
in the union, forming 79 benefices, ia which are 71 churches
and fix glebe houfes. The cathedrals are fmall, and ferve
for parifh churches. The relidence of the bifhop is at
Ferns.

Leieuurn, Old, a village of Ireland, near the river
Barrow, and in the county of Carlow, 24 miles W. by N.
from Leighlin bridge. It was incorporated in the year
1216, and continued to fend members to parliament till the
Union ; and is ftill the feat of the cathedral church of the
diocefe,

Leicuiin Bridge, a poft-town of Ireland, in the county
of Carlow, on the river Barrow, over which it hasa bridge,
firft built in the year 1320. It originated in a monattery,
which, on the fuppreflion of religious houfes, was converted
into a fort to proteét the bridge; and lately, on account of
the navigation of the Barrow, it has confiderably increafed,
being now a thriving town. It is 45 miles S.S.W. from
Dublin, on the Great Southern road, and fix miles from
Carlow.

LEIGHTON, A cexanper, in Biography, a Scotch

refbyterian divine, was born at Edinburgh in 1587. He
beans noted for the fufferings which he endured jn the reign
of Charles I., on account of a work which he publithed,
entitled “« An Appeal to the Parliament ; or Zion’s Plea
again{t Prelacy.”” For this he was tried in the high-com-
miffion court, and being convicted, which, in thofe days,
and in that court, was but another term for being accufed,
he was condemned go be imprifoned for life, and pay a fine

LET!

of 10,000/.: he was to be fet in the pillory twice, and to
be whipt, have one of his ears cut off, one fide of his nofe
flit, and be branded in the face with a double S.S_ asa fower
of fedition. When this favage fentence was paffed on him,
the cruel Laud exhibited figns of the molt indecent joy,
and publicly gave God thanks for it. Excepting the im-
prifonment for life, and the fine, the fentence was put into
execution to the fullextent. He was releafed by the Long
Parliament after an imprifonment of ten years. His con-
finement and cruel ufage had fo impaired his health, that
when he was releafed he had fcarcely the power of walking,
or feeing, or hearing. As a fort of remuneration for his
troubles the parliament appointed him keeper of Lambeth
palace, at that time converted into a prifon. He died in
1644, infane. Toulmin’s Neale’s Hitt. vol. ii.

Lercuron, Rosert, a Scotch prelate in the feventeenth
century, was fon of the preceding. He was educated in
Scotland, where he diftinguifhed himfelf above his contem-
poraries, in all the branches of ufeful learning, particularly
in the ftudy of the fcriptures. Having finifhed his courfe
of academical ftudies he went to the continent for improve-
ment, and {pent fome years in France. On his return he
obtained Prefbyterian ordination, and was chofen to a con-
gregation at Newbottle, near Edinburgh. Very foon after
his fettlement at this place he conceived a diflike to the Pref-
byterian form and manner of church difcipline, and chofe
rather a life of retirement than to attend at the prefbytery.
His main object was to inftrué his flock in the principles
and duties of religion and morality, urging them not to
trouble themfelves with religious and political difputes. In
the year 1648, he declared himfelf for the engagement for
the king, on account of which he would have expofed him-
felf to much trouble, had not the earl of Lothian, who lived
in his parifh, proved his friend, and prevailed with the men
in power not to moleft him, At length, finding that he
could no longer fubmit to the ecclefiaftical impolitions of
the Prefbyterians, and being unwilling to live in ftrife and
contention, he refigned his parifh in filence, and withdrew
into retirement. Shortly after, he was chofen principal of
the college of Edinburgh, the duties of which office he
performed with great reputation during ten years. Upon
the reftoration, when it was determined to eftablith epifco-
pacy in Scotland, Leighton was fixed on as a proper perfon
for the mitre. He was confecrated, with other bifhops, at
Weltminfter ; he would now gladly have promoted fome
plan for uniting the Prefbyterians and Epifcopalians, but

‘was thwarted in all views on this fubje&t. When he found

that the government was determined to enforce conformity
on the Prefbyterians by the moft rigorous meafures, he la-
boured with all zeal to fhew the impolicy of fuch proceed-
ings: but he ftruggled ineffeCtually againft the current, and
all that he could do was to praétife, in his own diocefe, the
moderation which he had recommended generally, and to fet
an edifying example to the reft of his dignified brethren.
Thefe, however, profited but little either from his advice
or from the exemplary condu€& which he manifetted. He
remonttrated with the king refpecting the arbitrary proceed-
ings of the ecclefiaitical high-commiflion court, and more
lenient meafures were promifed to be purfued with refpe@
to Scotland. He begged permiffion to refign his fee; but
the king, fo far from litening to the prayer of his petition,
urged him to accept of the diocefe of Glafgow, which was
a more important bifhopric, and one in which he might be
more ufeful. To induce him to accept of this preterment,
he was promifed the aflittance of the court in bringing about
his favourite {cheme of a comprehenfion of the Prefbyte-
rians, He accepted the fee, but after a fhort time found

himfelf

LEI

himfelf wholly unable to carry’on his great defigns of heal-
ing the divifions, and reforming the abufes in the church,
and begged permiffien to retire into private life, which was
at length granted him. He went to live in Suffex, where
he occupied himfelf in doing all the good in his power.
He died in 1684, at about the age of eighty. He was au-
thor of «* Preleétiones Theologice ;’’ “* A Commentary on
the firft and fecond Chapters of the firft Epiftle of St.
Peter;”? and of « Sermons,"’ including other pieces: to the
volume of fermons, publifhed in 1758, is prefixed a life of
the author, to which the reader is referred for ample particu-
lars of this excellent divine. .

Leicuton, Sir Witii1aM, knight, one of the honour-
able pentioners, who feems to have been a dilettante of con-
fiderable erudition in mufic; he publifhed, in 1614, “* The
Tears or Lamentations of a forrowful Soul,’’? compofed
with mafical airs and fongs, both for voices and divers in-
ftruments. The beft compofers of the time contributed to
this publication. See LAMENTATIONS.

Leieuton-Buzzard, or Beaudefert, in Geography, a mar-
ket town and parifh in the hundred of Manfhead and county
of Bedford, England, is fituated on the banks of the river
Oufe, 41 miles fom London, and contained, according to
the return made in 1800 to parliament, 387 houfes and
1963 inhabitants, of whom 1014 were ftated to be employed
in trades and manufaétures. The market, which is held on
Tuefdays, is one of the moft ancient in the county; the
tolls were valued at 7/. per annum at the time of the Norman
furvey. Here are fix annual fairs, of which two were
granted in the year 1447. The priucipal antiquity in the
town is a beautiful pentangular crofs, built of ftone, and
fituated in an open area near the market-houfe: it is fup-
pofed to have been erected about the beginning of the four-
teenth century. It confifts of two ftories; and the whole
height is thirty-eight feet. (For a particular defcription,
with an engraving, fee Britton’s ArchiteGural Antiquities
of Great Britain, vol. i.) The church is a large antique
building, which, from the various grotefque carvings, ap-
pears to have been built about the. fame time as the crofs;
and is conftruéted with the fame fort of ftone. It has a
{quare tower, furmounted by a fpire, the whole being 193
feet in height. A priory of foreign monks was eftablifhed
in the reign of Henry II. at a place called Grovebury,
within this parifh: and here was alfo a houfe of Ciitercian
mouks, which was a cell to Woburn abbey. About half a
mile from the town are the remains of a Romaa encamp-
ment ; from which, and other corroborating circumftances,
Leighton-Buzzard is fuppofed to be the Lygeanburg of the
Saxon Chronicle, which, with feveral more towns, was
taken from the Britons by Cuthwulph, A.D. 571. Lyfons’s
Magna Brittannia, vol. 1. 4to.

LEIGNE’-sur-Usseau, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Chatellerault. The place contains 311, and
the canton 5127 inhabitants, on a territory of 1423 kilio-
metres, in 13 communes.

LEILAM, or Leyram, a town of the Arabian Irak ;
30 miles N. of Bagdad.

LEIMA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Irtifch;
24 miles N. of Tobolfk.

LEINA, or Lerng, a river of Weftphalia, which rifes
in the territory of Eichfeld, paffes by Heiligenftadt, Got-
tingen, Hanover, &c. and joins the Aller about two miles
below Zelle.

Lena, a town of Germany, in the principality of
Gotha; 4 miles $.S.W. of Gotha,

LEI

LEINE, a river of Germany, whic runs into the Neffas
4 miles N. of Gotha,

LEINEN Zem, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of
Culm; 9 miles E. of Thorn.

LEININGEN, or Linanceg, lately a county of Ger-
many, bordering on the bifhoprics of Worms and Spire,
and almoft furrounded by the palatinate. The foil is fertile
in corn, fruit, and wine; the foreft abounds with game, and
it has alfo mines of copper and iron, and quarries of ftone.
By the peace of Luneville it was annexed to France.

LerinGeN, a town of France, in the department of
Mont Tonnerre, the caftle of which was demolifhed by the
French; 11 miles S.W. of Worms. N, lat. 49° 30'. E.
long. 8 4!.

LEINLETTER, a town of Bavaria; 10 miles S.E.
of Bamberg.

LEINSTER, the eaftern province of Ireland, comprif-
ing twelve counties, viz. Louth, Dublin, Wicklow, and
Wexford on the fea-coaft; Meath, Weilmeath, Longford,
King’s county, Queen’s county, Kildare, Carlow, and
Kilkenny. This was originally one of the kingdoms inte
which Ireland was divided at the time of the Englifh inva-
fien, and it was the fovereign of it who facilitated the con-
quett by folicitiag aid from Henry IT. and giving his daugh-
ter in marriage to earl Strongbow. The Englifh pale was
entirely within this province, and it is, on the whol, that
which is moft populous and beft cultivated.

LEIOBATUS, in Jchihyology, a name given by Arif-
totle and Atheneus to a {pecies of the ray-fith, called by
many of the old authors és marinus, and by the later au-
thors /eviraia, or raia oxyrynchus ; which fee.

LEIOPODES, formed of Asto:, light, and rec, foot, am
epithet ufed by the old medical writers to exprefs fuch per-
fons who had feet perfe€tly fmooth and even at the bottom,
without the ufual hollow between the heel and the fore part
of the foot.

LEIPHEIM, in Geography, a town of Bavaria, in the
territory of Ulm, on the S. fide of the Danube; 11 miles
N.E. of Ulm.

LEIPNIK, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Pre-
rau ; 6 miles N.E. of Prerau. N. lat. 49° 28. E. long.
17° 35's

LEIPODERMOS, from Asww, fo be deficient, and OE ppc
the fkin, one who has loft the prepuce.

LEIPSICK, or Lerpzic, in Geography, a city of
Saxony, and capital of a circle of the fame name. This is
one of the moit celebrated towns in Germany, pleafantly
fituated in a fertile plain, on the river Pleifle. Its circuit is
eftimated at 8954 paces; and its fuburbs are extenfive, and
confift of good buildings and gardens, being feparated from
the town by a fine walk of lime trees, which runs round the
town, and in the town ditches are planted mulberry trees. Its
univerfity, which is famous, was founded in 1409, and con-
tains fix colleges, two good Latin fchools, and two cele-
brated focieties, viz. a German fociety, and another for the
encouragement of the liberal arts. Leipfick is one of the
principal trading towns in Germany, and it is in a peculiar
degree the mart of German literature. Befides its foreign
commerce, it has three celebrated fairs, at Eafter, Michael-
mas, and the beginning of the year, at which foreign and
domeftic wares afford an extenfiye trade. It has alfo a dif-
tinguifhing privilege, confifting in the right of having all
itaple commodities, imported within the circuit of 60 miles,
uuladen here, and at leaft for three days offered for fale to
the burghers of the place, and then carried away without
being unladen any where elfe. In the citadel, called Pleif-
fenburg, fituated on the Pleifle, are a mint, founded in

352 1752

LEdJ

17§25 and a chapel for the Roman Catholic worfhip. ‘The
market place, which is f{pacious, and the council-houfe,
ftand in the centre of the town. The exchange is a good
building, and the roof of its hall is well painted. The city
contains eight parifh churches for Lutherans, and alfo a
place of worfhip for Calvinifts. The manufactures are
various ; confifting of gold, filver, filk, wool, and linen
yarn, which are wrought here ; and alfo of {tuffs, velvets,
itotkings, cloths, and linen. Here are alfo houfes for the
dyeing of filk, the printing of cotton, and the making
of tapeftry. Leather, Pruffian blue, &c. are prepared here,
and the Orphan-houfe is appropriated to the culture of filk.
In Leipfick are fuppofed to be 20 bookfellers, 50 French
and Italian merchants and tradefmen, 150 wholefale dealers,
250 retailers, and many dealers in cloth, According to
Dithmar, in his Chronicle, this place fubfifled, as a town,
as long ago as the year 1015. The circle of Leipfick con-
tains 33 towns, and more than 1000 villages. ‘The city is
56 miles W.N.W. of Drefden. N. lat. 51°13. E. long.
12° 19".

Leipfick, as well as Drefden and the whole of Sax-
ony, keep accounts in rix-dollars of 24 good grofchen ; each
grofche being divided into 12 pfenings current. A {fpe-
cie rix-dollar is reckoned at 1% rix-dollar current, or 32
good grofchen. For the coins, fee Saxony. Bills of ex-
change are paid at Leipfick, fince 1786, in Saxon currency,
or in Auguft d’ors, Carl d’ors, Fredericks, &c. reckoned
at five rix-dollars. The time of payment of bills of ex-
change, prefented for acceptance during the four firft days
of the fair, is during the five firft days after the clofe of
the fair is proclaimed; in default of which the bills muft
be protefted before 10 o’clock at night, or the drawer is
not liable.

During the fair, when Drefden was in its glory, ferious
eperas were frequently performed at Leipfick by the beit
muficians, vocal and inftrumental; and to the greateft per-
fonages in Germany. In 1774, the comic operas of M.
Hiller, in the language of the country and without reci-
tative, were the favourite amufements of that flourifhing
city. Every part of Europe, except Italy, feems unani-
mous in banifhing recitative from their comic operas, in-
deed every nation has melodies of its own; but there is no
recitative, except the Italian, which is fit for dramatic
purpofes.

LEISZNIG, a town ‘of Saxony, in the circle of Leip-
fick, on the Mulda, containing two churches,-and having
manufaétures of cloth, lace, ftockings, &c. It hasa cita-
del, called Mildenftein; 24 miles E.S.E. of Leipfick. N-
lat. 51° 7!. E. long. 12° 50!

LEITA, or Leyrna, a river that rifesin the S.W.
part of Auftria, and joins the Raab at Raab in Hungary ;
and afterwards, the united ftream runs into a branch of the
Danube ; nine miles W. of Comorn.

LEITH, a fea-port town and burgh of barony, fituated
on the Frith of Forth, in the county of Midlothian, Scot-
land. It is about two miles‘diftant from Edinburgh, and may
not improperly be,called the harbour of that northern metro-
polis. This town was originally{denominated Inverleith ; the
word inver, prefixed to the name of a river, being a frequent
appellation in Scotland, and implies a town near the mouth
of that river, or its confluence with another. The etymo-
logy of this term is very uncertain, fome alleging it to be of
French, and others of Gaelic derivation.

The period at which Leith.was firft founded is unknown,
but it is undoubtedly a place of great antiquity. It is men-
tioned by the name of Inverleith in the charter for ereCting
the abbey of Holyrood, which was built by David I. in the

12

Lit

year 1128. About a century afterwards the harbour of
Leith and its mills were granted to the magiltrates of Edin-
burgh by Robert I., and in 1298 they acquired all the other
rights and privileges of it, with the exception of the fuperi-
ority from Logan of Reltaltig. Mary of Guife, queen
regent of Scotland, conttituted this town a burgh of barony
inthe year 1549. At this time the inhabitants of Leith
were divided into four clafies, or corporations ; the mariners,
maltmen, tradefmen, and traffickers, each of which ftill re-
tains its original charters. In the fame reign, the citizens
purchafed the fuperiority of their town from the defcendants
of Logan, but after the death of the queen, Francis and
Mary, in violation of the private rights of the people, fold
the {uperiority of the burgh to the magiltrates of Edinburgh,
to whom it has fince been confirmed by feveral fucceflive
charters. Leith fuffered confiderably when the earl of Hart-
ford invaded Scotland in the year 1541, being on that occa-
fion pillaged and burnt by the Englith foldiers. After this,
however, Leith was rebuilt and fortified anew, but foon after
the expulfion of the French in 1560, the council of the -
kingdom, to prevent the danger arifing to the liberties of
the country, from the introduction of foreign troops, or-
dered the fortifications to be demolifhed. Oliver Cromwell
once more raifed fortifications for its defence. The citadel,
which ftill remains, was built by that ufurper. It then con-
fifted of five baftions, but two of them were entirely demo-
lifhed at the-reftoration of the Englifh monarchy, and the
{cite of the whole given to the duke of Lauderdale, then prime
minifter for Scotland, from whom the magiftrates of Edin-
burgh were compelled to purchafe it, at the enormous fum
of Goool. fterling. Since the alarm, excited by the appear-
ance of Paul Jones in the Frith of Forth, a battery of nine
guns has been erected a little to the weftward of the citadel,
for the defence of the port and fhipping. A party of ar-
tillery conftantly refide at this battery, which is kept in ex-
cellent order ; and of Jate a confiderahle park of artillery
has likewife been ftationed here.

Leith is divided into two parifhes by the river from which
it derives itsname. Thefe are diftinguifhed by the appella-
tions of North and South Leith, and communicate with each
other by means of two drawbridges, one of which has been
very lately ereGted. The greater part of the townis fituated
in the parifh of South Leith, which alfo extends over a con-
fiderable country diftri€&, and includes the ancient parifh of
Reftalrig. North Leith is a much fmaller parifh, and con-
fits of only about 170 acres. Both on the fouth and“
north fide of the river, the ftreets of this town are extremely
irregular, and of mean appearance. In the fuburbs of
South Leith, however, a number of refpectable houfes
have been erected by the more opulent merchants, and may
be faid to vie, in internal accommodation and exterior ap-
pearance, with thofe of Edinburgh.

Prior to the year 1771, Leith was ill fupplied with water,
and the ftreets were neither properly cleaned nor lighted ; in
that year, however, an aét of parliament was obtained to re-
medy thefe defeéts ; and the great change which has taken
place fince that period fhews the good effect of the aét,
and that it had been judicioufly prepared and was carefully ex-
ecuted. At Reftalrig are ftill extant fome ruins of the old or
mother church. This place is about a mile eaftward of Edin-
burgh. The church was founded by king James ITT., and en-
dowed by the three fucceeding monarchs. It was highly orna-
mented with ftatuary and {culpture, reprefenting many ebje&s
of religious worfhip. In 1650, the general aflembly, in their
zeal againft Popery, ordered this church, as a monument of
idolatry, to be pulled down and entirely demolifhed. In
confequence of this mandate, the inhabitants of South

Leith

LEI

Leith reforted for divine worfhip to the chapel of St. Mary,
which was afterwards declared by authority of parliament
to be the parifh church of the diftri&. It isa handfome
{pacious building ; but being found infufficient to contain
the inhabitants, a ehapel of eafe was ereéted in1772. Here
is alfo an epifcepal chapel ; and, as in all towns of any con-
fequence in Scotland, fome meetings of Prefbyterian
diffenters.

The civil government of Leith is vefted in a magiftrate
fent from Edinburgh, having the power and title of admiral
of Leith, and in two refiding bailiffs, who are elected from
the inhabitants of Leith by the town-council of Edin-

burgh. ~-

The harbour of Leith, which is the chief fource of wealth
to the place, is formed by the conflux of the water of Leith
with the fea. The depth of the water at the mouth of the
harbour is at neap tides about nine feet, but in high fpring
tides about fixteen. It is entirely atide harbour ; the water
in the river being too trifling to give any important aid to-
wards the navigation. About the beginning of the laft cen-
tury, the magiftrates of Edinburgh improved the harbour at a
great expence, by extending a {tone pier to a confiderable dif-
tance into the fea. In the year 1777, they farther improved it
by ereGing an additional ftone quay towards its weit fide. It
is accommodated with wet and dry docks, and other conve-
niences for fhip-building, which is carried on to a confi-
derable extent ; and veflels come hither to be repaired from
various parts of the eaftern coaft of Scotland. It has been
thought advantageous to extend the harbour further into
North Leith ; and very confiderable works arenow carrying
on for that purpofe ; which, when completed, will render it
a very capacious, as well as a fafe and convenient ftation for
trading veflels of almoft any burthen. Ships, indeed, can
only enter at full tide ; but the roads of Leith, which are
about a mile from the-mouth of the harbour, afford moft
excellent anchorage at all times. ;

Leith carries on a veryconfiderable trade; the imports from
the fouthern parts of Europe are wines, brandy, and fruits ;
from the Weft Indies and America, rice, fugar, rum, and
dye-ftuffs ; but the principal traffic is with the Baltic, for
which it is peculiarly well fituated. The fhipping ef Leith
caufes a great demand for ropes and fail-cloth; of which
articles here are feveral manufacturing companies. Two
glafs manufaCtories are eftablifhed here, which, in the year
1790; wrought above nine million pounds weight of that
article. The manufa€tures of feap and candles are alfo car-
ried on toa very great extent ; here are alfo a eonfiderable
carpet manufactory, and feveral iron forges. In 1784, the
trade of Leith was eftimated at half a million fterling, ex-
clufive of glafs-works and fhip-building ; and there is every
reafon to believe that, fince that period, the’ameunt has been
doubled. In the year 1791 the population of North Leith
was 4409 and of South Leith 11,432 total 13,841, which
was an increafe of 4436 fince the year 1755. Beauties of
Scotland, vol. i. Picture of Edinburgh.

Leiru Water, a river of Scotland, which runs into the
Forth at Leith.

LEITHEN, a river of Scotland, which runs into the
Tweed at Inverleithen. ;

LEITMERITZ, a city of Bohemia, in a circle of the
fame name, feated on the Elbe, well built, and populous ;
the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Prague.

The circle, diftinguifhed by its beauty and fertility, is
called the “ Bohemian Paradife ;”’ and, independently of its
own refources, it has ample fupplies, by means of the
Elbe, from other countries. It is famous for the wines,
produced near Aufti, and called “ Podfkalfky,’”? and for the

LET

falubrious mineral waters of Topolitz. In this circle, which
comprehends 8g feignories, ettates, and feats, are tin and pre-
cious ftones ; 28 miles N.N.W. of Prague. N. lat. 50° 31.
E. long. 14° 15!.

LEI!RIM, a county of Ireland, in the province of
Connaught, which is bounded on the north by Donegal and
Fermanagh ; on the eaft by Cavan ; on the fouth by Cavan,
Longford, and Rofeommon, and on the weft by Sligo. In
form fomewhat like an hour-glafs, it varies greatly in
breadth, being in the wideft parts 16, and in the narroweft
only fix miles acrofs. Its length is 41 Irifh, or 52 Englith
miles. It contains 255,950 acres, or about 400 fquare
miles (407,260 acres, or 652 fquare miles in Englifh mea-
fure.) The parifhes are 17 in number, partly in the diocefe
of Kilmore, and partly in that of Ardagh. ‘There are very
few unions, anda church in almoft every parifh. When Dr.
Beaufort wrote, the number of houfes was rated at 10,026,
from which he eftimated the population at upwards of
50,000 ; but Mr. Robertfon in 1806, on what authority he
has not ftated, ratexit at 76,630. Of the five baronies into
which Leitrim is divided, the two northern are not as popu-
lous as the other three. ‘Towards the fea there is an aflem-
blage of wild and lofty mountains, which are divided from
one another by deep vallies. Thefe are the mountains of
Sliebh-anewr and Dartry, the latter of which towers to an
immenfe height above the level of the fea. Near the interior,
the immenfe Sliebh an-Erin divides the mountainous from
the level parts of the country. Thefe great hills “are far
from unprofitable, for producing abundance of coarfe grafs,
they annually pour forth immenfe droves of young cattle.
The fouthern baronies are level. Few counties are fo plen-
tifully watered as this. ‘The Shannon rifes in a plain at the
bafe of Quilca mountain, forming Lough Clean, a fmall
lake, which is confidered as the fountain of that noble river ;
from this it flows to Lough Allen, nearly in the centre of
the county, which is 7 miles long and about 30 in circum-
ference ; and then, curling in a variety of forms, it glides by
Carrick on Shannon, where it leaves the county, taking a
fouthern dire&tion. There are feveral other lakes and {mall
ftreams, which are ftored with trout, pike, eel, perch, and
bream. The natural wants of this county feem abundantly
outweighed by its numerous minerals. Iron ore is contained
in great quantities in the high grounds, Deep and rich beds
of it are alfo found on the lower grounds ; and a vigorous
fearch would undoubtedly difcover it in almoft every fitua-
tion. Copper and lead are alfo met with, but not in fuch
quantities. Coal in deep and rich {trata is vifible in many
places. A variety of clays and plenty of limeftone gravel
are likewife found. The foil is exceedingly diverfified. A
rich dark foil on a limeftone bottom, a ferruginous loam on
the mountains, and an argillaceous ftratum, are its chief
charaGteriftics. Great quantities of bog and moor tend to
interrupt the general fertility of the county. The mode of
agriculture adopted by the farmers is injudicious in many
particulars. Potatoes, barley, rye, and wheat, are reared in
{mall quantities; oats in abundance for home confumption.
A contiderable portion of the land is pafturage. The farms
are fmall, and generally occupied in common by a number of
tenantry. Draining is greatly neglected. Manufactures
are rapidly improving, particularly that of linen. There are
feveral bleach-greens. Potteries are numerous about Lei-
trim and Dromahare. The traveller who is anxious for
variety, will no where find it in greater perfeétion than in
Leitrim. Extenfive traéts of waite may be contrafted with
rich lands. The uniform and regular improvements of art
are loft in the wild grandeur of pi€turefque natural diforder.
The dale is frequently terminated by the ftupendous moun~

tain,

LE L

tain, and the beauties of the rich luxuriant woods on the
demefnes, are enriched by the vicinity of beautiful fheets of

water. Near a century ago, the county was a continued
foreft. Immenfe heaps of charred timber are feen at Drom-
fhambo. A confiderable time ago, great exertions were

made to plant woods, and it now abounds with almoft every
variety which the nurfery can afford. No town of any fize
ornaments the county. Carrick on Shannon is the fhire
town, but does not contain above 100 houfes.

«‘ The obftacles,”” fays Mr. Robertfon, ‘* which have fo
long retarded the improvement of Leitrim, have been occa-
fioned by the inhabitants, not by nature; fhe has made
ample ftore for the exertions of their indultry, by beftowing
on them valuable minerals. Thefe, however, have not been
wrought with fufficient activity, and the public have as yet
received little benefit from them. The want of water-
carriage has likewife had a great effect; but this promifes
to be {peedily obviated. Pafturage being purfued to a con-
fiderabie extent, has in a great degree impeded the general
improvement. The confequent want of population has re-
tarded the cultivation of the bog and other wafte land.
But when the true intereft of the people fhall be fufficiently
underftood, the minerals will be wrought, pafturage will be
fupplanted by tillage, the bogs and moors will be covered
with luxuriant crops, and in the end Leitrim will become
one of the moft wealthy counties in Ireland,’? Beaufort’s
Memoir; Robertfon’s Traveller’s Guide. ;

Leirrim, a {mall town of Ireland, which gives name to
the county, but is not confiderable enough to be a poft-
town. It is three miles N. by E. from Carrick on Shannon,
and fituated on the river Shannon.

LEITSHACH, a town of the duchy of Stiria; 13 miles
N.W. of Marburg.

LEITURGI, Aciuefo, among the Athenians, perfons of
confiderable eftates ; who, by their own tribe, or the whole
people, were ordered to perform fome public duty, or fup-
ply the commonwealth with neceffaries at their own ex-
pences.

LEITZKO, in Geography, a town of the Middle Mark
of Brandenburg, infulated in the duchy of Magdeburg ; 14.
miles E.S.E. of Magdeburg.

LEIXLIP, a polt-town of the county of Kildare, Ire-
land. It is beautifully fituated on the banks of the river
Liffey, and near it is a fine waterfall, called the Salmon
Leap. It is eight miles W. from Dublin.

LEKEO, one of the Japan iflands, about 120 miles in
circumference ; 20 miles §. of Ximo, N. lat. 31° 20". E.
long, 152° gol.

LEKINPOUR, a town of Hindooftan, in the circar of
Cattack ; 12 miles N.E. of Cattack.

LEKNO, a town of the duchy of Warfaw; 28 miles
N.N.W. of Gnefna.

LEKSAND, a town of Sweden, in Dalecarlia; 20 miles
N.W. of Falun.

LELAND, Joun, in Biography, was born in London
about the end of Henry VIIth’s reign, and was educated at
St. Paul's fchool, under William Lily, from whenee he was
fent to Chrift’s college, Cambridge. He removed from this
uniyerfity to All-fouls, Oxford; and for farther improve-
ment, efpecially in the Greek language, he went to Paris,
cultivated an acquaintance with the principal f{cholars of the
age, and acquired a knowledge of feveral modern languages.
Upon his return he took orders, and was appointed one of
Henry VIIIth’s chaplains, The king conferred upon him
the office of keeper of his library, and gave him the title of
royal antiquary, which no other perfon in this kingdom be-
fore or after poffeffed. To the title was annexed a commif-

LEL

fion, empowering him to fearch after all objeéts of antiquity
in the libraries of all cathedrals, abbies, priories, colleges,
&c. He fpent much time in travelling through England,
and in vifiting all the remains of ancient buildings and mo-
numents of every kind, with the view of colleéting every
thing that could illuftraie the hiftory and antiquities of this
nation. At the diffolution of the monafteries he made ap-
plication to fecretary Cromwell to get the MSS, which they
contained conveyed to the king’s library. He obtained
confiderable preferment in the church, the duties of which
did not require much ative fervice ; he accordingly retired
with his collections to his houfe in London, for the purpofe
of digefting them and preparing the publications he had pro-
mifed the world; but either intenfe application, or fome
other caufe, brought upon him a derangement of mind in
the year 1550, from which he never recovered. He died in
1552. During his life, he publifhed feveral Latin poems,
and fome traéts on antiquarian fubjects. His MS. collec-
tions, after pafling through many hands, came into the Bod-
leian library, furnifhing very valuable materials to Camden,
Dugdale, Burton, and others. After his deceafe in 1589,
a volume of his fmall Latin poems was publifhed by Mr.
Thomas Newton of Chefhire, under the title of ‘ Princi-
pum et illuftrium aliquot et eruditorum in Anglia virorum
Encomiz.'’ From his colleétions, Anthony Hall publithed,
in 1709, ‘* Commentarii de Scriptoribus Britannicis.’’
« The Itinerary of John Leland, the Antiquary,” was pub-
lifhed by Hearne at Oxford, in nine vols. 8vo. The fame
editor publifhed «* Joannis Lelandi’ Antiquarii de rebus
Britannicis Colle€tanea ;”? fix vols. Biog. Brit. —
Levanp, Joun, a diffenting minifter, was born at Wigan,
in Lancafhire, in the year 1691. While he was very young
his father removed with his family to. Dublin, where the fon
was feized with the fmall-pox of fo malignant a nature, that
it entirely deprived him of his underftanding and memory.
In this melancholy condition he remained twelve months,
but after his recovery, he recommended himfelf to much
notice by the quicknefs of his parts, and by the proficiency
which he made in his learning. He was therefore educated
for the Chriftian miniftry among the Diffenters ; and was,
in due time, invited to become joint-paftor with the Rey.
Mr. Weld, to which office he was ordained in 1716. He
firft appeared as an author in 1733, by publifhing « An
Anfwer to a late Book, entitled’ ¢ Chriftianity as old as the
Creation &c.’ in two volumes.’’ In 1737, he embarked in
a controverfy with Dr. Morgan, by publifhing “ The di-
vine Authority of the Old and New Teftament afferted
again{t the unjuft A fperfions and falfe Reafonings of a Book,
entitled The Moral Philofopher.’? The learning and abili-
ties difplayed by Mr. Leland in thefe publications, and the
fervice which he rendered by them to the Chriftian caufe,
procured him many marks of refpeét and efteem from per-
fons of the higheft rank in the eftablifhed church, as well as
from the moft eminent of his diffenting brethren ; and from
the univerfity of Aberdeen he received, in the moft honour-
able manner, the degree of doétor of divinity. In the year
1742, Dr. Leland publifhed an anfwer to a pamphlet, en-
titled “‘ Chriftianity not founded on Argument ;” and in
1753, he diftinguifhed himfelf {til further as an advocate in
behalf of Chriltianity, by publifhing “ Reflections on the
late Lord Bolingbroke’s Letters on the Study and Ufe of
Hiftory ; efpecially fo far as they relate to Chriftianity and
the Holy Scriptures.” Dr. Leland was now juttly con-
fidered a matter in this branch of controverly, and at the
defire of fome valuable friends he fent to the prefs, in 1754,
«« A View of the principal deiftical Writers that have ap-
peared in England, in the laft and prefent Century, with Ob-
II fervations,

LEL

fervations, &c.”” The defign of this work was to give fome
idea of the productions of the deiftical writers, and of the
feveral {chemes which they have advanced, as far as the
caufe of revealed religion is concetned. In this work, the
author ably maintained the reputation which he had ac-
uired by his former productions, and it met with a very
avourable reception. He afterwards publifhed a fupple-
ment relating to the works of Mr. Hume and lord Boling-
broke, and this was followed by a third volume, compre-
hending the author’s additions and illuftrations, with a new
edition of his ** Refle€tions upon Lord Bolingbroke’s Letters,
&c.”’ The whole of this work is now comprifed in three
volumes ; it fecured the author general public approbation,
and encouraged him to continue his exertions to a very ad-
_ vanced age. Accordingly, when he was upwards of feventy
years old he publifhed, in two velumes gto. * The Advan-
tage and Neceflity of the Chriftian Revelation, fhewn from
the State of Religion in the ancient heathen World, efpe-
cially with refpe&t to the Knowledge and Worfhip of the
one true God; a Rule of moral Duty, and a State of
future Rewards and Punifhments, &c.”? This work was
afterwards reprinted in two volumes, 8vo. Dr. Leland died
in his feventy-fifth year, on the 16th of January 1766; he
was diftinguifhed by confiderable abilities, and very extenfive
learning ; he had a memory fo tenacious, that he was often
called the “¢ walking library,’’ After his death a collec-
tion of his fermons was publifhed in four volumes oGtavo,
with a preface containing fome account of the life, charaéter,
and writings of the author, to which our readers are referred
for farth information refpeGting him. ;

Leann, Dr. THomas, a divine of the church of Eng-
Tand, was born at Dublin about the year 1702. Having
received the elements of a good education, he was admitted
a ftudent, and afterwards became fellow of Trinity College,
Dublin. He was author of “ A Hiftory of Ireland,’
4to.; “ The Life of Philip of Macedon; and « The
Principles of human Eloquence.’ THe alfo tranflated the
orations of Demoithenes, in two volumes, 8yo., which came
out feparately, and were well received by the public. Dr.
Leland died in 1785, at the age of eighty-three. :

. LELCZA, in Geography, a town of Ruffian Poland, in
the palatinate of Volhynia; 60 miles N. of Zytomiers.

LELEGES, in Ancient Geography, a colletion of people
from different nations, as the fuppofed etymology of their
name, derived from ary», J affemble, imports. They an-
ciently occupied the territory adjoining to that of the people
called by Homer Cilices or Cilicians; and when Achilles
ravaged their country, which lay north-welt of the gulf of
Adramyttium, they paffed over into Caria, and took pof-
feffion of the environs of Halicarnaffus. Their town was
the metropolis of Caria, near Myfia. They were a kind
of robbers and vagabonds, who refembled the Cilicians
in their difpofition and manners. The firft king of Laconia,
according to Paufanias, was Lelex ; and the country took
the name of Lelegia from thefe people.

LELIAN, in Geography, a town on the north coaft of
the ifland of Bouro.

LELIT Parran. See Patran.

LELOW, a town of Auftrian Poland, in the palatinate
of Cracow; 32 miles N.W. of Cracow.

LELUNDA, a river of Africa, which joins the Zaire,
about 60 miles from its mouth—Alfo, a town of Africa,
in the kingdom of Congo, on the fore-mentioned river; 35
miles E. of St. Salvador.

LELY, Sir Perer, in Biography, the moft excellent
portrait-painter this country poffeffed, after the death of

LEM

Vandyke. Many of his works continue to be held itt moft
deferved eftimation, and to be ranked amongft the claffics of
the art. He was born at Soeft, in Weltphalia, in 1617.
His family name was Vander Vaas; but from the circum-
{tance of his father, who was a captain of foot, being born
in a perfumer’s fhop, whofe fign was a lily, and receiving
the appellation of captain Du Don or Lely, our artift ob-
tained it as a proper name.

He was firft inftruéted in the art by Peter Grebber at
Haerlem; and having acquired a knowledge of its prin-
ciples, and a very confiderable degree of {kill in execution,
he came to England in 1641, and commenced portrait-
painter. After the kingdom had fuftained the irreparable
lofs of Vandyke, and the reftoration was completed, he was
appointed ftate-painter to Charles II., and continued to hold
that office with great reputation till his death, which hap-
pened in 1680. He was feized by an avoplexy, while
painting a portrait of the duchefs of Somerfet, and died in-
itantly, at the age of fixty-three.

Though Lely’s talents, as an artift, do not entitle him to
hold a rank equal to that filled by his great predeceffor ;
yet they juftly claim very great refpeét and admiration. He
fell fhort of Vandyke in two very effential parts of por-
traiture, viz. tafte and expreffion. Of the former it mutt
be acknowledged that he fometimes caught a glimpfe ; and,
in the difpofal of a piece of loofe drapery, exhibited it with
an enchanting ftyle: but that high clafs of tafe, which evi-
dently {ways the artift’s mind who arranges, without ap-
parent ftudy, all the parts of a compofition in an agreeable
and effective manner, he does not appear ever to have felt or
underftood. It is in parts only that he wrought with tafte :
in the ringlets of the hair, for inftance; feldom in the ac-
tions of his figures, and {earcely ever in the tout-enfemble of
his pictures. As to the expreffion of his portraits, it is al-
moft entirely defcribed, at leaft in thofe of his females, by
what the poet has faid, that he

‘* —____ on animated canvas ftole
The fleepy eye that fpoke the melting foul.”’

The confequence is, that individual expreffion, the very
effence of portrait-painting, is loft fight of ; and a certain
air of general refemblance is feen in them all.

Yet in fpite of thefe great deficiencies, Lely’s piftures, by
the mattery of his execution, and his {kill of imitation, where
he pleafed to employ it, will ever command admiration.
He poffeffed the art of flattery more than moft artifts; and
no doubt by that fecured the approbation of his contem-
poraries, and confequently great practice. He painted
drapery in a ftyle peculiarly his own, with great richnefs
and fulnefs of effe& ; and he underftood fully the union of
folds, though he did not always difpofe them in juit or
agreeable fhapes. THis pencil is broad and full, and the
markings of forms and features are free and- decided in his
pictures, which are to be found in almoft every noble manfion
in the kingdom ; fo great were the encouragement and em-
ployment he enjoyed.

By it he acquired a very confiderable fortune, of which
he employed a large portion to furnifh himfelf with a col-
leGtion of pictures and drawings, Thefe, at his death, were
fold by auétion, and were a numerous, that forty days
were confumed in the fale; and the product amounted to
26,000/. ; befides which, he left an eftate he had purchafed,
of gool. per annum. :

LEMA, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the Chinefe fea.
N. lat. 22°. E. long. 114° 27/.

Lema J/lands, a clufter of {mall iflands in the Eaft toiien

2)

LEM

fea, near the welt coalt of the ifland of Borneo.
10'. E. long. 108° 48’. ‘

LEMAIRE, in Biography, is now generally fuppofed
to have added, about the middle of the feventeenth century,
the fyllable ff to the hexachord, in order to furnifh a name,
in folmifation, to the fharp 7th of the key, and eafe the
ftudents in finging of the embarraflments of the mutations.
Many volumes have been written for and againft the muta-
tions. We believe that in the confervatorios at Naples and
Venice they are {till preferved, and by the organifts of our
cathedrals who teach the chorifters; but in many other
parts of Europe, befides France, the fi has been adopted.
Though much has already been faid on both fides the
queftion, much {till remains to be faid by the champions of
both methods. See Mutation, Sotmisation, Hexa-
cHorD, and the fyllable Sr, in their feveral places.

LEMAN Laks, in Geography. See Grneva and
Lake. :

Leman, Department of, one of the eleven departments of
the eaftern region of France, compofed of Géx and Geneva,
and the north part of Savoy, in N. lat. 46° 1o!, on the
frontier of Switzerland, and fo called from lake Leman. It
is bounded on the north by the lake, Switzerland, and the
department of Jura ; on the eaft by the Valais, and the de-
partments of the Doria and Mont Blanc ; on the fouth hy
the department of Mont Blanc; and on the weft by the de-
partments of the, Ain and Mont Blanc. Its chief towns are
Geneva, Thonon, and Bonneville. It contains 197 fquare
leagues, and 215,884 inhabitants ; and is divided into three
circles or diftri¢ts, including 23 cantons, and 276 com-
munes ; viz. Geneva, comprehending 103,550 inhabitants ;
Thonon, the inhabitants of which are 39,465 ; and Bonne-
ville, including 72,869 inhabitants. Its contributions
amouut to 906,632 francs, and its expences to 200,427
francs, 66 cents. This department confifts of hills, vallies,
and plains ; producing grain, wine, fruits, and paftures. It
has forefts and iron-mines.

LEMAVI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Spain, in
the Tarragonenfis. Their capital was Dactonium, ac-
cording to Ptolemy.

LEMBA, a town of Afia, which Jofephus claffes in the
number of thofe which the Jews poffefled in the country of
the Moabites.

Lempa, in Geography, a town of Africa, in the kingdom
of Congo.—Alfo, a town on the welt coaft of the ifland of
Celebes. ‘S. lat. 3°15’. E. long. 119° 52’.

LEMBACH,, a town of Auitria; g miles S. of Aigen.

LEMBEECK, atown of France, in the department of
the Scheldt; 8 miles S. of Ghent.

LEMBIGE, or Lemspaye, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a
canton, in the diftrié&t of Pau; 15 miles N.E. of Pau. The
place contains 960, and the canton 11,626 inhabitants, on a
territory of 2174 kiliometres, in 47 communes.

LEMBERG, or Leoronp, a city of Auftrian Poland,
and capital of Galicia, large and opulent, and well fortified
with timber. It lies low on the banks of the river Peltew,
which foon after joins the Berg ; being furrounded with hills
and mountains which command the town. It is the fee of
a Popifh archbifhop, and alfo of a Ruffian and Armenian
bifhop. It has two caftles, one within and another without
its walls ; the latter ftanding on a high hill, and having the
Carmelite monaftery, which is fortified, for a citadel: and
it carries on a confiderable trade. Lemberg has a magni-
ficent cathedral, feveral other churches, a gymnafium or fe-
minary, an arfenal, a public granary, two Jewifh fchools,

S. lat. 1°

LEM

&c. A provincial diet and court of judicature are held in
this town. It is inhabited by a mixed people of different
nations ; but no Proteftants are tolerated; 72 miles S.S.E.
of Chelm. N. lat. a E. long. 23° 59!.

LEMBO, a town of Africa, in Congo, on the Zaire;
40 miles S.W. of Etrona.

LEMERY, Nicnovas, in Biography, an eminent French
chemift, was born at Rouen, in November 1645. His fa-
ther, Julian Lemery, was a procureur in the parliament of
Normandy, and of the Calvinift perfuafion. Nicholas was
brought up to the bufinefs of pharmacy, under an apothecary
of Rouen; and he went to Paris in 1666, with the view of
obtaining farther improvement, efpecially in the art of che-
miftry, which he perceived to be the bafis of correétnefs in
the proceffes of pharmacy. Here he ftudied under Glafer,
demonftrator of chemiftry in the royal garden; and after-
wards {pent fix years in travelling, for the purpofe of adding
to his knowledge. He refided a confiderable time at Mont-
pellier, then famous for its apothecaries; and brought with
him to Paris, where he fettled in that capacity in 1672, all
the knowledge in his department of the art which the king-
dom at that time afforded. In order to give public proofs
of his information and {kill, he announced a courfe of lec-
tures on chemiltry, which his friend, M. Martin, apothecary
to the prince of Condé, allowed him to deliver in his labora-
tory, at the hotel of that prince. He afterwards procured
a laboratory of his own, which, though little better than a
dark cellar, foon became the centre of attra¢tion, not only
to the firft {cientific charaGters in Paris, but to ladies, who
reforted thither partly from a love of knowledge, and partly
from fafhion. Chemiftry was then indeed coming into great
vogue in that metropolis; and Lemery contributed greatly
to its advancement, by treating it in a fimple and perfpi-
cuous manner, divefting it of the jargon of mytticifm in
which it had been hitherto obfcured, and, by the dexterity
of his experiments, exhibiting the fa&ts which it difclofes to
the comprehenfion of every underftanding. By thefe means,
Lemery eftablifhed fuch a chara&ter for fuperior chemical
fkill, as enabled him to make a fortune by the fale of his
preparations, which were in great requeit both in Paris and
the provinces. One article in particular was the fource of
great profit, namely, the oxyd, or, as it was then called,
the magiftery of bilmuth, and known as a cofmetic by the
name of Spani/h white, which no other perfon in Paris knew
how to prepare. In 1675 he publifhed his “ Cours de
Chymie,”’ which was received with general approbation and
applaufe, and pafled through numerous editions: indeed
feldom has a work on a fubjeé of fcience been fo popular.
It fold, fays Fontenelle, like a novel or a fatire: new edi-
tions followed year after year; and it was tranflated into
Latin, and into various modern languages. Its chief value
confifted in the clearnefs and accuracy with which the pro-
cefles and operations were detailed: the fcience was not yet
fufficiently advanced for a rational theory of them. Indeed
he feems to have worked rather with the view of directing
apothecaries how to multiply their preparations, than as a
philofophical chemift ; and his materials are not arranged in
the moft favourable manner for the inftru€tion of beginners
in the fcience. Nor did he divulge the whole of his phar-
maceutical knowledge in this treatife: he kept the prepara-
tion of feveral of his chemical remedies fecret, in order to
obtain the greater profit by their fale.

Hitherto our chemift, though openly profeffing Calviniftic
principles, had not been interrupted by the fpirit of perfe-
cution, which difgraced the latter part of the reign of
Louis XV. ; but in 1681, he received an order to difcon-

tinue

LEM

tinue his public leCtures within a limited time. While under
this interdi€tion, he was invited te Berlin by the eleétor of
Brandenburg; but he preferred removing to England,
where he was favourably received by Charles II., who had
an attachment to chemical purfuits. Circumitances, how-
ever, did not accord with his expetations ; and he returned
to his own country, and took the degree of doctor of phylic
at Caen, with the hope of thus protecting himfelf from
farther perfecution, He aétually acquired confiderable em-
ploymeut in his new character at Paris; but the revocation
of the editt of Nantes, in 1685, by which the practice of
phyfic was interdiéted to Proteftants, deprived him of his
means of fubfiftence, and reduced him to fuch difficulties,
that his conftancy at length gave way, and, in the following
year, he with his family was reconciled to the Catholic
church. He then readily obtained letters patent, allowing
him. to refume his practice, and his office of public teacher ;
and he agam derived confiderable emolument from the fale
of his medicines. In 1697 and 1698 he publifhed two
works of confiderable value, but not without ‘many imper-
feftions. Thefe were, 1. “ Pharmacopée univerfel'e,”’ con-
taining a collection of the formul given in all the reputable
difpenfatories in Europe, with corrections and improvements.
Like the pharmaceutic works of that time, it was over-
loaded with articles, but was fuperior to its contemporaries.
2. His “ DiGtionnaire univerfel des Drogues Simples ;”
which was a {till more ufeful work than the former.

~ On the re eflablifhment of the Academy of Sciences in
1699, Lemery was appointed affociate-chemift, and fuc-
ceeded to the office of penfionary, on the death of Bourdin.
He then read before that body the papers on the fubjeé&
of antimony, which were printed in 1707, under the title of
«* Traité de ’Antimoine.”” Upon this fubjet he had a
controverfy with an anonymous critic, in which he was con-
fidered as not very fuccefsful. He was now advancing in
years, and found the infirmities of age increafing upon him,
when his life was fuddenly terminated by a fit of apoplexy,
on the 19th of June 1715. emery was one of the ableft
chemilts of his time, and indefatigable in his refearches ;
having {pent his life in his laboratory, or ftudy, at the
bed-fide of the fick, or in the Academy. He was a man of
great fimplicity of manners, fincere in his friend{hips, and of
the ftricteft integrity in the commerce of life. Eloy Di&.
Hilt dela Med. Gen. Biog. ;

Lemery, Louis, fon of the preceding, was born at
Paris in January 1677, and obtained a reputation for know-
Jedge in chemiftry and medicine worthy of his name. He
was intended for the prefeffion of the law; but he had im-
bibed from the purfuits of his father fo great a tafte for
thofe fciences, that he entered the faculty of medicine of his
native city, and received the degree of doctor in 1698.
Two years afterwards he was admitted into the Academy of
Sciences, and in 1708 he delivered le€tures on chemiitry in
the royal garden. In 1710 he was appointed phyfician to
the Hotel-Dieu, a poft which he occupied during the re-
mainder of his life. In 1712 he obtained the rank of affo-
ciate in the Academy, and fucceeded his father in that of
penfionary in 1715. He purchafed the office of king’s phy-

-fician in 1722; and in that capacity he accompanied the
infanta of Spain on her return from France, whither fhe had
gone with the view of being married to Louis XV. Soon
after his return to Paris, he was honoured by the queen of
Spain with the title of her confulting phyfician. In 1731
he was appointed profeffor of chemiftry in the royal garden,
in the place of Geoffroy. Ata fubfequent period, he be-
came particularly attached to the eftablifhment of the duchefs
of Brunfwick, whom he frequently vifited in the palace of

VoL. XX.

LEM

Luxembourg ; and he likewife obtained the patronage of
the princefs of Conti, in whofe hotel he regularly pafied a
part of every day, and there compofed féversPos tlie chemical
papers which he read before the Academy of Sciences.
Thefe papers treat of the fubjets of iron, of nitre, and
fome other falts, of vegetable and animal analyfes, of the
origin and formation of montters, &c. Louis Lemery died on
the oth of June 1743, and the lofs of him was much regretted ;
for to the mild and polifhed manners of the gentleman, he
united great fincerity and conftancy in his aptachments,
and fentiments of liberality and generofity in all his pro-
ceedings.

In addition to the papers publithed in the Memoirs of the
Acaéemy, he left the following works: 1. © Traité des
Alimens,”’ Paris, 1702, which was frequently reprinted,
and greatly augmented by Bruhier in the edition of 19555
2 vols. 12mo. 2. * Differtation fur le Nourriture des Os,'*
Paris, 1704, 12mo. In this work he maintains that the
bones are nourifhed by a peculiar gelatinous fluid, depofited
in their fubftance by the fmall arteries, and not by the mar-
row, as had been fuppofed by fome. He likewife publifhed
three letters, on the generation of worms in the human
body, in oppofition to the treatife of Andry, with whom a
fharp controverfy was carried ou upon this topic. Eloy
Did. Hilt. Gen. Biog.

LEMEYBAMBA, in Geography, a town of Peru, in
the diocefe of Truxillo ; 22 miles S.W. of Chacapoya.

LEMGO, or Lemcow, a town of Weltphalia, in the
vounty of Lippe, on a {mall river, near the Werra, divided
into the Old and New Town, each of which has its own
magiftrates ; formerly one of the Hanfe towns; 17 miles
S.S.W. of Minden. N. lat. 52° 2’. E. long. 8? 44!.

LEMIA, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ecean, near the
coait of Chilt. S. lat. 44° 61.

LEMINGTON, a polt-town of America, in York
county, Maine; 610 miles N.E. from Wathington.—Alfo,
a townfhip in Effex county, Vermont, on the W. bank of
Conneticut river, and near the N.E. corner of the ftate. It
contains 52 inhabitants.

LEMLANT, a-fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the S.E.
of Aland; about 20 miles-in circumference. N. lat. 607
4’. E. long. 19° 58’.

LEMLEM, a country of Africa, in the interior part of
Negroland ; 500 miles E.S.E. from Tombuétoo.

LEMLUM, a town of the Arabian Irak ; 33 miles S.E.
of Hellah. N. lat. 31° 4!.

LEMMA, in Botany, a name borrowed from the ancient
Greek writers, whofe aszpa is fuppofed to have been fo
called from Aewi:, a feale, bark, or membrane, and to have
been either our Duckweeds, fee Lemna; or fome other
aquatic production, whether of the vegetable or the corol-
line kind, that adhered to fhells. Juff. 16.— This name was
given by Bernard de Juffieu to the proper Maz/ilea of Lins
neus, for which it feems difficult to give a good reafon.
We may indeed affent to the feparation of Micheli’s Salvinia
from that genus (fee Juffieu) ; but this does not oblige us
to abrogate a name long dettined to commemorate a meri-
torious naturalift. See Marsiura. d

Lemma, Anuys, Of AxuCaw, J affume, in Mathematics,
denotes a previous propofition, laid down in order to clear
the way for fome following demonftration; and prefixed
either to theorems, in order to render the demonftration of
them lefs perplexed and intricate ; or to problems, to make
the refolutions of them more eafy and fhort. Thus, to prove
a pyramid one-third of a prifm, or parallelopiped, of the fame
bafe and height with it, the demonftration of whi¢h, in the
ordinary way, is difficult and troublefome, this lemma may

37 be

LEM

be premifed, which is proved by the rules of progreffion,
that the fum of the feries of the fquares, in numbers in
arithmetical progreffion, beginning from o, and going on,
I, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, &c. is always fubtriple of the fum of as
many terms, each equal to the greateft ; or is always one-
third of the greateft term multiplied by the number of terms.
Thus, to find the infleGtion of a curve line, this lemma is
firft premifed, that a tangent may be drawn to the given
curve, in a given point.

So, in phyfics, to the demonftation of moft propofitions,
fuch lemmata as thefe are neceflary firft to be allowed:
that there is no penetration of dimenfions ; that all matter
is divifible ; and the like. As alfo in the theory of medi-
cine, that where the blood circulates, there is life, &c.

Lemna, in the Ancient Mujfic, a relt or paufe of a /hort
fyllable in the cataleétic rhythm. See RuytuM.

LemMa, Aszune, in Pharmacy, a term ufed to exprefs the
hufle or fhell af certain fruits, as the almond and the like ;
and, in general, whatever is taken off in decortication : thus,
the hufks of oats, barley, &c. are the lemmata of thofe
feeds.

LEMMER, Tue, in Geography, a fea-port of Friefland,
near the Zuyder fea; 20 miles S. of Lewarden. N. lat.
52° 52’. E. long. 5° gol.

Lemmer, or Lemming, in Zoology. See Sable Mouse.

LEMNA, in Botany, Acuox or rA:wuo of the Greeks ; fee
Lemma. Duckweed or Duck’s meat. Linn. Gen. 478.
Schreb. 620. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 4. 193. Mart. Mill.
Dia&. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 956. Wiggerf. 66. Ehrh.
Beitr. fafc. 1. 43. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 345.
Lamarck Illuftr. t. 747. (Lenticula; Juff. 19. Mich.
Gen. 15. t. 11. Dill. Gen. 118. t. 6.)—Clafs and order,
Diandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Mifcellanea, Linn. Naiades,
Jul. Hydrocharidee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, roundifh,
obtufe, obfcurely two-lobed, foon difappearing. Cor. none.
Stam. Filaments two, awl-fhaped, {preading, more or lefs
unequal, longer than the calyx ; anthers terminal, of two
round lobes. Pi. Germen {uperior, ovate; ftyle columnar,
fhorter than the ftamens ; {tigma fimple, or flightly notched.
Peric. Capfule roundifh, of one cell, not burfting. Seeds
few, oblong, ftriated, pointed at each end, vertical, ranged
in a fimple circular row.

Eff. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, inferior. Corolla none.
Capfule of one cell, without valves. Seeds féw, oblong.

Obf. The firft perfon who ever obferved the frudtification
of a Lemna appears to have been Valifneri, whofe eflay on
the fubjeét, deferibing the flowers of L. minor, is publifhed
in the Ephemerides Natura Curioforum, and in the Italian
folio edition of his works, v. 2. Si. t. 14, 15. His figure
of the flower is borrowed by Dillenius, in the appendix to
his Plante Giffenfes, cited above. Micheli, feveral years
after, publifhed excellent reprefentations of the flowers and
fruit, obferved in two or three fpecies, to which he applied
the generic name Lenticula ; calling by that of Lenticularia
fuch as he could not meet with in a flowering flate. This
is a diitin@tion without a difference, and of the latter L.
irifulea has fince been found in perfeétion by Mr. Dawfon
Turner of Yarmouth, in June, 1801. Willdenow fays it
has been found by Wolf. Ehrhart, in his German Beitrage,
fafc. 1. 43, has given an entertaining account of his exami-
nation of L. gidba in flower at Hanover, July 13, 1779.
This was found near Lewes in Suflex, by Mr. W. Borrer
in June 1803, as was minor by the fame gentleman in 1802,
fo that three fpecies being now diftin@tly figured in fructifi-
cation, in Engl. Bot. t. 926, 1095 and 1233, we are no
longer in the dark on the fubje@, and we venture to remove

LEM

the genus from Moncecia,to Diandria, as fuggefted in FI.
Brit. 955. and Prodr. Fl. Grec. y. 1. 11. One Britith
{pecies {till remains, the po/yrrhiza, whofe flowers appear to
haye been feen by one perfon only, Grauer, a young friend
of Wiggers, at Kiel, about 1780.

The calyx feems to be variable in this genus, and is pro-
bably foon evanefcent. Some flowers alfo occafionally want
the complete germen, but this is accidental, and they appear
to be, in no {pecies, truly monoecious, nor regularly poly-
gamous.

1. L. trifulca. Ivy-leaved Duck-weed. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1376. Engl. Bot. t. 926. .(Hederula aquatica; Lob, ©
Ic. v. 2. 36. Ger. em. 830.)—Leaves ftalked, lanceolate,
proliferous.—Found throughout Europe, floating in clear
{till pools and ditches. Mr. R. Brown has obferved it in
New Holland. It is a pale-green, fmooth, pellucid, annual .
herb, floating in frefh water, near or upon the furface, and
confilts of feveral lanceolate, ribbed, entire, fometimes waved
or toothed, aves, each, with its /fa/k, about an inch long,
Each leaf throws out from its centre underneath a folitary
fimple root, defcending, to more than the length of an inch,
into the water, and tipped with a membranous fheath. From
the fame point whence the root originates, {pring a pair of
young divaricated flat leaves, looking like lobes of the old
one. The flowers proceed folitarily from a marginal chink,
at one or both fides of a leaf, and are fearcely perceptible
but by their prominent yellowifh anthers. Wolf, the author
of a differtation on Lemna, publifhed at Altorf in 1801, and
quoted by Willdenow, appears to have been the firit wlio
ever found the flowers of this fpecies.

2. L. minor. Lefler Duck-weed. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1376.
Engl. Bot. t. 1095. Michaux Boreali-Amer. v, 2. 163.
(Lens paluftris; Camer. Epit. 852. Ger. em. §29.)—
Leaves feffile, nearly flat on both fides. Roots folitary. —
Common and abundant in fummer time, on the furface of
ftagnant pools thronghout Europe. Michaux has alfo ob-
ferved it in Carolina, and Brown in New Holland. This
being the common fpecies in Greece, Dr. Sibthorp juftly
prefumed it to be the Quxoc, or ems tw TeAuoTuy OF Diof-
corides ; not that we would fuppofe this ancient fage ac-
curate or attentive enough to have diftinguifhed it from the
two-or three following, which may poflibly grow likewife
in the country he inveltigated. The /eaves are obovate ar
elliptical, entire, flightly convex beneath, in confequence of
the formation of air within, by which they become buoyant,
and float in denfe mafles over the whole furface of the
water, being much fmaller and more crowded than in the
former. They are, like that, in fome meafure proliferous.
The roots are folitary from the centre of each beneath, and
are temporary, not perennial, nor forming offsets. #/owers
from marginal chinks, always, as far as we hays feen, fur-
nifhed with both ftamens and piltil, and their calyx is more
ample, as well as more evidently two-lobed, than in the
above. The feeds when ripe doubtlefs defcend, and take
root in. the mud, as Valifneri obferved the young plants
afcend in the form of a green foft pulp, full of air-bubbles,
from the bottem to the furface, early in the fpring, and
foon after the waters were mantled with an entirely green
covering of the perfeét leaves, lying over each other. ;

Micheli’s Lenticularia media, t. 11. f. 2, and minor, f. 3,
both perhaps belong to this {pecies, 1

3. L. gibba. Gibbous Duck-weed. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1377.
Engl. Bot. t.1233. (Lenticula paluftris major, &c.; Mich.
Gen. 15. t. 11. f. 1, not 2.) — Leaves feffile ; flightly con-
vex above; hemifpherical beneath> Roots folitary —Lefs
frequent by far than the lait, in ftill pools of various parts of
Europe, Hudfon confidered this as a variety only, but it

7 Giffers

=

LEM

differs in being larger than minor, remarkably tumid,
fucculent, and vafcular. Its upper furface is convex, ufually
of a fine green, but often purplifh ; the lower almoft hemi-
fpherical, and paler. Roots generally folitary, fometimes in
pairs. Micheli fays the calya foon difappears; and Mr.
Borrer’s {pecimens were too far advanced to fhew it, though
the flamens and /fyle were in perfeétion.

4. L. polyrrhiza. Greater Duck-weed. Linn. Sp. Pl.
1377- (Lenticularia major polyrrhiza, inferne atro-purpu-
rea; Mich. Gen. 16. t. 11. f. 1.)—Leaves feffile, obo-
vate, convex beneath. Roots cluftered.—Native of ditches
and pools in Europe ; and Willdenow fays of North Ame-
rica alfo. It is annual, flowering in July and Auguft, but
thou«h the /aves are twice or thrice the fize of the two laft,
the fowers have not been deteéted, except by the Danifh
naturalift Grauer above-mentioned, who accounts for this by
his defcription of their fituation. He fays they are to be
found at each fide where one leaf is joined with the other,
under the folding of its edge, and that the fruit agrees with
that of gibba, except in being larger, and more flattened.
The /eaves are rounder and blunter; convex, and ufually
dark purple, underneath. The roots {pring numeroufly in
clufters from the centre of each;

5. L. obcordata. Heart-fhaped Duck-weed. Vahl. Symb.
v. 2. 95. Willd. n. 5—* Leaves feffile, inverfely heart-
fhaped. Roots cluitered.””—Native of waters in the Eaft
Indies. Wahl, from whom alone we have any knowledge of
this, fays ‘* the /eaves are {carcely fo long as the nail, of a
bright green at the fore part of their upper fide; purplith in
the hinder part and underneath, as well as the roots. A lon-
gitudinal furrow runs along the leaf, fending off a branch to
each lobe, which divides each nearly in two, to the extre-
mity.”? It does not appear why Willdenow deénes the
leaves as ‘* proliferous at the apex.”’

6. L. arrhiza. Rootlefs Duck-weed. Linn. Mant. 294.
(Lenticularia omnium minima, arrhiza; Mich. Gen. 16.
t. 11. f. 4.)—Leavesin pairs, without roots.—Obferved by
Micheli in fifh-ponds near Florence. Duchefne found it
in France ; and we have {pecimens, both dried and in fpirits,
colle&ed at Fontainbleau by the late Mr. Stephen de Leffert.
This minute fpecies is not bigger than an ordinary pin’s head,
and each plant confifts of one larger /af and one {maller,
joined by their extremities; the former being elliptical,
_ flattifh on the upper fide, very turgid below ; the other nearly
globofe. No roots are difcoverable, nor is any thing known
of the fruCtification.

Micheli’s Lenticula media, t. 11. f. 2, and minima, f. 3,
remain undetermined by following writers. We venture to
characterize them as follows.

7. L. difperma. Two-feeded Duck-weed. (Lenticula
paluftris media, pallidé virens, inferne minus convexa, radi-
cibus longiffimis fruétu difpermo; Mich. Gen. 15. t. 11.
f. 2.) —Leaves feffile, obovate, convex beneath. Roots fo-
litary, very long. Capfule with two feeds:—Found by Mi-
cheliin a place called the Beccacivette near Florence. He
delineates the /eaves about half the fize of L. gibba, as well
as much lefs convex beneath, and the /eeds as but two in each
capfule, whereas in gibba they are four, five, or fix.

8. L. atro-virens. Dark-green Duck-weed. (Lenticula pa-
Juftris minima atro-virens, utringue pene conyexa; Mich,
Gen. 15. t. 11. £.3.)—Leaves fefiile, elliptic-oblong, convex
onboth fides. Roots folitary.—Found by the fame author near
Florence. This appears to be {maller than L. minor, with
more oblong and darker /eaves, whofe upper fide is as con-
vex as the under one.

LEMNIAN Earth, Lemnia terra, comprehends feveral

LEM

varieties of clay, moftly red and ferruginons, formerly pre
ferved under this name, and employed in medicine. ‘hefe
were diftinguifhed into the white, the yellow, and the red,
They were brought from the Levant, moftly in the thape of
{mall cakes, bearing the impreflion of a al, whence the
name of Terra Sigillata. Several of them are to be referred
to Bole; which fee. The whitifh kind, which appears to
be the true Lemnian earth, and fo highly valued by the an-
cients, on account of the alexipharmic virtues which they
afcribed toe it, is defcribed under the asticle FuLLEr’s
Earth,

The red earth is dug ima hill in the ifland of Lemnos, and
in no other place, fo far as is yet known ; and the fine and
true earth only in one pit, which ufed to be opened once
every year, and no oftener, with great folemnity ; and the
earth, fuppofed fufficient for the year’s demand, was taken
out and fold to the merchants; fome fealed with various
figures, other quantities unfealed; but what was there
bought unfealed, was generally formed into fmall mafles, and
fealed before it was offered to fale in Europe, the druggilts
always expeGting to find Lemnian earth fealed.

This earth, to which imaginary virtues were attributed,
was too often adulterated, frequently by the Turks upon
the fpot, either by mixing it with other earths, or another
earth alone being fold in its place; but more frequently in
Europe, where every wholefale dealer knew how to make a
compofition of our own clays, and properly tinge them with
ochre, and afterwards give an impreffion refembling that of
the genuine.

This earth was celebrated by the ancients as a fovereign
remedy againft poifons and the bites of reptiles: the Turks
and Greeks {till retain that notion, for the cups out of which
the grand feignior drinks are made of this red earth, fo that
it is referved chiefly for the fultan’s ufe. But the alexiphar-
mic and aflringent property of this and the other boles is now
in little or no efteem. (See Bore.) It is alfo dug in the ifland
of Lemnos, and was ufed in the German fhops as an aftrin-
gent and fudorific, and faid to be of great efficacy in dyfen-
teries, hemorrhages, and malignant fevers. . The ancients
knew this kind, but never ufed it an medicine, efteeming the
other fuperior, but they employed it as the cimolia in clean-
ing linen and woollen cloths.

The yellow Lemnian earth is counterfeited two ways ; the
one by a yellow ochre, which may be difcovered by its ftain-
ing the hands, and the other by a yellow clay ; but this is
eafily known by its want of the true florid colour, and
having all the charaGters of aclay, not a bole. The genuine
is found only in the ifland of Lemnos, and is the itratum
next above the red. It was formerly efteemed a fudorific,
aftringent, and vulnerary. Da Cofta’s Hitt. of Foffils,

. I. 14.and 22. ;

LEMNIS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of Africa, in
Mauritania Cxfarienfis, E.N.E. of the mouth of the river
Malva.

LEMNISCATE, in the Higher Geometry, is the name
of curve which has the form of the ae of 8 If we
cal A P, x, (Plate XI. Analyfis, fig. 1.), and P M, y, and the
conftant line BC, a, the equation of the curve will be
ay=x faa —x2,0ra' yy = a’ x* — a*, which is an
equation of the fourth degree ; it is alfo evident that aright
line which paffes through the double point A will cut this
curve in four points, the double point being reckoned equal
to two. See CuRvVE.

LEMNISCIA, in Botany, fo called by Schreber, from
Anuvicxos, a bandage, or fillet, in allufion to thefhepe of ite
petals. Schreb. 358. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 1172. Mart.

at ra2 Mill.

LE ™M

Mill. Di&. v. 3. (Vantanea; Aubl. Guian. v. 1. 572.
229.Jufl. 434. Lamarck, Mluftr. t.471.)—Clafs and or-
der, Polyandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. uncertain.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, five-toothed,
acute, fhort. Cor. Petals five, linear, long, acute, re-
curved, adhering to the. cup-fhaped, flefhy, fhort nectary
which encompafies the germen. S¥am. filaments numerous,
from feventy to eighty, capillary, longer than the co-
rolla, inferted into the neCtary ; anthers roundifh, fmall,
Pif}. Cermen fuperior, roundifh, immerfed in the nectary ;
ftyle thread-fhaped, the length of the flamens; ftigma ob-
tufe. Peric. Capfule of five cells. Sveds folitary.

Ef. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla of five petals.
Nettary” cup-fhaped, bearing the ftamens. Capfule five-
celled, witha feed ineach cell, _

1. L. floribunda. Willd. (Vantanea guianenfis; Aubl.
Guian. t. 229.)—Found at Guiana, where it is called
Jouantan, whence Aublet derived his barbarous appellation
Vantanea. It flowersin Augult. The frungé.of this tree
rifes to the height of about fifteen or twenty feet, and is
much branched. Bark brown and fmooth. Wood whitith
and compact. Leaves alternate, on fhort foot{talks, fmooth,
oyal, pointed, the larger ones about five inehes long.
Flowers forming large, handfome bunches at the extremity
of the branches, of a red, coral colour. Svamens fituated
upon a yellow, flefhy difk, in the form of acup, which al-
mo/t.covers the germen.

Obf, The long narrow petals of this plant greatly remind
us of thofe in the neighbouring genus Alangium.

_, LEMNIUS, or Lemneys, Liivin, in Biography, was
Born at Zirickfee, in Zealand, in May, 1565. He ttudied
at Louvain, and by the advice of his friends applied both
to medicine and theology. He principally diftinguifhed him-
felf, however, in the former of thefe fciences, and pra¢tifed
the profeffion for upwards of forty years, chiefly in his native
place, where he fettledin 1527. He obtained the full con-
fidence of his patients by his knowledge and eloquence, and
efpecially by a mild and humane exprefficn of countenance
and manner, which never failed to intereft the fick. After
the death of his wife, Lemnius became a prie{t, and was
made a canon of the church of St. Lieven, at Zirickiee,
where he died in July 1568. He was the author of feveral
works, the {tyle of which has fome force and even elegance.
Thefe are; “ De Aftrologia Liber unus, &c.; De termino
itz Liber. De ‘honefto animi et corporis oblectamento,
&e. &e.”? Antwerp, 1554.— De occultis nature mira-
culis Libri duo,” ibid. 1559. ‘ De occultis nature mi-
raculis Libri quatuor,” ibid. 1564. 'Thefe works contain
many obfervations relative to natural philofophy, botany,
phyfiology, and medicine, and efpecially concerning genera-
tion and monfters; but they alfo contain many fables.
** De Habitu et Conttitutione corporis, quam triviales com -
plexionem vocant, Libri duo,” ibid. 156°, and feveral fub-
fequent editions. ‘ Similitudinum et parabolarum, que
in Bibliis ex herbis atque arboribus defumuntur dilucida ex-
plicatio,”’ ibid. 1569 ; many times reprinted and tranflated.
* De Zelandis fuis Commentariolus,”? Leyden 1611, Eloy
Did. Hik.

LEMNOS, in Ancient Geography, an ifland fituated in
the AEgean fea, "This ifland' was confecrated to Vulcan in
the time of Homer, probably onaccount of two volcances,
which were here costinually cafting forth flames, and which
were confidered as the forges of the hufband of Venus. No
veltiges of thefe volcanoes now remain : but Sonnini thinks
it probable that interior fires are ftill burning here ; for he
met with a {pring of hot water, which has been brought to

LEM

fupply baths, and another of aluminous water. Lemnos
was celebrated among the ancients, on account of the fuccour
which it afforded to the Argonauts ; of which Apollonius
Rhodius has given a particular account. As it was near
Afia, it was alwoft always dependent on that province. The
priefts of Lemnos were reckoned famous. for the cure of
wounds. For this reafon the Greeks, who went to the
fege of Troy, left here Philo@etus, after he had been
wounded in the foot by one of the arrows of Hercules.
The efficacy of their fkill depended, as it has been faid,
upon the quality of that bole under the denomination of
Lemnian earth; which fee. It is alfo faid, that Galen
made a voyage to Lemnos on purpofe for afcertaining the
virtues of this earth; and that he found a perfon who had
availed himfelf of it as an antidote to the bites of reptiles,
and to poifon. The firlt inhabitants of this ifland were the
Pelafgi, who expelled, the defcendants of the Argonauts,
by whom it was previoufly occupied, and took poffeflion of it
about 1160 years before the vulgar era. This ifland retained
the name of Lemnos, by which it is even now known ; but
navigators have given it the name of Stalimene. The ifland
is hilly, but extremely fertile : it yields corn, cotton, oil,
and filk, with which afew lizht {tuffs are manufa€tured.
To be flourifhing, fays Sonnini, Lemnos wants only to be
delivered from its oppreflors. Nature has dune every thing
forit, and we lament the itate of languor and wretchednefs
to which its deftiny has reduced it. Its inhabitants were
formerly much given to navigation, or at lea{l to the carry-
ing-trade ; they are flill trading mariners, becaufe this kind
of induftry efcapes more eafily the cupidity of tyrants than
affluence produced only by agriculture, or by a fedentary
traffic. Some of its women are extremely beautiful. The
whole eaft coaft is inacceffible, on account of a fhoal, which
extends four leagues into the offing: the weft coaft affords
to fhips a few places of fhelter again{t northerly winds. To -
the north is a large road: but there are no real harbours ex-
cept on the fouth part, where are to be found two, at no
great diftance from each other, viz. Port Cadia and Port
Sant Antonio. Sonnini’s Travels in Greece aud Turkey.

LEMO, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the go-
vernment of Abo; 12 miles N.W.of Abo.

LEMON, or Lion, in Botany, Gardening, &c.
Cirrus and Citric Acid.

Lemon-iree. See Citrus Medica. The name is fome-
times given by the Welfh to Pyrus Aria of Fl. Brit.,
the White Beam-tree, whence certain travellers have report-
ed the lemon to be a native of the bleak cliffs of Penmaen-
mawr! ;

Lrmon, in the Materia Medica.

Lemons are cooling and grateful to the ftomach, quench-
ing thirft and increafing appetite ; ufeful in fevers, as well
common as’ malignant and peltilential ; they alfo provoke
urine. The juice, which is more acid than that of the
orange, poffeffes fimilar medical virtues. (See OnANGE.)
This juice, however, is always preferred, where a ftrong
vegetable acid is required. Saturated with the fixed vege-
table alkali, it is in frequent extemporanecus ufe in febrile
difeafes ; and by promoting the fecretions, efpecially that
of the furface, proves of confiderable fervice in abating the
violence of pyrexia. Mixed with falt of wormwood,;-it is
an excellent ‘medicine to ftop vomiting, and to ftrengthen the
ftomach. ‘As an antifcorbutic, lemon juice is very gene-
rally taken on board fhips, deftined for long voyages. See
Cirrus, and Cirric Acid.

Whytt found the juice of lemons to allay hyfterical pal-
pitations of the heart, when various other medicines had

proved

See

LEM

Proved ineffectual; and this juice, or that of orange, taken
to the quantity of four or fix ounces a day, has -fome-
times been found a remedy inthe jaundice. (See Saunders’s
Elem. of the Practice of Phylic, p. 170.) The yellow
rind is a grateful aromatic, and commonly ufed in fto-
machic tin¢tures and infufions, and for-rendering other me-
dicines acceptable to the palate and ftomach. The lemon
peel, though lefs warm than that of the orange, pofleffes
fimilar qualities, and is ufed with the fame intentions.
It is fometimes ordered to be candied. In diftillation it
yieids an effential oil, extremely light, almoit colourlefs,
frequently employed as a perfume, and brought to us from
che fouthern parts of Europe, under the name of “ effence
of lemons.” This oil is an ingredient in the fpiritus am-
moniz compofite, or aromatic fpirit of ammonia, and in
other formule. A mixture made by faturating fix drams
of the juice of lemons with about half.a dram of fixed
alkaline falt, with the addition of a fmall quantity of
fome grateful aromatic water or tinéture, as fimple cinna-
mon water, is given in cafes of naufea and reachings, and
generally abates, ina little time, the fevere vomitings that
happen in fevers, when moft other liquors and medicines are
thrown up as foon as taken. It is alfo ufed as a faline ape-
rient in i€terical, hydropical, inflammatory, and other dif-
orders. A fyrup made by diffolving fifty ounces of fine
{ugar in a quart or two pounds and a half of the depurated
juice, is mixed occafionally with draughts and juleps, as a
mild antiphlogitic, and fometimes ufed in gargari{ms for
inflammations of the mouth and tonfils. Lewis Mat. Med.
Woodv. Med. Bot.

LEMONADE, a drink prepared of water, fugar, and
citron, or lemon-juice.

This faétitious liquor has been fo popular in Paris, that it
has given its name to a new eltablifhed company called /-
monadiers.

LE MONNIER, Perer Cuartrs, in Biography, a
French aftroncmer, member of the Academy of Sciénces,

. and of the National Inititute, was born at Paris in 1715, and
accompanied Maupertuis ia his tour to the north pole, for
meafuring a degree of the meridian. His principal works
are: * Aftronomical Inftitutions ;’ “ Lunar Nautical
Aftronomy ;”? “ Tables of the Sun, and Correétions' of
thofe of the Moon.’’ He died in 1790. He had a bro-
ther, Lewis William, a very able experimental philofopher,
who died in 1799. But neither of thefeis to be confounded
with an abbe of that name, who tranflated Terence and
Perfius into French, and was author of fables, tales, and
epiftles. He died in 1796.
~ LEMOS, in Geography, a diftri& of Spain, in Galicia,
E. of Minho ; the chief place is Montforte de Lemos.

LEMOSANO, a town of Naples, in the county of
Molife; 8 miles N.E. of Molife.
~ LEMOV, Nizvyer, a town of Rufffa, in the govern-
-ment of Penza; 72 miles W. of Penza. N. lat. 53° 25’.
FE. long. 43° 34!.

Lemov, Verfchnei, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Penza; 38 miles S.W. of Penza. N. lat. 53°16. E.
jong. 43 14'. '

LEMPA, a river of Mexico, which runs into the Pa-
tific ocean, N. Jat. 13° 36!.

LEMPACH, a town of Auftria; 14 miles W.S.W. of
Vienna.

LEMPALA, a town of Sweden, in Tavaftland; 27
miles N.W. of Tavaithus. rf

LEMPS, Granp, a town of France, in the department
of the Ifere, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
La-Tour-du-Pin ; 18 miles N.W. of Grenoble. ‘The place

LE™M

contains 1680, and the canton 14,883 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 200 kiliometres, in 17 communes,

LEMPSTER, an inconfiderable townfhip of America,
in Chefhire county, New Hamphhire ; incorporated in 1761,
and containing, in 1800, 729 inhabitants.

LEMPTA, a fea-port town of Africa, on the E. coatt
of the kingdom of Tunis. It was the “ Leptis parva’’ of
the ancients ; the other being in the kingdom of ‘Tripoli.
Lempta appears to have been a mile or more in circuit ; but
nething now is left but the ruins of a caftle; with a low
fhelf of rocks, that probably made the northern mound of
the ancient Cothon ; 60 miles S. of Tunis. N. lat. 35°30’,
E. long. 10° 54!.

Lempra, a defert country of Africa, inhabited by a bar-
barous and fierce people, who plunder the caravans that pafs
from Conftantina and other towns towards Nubia, fituated
about N. lat. 26° 30. E. long. 9’.

’ LEM-TCHIN,a town of Thibet ; 12 miles W.N.W. of
Pitchan. :

LEMUJ, a {mall ifland in the Pacific ocean, between the
ifland of Chiloe and the continent. S. lat. 44° 10'.

LEMVIG, atown of Denmark, in North Jutland, fitu-
ated on the Lime-Fiord, or Lympfurt; 84 mlles N. of
Ripen. N. lat. 56° 44'. E. long. 8’ 18'.

LEMUR, in Zoology, a genus of Primates. The fore
teeth in the upper jaw amount to four in number, the inter-
mediate ones remote ; thofe in the lower jaw to fix, their
form more elongated, extended, compreffed, parallel, and
approximate ; grinders many, fomewhat lobate, the foremott
longer, and fharper.

The animals of the lemur genus approach the monkey
tribe in the form of their feet, which in feveral of the fpecies
are furnifhed with flat and broad nails, refembling thofe of
the human hand, excepting generally that of the firft finger
next the thumb, which is long and incurvated ; they have either
two or four teats, and fome of the fpecies have the tail of
confiderable length, while others have nore. Notwithftand-
ing the refemblance thefe animals bear to the monkey race,
they have nothing of the mifchievous and petulant difpo-
fition of thofe creatures ; they are mild and peaceable in their
manners, at leait when domeiticated, and there are few fpe-
cies of the tribe that cannot readily be reduced to that ftate
of docility by proper treatment. Some of the fpecies feed
on fruits, eggs, and {mall birds, others fubfift entirely .on
the former. They inhabit chiefly the Indian iflands, and the
continent of South America.

Species,

‘ Tarpicrapus. Tail none; body fomewhat tawny afh«
Gmel. Lemur tardigradus, Erxleben, Le boris gréles
Audebert. Slow lemur, or loris. ‘

Under the Linnean fpecific name of tardigradus, the beft
authors appear to have confounded two, if. not a greater
number of diltinét {pecies. The little animal deferibed by
Erxleben under that title, is remarkable’ for the peculiar
elegance of its figure, and the fingularity of its conform~
ation. The head is roundifh; the muzzle projeéting ; the
eyes extremely large and contiguous to each other; the
ears large and round ; inftead of a tail a tubercle is fituated:
in that part; and the whole body is covered with fine hair
of a reddifh-grey colour. The fexual organs of the female,
according to the obfervations of Daubenton, prefent fome
curious particulars of intereft to the comparative anatomift.
This fpecies inhabits Ceylon, is remarkable for its agility.
is quick of hearing, and correfponds with the {quirrel.

Ecaupatus. ‘ail none; a dark-rufty line along the
middle of the back from the rump to the forehead ; orbits

8 furrounded

LEMUR.

furrounded by a blackifh line? Lemur ecaudatus, Linn.
Gmel. Loris tardigradus, Audebert. Pareffeux pentadac-
tyle de Bengale, Voimaer. Le loris de Bengale, Bult.

The diftin&tion between this and the preceding {pecies has
not been regarded with fufficient attention by all writers, and
hence we fometimes find the defcription and hiftory of one
applied to and blended with the other. The latter is about
thirteen inches in length, the head almoft round, the muzzle
very little pointed. ‘The ears are fmall, oval, and ftraight,
and almott entirely concealed under the woolly hair. ‘The
eyes are placed in front immediately above the nofe, and are
very clofe to each other ; their form perfectly orbicular,
their fize remarkably large in proportion to the body, and
of abrowncolour, The rofe is fmall, flat, and open at the
fides; the teeth of the fame form and number as in the
former animal. The hair of the fur is long, fine, and woolly,
but rough to the touch ; the colour in general grey, or yel-
lowifh-afh, inclining rather more to reddifh upon the flanks
and limbs.

Inpri. Taillefs, black ; beneath greyifh ; rump whit-
ith. Lemur indri, Gmel. Jndri, Sonnerat. Jndri ma-
cauco, Peun.

This is a very large {pecies; the colour entirely black,
except on the face and beneath, which is greyifh; and the
{pace of white on the rump, or fometimes the face, is white.
The muzzle is lengthened as in the dog tribe, the ears fhortifh
and flightly tufted ; the hair filky, thick, and in fome parts
curly. According to Sonnerat, its firlt defcriber, the
height of this animal is three feet and a half; the tufks in
each jaw are eight, the fore-teeth above two, beneath four ;
the feet five toed ; nails flat and acute, thofe of the great toe
large ; the rudiment of a tail is fenfible tothe touch. It
is faid to be a gentle, docile animal, capable, like the dog, of
keing trained when young to the chafe, and is commonly em-
ployed in hunting by the natives of Madagafcar, the country
it inhabits: its voice refembles the crying of an infant. At
Madagaifcar it is known by the name of indri, which fig-
nifies the man of the wood. Geoffroy obferves, that the
cutting teeth in the upper jaw are four in number, inftead
of two, as mentioned by Sonnerat.

Rurus. Yellowifh-red ; head at the fummit, temples,
cheeks, and tail beneath whitifh. Lemus rufus, Audebert.
Maki-roux, Defm. P

This refembles the mongoz in fize, and various other re-
{pets ; it neverthelefs differs in having the ears fhorter, the
tail longer, the hair in general fhorter, and the colour of
the fur yellowifh-red inftead of brown-grey ; upon the fum-
mit of the head isa black line, and the tail at the extremity
is brown. Whether allied to the following {pecies or not
feems difficult to determine.

Lanicer. Tailed; above reddifh-yellow, beneath white ;
tail uniformly tawny-brown, Gmel. Maquis @ bourres,
Sonn. Flacky lemur, Shaw.

A native of Madagafcar; the length twenty-one inches ;
hair foft, curled, about the loins reddifh-tawny ; face black ;
ears fmall; eyes large and greenifh-grey ; in the upper-jaw
two fore-teeth, in the lower four; tail nine inches long;
feet five-toed; nails long, great toe-nail rounded. There
are two or three fuppofed varieties of this {pecies.

Porto. Sub-ferruginous ; tail fame colour. Gmel.
Potto, Bofman.

Inhabits Guinea. An obfcurely defcribed f{pecies, con-
ceived to differ from the indri only in the length of the tail.
Bofman, who relates the fuppofed hiftory of this animal, on
the authority of the negroes (in his account of Guinea),
attributes to it nearly the fame manners as thofe of the
European {loth.

Moncoz,
colour. Linn, Erxleb.
Defm. Mongous, Buff.
lemur.

The mongoz is a larger fpecies than the ring-tailed le»
mur, the fize about that of the common or domettic cat 3
the upper part of an uniform dufky-brown colour, with the
breaft and belly whitifh. The fur confifts of filky curling
hair. The nofe is larger than in the ring-tailed lemur, and
much refembling that of lemur macao, the colour black ;
the eyes are yellow, or orange, remarkably vivid, and are
nearly furrounded by a circle of black placed at a {mall
diftance above and beneath each eye, then uniting between
them, and pafling down the middle of the fnout to the nofe 5
the hands and fect are naked and duflcy ; the nails flat, ex
cept on the interior toe of the hind feet next the thumb,
which is furnifhed with a {harp claw; and the tail, which is
very long, covered with a thick fur.

No lefs than feven fuppofed varicties of this fpecies are
defcribed by writers ; in one kind the body is grey or brown,
with the face and hands black; in another grey or black,
with a black {pot near the eyes; and in a third the body is
brown, with the nofe and hands white ; the face is alfo fome-
times black, the hands yellow, or varying from that to deep
tawny, and the body grey; and again, others occur that
are uniformly brown.

This animal is a’native of Madagafcar and fome other
Indian iflands: it is an active animal, filthy in its difpo-
fitions, and feeding en fruits and leaves of trees; it con-
{tantly refides in woods: like fome other animals, which
nature has furnifhed with a tail of great length, it is ob-
ferved occafionally to amufe itfelf by nibbling and biting
the end of the tail, and is on this account fometimes found
with that part deftitute of the four or five extreme ver-
tebrz.

The individual deferibed by Buffon was neither of a gentle
nor {portive difpofition, and was neceflarily confined by means
of a chain to prevent its doing mifchief ; fruits, fugar, and
comfits it devoured with apparent eagernefs and fatisfaCtion,
befides which it was fed on bread; it almoft inceflantly
uttered a lew grunting noife, or when tired of being alone,
croaked in the manner of the frog, and fo loud as to be
heard at a great diftanee. The tongue was rough like that
of the cat; and Buffon obferves, that when permitted it
would lick a perfon’s hand till the fkin became inflamed ;
its carefles, ufually concluding with a bite of its teeth upon
withdrawing the hand from him. This individual was a
male, and from its partiality to cats it was fufpected its
attachment might have been produétive of an hybrid off-
{pring ; but thefe expetations were never realized.

Macao. ‘Tailed, black; collar bearded with a kind of
ruff. Lemur macao, Linn. Erxleb. Vari, Buff. Maki-
vari, Defm. Black macauco, Edw. Rujfed macauco, Penn
Ruffed lemur, Shaw. .

An inhabitant of Madagafcar, and the adjacent iflands ;
its fize exceeds that of the mongoz, and in the ferocity of
its manners it very far furpaffes that fpecies. Travellers
defcribe it as being fearcely lefs furious than the tiger ; it
is dangerous even to be met in the woods by two together,
or even one, and yet they fometimes aflemble to the amount
of a hundred in company, when nething can refift their
attacks. Edwards is the only writer who fpeaks of it as
an inoffenfive creature, and the individual he mentions was
in a ftate of captivity ; he mentions it as ‘a very fociable,
gentle, harmle{s-natured animal, not having the cunning,
mifchievoufnefs, or malice of the monkey kind.”’ The co-
lours of this animal vary much in different individuals, yet

are

Tailed, fufcous-grey, the tail of the fame
Mongoox, Edw. Maki-mongozes,
Woolly macauco, Penn. Mongox

LEMUR.

are in general diverfified with patches of black and white,
though fometimes it appears they are totally white or
brown. The voice of this animal is loud and terrible, and
is by fome compared with the roaring of the lion, or rather
its cries refemble thofe of the howling-monkey of Brafil
and Guiana; it delights in fun-fhine, and fleeps in dark
places. The fur of this animal is long, the muzzle large
and rather long, the ears fhort and fringed with long hairs ;
and the eyes of fuch a deep orange as to appear of a fiery
rednefs. The ruff, or cravat-like ring of long fur that fur-
rounds the neck, is peculiarly ftriking in its appearance, and
ferves principally to chara¢terize this {pecies ; befides which
it may be obferved, that the great hind-toes are almolt fubu-
late. It refufes eggs, flefh, and fifh.

Carra. ‘Tail aunulated with black and white. Linn.
Erxleb. Mococo, Buff. AMaki-mocaco, or maucoco, Defm.
Maucauco, Edw. Ring-tailed macauco, Penn. . Ring-tailed
lemur, Shaw. Lev. Muf.

The mococo, fays Buffon, is a beautiful animal, with a
fine countenance. Its fize is rather fmaller than that of the
full-grown cat, the fhape more flender; its colour above
and on the outfide of the limbs fomewhat ferruginous, the
under parts whitifh, and the fur throughout remarkable for
its luftre. The eyes are large, of a bright orange, inclining
to hazel, and are furrounded by a diilin& circle of black ;
the muzzle is black, and the hands and feet of the fame
colour ; the fingers and toes furnifhed with round nails, the
nails of the great toes not being longer or fubulate as in
mott other fpecies. The tail, which it always carries ere
in a graceful pofition, is very long; the hair upon it longer
than the re{ft of the fur, and marked with about thirty
equi-diftant or regular diftin& circles of black and white.

The manners of this {pecies are gentle and lively, in va-
rious refpecis refembling thofe of the monkey-tribe, with-
out its petulance and malice ; when pleafed it purrs like a
cat. Ina ftate of liberty thefe animals live in focieties of
thirty or forty together in the woods ; in afcending trees
they climb with all their feet like the ape; their food con-
fifts of fruits, herbs, and roots, and it is alfo afferted they
will eat animal food; like the fquirrel they fometimes feed
fitting upright, and often extending their hands forwards,
and in the fame manner, when in a ftate of captivity, take
their ftation before a fire to warm themfelves. This {pecies
inhabits Madagafcar.

Bicotor. Blackifh, beneath and heart-fhaped fpot on
the forehead white; taillong. Lemur licolor, Gmel. -Le-
mur albifrons, Audebert. Heart-marked maucauco, Penn.
Heart-marked lemur, Shaw. Gen. Zool. ©
. Suppofed to inhabit South America; the head is obtufe ;
nails fubulate ; toes white.

Pusittus. Grey; eyes large and brown. Lemur pu-
Jfillus, Audebert. Rat de Madagafcar, Buff. Maki-nain,
Defm. '

. This {pecies inhabits Madagafcar ; its length is five inches
and a half from the tip of the nofe to the bafe of the tail;
the muzzle fhorter than in moft other fpecies. An indi-
vidual of this kind brought from its native country was
preferved alive in France for fome years. It evinced a re-
markable degree of activity in its motions; its cry was
feeble like that of the fquirrel; and its food confifted of
fruits and almonds. The hiftory of this curious little f{pe-
cies, as related by Buffon (under the title of rat de Mada-

_ gafear), is erroneoufly placed by Mr. Pennant, in his work
on quadrupeds, under the defcription of his Murine mau-
cauco, by which means the two fpecies are confounded ‘to-.
gether. Dr. Shaw, from his adherence to this writer, has”
alfo fallen into the fame opinion in. his General Zoology, .

Morixus. Cinereous ; tail tawny. Gmel.. Lemur grix
Jeus, Audebert. Grifet. Maki-gris, Defm.

This beautiful little animal is a native of Madagafcar.
The whole body, except the face, feet, and hands, are co-
vered with greyifh woolly hair; the tail is very long, and
covered with fhort woolly hairs, like the reft of the body.
It much refembles the lemur catta'inits general appearance ;
the pofterior limbs are much higher than thofe before.

Garaco. Tailed; whitifh, beneath grey; tail ferrugin-
ous. Galago, Geoff.. Adanfon, &c. Galago fenegalenfis,
Audebert.

One of the fmallerfpecies of the tribe, meafuring fix or
feven inches from the nofe to the tail, the latter eight inches.
The ears are very large, thin, upright, and rounded at the
tip ; the hmd legs much longer than the anterior ones ; the
nails of the hands rounded, except that of the fore-finger
of each, which confifts of a fharp claw. Thefe animals,
according to Adanfon, are of a peaceable difpofition ; they
feed on infecis, and live in trees. The negroes of Galam
hunt them for the fake of their flefh, the flavour of which
is, however, very indifferent.

Psttopactytus. Rufty cinereous;-tail extremely vil-
lofe ; middle finger of the fore-feet very long and naked.
Lemur pfilodadylus, Schreber Suppl. Aye-aye, Sonnefat.
Aye-aye fquirrel, Penn.

This is a {pecies allied fo nearly to the fquirrel tribe, to:
which it is referred by Gmelin, that it admits of doubt
whether Schreber is entirely correét in configning it to the
lemur tribe ; and it alfo approaches very clofely the family
of monkies. Its length is eighteen inches, the colour pale
ferruginous grey, with a blackith caft on the back and
limbs ; the tail entirely black, fides of the head, neck,.
lower jaw, and belly greyifh. The head is fhaped like that
of the fquirrel; the ears large, round, and naked, their
colour black; and ia front of each jaw are two cutting
teeth; the feet long; the interior toes of the hind feet
fhort, and furnifhed with flat round nails. All the claws on
the fore-feet fharp and crooked, the two middle ones in par-
ticular very long, extremely thin and naked, except at their
bafe. It isa timid animal, uncommonly flow in its move-
ments, and of a mild difpofition. M. Sonnerat obferves,
that its eyes were of an ochre-colour, and refembled thofe
of the owl, and like that bird the animal can fcarce fee
diftin@ly by day. The individuals kept by Sonnerat lived
only about two months; they flept almoft continually, and’
were {carcely to be awakened but by fhaking two or three
times. ‘Their nourifhment confifted of boiled rice which
they took up with their long fore-toes, in the manner that
the Chinefe ufe their eating fticks. It is a native of Mada-
gafcar, where it is rare.. Fruits and infe€ts appear to be its
ufual food. .

Some indecifion prevails among naturalifts refpeCting the
lemur genus, and its immediate affinities; the Linnean and
Gmelinian chara&ter is. not. altogether fufficiently precife,
and thus embraces more than one diitin& natural genus, of
which the galeopithecus (lemurwolans, Linn.) is a promi-
nent example... The number ofigenera into which Geoffroy
divides the lemures is confiderable, amounting (indepen-
dently of the galeopithecii) to no lefs than five, namely,
lemur, indri, loris; .galago, and tarfius. This diftribution,
with fome flight occafional deviations, is adopted by the
lateft French writers. ‘The genus Lemur (maki) is cha--
racterized.as having the muzzle very long ; four incifive
teeth in the upper jaw, beneath fix, inclining forwards ; .
grinders tuberculated ; ears fhort, or fhortifh ; tail very
Jong. Under this are retained the Linazan lemur cata, -
mongoz, and. macaco ; lemur rufus of Audebert ; lemur -

bicolor:

LEM

bicolor (albifrons, Geoff.) and the two little {pecies, called
by Geoffroy grifeus and pufillus. Twpri, the fecond new
genus, confilts at prefent but of two {pecies, the Linnean
Jemur indri and laniger ; the former of which is indri brevi-
caudatus of Geoffroy ; and the latter indri longicaudatus of
the fameauthor. Thee have the muzzle very long ; in each jaw
four incilive teeth ; the upper ones ftanding diftant in pairs ;
and grinders tuberculated ; in other refpeéts they relemble
the lemur. In the genus Loris the head is rounded, the

muzzle fhort ; incilive teeth in each jaw four, the lower |

ones directed forwards; eyes very open; ears moderate ;
noftrils fituated on the fides of the nofe; no tail, but in
its place a tubercle; pectoral teats four; this confilts of
two fpecies, lemur tardigradus, Linn. ; and lemur gracilis,
Geoff, Gaxaco, the fourth genus, is diltinguifhed by the
rounded form of the head, fhort muzzle, two incifive teeth in
the upper jaw, very remate ; in the lower one fix ;_grinders
with pointed tubercles ; noftrils placed at the fides of the
nofe ; ears naked, fometimes very large; anterior legs
fhort, polterior ones elongated ; fecond finger of the hind
feet fhorter than the reft; tail longer than the body, and
hairy ; {crotum very large. This comprehends galago fene-
galenfis of Geoffroy, and le petit galago, (lemur minutus,
Cuvier.) Tarstus is the laft of thefe new genera ; its cha-
racter confifts in having the head rounded ; muzzle a little
prolongated ; in the upper jaw four incifive teeth, in the
lower only two canine teeth feveral, and fhorter than the
incifive ones ; the grinders with pointed tubercles ; pofterior
fhanks uncommonly long; tail long and tufted ; ears large
and naked. ‘This genus, which can {carcely, perhaps with
propriety, be referred to the Gmelinian lemur, although
partially affented to by fome authors, comprifes tarfius
daubentonii of Geoffroy (lemur tarfius, Pallas), and di-
delphis macrotarfus, Gmel. ; with two others, one lemur

fpeGtrum of Pallas, the other tarfus Fifcherii, Nob. ; a fpe-

cies very recently defcribed, and named Fifcherii after pro-
feffor Fifher, by whom it was firlt introduced to general
obfervation.

LEMURES, in Antiquity, fprites or hobgoblins ; reftlefs

*gholts of departed perfons, who return to terrify and tor-
ment the living.

Thefe are the fame with larve, which the ancients ima-

gined to wander round the world to frighten good people,
and plague the bad. For which reafon, at Rome they had
Lemuria, or feafts inftituted to appeafe the manes of the
defund&. See Lares. ‘
Apuleius explains the ancient notion of manes thus: the
fouls of men, releafed from the bands of the body, and
freed from performing their bodily funétions, become a kind
of demons or genii, formerly called emures. Of thefe le-
mures, thofe that were kind to their families, were called
Jares familiares ; but thofe who, for their crimes, were con-
demned to ‘wander continually, without meeting with any
place of reft, and terrified good men, and hurt the bad, are
vulgarly called /arve.

An ancieut commentator on Horace mentions, that the
Romans wrote /emures for remures ; which laft word was
formed from Remus, who was killed by his brother Ro-
mulus, and who returned to earth to torment him,

Put Apuleius obferves, that in the ancient Latin tongue
lemures fignifies the foul of a man feparated from the body
by death.

LEMURIA, or Lemuratra, a feaft folemnized at Rome
on the ninth of May; to pacify the manes of the dead, or in
honour of the lemures. "

The inftitution of this feaft is alcribed to Romulus,,who,
to rid himfelf of the phantom of his brother Remus (whom

LEN

he had ordered to be murdered) appearing always before
him, ordained a fealt, called after his name Remuria, or
Lemuria.

In the Lemuria, they offered facrifices for three nights
together, during-all which time all the temples of the gods
were {hut up, nor were any marriages permitted. There
were many ceremonies in this feaft, chiefly intended to exor-
cife the lemures, and prevent their appearing, or giving any
dilturbance to the living.

LENA, in Geography, the greateft river of Eaftern Si-
beria. It takes its origin on tle north-weltern fide of the
Baikal, in a morafs; runs at firlt weltwards, then to the
diftriGt of Yakutfk eaftwards, and lallly towards the north,
where, after having divided itfelf into five great branches at
its mouth, and thereby formed four confiderable iflands, it
flows into the Frozen ocean. . Its courfe is computed to be
sooc verits. Its fource is in N. lat. 52° 30’, its mouth in
73° lat., and the eaftern arm in 153, and the weftern in
143° of longitude. This river has in general a very gentle
current; its bottom is moftly fandy, and the fhore only in
the upper regions befet with hills and cliffs. Of the nu-
merous rivers which it takes up in its courfe, the largeft are
the Vitim, the Olekma, the Viluy, and the Aldan. “Out
of the Lena travellers pafs into the Aldan, from that into
the Maia, from the Maia into the Yadoma, and from this
they have but a fhort route to make by land to Okhotfk;
Tooke’s Ruff. Emp. vol. i, :

Lena, a harbour on the W. coaft of Mindanao. N. lat.
6° 42’. E. long. 122° 12. a

LENZEA, Awac, in Antiquity, a feftival of Bacchus,
furnamed Leneus, from Ano-:, te. a wine-prefs. Befides
the ufual ceremonies at feafts*facred to this god, it was
remarkable for poetical contentions, and tragedies aéted
at this time. Potter's Archeol. lib. ii, cap. 20. tom. i!

412.
LENATO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de.
partment of the Olona; 5 miles S. of Milan.
LENBERAN, a town of Perfian Armenia 3 168 miles
E. of Erivan.
LENCLOISTRE, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Vienne, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftri&t of Chatellerault ; 14 miles N. of Poitiers. The
place contains 2114, and the canton 7350 inhabitants, on a
territory of 1824 kiliometres, in nine communes.
LENCLOS, Awyg, or Ninon bE, in Biography, an il-
luftrious woman,. born at Paris in 1616, was daughter of
the fieur De l’Enclos, a gentleman of Touraine, who had
ferved with reputation in the army: her mother was a
devotee. She loft both her parents at the age of fifteen,
and being left miftrefs of a large fortune without any one
to controul her, fhe determined to adopt a mode of life
fuited to her inclinations. She had already derived her
philofophy from the works of Charron and Montagne: fhe
was beautiful, and by much attention became very accom-
plithed, and qualified for the company of, the moft cultivated
perfons of her time. Amorous in her conftitution, and
licentious by principle, fhe refolved to give free indulgence
to the tender paffion, without the fhackles of a ferious
engagement. She never fold her favours; and her attach:
ments feem partly to have been prompted by perfonal
attractions, and partly by vanity, as they included perfons
of high rank and reputation, as’ well as men of gallantry
and fafhion. She was complimented and confulted by the
moft eminent writers of that time, and her friendfhip was
fought by fome of the moit reipeétable of her own fex.
She was intimate with madame de Maintenon, when the
wife and widow of Scarron, who wifhed to engage Ninon
to

LEN

to live with her, when a partner in the throne, to difpel the
dreadful ennui which was the price of her elevation. Ni-
non preferred her liberty to the prifon of a palace, and as
fhe retained her perfonal charms to a late period, and her
mental attractions to the clofe of life, fhe was very long the
obje& of admiration, and had the honour of forming mere
than one generation of young men of fafhion. Mothers,
fo licentious was the age, were pleafed to fee their fons in
her train, as fle always promoted decorum, and the air of
good company ; and it was univerfally admitted that fhe was
capable of difintereited friendfhip to thofe who confided in
her. If the were an object of envy to bye-ftanders, the was,
at the fame time, confcious of having miftaken the way to
true happinefs; :or in one of her letters to St. Evremond,
fue fays, “ Every ene tells me that I have lefs to complain of
time, than any othee perfon. However that may be, if
fuch a life, as I have {pent, had been propofed to me as my
lot, I would have hanged myfelf rather than have pafled
throughit.’’ Shedied at the ageof eighty. She is reputed
to have been the author of a fet of letters to the marquis
de Sevigné. Some of her real ones are contained in the
works of St. Evremond. Moreri.

LENCZICZ, or Lenrscuirz, in Geography, a town
of the duchy ot Warfaw, formerly capital of a palatinate
of the fame name in Poland; furrounded with a wall and
moat, and defended by a cattle placed ona rock. A pro-
vincial diet, a court of judicature, and provincial fynods of
the clergy, are held in this town; 60 miles W.S.W. of
Warlaw. N. lat. 51° E. long. 19° 17'.

LENCZNA, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of
Lublin; 16 miles N.E. of Lublin.

LENDAR, a town of Iitria; 19 miles E. of Capo
d'Iftria.

LENDENARA, a town of Italy, in the Polefe di Ro-
vigo; containing two churches and four convents; 8 miles
W. of Rovigo.

LENDORA, a town of Roffia, in the government of
Olonetz ; 100 miles W.N.W. of Povenetz.

LENE Lowen, a lake of Ireland, in the county of
Weltmeath, near the {mall town of Fore.

LENES, a {mall ifland in the North fea, near the coaft
of Norway. N. lat. 67° 40!.

L’ENFANT, Davin, in Biography, a French Domi-
nican friar, was born at Paris in the year 1603. He em-
braced the ecclefiaftical life at the age of feventeen, and ma-
nifeled a moft ardent thirft for knowledge, together with
very uncommon literary induftry. He died in the year
1688, at the age of eighty-five. His principal work is “A
General Hiftory of all Ages,’’ in three vols. ; which was
afterwards extended to fix volumes. He alfo publifhed
« Sanéti Bernardi Abbatis Biblia,’’ containing a colletion of
all the illuftrations of texts of {cripture difperfed throughout
the works of that author; and fimilar works refpeGing
biblical illuftrations of St. Auguitine, and St. Thomas
Aquinas. Moreri.

L’Esrant; James, an eloquent as well as very learned
French Proteitant divine, was born at Bazoche in the year
1661. He purfued his theological ftudies at Saumur, under
Lewis Cappel, profefflor of Hebrew, and afterwards at
Geneva. In 1683 he left Geneva, and was admitted in the
following year to the exercife of the miniftry at Heidelberg,
and ordained paftor of the French church in that place.
Owing to his fuperior pulpit talents he was appointed chap-
jain to the dowager eleétrefs palatine. In 1688, on the in-
-vafion of the palatinate, he removed to Berlin, and was ap-
pointed paftor of one of the churches. He was in a fhort

Vou. XX.

sol,

LEN

time nominated preacher to the queen of Pruffia. In 1707
we find him in England, and nominated one of the chaplains
to queen Anne, an honour which he declined on account of
his great attachment to Berlin. He died in 1728, at the
age of fixty-feven, His publications were numerous in
divinity, ecclefiaftical hiftory, criticifm, and polite literature.
Thofe which are held in the highett eftimation are his « Hif-
tories of the Councils of Pifa, Conflance, and Bafil.”’ 'Thefe
hiftories are written with great ability and impartiality, and
they abound with interefling faéts and curious refearches.
L’Enfant, in conjunftion with M. Beaufobre, publifhed
“The New Teftament tranflated from the original Greek
into French,” in two volumes 4to. with notes, and a gene-
ral preface, or introduction to the reading of the holy
{criptures, ufeful for ftudents in divinity. He is known alfo
by his “ De Inquirenda Veritate,”? which is a tranflation of
Malebranche’s « Search after Truth;”? “ The Hiftory of
Pope Joan ;” ** Poggiana, or the Life, Charaéter, Opinions,
&c. of Poggio, the Florentine, with the Hiftory of the
Republic of Florence,”’ andother works. Moreri.

LENGA pe Bazasa, in Geography, a province on the
coaft of Caramania. N. lat. 36°33’. E. long. BAe Sih,

LENGEFELD, a town of Saxony, in the circle of
Erzgeburg ; 12 miles S.E.of Chemnitz. N. lat. 50° 40’.
E. long. 13° 9/.

LenGereip, or Lengenfeld, a town of Saxony, in the
Vogtland; 10 miles S.S.W.of Zwickaw. N. lat. 50° 27/.
E. long. 12° 22’.

LENGER, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan; 162 miles
N.N.W. of Herat.

Lencer Kuran, a town of Perfia, in Ghilan; 120 miles
N.W. of Refhd.

LENGFURT, a town of Germany, in the county of
Wertheim ; 12 miles $.S.W. of Wertheim.

LENGHIER, a town of Perfia, in Khorafan; 70 miles
E. of Herat.

LENGIUM, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland ;
42 miles E. of Gothenburg.

LENGLET, pu Fresnoy, Nicuoras, in. Biography,
was born at Beauvois in 1674. He applied himfelf parti-
cularly to the ftudy of theology, and compofed feveral works
in a ftrain of freedom, which attraéted the cenfure of
the Sorbonne, and other eftablifhed bodies. Difguited with
the oppofition which he met with, he quitted divinity for
politics, and in 1705 was fent by Torcy, minifter for foreign
affairs, to refide at the court of the ele@tor of Cologne, as
fecretary for the Greek and Latin languages. He was en-
trulted with the management of the foreign correfpondence
with Bruffels and Holland, by means of which he became
acquainted with various plots againft the French interelt.
Lenglet returned to France at the conclufion of the war,
and employed himfelf in many literary works. In 1721 he
went to Vienna, and was appointed librarian to prince Eu-
gene, a_polt which he did not long retain, on account of
fome mifcondu€&t. Owing to this circumitance, he always
remained in indigence, though he had friends that would
have raifed him to a better condition. Some of his writings
were compofed in fo free a ftyle as to caufe the author to be
imprifoned feveral times in the Baftile. He was accidentally
burnt to death in the year 1755, in his eighty-fecond year?
Of his various works we may notice thole which are moft
efteemed, viz. «‘ Méthode pour étudier l'Hiftoire, avec un
Catalogue des principaux Hiftoriens,’? 12 vols.; “« Méthode
pour ¢tudier la Géographie,” with maps; “ Hiftoire de la
Philofophie Hermetique,”’ and ‘* Tablettes Chronologiques
de l’Hiftoire Univerfelle,” two vols. 1744. An enlarged

gi) edition

LEN

edition of this work was publifhed in 1777, by Bruyere, to
which we have been indebted in the courfe of our inquiries.
Moreri.

LENGO Sercanno, in Geography, a town of Africa,
in Congo; 45 miles’S.S.W. of Bombi.

LENGTH, in the Manage. Yo paflage a horfe upon his
own length, is to make him go round in two treads, at a walk
or tro’, upon a {pot of ground fo narrow, that the horfe’s
haunches being in the centre of the volt, his own length is
much about the femidiameter of the volt; the, horfe ftill
working between the two heels, without putting out his
croupe, or going at lalt falter or flower than at firtt.

LENGTHENING, in Naval Architedure, is the one-
mation of feparatins a {hip athwart the mid{hips, and adding
a certain portion to herlength. It is performed by clearing
all the fattenings near the butts of thofe planks as may be re-
tained, and the others are cut afmder. The after end is
then drawn or launched apart to the required diffance. The
kee! is then made good, and a fufficient number of floors
cro led, and timbers raifed to fill up the vacaney produced
by the feparation. The keelfon is then replaced to give good
fhift to the fearfs of the keel. The planks on. the outfide are
then replaced with a proper fhift, alfo the clamps and foot-
waling infide. As many beams as are neceffary are next placed
athwart and kneed, the decks made good, and the fhip
completed in all refpeéts as before. Sometimes fhips are
fhortened in a fimilar manner.

LENGUR, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the pro-
vince of Mazanderan ; 15 miles N.W.of Amol.

LENHOFDA, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 30 miles N.W. of Calmar.

LENIOR, a county of America, in Newbern diftri&,
North Carolina, Surrounded by Glafgow, Craven, Jones,
and Dauphin ; containing 3898 free inhabitants, and 1457
flaves. The chief town is Kingfton.

LENIS Spiritus, in Profody. See Sprrit:

LENITIVE, in Phy/ic, fometimes denotes a foftening,
refolutive remedy, that moiitens the parts difeafed, and difli-
paces any fharp humour colleéted there.

Lenitiveis more frequently ufed for laxative.

Lesitive Eleduary is more peculiarly ufed for a gentle

urging electuary. See Evecruary of Senna.

LENKERAN, in Geography, a town of Perfia, in the
province of Ghilan, near the Cafpian fea. N. lat. 28° 40’.
E. long. 49°.

LENNAN, La, a town of Teru, in the diocefe of La
Paz; 27 miles N. of Potofi.

LENNEP, atown of the duchy of Berg, inhabited for
the moft part by Lutherans ; 20 n iles E.S.E. of Duffeldorf.
N. Jat. 51°’. E. long. 7°18).

LENO, a harbour on the W. coaft of the ifland of Min-
danao.

LENNICK-Saint-Manrtiny a town of France, in the
department of the Dyle, and chief place of a canton, in the
dittri& of Bruffels. The place contains 1559, and the can-
ton 10,606 inhabitants, ona territory of 120 kiliometres, in
12 communes.

LENOS, in Hippocrates, denotes an old machine for re-
ducing fraGtures and diflocations.

LENOX, in Biography, See Ricumonn, Duke of.

Lenox, in Geography, an ifland in the Mergui Archi-
pelago, about five miles in circumference. N. lat. 9° 2'.

Lenox, the fhire town of Berkihire county, Maffa-
chufetts; it is a pleafant and.thriving town, and has a court
houfe and a gaol. The river Houfatonick traverfes the town ;
145 miles N. of Bofton. The number of inhabitantsis 1041.

LEN -

Lenox Ca/ile, a polt-town of Buckingham county, North
Carolina; 290 miles from Wafhington.

LENS, in Diopirics, properly fignifies a {mall, roundifls
glafs, of the figure of a /entil; but is extended to any de-
tached portion of a tranfparent fubltaice, of which the op-
pofite fides are regular polifhed furfaces of fuch forms as
may be deferibed by lines revolving round a common axis 5
or to any optic glafs, not very thick, which either colleéis
the rays of light into a point, in their pafiage through it, or
difperfes them farther apart, according to the laws of re=
fraction. A lens is generally fuppofed, in fimple caleula-
tions, to be infinitely thin, and to be denfer than the fur-
rounding medium.

Lenfes have various figures; that is, are terminated by
various furfaces, from which they acquire various names.
The lines that form them may be portions of circles, of el-
lipfes, of hyperbolas, or of any other curves, or they may
be right lines. But, in general, one of the fides is a portion
of a {pherical furface, and the other either a portion of a
{pherical furface or a plane. Hence fome are plane on one
fide, and convex on the other ; others convex on both fides ;
both which are ordinarily called convex lenfes; though,
when we {peak accurately, the former are called plano-con-
vex, and the latter, double convex. Again, fome are plane
on one fide, and concave on the other ; and others are con-
cave on both fides, which are both ufually ranked among the
concave lenfes; though, when diltinguifhed, the former is
called -a. plano-concave, and the latter, a double concave.
Others, again, are concave on one fide, and convex on the
other ; which are catled convexo-concave, or concavo-convex
lenfes.. The figures of all thefe are fufficiently defcribed by
their names (fee alfo Plate VI. Optics, fig. 5) 3 except
that the term meni/cus, which properly implies a little moon
or crefcent, is applied in general to alllen'es which are con-
vex on the one fide, and concave on the other, although they
may be thicker at the edges than in the middle. Sometimes,
however, a lens of this kind is diltinguifhed by the term con-
cavo-convex. See Meniscus. - P

When the particular figure is not confidered, a lens that
is thickeft in the middle is called a conwex lens ; and that
which is thinneit in the middle is called a concave lens,
without farther diftinGion.

It is to be here obferved, that in every lens terminated in
any of the forementioned manners, a right line perpendicular
to the two furfaces is called the axis ot the lens ; which axis,
when both furfaces are {pherical, pafles through both their
centres ; hence it is manifelt, that no lens, except the fphere,
can have but one axis ; and therefore all pencils of rays are
oblique, excepting thofe whofe foci are in the axis of the
lens: but if one of them be plane, it falls perpendicularly
upon that, and goes through the centre of the ‘other.
The points where the axis cuts the furface are called
the wertices of the lens, and the middle point between them
is called the centre. ‘Vhis is the cafe, when the lenfes are
thin, as they are ufually f{uppofed to be ; but when the lens
is pretty thick, and its furfaces of unequal curvatures, then
the centre of the lens is nearer to one vertex than to the
other ; by as much as the radius of curvature of the former
furface is lefs than that of the other.

For the explanation of other terms that pertain to lenfes,
and of their general effect, it is obvious, that if a ray of
light falls perpendicularly upon the yertex of a lens, or coin-
cides with its axis, it muft pafs flraight through the lens
without fuffering any refraction ; but when it falis obliquely
upon it, it mult emerge out of the lens in a direétion inclined
to its former direétion. Thus, if the rays of light, which,

6 ifuing

LENS.

iMuing from the luminous point A, (Plate VI. Optics, fig. 6.)
fall upon the lens B E, the ray AC, which proceeds in the
direGtion of the axis of the wns, mult pafs itraight through
it; but the ray A B, falling obliquely upon the furface of
the lens, mult be refra&ted, or bent, and if the lens bea
plano-convex, or double convex, that ray mutt be bent in-
wardly, that is, towards the axis; confequently it mutt
Ynterfeét the axis in fome point, as I’. This point ¥ is called
the refraéed focus of that ray, or rather of the rays A B,
“AE, &e. which fall upon the iens at equal diftances
from the axis AC, and which ail meet and crofs at the
fame point F;- but the point A from which they iffue,
is called the radiant point, or the focus of incid.nt rays ; and
both thefe points, in reference to each other, are cailed
the conjugate foci. If a lens be concave, as in jig 7,
then the oblique rays AB, A E, &c. will be bent out-
wardly, or from the axis; in which if the refracted rays be
fuppofed to be continued backwards until they meet
the axis as at F, then the point F is called the vir-
tual focus of the refra@ed rays, being in fat the centre of
divergency of the rays. In this cafe the conjugate foci
are both on the fame fide of the lens; wiz. the real focus
of incident rays, and the virtual focus F of the refracted
rays BG, DO, ES. It is to be obferved, that all the
rays which all upen the furface of a lens, whether it be
convex or concave, will not meet at one and the fame point
when the lens is convex, nor have a common virtual focus
when it is concave; but thofe rays which are more diltant
from the axis, after the refraction, meet fooner than thofe
which are nearer to the axis; and this effect is greater in
proportion as the furfaces of the lens are farther from each
ether, and confift of larger {pherical fegments. Hence a
glafs globe renders the above-mentioned effeét very con[pi-
cuous ; and hence the lenfes are made as thin as poffible ;
but in all cafes, a lens which coniilts of {pherical furfaces,
does never refraét the rays which fall from a luminous point,
precifely to the fame focus. The rays which fall upon the
edge of the lens have their refrafted focus not only nearer
to the lens, but alfo fartheft from the axis, viz. on one fide
of it. Lines drawn through the refracted foci of the rays,
which belong to one luminous or radiant point, form two
curves, which make an angle with each other. at the axis,
or principal focus, and are called ‘ caultics by refraGtion’’
(fee EG which are real in convex lenfes, but ima-
ginary in thofe that are concave. When the lenfes are thin,
and their fphericity not very great, thefe caultics are fo
trifling that the eye does not perceive them; but lenfes that
are thick and of great convexity produce a confiderable
aberration of the rays, and an evident diitortion of the
object to an eye that looks through them. This aberration
may be exhibited experimentally by covering one fide of a
giafs globe or thick lens with a circular piece of brown
paper, having a row of equidiltant pin-holes in its diameter.
Let the light which paffes through thefe holes, and through
the lens, fall wpon a piece of white paper held perpendicu-
lar to the rays of light, and you will find that when the
paper is held near to the globe or lens, the {pots of light
upon itare at equal diitances from one another fucceflive-
ly ; but if the paper be gradually withdrawn from the lens,
the intervals between the exterior {pots grow lefs than the
intervals between the interior, and foon unite. If the fame
operatien be performed with a thick concave lens, the inter-
vals between the exterior {pots will be found to grow larger
than the interior, &c. There is another aberration, refulting
from the different refrangibility of the rays of light; and
which caufes a much greater imperfeétion in lenfes, For an
account of both, fee Aszrration, Notwithitanding thefe

aberrations, glafs lenfes, that ate not very thick, are
reckoned to have a determinate focus of refraéted rays, ori-
ginally iffuing from a fingle radiant point ; and the diftatce
of that focus from the furface of the lens is called the focal
diflance of thefe rays. In order to prepare the way for deter-
mining their focal diftance, it may be confidered, that about

the middle of the furface of every lens there is a point,

upon which, if a ray falls and pafles through the lens, the

emergent part will be parallel to the incident ; for the point
of incidence and the point of emergence may be fo fituated,

that if two planes touch the furfaces at thefe points, they

may be parallel to each other. ‘That ray or part of a pencil

of light, which thus paffes through the lens, without being

bent, is called the axis of that pencil, and this axis pafles

through the centre of the lens. When rays of light fall
upon the fame lens with different inclinations, it is evident

that after the refra¢tion, they muft have their foci at dif-

ferent diflances from the lens. When rays of light come

parallel to each other, {uch as thofe which come from a

point of the fun’s furface, or from any other diltant point,

and fall perpendicularly, or nearly fo, upon the furface of

alens; then the focus of thefe rays, after refraétion, is called

the geometrical focus, or the principal focus of that lens, and

its diftance from the lens the principal focal diltance of that

lens. The principal focus of a lens may be found either ex-

perimentally or by computation. In a plano-convex, dou-

ble-convex, or menifens, the principal focus is real; in the

other lenfes the focus is virtual. See the Theory of Lenfes

demeonflrated under Rerraction and Dioprrics, and the

application thereof under Microscope, leLescore, Burn-

ING-GLASs, and Focus.

Some confine lenfes within the diameter of five or fix
lines, and will have fuch as exceed that diameter called da-
ticular glaffes.

Lenies are diftinguifhed, with regard to the manner of
their preparation, into ground and blown.

Leyses, Blown, are little globules of glafs, melted in the
flame of a lamp, or taper. See Microscope,

Lenses, Manner of grinding. A-little piece of copper is
cemented to the end of the arbor of a lathe, and turned
till it form a Gifh, or bafon, of the diameter of the lens re-
quired. Then a piece of clear glafs is cemented, on one of
its flat fides, to the end of a little maundrel, with black
Spanifh wax ; and thus ground, on the fide not cemented,
on a grind{tone, with water, till it hath nearly acquired a
convex figure. It is finifhed in the lathe, by turning it in
the bafon, with fine wet fand, grit-ftone, oremery. The grit.
mutt be often repeated freth till the lens appear very round 5
when it is come to that point, they ceafe to take any frefh
ftone, but continue to turn it in the bafon, till the remains
of the fand are become fo fine as to have polifhed it. This
they perceive, when, upon wiping it, the image of the win-
dow of the place is feen painted on its furface; if it does
not, it is wetted in water without any fand, and turned till
it hath got a polifh. The bafon is then covered, within-
fide, with two or three folds of jinen, and the polifh finifhed
with putty, or tripoly of Venice fteeped in water. It is
known to be perfeétly polifhed, when, viewing it with a
magnifier, there appear no feratches of the fand. The ce-
ment is then broken off, and the fide polifhed cemested, to
work and grind the other, as before, till the edges of the
lens be become fharp, and it be perfe&ly polifhed on either
fide. When finifhed, it is wafhed in fpirit of wine, to take
off all remains of the wax.

According to the mode now generally pradifed, optical
glaffes are fixed on blocks by means of a cement, and
ground with emery by a tool of proper convexity or cone

3 °U2 cavity 5

LENS.

eavity ; if they are fmall, a large number is fixed on the
blocks at the fame time. The tool is fometimes firft turned
round its axis by machinery, and when the lenfes are to be
finifhed, a compound motion is given to it by means of a
crank; and in order to make it more {mooth, the wheels
turn each other by bruthes inllead of cogs. he point of
the lens where its two furfaces are parallel, is determined by
looking through it at a minute obje&, while it is fixed ona
wheel with a tubular axis, and fhifting it, unti! the object
appears no longer to move; a circle is then defcribed, as it
revolves, in order to mark its outline. ‘Che difhes in which
Jenfes are fometimes ground are of hell metal; and the
emery is prepared by elutriation.

In the Philofophical Tranfactions we have the figure of
a machine for grinding lenfes {pherically. It is a contriv-
ance te turn a {phere at one and the fame time on two axes,
interfeCting each other at right augles, with an equal ve-
locity and preffure on each. See the 'T'ranfactions, N° 459.
fe&. 1. See Grinvine of Optic Glaffes.

Lenses, for convex, the laws of their refraétion, and their
effets depending thereon, are as follow.—1. A ray of light,
EG, near the axis (Plate VI. Optics, fig. 8.), and parallel
to it, ftriking on the plane furface of a plano-convex lens,
dire€tly oppolite to the luminous body, after refraction con-
curs with the axis in the point F: and if C be the centre
of the convexity, C F will be to F L, that is, the diltance
of the centre from the point of concourfe, or focus, will
be to the diftance of the centre, from the convex furface,
in the ratio of the refration.

For the plane furface being dire€tly oppofed to the lumi-
nous body, the ray E Gis perpendicular to A B, and there-
fore will pafs unrefraéted to H: thus it ftrikes on AH B,
ftill parallel to the axis; and therefore coming out of a
denfer medium into a rarer, it will meet with the axis of
the lens in F: and fo as that C F will be to F L in the
ratio of the fine of the refraGed angle to the fine of the
angle of incidence: as will be demonftrated under the head
REFRACTION,

And, therefore, C F — F L, or C L is to F Las the dif-
ference of thefe fines is to the fine of the angle of inci-
dence; and C F — FL, or C Lis to C F as the fame dif-
ference is to the fine of the refracted angle.

If then the refraétion be out of a glafs lens into air, CF:
Pel eesgietas on CALs: alae eae sandals OPE chen
3; and therefore F L = 2 C L; that is, parallel rays, near
the axis, will concur with it at the diftance of the diameter.
Moreover, if parallel rays pafs out of air into glafs, it will
be CRP Lity2% 3,hand © LiF Liga 3, andiC' L's
CF::1:2. It is evident from hence, that if C L be di-
minifhed, without any variation in the refracting power, F L
would alfo be diminifhed. Again, if the refraction were out of
a water lens, i. e. out of a plano-convex lens filled with water,
CF: FRer4'3, or CLP L 2 12 35)and therefore
FL=3CL; ie. parallel rays, near the axis, will concur
with it at the diftance of a diameter and a half. It is eafy
to deduce the effe& of refra&tion out of airinto water. So
that if a lighted candle be placed in the focus of a plano-
convex lens, that is, in the point F, diftant from the furface
of the lens A L B, by the length of the diameter; and
from the furface of the water lens by a diameter and a half,
its rays, after refraction, will become parallel.

2. If the ray K I, (Plate VI. Optics, fig. 9.) near the
axis of a plano-convex lens, and parallel to it, ftrike on its
convex furface A H B, after a double refra“iion, it will
meet the axisin F; fo as that H G will be to G C, and
G Dto FD, in the ratio of the refraétion.

For the ray KI, parallel to the axis E G, by virtue of

the firft refra€tion in I, will tend to the point G, fo that
GH will be to GC in the ratio of the fine of the angle of
incidence to the fine of the revraéted angle: therefore, by
virtue of the fecond refra&tion in L, it will concur with the
axis in F; fo that GD will be to FD in the ratio of the
fine of the refracted angle, to the fine of the angle of inci-
dence. See Rerracrion.

So that the femidiameter, and thicknefs of the plano-
convex lens, with the ratio of refragtion, being given, we
fhall have a method of determining the focus of parallel
rays ftriking on the convex furface. For, if the ratio
of refraction be expreffled by 2: m, HG: GC i: ni: m3

therefore n—m: ni: HC: HG; andHG = is

n—m

x HC: from which fubtraéting the thicknefs of the lens,
DH, and GD = x HC =]=HAD. Thenfince

the'ratio of GD to FD is the given ratio of refraction,

we m . . ‘
EFD= pase CH — = HD = (rejecting the quantity
™ HD as very {mall) Baie Ey:
ue n—m

Hence, if the lens be glafs, FD = 2CH —?HD.
So that if two thirds of the thicknefs cf the lens be incon-
fiderable, (as in practice it ufuaily happens,) parallel rays
meet with the axis at the diftance of the diameter from the
lens, even when they {trike at a convex furface.

So that, as to the place of the focus, it is the fame thing
whether the plane furface, or the convex one, be turned to
a luminary of parallel rays; though it appears, both from
experience and trigonometrical calculations, that there are
more rays united in a lefs {pace, if the convex furface, than
if the plane one, be turned towards the fun.

If the lens were full of water, FD = 3CH —3HD,
and therefore, if 2 H D be inconfiderable, F D = 3 CH,
or if 1 HD be inconfiderabley FH = 3CH. Parallel,
and near rays, therefore, are united at the diftance of a dia-
meter and a half, if the refraction be in water, even when
the convex furface is oppofed to the luminous body.

3- Hence, alfo, arifes a method of determining the focus
of parallel rays ftriking on a lens convex on both fides,
the two femidiameters, and the thicknefs of the lens, being

iven.
’ For if the ray HI, (Plate VI. Optics, fig. 10.) near the
axis D G and parallel to it, fall on a lens convex on both
fides, after a double refration, it will meet the axis in F,
provided that GE: GC and DK: DO have the ratio of
refration. And GD will be to GK as GOto GF.
Since EG: GC in the ratio of refraction, the ray HI
will tend to the point G; and if D K be to D O in the ratio
of refraétion, after the fecond refra¢tion at its egrefs, it will
meet the axisin F, nd GD: GK :: GO:GF. See
REFRACTION. [

And therefore, GD: DK ::GO: FO. Let the
ratio of refraGtion be that of 2 : m, thenGE:GC::2:m,
and DK: DO:: 2:m; and, therefore,n—m:n::CE:
GE, and nz —~m:n:: KO: DK; wherefore if the ratio of
refraction and the femidiameters C E and KO are given,
GE and D K may be found: and fincee GD =DK + EG
= EK, and GK= GE'— EK, andGO =GES>
KO—EK,andGD:GK::GO:GF; GF maybe
found: moreover GE— GF=EF. If EK be rejeGed
as very fmall, GD = DK + EG, GK = GE, and
GO= GE + KO; and therefore. DK. + EG: GE
7@EYROWGE. P

2

Hencey.

LENS.

Hence, if the lens be glafs, fince GE = 3CE, and
DK=3K0,gKO+4 3CE:3CE::3CE+ KO:
GF; confequently KO +CE:CE::3CE+ KO

GF. And fubltituting for KO, a, CE, 4, and GF, 2,
r= g08 + ae and FE or FK, (rejeéting EK) = 36

er a spi
346+ab gab+3bb—3bb—ab 2ab
Ll ideale a+é Mais

therefore the fum of the femidiameters KO + CE is to
the double of one of them, or 2 CE, asthe other K O is
to F K the diftance of the focus from the lens.

If the plafs lens were equally convex on both fides, then
KO = CE, and2CE:CE:: 4CE: GF, and there-

2a"

fore, GF = 2CE; and FR = —— =a= EC; ine.

the diftance of the focus from the lens is equal to the radius
of convexity.

If the lens were full of water, fincee GE = 4CE, and
Dit= 42K O,4K'O -4CEs4C Es: 4CE+ KO
: GF; confequently KO+ CE:CE::4CE+ KO:
466+ ab

abr

GF. Wherefore fubftituting as before » =

46b+ab _ 3ab.
and FEorFK = 46 — 7 oe ese

quently the fum of the femidiameters K O + CE is to the
triple of either, 3 C E, as the other KO is to F K, the
diltance of the focus from the lens.

If this lens were equally convex on both fides, we fhould

inye2 CEs CE ::5'Cr : GF’; therefore'G F = 5

SMe Bs a

2a

2 of the radius.

confe-

CE; and FK = i.e. the diftance of the

focus from the lens is

In order to find the principal focus of a plano-convex, or
double convex lens experimentally, various methods have
been devifed and recommended. One is as follows: Mea-
fure exaétly the thicknefs of the lens in the middle and at
the edge, and alfo its breadth; then it will be, as the dif-
ference of the above thickneffes is to half the breadth, fo is
half the breadth to the focal length required. The following
method will ferve, according as the centres of the fides are
on different fides or on the fame fide of the lens ; as the fum
or difference of the radii of the fides is to one of them, fo is
double the other to the focal diftance from the lens. If the
curvity of each fide is the fame, the radius of that curvity
may be deemed the focal length; and if one fide of the lens
is plane, the focal length may be reckoned equal to twice
the radius of the {pherical fide. The focal length of a con-
vex lens may be alfo found by the following methods : darken
a room, fo that no light fhall enter into it except through a
tube in one of the window-fhutters ; then, placing the lens
againit and clofe to this hole, move a white paper behind it,
til the picture of a particular objeét, directly facing the
lens, appears moft diftin€&, and there fix the paper; then
meafuring the diftances betwixt the paper and the objec

’ from the lens refpeCtively, there wiil be fufficient data for
finding the focal length required. Let OP ( fig. 11.) be
the objeét without doors, A the lens in the window-thutter,

p the place of the paper where the image of Q P is moft
ining, and Q Ag the axis of the lens. Having meafured
the diftances QO A, gA, it willbe, Qg.: QA’:: QA:
QF; and QA — OF = AF the focal length required.

The focal length of any lens, it is obferved, is in ftriGnefs
the diftance from its principal focus to the refpeCtive focal
centre: and in the example above given, the diftances be-
twixt the focal centres of the lens fhould have been fub-
traéted from Q g ; and for QA we fhould have taken the
diftance from Q to the neareit focal centre. But in experi-
ments of this kind, thefe niceties would be fuperfluous.
Moreover, in the above experiment, there will be a certain
part of the axis, extending on each fide of the geometrical
focus g, within which, wherever the paper is placed, the
picture as to fenfe will be equally diftinét. Having found
nearly the place of g, move the paper from thence both
ways along the axis, till an indiftinétnefs begins to be per-
ceptible in a particular fmall part of the picture ; and having
noted thefe two places, the middle point between them may
be taken for the focus g. Again, if the focal length of the
lens does not exceed two or three feet, it may be found
without darkening the room, by holding the lens at fuch a
diftance off, that the image of the window-fafh may be dif-
tint upon the oppofite wainfcot : then computing as above,
the window-fafh being now the object. And for common
purpofes, when the focal length of a lens is but fhort, this
length may be reckoned the diftance from the lens to the
place where the image of a remote objet appears mott dif-
tinct. For if the object be diftant from the lens 100 or
1000 times the focal length, the image will be beyond the
principal focus only the 1oodth or 1o00dth part of that focal
length. The focal length of a lens may be found, without
computation, by making the flame of a candle the object,
thus: Move the lens or the candle, and the paper for re-
ceiving its image, fo that, when the image is mott diflin@,
the lens be exactly in the middle betwixt the other two.
then half the diitance betwixt the obje@ or its image and
the lens is the focal length required. Or if either the lens,
or the candle, or the paper for receiving its image, be moved,
while the other two are fixed ; having meafured the refpec-
tive diftances, the focal length may be found in the manner
already ftated. Or, if a {mall hole, of about one-fourth or
one-eighth of an inch broad, be made in the window-fhutter
of a darkened room, and a lens dnd a paper be held behind
this hole at proper diftances; the place where the image of
the hole is moit diftin&t may be determined very accurately,
and fo the focal length of the lens may be found as above.
Again, place the lens fo that its axis may point as nearly as
pollible towards the fun; then holding a paper behind it,
the burning point, or that in. which the fun’s image is fmalleft,
and when its limb appears moft diitin@, is the focus of the
lens. See thefe various methods illuftrated more at large in
Harris’s Optics, book ii. § 4

On the principles above illuftrated is founded the ftruc-
ture of refracting burning-glafes, the fun’s light and heat
being exceedingly augmented in the focus of the lens, whe-
ther convex or plano-convex ; fince the rays, falling parallel -
to the axis of the lens, are reduced into a much narrower
compafs; fo that it is no wonder they burn fome bodies,
melt others, and produce other extraordinary phenomena.
See Burnine Glafs.

4. If a luminous body be placed in a focus behind a lens,
whether plano-convex, or convex on both fides ; or whether
equally or unequally; the rays, after refra&tion, become
parallel. In this cafe the refracted rays become the incident
rays, and wice verfa; and confequently the refracted are
parallel. Hence, by means of a convex lens, or a little
gla*s bubble full of water, a very intenfe light may be pro.
jected to a vatt diftance.

And this furnifhes us with the ftruéture of a lamp, or
lantern, to project an intenfe light to an immenfe eae 3:

. Iorr

LENS

for a lens, convex on both fides, being placed oppofite to a
concave mirror, if in the common focus of both be placed
a lighted candle, or wick, the rays reflected back from the
mirror to the lens will be parallel to each other; and after
refraction will converge, till they concur at the diltance of
the femi-diameter, after which they will again diverge.
But the candle being likewife in the focus of the lens, the
rays it throws on the lens will be parallel: apd therefore a
very intenfe light meeting with another eaually intenfe, at
the diltance of the diameter from the lens, the light will
be furprifing; and though it afterwards decreafe, yet the
parallel and diverging rays going along way together, it
will be very great at a very great diftance. Lanterns of
this kind are of confiderable fervice in the night-time to
difcover remote objects, and are ufed with fuccefs, by
fowlers and fifhermen, to gather their prey together, in
order to take them. >

If it be required to have the light, at the fame time,
tranfmitted to feveral places, as through feveral ftreets, &c.
the number of lenfes and mirrors is to be increafed.

If the luminous body placed in the focus be of a larger
-extent, the rays, flowing from points fenfibly diftant from
each other, cannot be parallel; but they will conftitute
feveral trains, or parcels of rays, parallel to each other.

5. The images of objects, oppofed in any manner to a
.eonvex lens, are exhibited, invertedly, in its focus. °

Hence, if a paper be applied toa convex lens (efpecially
in a dark room) at the diftance of its focus, the images of
‘objects fhining upon it will be reprefented diitinGily, and in
their natural colours, upon it: nor is the focus of the fun’s
‘rays any thing elfe, in effect, but the image of the fun.

‘Hence in folar eclipfes, the fun’s image, eclipfed as it is,
may be burnt by a large lens on a board, &c., and exhibit
a very entertaining phenomenon.

Hence, alfo, if a convex lens, of any kind, be expofed
both to nearer and remoter objeds, and a paper at the
fame time be applied, fo as to receive the images of objects
“diflin@ly, the diftance of the focus from the lens, and
thence the diameter of the convexity, may be determined.
See the above.

6. If a concave mirror be fo placed, as that an inverted
image, formed by refraGtion through a lens, be found be-
tween the centre of the focus, or even beyond the centre,
it will again be inverted by reflef&tion, and fo appear erect
in the firft cafe beyond the centre ; and in the latter, between
the centre and the focus, Gn thefe principles is conitructed
the camera obfcura, which fee.

7. The diameter of the image of an object delineated
beyond a convex lens, is to the object itfelf in the ratio of
the diftance of the image to that of the object.

Since then the image of a remoter object is Jefs diftant
from the lens than that of the nearer, the image of the more
remote will be lefs than that of the 1:arer.. And becaufe
the diftance of the image from the lens is greater, if the
Jens be a fegment of a greater {phere than of alefs; hence
the image will be greater in the former cafe than in the
latter. The image therefore will be of fuch a magnitude,
as it would be of, were the object to fhine into a dark room
through a little hole upon a wall, at the fame diflance from
the hole at which the focus is from the lens. When an
obje& is lefs diftant from a lens than the focus of parallel
says, the diftance of the image is greater than that of the
objeé; otherwife the diftance of the image is lefs than that
of the cbje&; in the former cafe, therefore, the image is
greater than the object; in the latter lets.

If the images be made greater than the objects, they will
not appear diltinctly ; becaufe im that cafe there are fewer

rays which meet after refraGtion in the fame point ; whence
it happens, that rays proceeding from different points of -
an object terminate in the fame point of an image, which is
the caufe of confufion. Hence it appears, that the fame
aperture of a lens may be admitted in every cafe, if we
would keep off the rays which produce confufion. However,
though the image is then more diitinét when no rays are
admitted but thofe near the axis, yet for want of rays the
image is apt to be dim.

8. If the eye be placed in the focus of a convex lens,
an object viewed through it appears ereét, and enlarged in
the ratio cf the diftance of the obje& from the eye, to that
of the eye from the lens, if it be near; but infinitely, if re-
mote.

The theory of ‘real images may be thus illuftrated by an
experiment. Upon a long table, draw the line BD (Plate
VIII. Optics, fig. 1.) and over fome point there as A, place
the convex lens O, whofe principal focufes are F, f, fo that
the axis F fof the lens be parallel to BD. In the line
BD, take A F, Af, each equal to OF or Of in the
axis Q g- On one fide of A divide the line A B into the
parts 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. each equal to A F; and onthe other
fide take f 1 equal to A for A F, and divide it into f+, f3,
Ff}, &e. fothat thefe parts be refpectively equal to 4, 4, 4,
&c. of fr or Af. Thenif the room be darkened, and a
lishted candle be placed over any one ot the divifions in the
line AB, as at 2; the image of the candle will be feen dif-
tinét but inverted, upon a paper held over the corre{ponding
fraction on the other fide, as at 3. If the candle be placed
at the point 3 or 4, &c. the paper for receiving the image
muft be held over ¢ or +, &c. So that if the candle be
moved from 2 to an infinite diftance, the whole motion of
the image will be from £ to f. If the candle be placed at
1, the image will be at 1, at the fame diftance from the lens
on the other fide. If the candle be brought nearer to F,
the motions of the image and candle will now be reciprocal,
to what they were before. But if the candle be placed any
where between F and the lens, there will be no image
formed.

Since an objeé placed at any diftance, and its image, fub-
tend equal angles at the focal centres s, v, of any lens; the
angle under which any remote objeét appears being given,
it will be eafy to find the diameter of its image: let g
(fig. 2.) be the principal fecus of the convex lens O, and
let the angle Ps R (= pur) be that vnder which the fun
(or any other very remote objeét) appears to the naked eye :
bifeG the angle pvr with the line wg; then in the right-
angled triangle v¢ p or vgr, we fhall have the fide v g and
all the angles ; whence it will be eafy to find gf or gr, the
femi-diameter of the image. See Imace and Rerrac-
TION.

Lenses, for concave, their laws are as fcllow.—r. If pa-
rallel rays itrike on a plano-convex lens K L, and F C be
to F B in the ratio of refraction, the rays will diverge from
the axis; and the point of divergency, or difperfion, called
the virtual focus, willbe F. See Plate VII. Optics, fig. 3.
See Focus. P

For the ray HI, parallel to the axis, is perpendicular to
K L, and will therefore pafs unrefra@ted to E. Wherefore
FC being to B in the ratio of refraction, F will be the
virtual focus. f

If then the lens be glafs, FB = 2 BC; i. ¢. the virtual
focus F will be diftant from the lens K L by the fpace of
the diameter 2 BC.

If the refration be in water, F B = 3 BC; i. e. the vir-
tual focus F will be diftant from the lens K L a diameter
and a half 3 BC.

2. If

Ink

2, If the ray A E, parallel to the axis F P, ftrike on a
lens concave on’ both fides; and both FC be to I’ B, and
LP to P Hin the ratio of refragtion; and FP: PH::
FB: BG; G will be the point of difperfion, or the virtual
focus. See Plate VII. Optics, fig. 4

If, therefore, the ratio of the refraction be = n: m, CB

=a,adlH=2; FB= 7 and PI= aie

n—m a—m
confequently, difregarding the thicknefs of the lens, F P

.
?

See 1 Pe odPHS PITH ae
n—m ma—m
pei : therefore, Baik Fac; my ene >: BG;z.e.
a—m a—m 2—m n—m
at+4 ——— 14: BG, orn—m x a + bimbi:a: BG;

hen—mxCB+LH:mIlH::CB: BG.

If, therefore, the refraétion be in a glafy lens, fo that
m-4 2, n= 3, anda+4:2b::a: BG; the {um of the
femidiameters C B and HI will be to the diameter of the
concavity of either, 2 HI, as the femidiameter of the other
CB, to the diftance of the virtual focus from the lens,
BG. 2
But if the femidiameters H I ima C Bare equal, or a = 3,

2
BG = a = a; or BG, the diftance of the virtual focus

from the lens, is equal to the femidiameter C B or HI. If
the refraction be made in water, m = 3 and n = 4, and,
therefore, a+b: 35::a: BG; i.e. the fum of the
femidiameters C B and HI will be to a diameter and a half
of either concavity, 3 I, as the femidiameter of the other
C Bto BG, the diltance of the virtual focus from the lens :

Peewee nat = CR, Bo 232 2 3,

2a yA

= 4 CB, i.e. the diftance of the virtual focus from the

lens BG, is to the femidiameter BC in a fefquilateral
ratio.

Hence, the fun’s rays ftriking on a concave lens, their
light, after refraction, will be confiderably weakened ; fo
that the effeét of concave lenfes is oppolite to that of the
convex ones.

To find the focal length of a concave lens experimentally.
Let the lens be covered with paper, having in it two {mall
circular holes, as at O, v (Plate VII. Optics, fig. 5.) 3 and
on the paper for receiving the light, defcribe two {mall circles
as a, b, whofe centres are placed at twice the diftance apart of
the centres of O, v, and it will be beft if their diameters are
alfo double thofe of O,v. Thus, moving the paper to or
fro, till the middle of the fun’s light coming through the holes
O, wv, falls exactly on the middle of the circles a,b; that
diftance of the paper from the lens will be the focal length
required. ‘For it is evident, thatad) : Ov ::.aF: OF;
or, whatever is the diftance of a, J, it will be, ad — Ov:
aO:: Ov: OF, the focal length of the lens. Inftead of
oF paper with the holes, {mall patches may be ftuck on the
ens.

The focus may be alfo found by candle-light, thus: let Q
be the place of the flame; ¢, d, the bright fpots upon the
paper, and @the point where the lines vd, Oc, produced,
backwards, would interfe&t. ‘To find the point g, .it will
becd—Ov: Ov:: Oc: Og ThenQg: QO:
QO: Qa, and Oa is the focal length required.

N S.

The focal length of a concave lens may be readily found
by joining it to a convex one, having a fhorter focus. Let
q (fig. 6.) be the image of any object formed by the convex
lens A, fixed at A ; and let Q be the image of the fame
object, when the convave lens O is joined to A. Having
meafured the diltances Q g, g O, for finding the focal length
of the concave lens, it will be (as before) Q7g: QO:
QO: QF; thn QF'—QO= OF.

3. An objeét viewed through a concave lens appéars erect,

and diminifhed in a ratio compounded of the ratios of

the {pace in the axis between the point of incidence, and
the point to which an oblique ray would pafs without re-
fractio%; to the fpace of the axis between the eye, and
middle of the objeét ; and the {pace in the fame axis between
the eye and the point of incidence, to the fpace between
the middle of the object, and the point the oblique ray
would pafs to without refraétion.

Though the properties of lenfes have been here confidered
principally with regard to rays falling near the axis, and
parallel to it; yet the reafoning will be ealily transferred to
rays remoter from the axis, and falling in any dire&tion.—
Thus we may fay univerfally, that in a convex lens, all pa-
rallel rays become converging, and concur in a focus: that
diverging rays either become lefs diverging, or run parallel,
or converge; and that converging rays converge the more ¢
a'l which alterations are more fenfible in oblique rays than
in perpendicular ones, becaufe the angles of incidence in
that cafe are greater. !

In concave lenfes all parallel rays become diverging, and
all diverging rays diverge more; converging rays either
converge lefs, or become parallel, or go out diverging ; all
which things hold of oblique as well as direct rays, but
more fenfibly in the firtt.

For the further illuftration of this part of the fubje& of
the article before us, we-fhall here fubjoin two or three
propofitions; firft premifing, that all pencils of rays
(fee Prnci1), refraéted by a lens, excepting that whofe
axis is perpendicular to both the furfaces, are faid to be
oblique, and are called * eblique pencils.””

rit « In every oblique pencil of rays, refraéted by any lens,
there is one ray whofe incident and emergent parts are pa-
rallel ; ana this ray is the axis of that pencil, or that ray of
it which undergoes the leait refraction.’ In Plate VII.
Optics, fig. 7 to 12, let R, r, be the centres of the {pherical
fides A, a; and in figs. 7, 8, let r be the centre of the
{pherical fide a. In the flatteft fide of any lens whatfoever
affume any point B, at which let a ray of light be refracted,
either at its entrance into the lens, or at its emerfion out of
it; draw RB perpendicular to that fide, and parall:l to
it draw alfo rd perpendicular to the other fide a3; join
B4, then vill BS be a ray, whofe parts P B, p 4, without
the lens, will be parallel. For the ray B 4, dzawn between
the two parallels RB, r 2, is equally inclined to them both,
and confequently P B, 4 are alfo equally inclined to RB,
rb, (by the law of refraétion, ) and therefore parallel to one
another. After the fame manner, wherever the point B is
afflumed, we can finda ray B4é, that fhall be equally in-
clined to both the furfacés ; and therefore in every oblique
pencil of rays there is one ray whofe incident and emergent
rays are parallel. It is evident alfo, that every other ray pafl-
ing through B will be more refracted than the ray Bd; for
a plane touching the lens in any other point belides 4 will be
inclined to a plane touching it in B; and, therefore, a ray
pafling through B, and any other point befides 4, will be bent
out of its courfe, more or lefs, accordiny as thefe planes are
more or lefs inclined. Whence the propofition is evident.
Qq is the axis of an oblique pencil on the contrary one

°

LENS.

of the axis of the lens. Hence it appears, that the axis of
any oblique pencil whatfoever is equally inclined to each
fide of the lens, and the lefs oblique is the pencil, the
nearer the point B will be to the vertex A; and the lefs
will be the diftance between the parallel rays P B, 6).

2. Inevery oblique pencil of rays (figs. 7 to 12), the

art B& of the axis within the lens, produced, if need be,
will interfe& the axis of the lens in the very fame point O;
and the point O divides the axis of the lens in fuch a manner,
that AO :aO:: R:4r; that is, 1. The point O is in the
vertex of a plano-convex and plano-concave lens (figs. 7 and
8.) 2. In the double convex and double concave (figs. 9
and 10), the point O divides that part of the axis, which is
within the lens, in the ratio of the radii of the fides, the
fhorteft part being next that fide which has the greateit
curvity. 3. The line B4 mutt be produced without a’con-
cavo-convex lens (figs. 11 and 12), before it wiil interfe&
the axis; and the point O in the axis, where the faid line
B 4 produced interfeéts it, lies next to that fide which has
the greateft curvity ; and its diftance from the fides is as the
radii of thefe fides refpectively.””

Let the radius of the flatteft fide A be called R, and
the radius ef the other fide, r; and becaufe the axis B 3 of
any oblique pencil is equally inclined to both the fides of
the lens {as we have above fhewn), it neceflarily follows :
Gafe t. In a plano-convex and plano-concave lens ( jigs. 7
and §), the axis Bd of any oblique pencil paffes through
the vertex a, and therefore the point O is alfo in a. Forno
perpendicular to the fpherical fide can be parallel to a per-
pendicular to the plane fide, but that only which paffes
through the vertex a. Again, becaufe R in this cafe is
infinite, and O coincides with a; it willbe R:r:: AO:
20. Cafes 2and 3. Becaufe the radi RB, ré are parallel
(by hyp. ), the triangles R B O, ro are fimilar ; and, there-
fore, RB:ré:: RO:rO. Alfo RB +74: RB or
x6::RO+70:ROorr0O. But the three firft terms
being invariable quantities, the qth is fo likewife ; that is,
in the fame lens the point O is invariable. And from the
pofition of the parallel radii RB, 74, it is plain that the
point O muft be within the double convex and double con-
cave lens, and without the concavo-convex. Avgain,. be-
eaufe RO: RA (RB) ::rO: ra (ré) 3 we fhall have
AO(ROw RA): RA::40 (YO ra): ra; that
iss AO :aQ0O:: R:+r3 whence another part of the pro-
pofition is manifeft. ,

Hence it follows; that the point’O is in the middle of a
double convex and double concave, whofe fides are fegments
of the fame fphere: and in every lens whatfoever, the
greater proportion the greater radius bears to the leffer,
the nearer will the point O be to the vertex a@ of that fide
which has the greateft curvity.

3. “If the axis BS ( fig. 7 to. 12.) of a pencil of rays
is not very oblique to the axis of the lens; the points, s, 2,
where the parts without the lens, P B, p45, produced, of
the axis of the oblique pencil, and the axis of the lens, di-
vide that axis in fuch a manner, that AO: As::m:in::
2O : av nearly.”? The angles, RBs, R BO, or their
fupplements, are the angles of incidence and refraétion at the
firft fide A; and therefore their fines are as m to n. In

fegs. 7 and 8, the angle RBs = AsB; and RBO =
AOB. And in figs. g and to, the difference between the
angles, R Bs, R BO, or their fupplements, and the re-
{pective angles As B, A OB, is equal to the angle A RB,
as will appear by drawing @B parallel to the axis R A.
And therefore the fines of thefe refpeGive angles are pretty
mearly in the fame ratio; that is, fine < As B : fine <
AOB::m:znearly. But the fines of the angles, A s B,

A OB, areas the fides BO, Bs; and when the point B
is not very remote from A, BO and Bs will be as A O
and As nearly; and therefore when the point B is the
neareft of all to A, it will be AO: Asi: m:n. In
Jigs. 7 and 8, the points u, v, and O, coincide; and in
fgs. Q and 10, it might be proved as above, that when the
point é is very near to a, it will be, a0: av :: m:n.
Hene¢e the further the point B is from A, and d from a, the
greater willbe Os and Ow. Let s and v be points belonging
to pencils that have the leaft obliquity to the axis of the

lens; then will As = gE, AO;andav= 20. Let
m m
the thicknefs, A a, of any lens be called.t; then in a plano-

And in a

n
convex and plano-concave lens, As —t
: m

double conyex and double concave, whofe fides are fegments

n . .
of the fame {phere. As = av = —#. Hence again, in
2m

4 2
a plano-convex and plano-concave glafs, As = —#; and-
3

in a double convex glafs of equal convexities, and in a-
double concave glafs of equal concavities, As = avi=

ag It appears, moreover, that the focal length of any

lens is to be reckoned from the point v, if the flatteft fide is
expofed to parallel rays; and from the point s, if the
parallel rays are incident upon the moft convex or concave
fide ; the point v, in all cafes, being the moft remote from
the flatteft fide, A, of the lens. The points, s and v, may
occafionally be called the ‘‘ focal centres’? of the lens,
Hence it follows, that the focal length of a convex lens is,
properly, the diftance between the principal focus and the
next focal centre ; and the focal length of a concave lens is
to be reckoned from its principal focus to the farthelt focal
centre. As the axes of the feveral pencils that are not very
oblique, are refra&ted from the fame point s or v nearly ; fo
the refration of thefe axes caufes no fenfible confufion in the

. n
image. Moreover, becaufe As = — AO, and av
m

= 20, and becaufe R : r :: AO : aQ; it will be,

Blase ease eek Be Coreen at tee a therefore A O
a r er aOrr x
z re n
= Ree and aO = Rav? wherefore, As = =
Rz n* rt cathe
x iene and av = aoe Rae? and multiplying

one fide of each equation by m x R +71, it will be As ¢
avi: 2Ri: ort.

4. “ The foci of both dire&t and oblique pencils of pa-
rallel rays are nearly at the fame diftance from the focal
centre (s or v, as the cafe is) of any lens.” Let ArQ
(Plate VIII. Optics, jig. 1 to 6.) bethe axis of the lens,
r the centre of the firft furface 24, Q the principal focus of
that furface, and F the focus of the lens. Let p55 P be
the axis of any oblique pencil; and let the emergent part,
BP, produced backwards cut the axis of the lens ins. OF
all the rays parallel to the axis 5B P, there fhall be one
as Dd which will fall perpendicular upon the firft furface
ad; and therefore if the medium was continued, this ray
(produced backwards from a concave lens, but continued

through

LENS.

through a convex lens) would pafs through the centre r,
and the’ geometrical focus of rays parallel to it would be
atq, fo that rg =r This is plain, becaufe drq is
perpendicular to the furface a, as wellasarQ. Again, of
all the rays parallel to the axis p 4, there fhall be one as Ee
(if the lens is broad enough) which fhall be refracted into
eG, perpendicular to the fecond furface A B; and there-
fore the focus of this ray fhall be in sP produced, and in
eG produced ; that is, in the point of interfeGtion f. Ne-
gleGting the aberration of the firft furface a4, eG would
unite with the axis dg in g. Hence we are to fhew that
sf = sF nearly.

Cafe 1. When one fide of the lens is plain. (Figs. 1, 2.)
Becaufe sr, fg, ands f, rq are parallel; sf=rg=rQ
=sF

=sfr.

Cafe z. When both fides of the lens are f{pherical.
(Fig. 3—6.) Let R be the centre of the fecond furface
AB, and becaufe eG is perpendicular to this furface, it
will pafs through the centre R. And becaufe rg is pa-
rallel tos f, it will be Rr: Rs i: rg:isf. The two
firft terms, Rr, Rs, being invariable quantities, and rg
being allowed to remain invariable, s f will alfo be inva-
riable ; that is, s F will defcribe the fector s F f, ands f =
s¥. But becaufe of the aberration by the firft furface de,
no ray, as Ee, parallel to and remote from the axis Dr g,
can be refraGted to the focus g; but it willcut the axis rg
in fome point y between g and r (fig. 1 to 6.); and there-
fore a ray parallel to p, that fhall be refraéted perpendi-
cularly to the fecond furface A B, muft be fome ray 4 é be-
tween Ee and the axis #4, if the centres, R, r, are on dif-
ferent fides (figr. 3 and 4.); otherwife 44 will be farther
from the axis than Ee (figs. 5 and 6.); and confequently
this ray will cut the axis sf in fome point x, between f
ands. But it has been already fhewn, that if the lens had
no aberration, f would be the focus of all the rays parallel
to the axis 4 Bf; and as the aberrations at the different
furfaces are contrary, it is fufficiently evident that the focus
of thofe rays which are neareft to the axis pb Bf, will not
be remote from f.

In every lens whatfoever, the true focus g of an oblique fgs. 7, 8, when Q

pencil of parallal rays will be between f and 5; that is, sg
will be lefs thans f ors F. Becaufe if there was no aber-
ration at either furface of the lens, sg would be equal to
sF or sf; and therefore it muft follow, that if the aber-
rations at each furface were equal, they would deftroy each
other. (Figs. 3, 4.) Let rays of light be within the lens,
on each fide of the axis 4 B, and let their inclination to that
axis be fuch, as that they would emerge at the fide 4, pa-
rallel to 4p. It is plain, that a ray parallel to the oblique
axis p4 B P, and between the faid axis and the perpendi-
cular dr, will be more oblique to the emergent fide A than
to the incident fide a; and therefore, in this cafe, the aber-
ration at the fide A is the greateft, and this excefs of the
aberration contracts the focus nearer to s than f, as to g.
In like manner, if the parallel ray be on the other fide of
the oblique axis, the greate{t aberration will be on the inci-
dent fide a; and in the prefent cafe likewife, this excefs of
aberration contracts the focys nearer to the lens, as to g;
and it is plain, that the more oblique is the pencil, the
greater will be fg: whence the propofition is manifeft.

5. ‘© The focus of incident rays, either diverging or con-
verging upon any lens, being given: to find the focus of
the emergent rays.”” Let F f (Plate VIII. Optics, fig. 7
to 12.) be the axis of any lens B4, whofe focal centres are
s, v3; and principal foci are F, f. Let any point Q in the
axis of the lens be the focus of incident rays, either diverging
as QB, or converging as MB; and let f be the geo-

Vor. XX.

metrical focus of thofe rays parallel to the axis of the lens,
whofe incidence is on the fame fide with the ray QB, or
MB. To find the focus of the emergent rays, fay OF :
Fs :: of (Fs) : fq; and placing g the fame way from f
that F is from Q, the point g thus found will be the focus
required. Let the point of incidence B be not remote from
the vertex of the lens; from the centre v defcribe the arc
fd, and draw vd parallel to the incident ray Q B, or MB;
then will d be the point where the emergent ray interfects
the axis vd; and therefore the point g, where the emergent
ray 6d (or Nd) produced, interfeéts the axis of the lens, is
the focus required. Again, draw s D parallel to gB; then
will the triangles, QDs, vdg, be equiangular, and there-
foreQD : Ds :: vd: dg. But D isa point where the

incident ray g4, or N4, after refraétion by the lens, will

interfe&t the axis sD, fo that sD = 5 F nearly ; and when

the triangles, QDs, vdq, are vanifhing, the point D will

coincide with F, and d with f; wherefore QF : Fs ::

uf: fq. Hence it follows, 1. Becaufe Fs=v/f, Fs or

vf is a mean proportional between QF and fg; that is,

OBiecFaust, Biss fig: ta2soQ Busi Bias: (wf sf gi) Qs

(QF vrs) 2Uq (vf + f9)- FOr Or =: (rs:

vg::) Qs (QF BG) PO's Fog. Obf, When the

lens is not very thick in proportion to its focal length, the
focal diftances, SF, vf, may, without fenfible error, be
reckoned from the point O, which bife&is vs; and then
the preceding proportions will be convertible into the fol-
lowing: viz, QF : FO :: FO (=O) : fg; and
QF: FO::Q0O: Og; adQF:QO:: QO: Qg.
4. If g be the focus of incident rays, Q will be the focus of
the emergent rays. 5. The focufes, Q, g, move both the fame
way, and always lie contrary to F and f. And the dif-
tances, FQ, fg, vary reciprocally; that is, as one in-
creafes, the other decreafes, but with a different velocity,
according as they are differently fituated. When Q coin-
cides with F, g will be at an infinite diftance; that is, the
refraéted rays will emerge parallel to the axis. And in
QO1=20F, © ¢ will be. = OO:
whence the difference of the focal diftances of the refraéted
rays, when QO = 2 OF, and when O Q is infinite, is only
equal to Of. 6. When the focus Q of rays diverging
upon a convex lens (fig. 9.) lies between F and the lens,
the refrated rays (JN inftead of croffing the axis) will
diverge frem the focus g. And if incident rays upon a
concave lens converge towards the point that is nearer to it
than F (as in fg. 10.), the lens in this cafe will have a real
focus; that is, the refraéted rays will crofs the axis in g.
And univerfally, 7. When the focufes, Q, g, lie both on
the fame fide of the lens; if the incident rays pam from
Q (fg. 9—12.-), the emergent rays will diverge from g.
And if the incident rays emerge towards Q (jig. 10, 11.),
the emergent rays will converge towards g. And in ail
thefe cafes, the nearer Q is to O, the nearer alfo will g be
to O; andif one of thefe focufes be in O, the other alfo
will coincide with it. And the contrary happens, when QO
and g are on different fides of the lens; that is, rays di-
verging from Q (fig. 7.) will converge towards g; and
rays converging towards Q (jig. 8.) will diverge from g.
We have hitherto taken notice of the progrefs of a fingle
pencil of rays, or fuch as come from a {ingle point, through
a lens; but it is eafy to apply the fame kind of reafon-
ing to the various points of an object. Let DE ( Plate
VILLI. Optics fig.j13.) be an objeét, A Ba double convex lens,
whofe centre is C; and let us examine the pencils of rays
which come from three points only of the object, fince the
3X fituation

LEN

fituation of the intermediate pencils‘is evidently comprehended
between thofe three. Of all the rays which proceed from
each of thefe points, that which paffes through the centre
C of the lens mutt proceed, if the lens is not remarkably
thick, in a ftraight line, fo that DCI, FCH, and
ECG, are ftraight lines ; fecondly, the focus of the rays
DBA, after ie erp mutt be fomewhere in the axis or
itraight line D C1; alfothat of the middle pencil, FB A,
. muft be fomewhere in FC H, and the focus of the third
pencil muft be in ECG. Thirdly, the refra@téd focus of
each pencil muft be on the contrary fide of the axis of the
lens, to what its incident or radiant focus is ; for inftance,
the refraéted focus I is below the axis of the lens, whilft its
incident or radiant focus D is above it ; and the refracted
focus G is above the axis, whilft its radiant point E is below
it: the confequence of which is, that if the objeét D E be
fufficiently luminous, and a piece of white paper, or other
flat and opaque body, be fituated at GI, an image of the
obje& D E will be formed upon it, but in an’ inverted po-
fition. If the opaque body be removed, then no image
will be feen by a fpectator fituated on one fide; for the
rays of light, though they meet at their refpeétive foci in
IHG, yet they proceed divergingly beyond that place
through the air or other tranfparent body, and none come
to the lateral fpeCtator. If the paper be fituated nearer or
farther from the lens than the place GI, then an imperfeé&
image, or no image at all, will be formed upon it, becaufe
the rays of the refpeCtive pencils do not meet at any other
- place.

From what has been faid above with refpe& to the con-
jugate foci of the fame pencil, it will be clearly deduced,
that if the objeét D E be brought nearer to the lens, the
refraGted foci, or the image G HI, will be formed farther
from the lens, and vice verfa. And from this it follows,
that (fince the angles DC E, GCI, formed at the centre
of the lens by the axes of the two extreme pencils, are
equal) when the diftance of the objeét from the lens is equal
to that of the image from the lens, then the fize of the
image is equal to that of the objet; when the former
diftance is lefs than that of the latter, then the image is
larger than the obje& ; and when the former diftance is
longer than the latter, then the image is fmaller than the
object,

With refpe& to the brightnefs of that image it muft be
confidered, that of the innumerable rays which are inceffantly
emitted in every direétion from each point, for inftance D,
of the object, aconfiderable number, viz. D A B, falls upon
the lens, and are converged to a fingle point I; therefore
that point muft be more or lefs bright in proportion as the
furface of the lens is larger or fmaller. Hence alfo a very
remarkable property of thofe lenfes is eafily comprehended,
which is, that when an image G H [ is thus formed, if you
cover part of the lens, be it the middlemoft or fome lateral
part of it, the image I G will not thereby be rendered partly
invifible,—the whole image will be feen as well as before,
but it will appear lefs bright than before ; for if we confider
each indefinite part of the lens, we may eafily perceive that
rays of light from every point of the object muft pafs
through that part, and muft meet at the refpedtive foci in
GHI.

The above explanation of the progrefs of various pencils
through a convex lens, may, mutatis mutandis, without
much difficulty be adapted to explain the a€tion of concave
lenfes. .Newton’s Optics. .Smith’s Optics. Harris’s
Optics. Cavallo’s Philofophy, vol. iii.

Lens, or Lenticula, was the name of a kind of weight

32

LEN
among the Romans ; being the hundred and eighth part of
a drachm ; equal to a grain and a half.

Lens, in Anatomy, atranf{parent body, nearly fpherical in
figure, placed ina depreffion in front of the vitreous humour
of the eye. It is generally mentioned with the epithet cryf-
talline. See Eye.

Lens, in Botany, the Lentil, Zrvum Lens of Linnzus,
but in reality a f{pecies of Cicer ; fee Sm. Fl. Brit. 776,
and our article Ervum. The Latin word /ens is faid to
have originated from /enis, mild, becaufe thofe who fed on
this fort of pulfe were fuppofed to become mild and gentle
in difpofition.

Lens, Paluflris. See Ducx’s Meat.

Lens, in Geography, a town of France, in the department
of Jemmape, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of
Mons. The place contains 1229, and the canton 13,714
inhabitants,‘on a territory of 2374 kiliometres, in 19 com-
munes.—Alfo, a town of France, in the department of the
ftraits of Calais, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri&
of Bethune ; feven miles N.W. of Douay. The place con-
tains 2325, and the canton 13,246 inhabitants, ona territory
of 152% kiliometres, in 21 communes.

LENSWYCK, a town of Norway ; 20 miles W.N.W.
of Drontheim.

LENT, QuapraceEsima, a time of mortification, during
the {pace of forty days, wherein Chriftians are enjoined to
fait, in commemoration of our Saviour’s miraculous faftin
fo long in the defert, and by way of preparation for the fealt
of Eatter.

In the ancient Latin church, Lent only confifted of
thirty-fix days. In the ninth century, to come fomewhat
nearer to the miracle, feveral took upon them to add four
days more ; which in time became a general practice: though
the church of Milan is faid ftill to take up with the ancient
thirty-fix.

According to St. Jerom, St. Leo, St. Auguftine, and
others, Lent muft have been inftituted by the apoftles.
Their way of reafoning isthus: whatever is generally re-
ceived throughout the whole church, and whofe inftitution
we do not find in any council, muft be efteemed to have been
eftablifhed by the apoftles. Now fuch, they fay, is the
faftof Lent. Its inftitution is not fpoken of in any coun-
cil; but many of the ancient councils, particularly that of
Nice, that of Laodicea, &c. and fome of the oldeft fathers,
particularly Tertullian, {peak of it as a thing of fome
itanding.

The reformed, generally, hold Lent to be a fuperfti-
tious inftitution, fet on foot by fome vain enthufiafts, who
durft undertake to ape the miracles of Jefus Chrift ; as, in
effet, it appears to have been froma paflage of Irenzus
quoted by Eufebius.

Some will have it to have been firft inftituted by pope
Telefphorus, in the fecond century : others, who own that
there was a kind of abftinence obferved in the ancient church
before Eafter, yet contend that it was entirely yoluntary,
and was never enjoined by any law till the third century.
See Fast:

This religious feafon is faid to have been firft obferved in
England by our Saxon anceftors in the year 640.
fon’s Hilt. of Commerce, vol. i. p. 25. :

Political Lents have been often enjoined by ftatute and
royal proclamation. See ABSTINENCE.

King James I. iffued a proclamation again{t eating flefh in
Lent in 1619, and another in 1625. A fimilar proclama-
tion was alfo iffued by Charles I. in 1627, and another in
1631.

There was fome difference between the practice of the

Greek

Ander-_

OO

LEN

Greek and Latin churches, as to the bufinefs of Lent; the
Greeks beginning it a week fooner, but at the fame time
allowing more days of intermiffion than the Latins: thofe
who held it feven weeks did not fatt on Saturdays, as thofe
who obferved but fix did.

The ancient Latin monks had three Lents: the grand
‘Lent before Eafter, another before Chriftmas, called the
Lent of St. Martin; anda third after Whitfunday, called
the Lent of St. John Baptift ; each of which confifted of
forty days.

The Greeks, befides that before Eafter, obferved four
others ; that of the Apoftles, of the Affumption, of Chrift-
mas, and of the Transfiguration; but they reduced each of
them to the {pace of feven days. The Jacobites added a
fifth, which they called the Repentance of Nineveh ; and the
Maronites a fixth, called the Exaltation of the Holy Crofs.
By the ninth canon of the eighth council of. Toledo, it
is ordained, ‘* Thatif any perfon, without evident neceflity,
eat flefh in Lent, they fhall be deprived the ufe of it all the
reft of the year.”’ ‘

By the fifth chapter of the fourteenth feffion of the
council of Trent, confeffion is enjoined as peculiarly fit
and acceptable at this feafon. Hard. Conc. tom. x.

i The forty days in Lent, fay fome, are obferved in remem-
brance of the forty days wherein the world was drowned ;
or, as others fay, of the forty years wherein the Jews
wandered in the defart ; others of the forty days allowed
Nineveh for repentance; others of the forty ftripes by
which malefaftors were to be corrected ; or, the forty days
during which Mofes fafted at the receiving of the law;
or the forty days faft of Elias; or finally, the forty days
faft of our Saviour.

LENTAGO, in Bofany, a name adopted by Czfalpinus,
(de Plantis, 76,) for the Lauruftinus, Viburnum Tinus of
Linnzus, and faid to be of Tufcan origin. Linnzus has
applied it to'an American {pecies of Viburnum.

LENTELLA, in Geography, a town of Naples, in
Abruzzo Citra; 18 miles N.E. of Civita Borella.

LENTEMENT, fF; rs in Mufic. This word is equivalent
to Jargo in Ital., and implies a low movement. Its fuperlative,
treflentement, very flow, is the floweft of all movements.

LENTEN, in Geography, a town of Norway; 20 miles
N. of Berga.

LENTES Lapipea, foffile lentils, in Natural Hifory, the
name given by many writers to a very remarkable foffile fub-
ftance, ufually found immerfed in hard ftones, and of a
roundifh but flattened fhape, refembling not unaptly a pea or
lentil flattened by preflure. They generally lie in great quan-
tities in the fame mafs of ftone; and are of very different
appearance when their fides or ends are feen, from that
which they exhibit when their flat furfaces come in view.

They are generally fuppofed to be lentils petrified and
bedded in ftone, and as their fides come in view in fome

arts of the mafles, they are not perceived to be a part
of the fame fubftance, but are called the remains of feeds
of other plants, and the whole ftone is ufually named /apis
Srumeniarius.

Weare not to fuppofe, that fo foft a body as the lentil
feed, or a common pea, could be eafily petrified and pre-
ferved in its own form in ftone; fince if thefe foft fub-
ftances were readily capable of fuch a change, they are fo
very common in their recent ftate, that they muait be expected
to be found in this foffile condition very frequently alfo, and
in great variety. This, however, isnot the cafe. But this
improbability is not all the reafon we have to conjecture,
that thefe are not what they are vulgarly fuppofed to be,

LEN

that is, foffile feeds; for a ftri&er examination of the things
themfelves proves this to be, impoflible. Seeds, and other
fuch things, are of fome determinate growth ; the fize of which
we know, and are well acquainted.with their internal ftruc-
ture, which is only a farinaccous matter contained in a thick
fuperficial fin or covering.

On the contrary, thefe foffils, when examined, prove to be
of various fizes, from the minuteft fpeck vifible to the eye,
to near an inch in diameter, a fize that no lentil could be fup-
pofed to arriveat. ‘They are of two kinds; the one convex on
both fides, the other convex on one fide only, and plane on
the other. The firft are thickeft in the middle, and gradu-
ally leffen in thicknefs all round, till they terminate in a thin
edge; the others are juft like the halves of thefe when fplit hori-
zontally. ‘Chofe which are convex on both fides, have ufually
feveral crooked lines, rifing from the umbilicus on each fide,
and tending towards the circumference ; and the flat ones have
ufually on the flatted fide a number of concentric circles
furrounding the umbilicus, and one another to the edge.
When thefe are broken, they are found to confift of a num-
ber of cafes, or coats, one within another, all of the fame
fhape with the outer one ; and fome of them are ftriated, or
made up of tranfverfe fibres. _They are plainly of animal
origin, though they differ from all the parts of animals hitherto
known. Woodward’s Cat. of Foflils. vol. ii.

Dr. Woodward, in one place, fuppofes them to have been
the loofe bones which are found in the heads of fome fea-
fifhes, and are fuppofed to ferve for hearing ; but that they
belong to fome fifh at prefent unknown, or that has not been
yet examined in this particular: there is, however, another
much more probable opinion, which he mentions afterwards,
that they may have been opercula of fhell-fifhes, of the na-
ture of the umbilicus Veneris, of which the fifhes we know
afford us a great variety ; and the many others we are yet
unacquainted with, may furnifh numbers of other kinds very
different from all we do know.

Thefe bodies are found in a hard greyifh ftone, and fome
of the large ones, which are flattened on one fide, give great
reafon to judge that they are of this origin, as fome of the
large ones have on the flat fide a reddifh line, beginning at
the centre, and thence continuing in a {piral form for eleven
or twelve turns, till it reaches the edge of the ftone. This is
exaGtly the formation and lineation of the common umbili-
cus Veneris, only that it has fewer fpires. The ftone,
called by authors /apis numifmalis, is generally allowed to be
of the nature of thefe opercula, and this differs very little
from thefe large /entes lapidee, as they are called.

LENTHALL, Wittram, in Biography, an Englith
lawyer, and famous as a {peaker in the Long Parliament, was
born at Henley on Thames, in Oxfordfhire, in 1591, and
educated at Alban-hall, Oxford, from whence he removed
to Lincoln’s Inn, where,he was called to the bar. In 1639
he was eleéted into parliament for Woodftock, and in 1640
was chofen {peaker, in which capacity he was faid to have
made a confiderable fortune by joining the ruling party.
He was alfo mafter of the rolls, a commiffioner of the great
feal, and chancellor of the duchy of Lancafter. He was turned
out by Cromwell in 1653, but in the following year he became
fpeaker of the parliament called by the proteftor. At the
reftoration he was exempted from the aét of indemnity, but
obtained a pardon from the king. He died, it has been
afferted, exprefling great penitence for the part which
he had borne in the rebellion, in 1662. Several of his
fpeeches and letters have been printed,

LENTIBULARIA, in Botany, See Urricurarta.

LENTICULA, {fo called from the convex figure of its

3% 2 little

LEN

little round leaves, which refembles that of the Lens, or
Lentil feed. See Liana.

LenticuLa. See PETECHIA.

LENTICULAR Scatret, from /enticulaire, doubly
convex, in Surgery, denotes an inftrument ufually placed
among thofe which are confidered neceflary in the operation
of the trepan. Its particular ufe is to cut off the irregu-
larities which often prefent themfelves at the edge of the
perforation made with the trephine, and which might, if
unremoved, caufe irritation and injury of the dura mater.
The fhape of the inftrument can hardly be conceived with-
out ocular examination, or, at leaft, a reference to an en-
graving. (See the Plate of Trepanning Infiruments.) We
can only ftate, that one fide of its blade is convex, the other
concave, and-one of its edges fharp. On the end of the
blade is fixed a little thallow cup, with its concavity towards
the handle of the initrument: This fmall cup-like part
ferves the purpofes of receiving the little pieces of bone when
detached, keeping the end of the blade from hurting the
dura mater, and wken applied under the margin of the perfo-
ration in the cranium, enables the operator to guide the in-
ftrument all round with fteadinefs and fecurity. Di&. of
Practical Surgery.

LENTICULARE, GancLion, in Anatomy, a {mall
ganglion in the orbit, from which the nerves of the iris are
produced. See NERVE.

LeEnTIcULARE Os, is a {mall round bone of the carpus,
oftener defcribed under the term pififorme. See Exrre-
MITIES.

LENTICULARIA, in Botany. See Lemya.

LENTIGO. See Frecktes.

Lenmico is alfo ufed by Dr. Quincy for a brown, fcaly,
or fcurfy eruption upon the fkin; fuch, efpecially, as is com-
mon to women in the time of child-bearing.

LENTIL, Less, in Botany, a {pecies of Zrvum ; which
fee.

Lentils are the beft as well as cheapeft food for pigeons.

The feeds of lentils are frequently the common food of the
poor in fome of the iflands of the Archipelago, and other
warm countries, when they can meet with no better fare.
Another fort of lentil has of late years been cultivated in
England, under the name of French lentil. This is the
lens major of Cafpar Bauhine ; and being twice the fize of
the common lentil, is by fo much the better worth culti-
vating. This is called si//s in many parts of England. Mil-
ler’s Gard. Dict.

The ancients affirm, that lentils, eaten with their fkins on,
bind the body, and ftop a loofenefs ; and yet at the fame
time, that the liquor they are boiled in loofens the belly.
They are’but rarely ufed in phyfic, though the flour of them
may be ufed outwardly in cataplafms, for the fame purpofes
as bean-flour.

Lentit, in Agriculture, the name of a plant of the
yetch or tare kind, which is cultivated in fome places as fod-
der for cattle. Lentils grow a foot anda half in height,
with ftalks and leaves like thofe of tares, but fmaller ; and,
like them, they bear their feeds generally three or four in
little pods. Thefe feeds are round, hard, {mooth, and flat,
but thicker at the fides. There are two forts of lentils, the
white and the yellow; but the latter affords the greater
quantity of fodder. The feeds of this plant are commonly
fown in March, where the landis dry ; but in moift ground,
April is a better feafon. The ufual quantity of feed allowed
to an acre of land is from one bufhel and a half to two
buthels. If thefe are fown in drills in the fame manner as
peafe; they are faid by fome to fucceed better than when
they are fown broad-caft. The drills fheuld be a footand a

LEN

half afunder, to allow room for the hoe to clean the ground
between ; for if weeds are permitted to grow among them,
they are apt to get above the lentils, and prevent them from
being properly fupported.

This isa crop not uncommon about Chetterford, in Effex,
where they fow a bufhel an acre on one ploughing in the
beginning or middle of March. ‘It is there the cuftom,’’
Mr. Young fays, ‘to make hay of them, or feed them, for
cutting into chaff for trough-meat for fheep and horfes, and
they fow them on both heavy and dry foils.” It is added,
that the whole country is of a calcareous nature ; and like-
wife that attention fhould be paid not to water horfes foon
after eating this fort of food, as they are apt to hove them.
They are likewife afferted to be cultivated for the fame
purpofe in Oxfordfhire, and probably in other diftriéts.

LENTILIUS. See Linsensaurr.

LENTINI, in Geography, anciently Leontini or Leon-
tium, which was a {pacious, rich, and celebrated city of Si-
cily, and the rival of Syracufe, is now reduced to a popu-
lation of 4000 perfons, who occupy a very inconfiderable
portion of the ruins of ancient Leontium. It is fituated in
Noto, on a river of the fame name, about five miles from
the fea. The air of the adjacent country, which abounds in
marfhes, is fo infalubrious, that it prevents the increafe of in-
habitants, notwithitanding the fertility of the foil and the
variety of its produétions. Three miles from Lentini is a
large lake, eftimated at about 20 miles in compafs, called
“ Bivieri,’”? or the lake of Lentini, belonging to the prince
de Butera, which produces 1500/. a-year; for the leafe of
the fifhery, confifting of eels, tench, and cefalu, or a. fort
of barbel, that feeds in either frefh or falt water. The vi-
cinity alfo yields great plenty and variety of game ; 19 miles
N.N.W. of Syracufe. N. lat. 37° 18’. E. long. 15°.

LENTISCASA, a town of Naples, in Principato
Citra; nine miles S.W. of Policattro.

LENTISCUS, in Botany, the Mattic tree, fuppofed to
have derived its name from J/entus, and Jentefco, alludin
to the pliability and tenacity of its gum or refin. See Pis-
TACIA. =

LENTISK. See Pisracta and Mastic.

Lentisk, African and Peruvian, or Indian Mastic.
See Scuinus.

LENTO, Jta/., a mufical term for flow, or a movement
between largo and grave:

Lento, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Corfica ;
11 miles S. of Oletta.

LENTON, Joun, in Biography, a mufician in the band
of king William and queen Mary, whofe inftrument was the
common flute. He compofedand publifhed, in conjunétion
with Tollet, a work entitled «*A Conforte of Mufick, in
three parts,’’ probably two flutes and a bafe-viol or arch-
lute. Atthe beginning of the laft century, the flute a bec,
or common flute, was in much higher favour than the vio-
lin, or German flute, which was then hardly known in
this country. There are catches of Lenton’s compofition
printed in “The Pleafant Mufical Companion.”’

LENTOR, in Medicine, aterm employed by Boerhaave
and his followers, to denote a fuppofed glutinous or vifcid
condition of the fluids of the living body, to which they
afcribed the origin of many difeafes.

It is fcarcely neceffary to enter at any length into the de-
tail or refutation of an hypothefis, which was founded at the
beft upon a gratuitous and miftaken view of the operations of
the animal economy, and which a better pathology has long
ago exploded. Boerhaave, in his obfervations on difeafes
arifing from a /pontaneous gluten, (fee his Aphorifms, § 69,
et feq. and the commentary upon them in his “ Praxis Me-

Io dica,”’)

L, Bo

dica,”’) confiders the dire&t effe& of it to be an obftruétion
to the free circulation of the blood, efpecially through the
{mall ramifications of the veffels. ‘* Hence all the concoc-
tions, circulations, fecretions, excretions, all the vital, na-
tural, and animal motions are difordered ; whence arife fuf-
focation and death.” (Aph. § 73.) Under this head,
then, he readily includes not only inflammations, tumours,
and concretions, but almoft every fpecies of chronic difeafe,
efpecially where there is any change either in the qualities of
the fecretions, as the faliva, urine, &c. in the colour and
complexion, as in chlerofis, leucophlegmatia, jaundice, &e. :
or where any part, either external or internal, is altered in
its form ; as in all eruptive or cutaneous complaints, in fero-
fula, cancer, {chirrus, meliceris, or other {pecies of {well-
ing. But in all thefe inftances, the afferted prefence of a
gluten or lentor is gratuitous; there is no evidence of any
fuch change in the property of the circulating blood ; and
the morbid humour, where any fuch palpably exifts, is found
out of the courfe of the circulation, and is, in all probabi-
lity, the refult of a deranged aétion of the veflels in the part
where itis found. Thus, in an abfcefs, following a phleg-
monous inflammation, (asin acommon boil,) it is clear that
there is no fuch thing asa purulent lentor in the mafs of the
blood; the pus is generated in the inflamed part, by an ope-
ration of the veflels, analogous to the fecretion of bile or
faliva, and is a new produG, not a pre-exifting matter. The
argument, deduced from the appearance of the buffy cru/ on
blood, drawn during the exiftence of inflammatory fever, is
altogether fallacious ; as this duffis but the ordinary coagu-
lable lymph of the blood, fomewhat more feparated from the
red globules. See Broop, and Humorat, Pathology.

LENTZ, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the terri-
tory of Ermeland; eight miles N.E. of Elbing.

LENTZBURG, an estenfive bailiwick of Switzerland,
in the canton of Berne, which was formerly a rich and
powerful country. Its capital, of the fame name, is one of
the four municipal towns of the Aryan, having a confiderable
trade, and marufactures of flowered linens and cotton, to-
bacco, &c.; 16 miles W. of Zurich.

LENTZEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the mark of

Pregnitz, near the Elbe; 74 miles N.W. of Berlin. N.
Tat. 53° 9’. E. long. 11° 36'. ia Z
LENZA, a fmall ifland in the Adriatic. N. lat. 44° 5’.

E. long. 15° 31’.
- LEO, Liow, in Afronomy, the fifth of the twelve figns of
the zodiac.

The ftars in the conitellation Leo. in Ptolemy’s Catalogue
are 27, befides the informes, which are eight; in Tycho’s
30, in the Britannic Catalogue g5. See ConsTELLATION.

Lego I,, in Biography, emperor of the Ealt, fucceeded Mar-
cian, in the year 457, through the favour and interett of

the patrician Afpar, who, on account of his Arian princi-
ples, was excluded from the empire. Leo was a native of
Thrace, who had gradually rifen in the Roman armies to
the rank of military tribune, and was principal fteward of
Afpar’s houfhold. He received the imperial crown from
the hands of the patriarch of Coniftantinople, which is the
firft inftance of an ecclefialtic being employed in that cere-
monial. Under Genferic the Vandals planted themfelves in
Africa, and Afpar favoured their caufe. Leo became jea-
lous of the influence and power of Afpar, and in the end
eaufed him and his fon to be put to death without the form
of a trial, upon the mere charge of a confpiracy. The re-
maining parts of his family and friends attempted to revenge
this treachery, and the Goths, attached to them, committed
great diforders in Conftantinople, which were fuppreffed by
Zeno. The Arians, having loft their patron, were treated

LEN

with great rigour by Leo. From the Goths he was obliged
to purchafe a peace, which he did not long furvive. He
died in January 474, after a reign of nearly feventeen years.
His moderation and love of juftice have been praifed, and
feveral of his laws remain in the code of Juftinian.

Leo III,, furnamed the Lfaurian, from Lauria, the
place of his birth, was born of low and obfcure parents,
He entered the army, and became a guard to Juftinian II.
He attained the rank of general under Anaftafius II. who
took him in 717 as a coadjutor in the empire. The Saracens
having ravaged Thrace, laid fiege to Conttantinople, which
was bravely defended by Leo, who compelled them to re-
tire. His reign was marked with aéts of atrocious tyranny ;
he drove the patriarch Germanus from his place, and gave
it to Anaftafius. In the fifth year of his reign, he caufed
his fon Conftantine, furnamed Copronymus, to be fo-
lemnly crowned. In 726 he made his famous attack on
image worfhip, which has rendered his reign memorable in
ecclefiaitical hiftory. The deftruétion of objects long fo
much venerated, and efpecially of a ftatue of Jefus Chritt
placed over one of the gates of the city, ftruck the people
with fo much horror, that a ferious infurreGion was the
confequence. Leo had authority fufficient to enforce his
reform in the eaftern empire, but in the Weft it encountered
a more formidable oppofition. Pope Gregory II. declared
with great warmth again{t the imperial edi@, and the peo-
ple of Italy openly revolted. Leo fent a fleet to chattife
the revolters, which was wrecked in the Adriatic, a cir-
cumftance that was interpreted as a divine interpofition.
The emperor, irritated by his want of fuccefs, infli@ed great

. cruelties on the oppofite party ; the Saracens took advan-

tage of thefe diffenfions to make incurfions into the border-
ing provinces. A dreadful earthquake added to the cala-
mities of this reign. Leo died in 741, after a reign of
twenty-four years.

Leo IV., the fon of Conftantine Copronymus, fucceeded
his father in 775, atthe age of 25. The firfl objeé of his
reign was to fecure the fucceffion of his fon Conftantine,
whom he had by Irene, an Athenian lady of great accom-
plifhments. He caufed the youth to be folemnly crowned,
and declared a partner in the empire. Leo IV. inherited
his predeceflor’s enmity to images, and is on that account
reckoned, by the Catholics, one of the impious “ iconoclatts.”’
He obtained fome advantages over the Saracens, and ini-
tiated into the Chriftian religion a king of the Bulgarians,
who, in the preceding reign, had infliéted great evils on the
empire. He died in 780, and his death was imputed to an
eruption on his head, which was faid to have been excited by
a crown that he wore, and wkich was ftudded with jewels,
that he had facrilegioufly taken from the great church of
Conttantinople.

Leo V., the Armenian, fon of a patrician, commanded
an army againft the Saracens in the reign of Michael I.
His fuccefs, contrafted with the difgrace incurred by the em-
peror himfelf, caufed a revolt of the army, and Michael
himfelf quitted the throne, to which Leo fucceeded, with-
out oppofition, in the year 813. He had been educated in
the camp, and was ignorant of laws and letters ; his admi-
niftration, therefore, partook of feverity and. military difci-
pline. In religion he followed the fteps of the iconoclatts,
and drew upon himfelf an excommunirsation from pope
Pafchal I. He attempted a reformaticm in the abufes of
government, by which he made himfelf “many enemies. At
the head of thefe was Michael, forr aerly his fellow com-
mander in the army, and a principal ja‘trument of his ele-
vation. ‘T'hough he had been enyjched and promoted by
Leo, he was diffatisfied with his re ward, and formed a con-

- ~ fpiracy

LEO.

{piracy againft him. This was deteGted, and Michael was
arrefted, and condemned to die on Chriftmas day, but the
holinefs, of the feafon caufed a refpite of the execution. In
the interval, the friends of Michael aflembled, and mingling
with thofe who came to perform divine fervice in the im-
perial chapel, concealed themfelves till the entrance of Leo.
A fignal was given, and an attack was made, by miftake,
on the prieft who led the devotions; perceiving their error,
they inftantly turned their fury upon the emperor, who had
retired to the altar, and difregarding the crofs which he
held, they cruelly affaflinated him. This event took place in
820, after Leo had reigned with reputation feven years and
a half.

Lxo VI., the philofopher, was the fon and fucceffor of
Bafil, the Macedonian, who had caufed him to be crowned
as his partner in the empire in 870. By the treachery of a
monk he had nearly loft his eyes and his inheritance, but his
friends zealoufly exerted themfelves to procure his releafe,
and reftoration to favour. On the death of Bafil in 886,
Leo fucceeded to the imperial throne, having a nominal
partner in his brother Alexander, but he himfelf pofleffed
the fovereign power. The Bulgarians, in this reign, re-
newed their ufual hoftilities againft the eaftern empire ; and
the ill fuccefs of the generals of the emperor, obliged him
to fubmit to fuch terms of peace as they were pleafed to
impofe. With the Saracens likewife feveral a€tions were
fought by fea and land with various fuccefs. But he'was
chiefly haraffed by confpiracies at home, and had mors than
once nearly loft his life. By his literary reputation he ac-
quired the title of « philofopher,” but his private conduét
difplayed an indolent and voluptuous charaéter. He had in
his theological zeal prohibited third marriages, whereas
having himielf loft three wives, he entered into the holy ftate
a fourth time, which led to his excommunication. It has
been urged, in excufe of his conduét, that he had no remain-
ing iffue by the firft three marriages. He was, during his
whole reign, much under the dominion of favourites ; he was
fuperftitious, and made pretenfions to the art of foretelling
future events by divination. A defeat of his fleet by the
Saracens preceded his death, which happened in grt, after
he had been on the throne twenty-five years. He bequeathed
the empire to his brother Alexander, as a truft for his fon.
Leo had been educated under the learned Photius, from
whom he derived an attachment to various kinds of erudi-
tion. He was fuppofed by fome to have been the author of
a colleGtion of fermons or homilies; of a letter to the caliph
Omar on the truth of the Chriftian religion; of a paftoral
letter to his fubje&ts ; of a treatife on military difcipline, and
a collection of laws begun by his father. . For farther parti-
eulars relating to the foregoing emperors, fee Gibbon’s
Hift. and Univer. Hitt.

Lro I. pope, furnamed “ The Great,’? was a native
either of Tufcany or Rome; at the latter place he was edu-
cated. Nothing certain is known of him till he was raifed
to the dignity of archdeacon of the Roman church under
the pontificate of pope Celeftine. He occupied the fame
pott under Sixtus III. and acquired a very high reputation
for piety, orthodoxy, eloquence, and prudence, in the ma-
nagement of bufinefs. He was employed to negotiate cer-
tain differences which had arifen in Gaul, between Aetius
and Albinus, and fucceeded in the object of his miffion.
While he was in Gaul, Sixtus III. died in 440, upon which
the univerfal voice of the Romans proclaimed Leo his fuc-
ceffor, and upon his return he was received with the greateft
demonitrations of joy. He commenced his pontificate with
the moft zealous exertions of a Chriftian bifhop, and he was
particularly anxious for the advancement and grandeur of

the papal fee. In the year 442, he extended the law of
celibacy to the archdeacons, who neverthelefs were not to
abandon the wives whom they had married, while in inferior
ftations, but were in future to live with them as fifters. In
the year 445, he quarrelled with Hilary, bifhop of Arles,
for oppofing the power of the papal fee, and obtained an
edi& from the emperor Valentinian, which put an end to
the ancient liberties of the Gallican churches, and enforced
thofe appeals to Rome which gradually fubjeéted all the
weftern churches to the jurifdiGtion of the pretended fuc-
ceflors of St. Peter. About this time many of the Mani-
chzans flying from Africa, after the conqueft of Carthage
by Genferic, king of the Vandals, had repaired to Rome
as a place of fafety. The zeal of Leo would not fuffer
them long to enjoy tranquillity, but caufed great numbers
of them to be feized and imprifoned. Thofe who abjured
their diftinguifhing tenets were admitted into communion,
but thofe who fteadily adhered to their principles were con-
demned to perpetual banifhment. The pope found that
many of the Manichzans had made their efcape from Rome ;
he accordingly fent a circular letter toall bifhops, exhortin

them to be upon their guard againft the faid heretics, an

when difcovered, to profecute them without mercy. His
holinefs was not contented with what he could do by the
power with which he himfelf was armed, but he zpplied to
the emperor Valentinian, for a law to exclude fuch perfons
from all civil and military employments, ard to declare them
incapable of giving or receiving any property by will or
teftament, or of making any contra&t. Leo was equally
violent againft the Prifcillians, who pretended to high de-
grees of purity of life and manners, who prattifed great

‘mortifications, and whofe opinions were a compound of

Gnofticifm and Unitarianifm. For propagating them, their
leader, Prifcillian, had been put to death, and was accord-
ingly regarded as a faint and martyr. Leo now condemned
the doétrines and praétice of his followers as impious and
deteftable, and declared all thofe who tolerated heretics, no
lefs guilty than thofe who embraced their opinions. The
doétrine of Eutyches, which maintained that there was but
one nature in Chrift, roufed the zeal of Leo, and after much
difcuffion, concerning which our limits do not allow us to
enlarge, he caufed the heretic to be condemned, fent into
banifhment, and deprived of his facerdotal dignity; and a
decree was paffed, that “in Chrift there were two diftin&
natures united in one perfon, and that without any change,
mixture, or confufion.” During the pontificate of Leo the
fourth general council was held, in which the famous canon
was enaéted, which rendered the fee of Conftantinople equal
to the fee of Rome in all refpeéts, except precedency. This
canon was evidently intended to check the growing power,
and to oppofe the daily encroachments of the bifhop of
Rome. When Leo was made acquainted with the deter-
mination of the council, he was filled with the utmoft rage,
and refolved to oppofe it with all his might. He faw his
rival but one ftep behind him, and was apprehenfive he
might foon get before him; he was, therefore, determined
to difpute his power in every ftage. Wifhing, however,
that he might be thought to be a¢ting upon Chriitian moe
tives, he pretended to be influenced only by a zeal for the
decrees of the council of Nice, for the praétice of antiquity,
and for the rights and privileges of the patriarchal fees of -
Alexandria and Antioch, During the year 452, Attila,
king of the Hunns, made an irruption into Italy, foon be-
came matter of feveral important cities, and then bent his
march towards Rome, hoping to enrich himfelf with the
fpoils of the metropolis. At this time the city was not in
a condition to bear a fiege, and the emperor fent a folemn
embafly

LEO.

embafly to Attila, with fuch propofals as might be accept-
able to him and his army. Leo himfelf went at the head of
the embafly, in which he was joined by two men of the firft
rank, and of long experience in negociations. On their
arrival with a grand and numerous retinue, at the enemy’s
camp, in the neighbourhood of Mantua, they were received
by the king of the Hunns in a very favourable manner,
which the ecclefiaftical writers afcribe to the fame of Leo's
extraordinary fan@tity. The terms which they propofed
were readily agreed to by Attila, and a treaty of peace was
foon concluded between him and Valentinian, in confequence
of which he repaffed the Alps, and retired beyond the Da-
nube. In the year 453, Leo's zeal was directed towards
the converfion of the monks of Paleftine and Egypt, who
denounced war againft all the abettors of the council of
Chalcedon, and maffacred, without mercy, fuch of the clergy
and laity, as had the courage to profefs a belief in the two
natures in Chrift. In 455, Leo's attention was drawn off
from the affairs of the Eait, by the calamities produced in
Italy, in confequence of the death of Valentinian, That
as was murdered by Maximus, who not only ufurped

is throne, but obliged Eudoxia, the emperor’s widow, to
marry him. Determined to revenge the death of one whom
fhe had loved with the greateft tendernefs, and to deliver
herfelf from the tyrant, fhe applied to Genferic, king of the
Vandals, in Africa, who fhe well knew would be glad of
any favourable opportunity of invading and_ plundering
Italy. To him fhe difpatched a confidential meflenger, con-
juring him to come without delay and refcue her out of the
hands of Maximus, affuring him that he wonld’ meet with
no oppofition, and promifing to affift him to the utmoft of
her power. Genferic gladly feized the opportunity, and
appeared in a fhort time with a very powerful army in the
neighbourhood of Rome. His appearance {truck the,Ro-
mans with difmay, and inftead of preparing for defence,
they threw, open their gates, and furrendered at difcretion.
In this extremity of diftrefs, Leo went out to meet the
enemy, and endeavoured by prayers and tears to mediate
for the fafety of the city. The pope could not prevail, and
the army of Genferic plundered the city, and carried away
the inhabitants into captivity. After {pending fourteen days
in ranfacking the houfes, churches, and public buildings,
and ftripping them of all their wealth, and valuable monu-
ments, the Vandals re-embarked, and returned to Africa
with an immenfe booty, and as many captives as they could
carry on board the fleet. Thefe troubles, and the mifchiefs
which they occafioned, engroffled much of Leo’s czre and
attention to mitigate them, till, on the death of the emperor
Marcian in 457, the Eutychians once more obtained the
afcendency in Egypt. The chief of this revolution was
Timothy, furnamed /Elurus; who affembled his council,
confitting of a {mall number of Eutychian bifhops, in which
he openly anathematized the council of Chalcedon, pope
Leo, and the Catholic bifhops. In virtue of this fentence,
he excommunicated, depofed, and drove from their fees, all
the bifhops of the patriarchate of Alexandria, who refufed
to abjure the faith of Chalcedon, and in their room took
care to place fuch as had diftinguifhed themfelves by their
zeal for the Eutychian do@rine. {n the year 458, the
emperor invited Leo to Conftantinople, that he might con-
verfe with him, in perfon, on the fubjeéts of the decree of
Chalcedon, and the intrufion of /Elurus. To this invita-
tion his holinefs replied in two letters; one containing his
excufes for not undertaking fuch a journey, and the other
intended to explain and confirm, with the teftimony of the
fathers, the doGtrine of the two natures. The laft named
letter became very famous with thé orthodox, and was often

quoted by the writers of that and fucceeding ages. After
this AElurus gave the pope a public challenge to debate the
points in difcuffion. But Leo refufed to comply with the
propofal, alleging that it was dangerous and unneceflary to
examine anew, or to queftion what had already been exa-
mined and defined by an cecumenical council. From this
time Leo continued his efforts, with unabated zeal, in de-
fence of the Catholic caufe, and omitted no opportunity of
endeavouring to imprefs the emperor's mind with a fenfe of
the heinoufnefs and enormity of Alurus’ crime. In 460,
the bifhops of the Eaft united in the fame caufe with fo
much ardour, that an order was obtained from the emperor
to expel and banifh the heretic, which was carried into exe-
cution without delay. This event was followed by the
ele&tion of a Catholic bifhop to the fee of Alexandria, and
the reftoration of thofe prelates who had been difplaced for
their adherence to the council of Chalcedon, The news of
this important change afforded the higheft fatisfaétion to
Leo, but the pleafure was of fhort duration only, as he died
in the year 461, having’ prefided over the Roman church
twenty-one years. Leo was a man of great learning, and of
eminent abilities ; but his ambition was unbounded, and with
him every objeét, every confideration was made to yield to
his predominant paffion for aggrandizing his fee, or, in other
words, for extending his own power and authority. His
works confift of 141 letters, and 96 fermons. The beft
edition of them was publifhed at Paris in 1675, in two
vols. 4to. which was reprinted in folio at Lyons, in the year
1700. The ftyle of Leo’s writings is energetic and elegant,
though fometimes, in the purfuit of elegance, he renders his
difcourfes too highly polifhed.

Leo II. pope, a Sicilian by birth, was raifed to the papal
dignity in the year 682. With the decree confirming his
ele&tion, he received an account of the proceedings of the
fixth general council, held at Conftantinople, by which pope
Honorius I. was anathematized as a monothelite. In reply
to this letter, he fays, that he had received this council as
he received the five preceding general councils, and anathe-
matized all whom the council anathematized. He alfo fent
letters to the metropolitans of the different provinces of the
Welt, acquainting them with the proceedings of this council,
and requiring them to receive it, as well as to caufe it to be
received by the bifhops in their refpeétive jurifdictions. By
this condué he acquired fo much intereft at court, that he
found the opportunity favourable for extending the power
of the papal fee, and procured an edié, fubjecting for ever
the fee of Ravenna to that of Rome. He died in 683, after
a pontificate of only ten months. Five of his letters may
be feen in the fixth vol. of the Colle&. Concil.

Lxro III., pope, born at Rome, was in due time ap-
pointed to the office of prefbyter in the church ; and upon
the death of Adrian, in 795, he was unanimoufly eleGted to
the papal fee. Upon his ordination, he wrote to Charle-
magne, acquainting him with his promotion, and, at the fame
time, fending him the keys of the tomb of St. Peter, and
the ftandard of the city of Rome, with other prefents, and
requefting him to fend fome fit perfon to receive the oath of
allegiance from the Roman people. The anfwer of the king
was conceived in equally civil and complimentary terms, and
it was accompanied with immenfe treafures to be employed
by Leo in repairing and adorning the churches of Rome,
efpecially that of St. Peter. In the year 796, he reitored
the fee of Canterbury to that jurifdiGtion over all the
churches of England, which had been taken away by Offa.
Towards the beginning of the year 799, Leo aflembled a
council at Rome, in which Felix, bifhop of Urgella, and

Eliphand, archbifhop of Toledo, were condemned. During
the

LE O.

the fame year, a confpiracy was formed againft Leo, by
two nephews of pope Adrian, who had been raifed by him
to high employments in the church, and governed all things
at Rome, during his pontificate, with an abfolute fway.
To them, indeed, Leo had been greatly indebted for his
eleGion, and they fuppofed that gratitude would have led
him to furrender all power into their hands. Leo, willing
to fhew his own authority, checked them in their defigns,
and in turn they refolved to put him to death. The attempt
was made on the feftival of St. Mark, when the pope was
proceeding from the Lateran palace to join in an annual
proceflion. ‘he defign did not fucceed, though he was ex-
pofed tothe moft imminent danger, and was in fact thrown
into a dungeon covered with wounds. Fromhis prifon he
was refcued by the duke of Spoleto, who conveyed him
fafely into his own territory. From Spoleto the pope wrote
to Charlemagne, to acquaint him with the cruel treatment
he had met with, and foon after fet out ona vifit to that
prince, to folicit prote&tion again{t his enemies. Charle-
magne received him with the greateft marks of refpeé& and
friendfhip, and after afluring him of his proteétion, fent him
back to Rome, attended with feveral bifhops, and a force
fufficient to prote&t him againft any farther attempt of his
enemies. He entered the city amidit the loud acclamations
of the people, and took poffeffion once more of the Lateran
palace, where the nobles and bifhops who had accompanied
him affembled, and to which all were fummoned who had
any caufe of complaint againft Leo, thefe being commif-
fioned by the king to hear them and do them juitice, if in
any refpeét they had been injured by the pope or his minif-
ters. Some did appear, and among thefe the nephews
of Adrian, who accufed him of feveral crimes ; but not being
able to fubftantiate the charge, they were fent to prifon,
tried, and fentenced to death for the confpiracy, in which
they had been the principal actors. At the earnett folicita-
tion of Leo their lives were fpared, and their fentence ex-
changed to banifhment. About this period, the title of em-
peror of the Romans was revived in the perfon of Charle-
magne, who, on the propofition of the pope, was faluted
Augutftus by all clafles of the Roman people, and on the
day of his coronation received their homage, as well as that
of Leo. In 803, the pope having expreffed his wifh to
celebrate the nativity of Chrift, with the emperor Charle-
magove, the latter fent his fon as far as St. Maurice, in the
Valais, to meet his holinefs, and went himfelf to Rheims,
where he received Leo with extraordinary marks of efleem
and friendfhip. From Rheims they proceeded to Quiercy,
where they kept their Chriftmas, and then repaired to Aix-
la-Chapelle. Here, after entertaining him for eight days,
Charlemagne difmiffed the pope with rich prefents, and an
efcort, who were ordered to attend him as far as Ravenna.
In 809, the difpute was revived in' France on the queftion con-
cerning the proceflion of the-Holy Ghoft : by the firft coun-
cil of Conftantinople, an addition was made to the fymbol
ef Nice, declaring that ‘“* The Holy Ghoft proceeded from
the Father.’’ In the fifth and fixth centuries, the churches
of Spain added to the fymbol of Nice and Conitantinople
the word jiliogue, ‘* and from the fon,’’ and their example
was followed by moft of the Gallican churches. The quef-
tion now under difcuffion was, whether the expreffion
“ flioque’’ ought to be added or omitted. Leo was for the
omiffion, though he adhered to the dotrine attached to it ;
becaufe he faid if it were received by the churches, it would
be a fair plea for the addition of many other articles of
equalimportance. To fhew more decidedly that he did not
approve it, he caufed two tables of filver to be fet up at the
tomb of St. Peter, and the fymbol to be engraved in Greek

e

onone, and on the other in Latin, without the words “and
from the fon,”? which, however, were afterwards added to
the creed by his fucceflors. Leo pafled the remainder of his
pontificate in tranquillity, till the death of Charlemagne, his
great friend and protector, in 814: when the relations of
pope Adrian and their partifans formed another confpiracy
agaim{t him, with the defign of depofing and murdering him.
The plot he difcovered in 815, fome time before it was
ripe for execution, and caufed all who were concerned in it
to be apprehended, and put to death without mercy. It has
been faid that he glutted his, revenge by executing fome of
the confpirators with his own hands. His feverity excited
the difpleafure of the new emperor Lewis, who commanded
his nephew Bernard, king of Italy, to proceed immediately.
to Rome, and to take cognizance of the whole affair on the
fpot. The emperor was faid to be perfe€tly fatisfied with
the pope’s juttification of his conduét, but the people, who
felt for themfelves and for their friends, who had been the
victims of his cruelty, were not fo eafily appeafed: they
deftroyed every thing belonging to his holinefs that they
could get at, and would have excited an infurrection, had
they not been fuppreffed and difperfed by a body of troops
under the duke of Spoleto. The pope died in June 816,
after he had prefided over the Roman church more than
twenty years. He left behind him thirteen letters, which
are to be found in the feventh vol. of the Colleét. Concil.
He has been celebrated for having enriched the churches of
Rome with the moft coftly and valuable ornaments, for which
he was chiefly indebted to the liberality of Charlemagne.
Leo IV., pope. was born at Rome, and educated in the
monaftery of St. Martin, ordained fub-deacon by Gre-
gory IV., and prefbyter of the Roman church by Ser-
gius II. Upon the death of the latter, he was unanimoufly
elected to the pontifical throne. The firft objeé of his care
was to reftore to their former {plendour, at an immenfe ex-
pence, the churches of St. Peter and St. Paul, which had
been defpoiled of their ornaments by the Saracens, and like-
wife to fecure them againft the future attempts of fuch
plunderers. With this view he refolved to build a new city
upon the Vatican, and to enclofe it, as well as the church
of St. Peter, by a ftrong wall. This refolution met with
the approbation of the emperor, who not only contributed
himfelf to the work, but engaged contributions from his
brothers in fupport of the fame caufe. With this encou-
ragement Leo fet about the undertaking with the utmoft
diligence and ardour, performing in his own perfon the daily
office of overfeer, in all kinds of weather. In 849, he
was interrupted in the work:by a threatened attack upon the,
city by the Saracens. The attempt was made, but a ftorm
arifing, the enemy’s fleet was driven on fhore, and almoit
all the fhips dafhed in pieces, and thofe on board perifhed.
Of the veffels that efcaped the fury of the waves, fome fell
into the hands of the Romans, of which the greater part of
the crews were hanged, and left on gibbets to ftrike terror
into the minds of their countrymen, and the reft were put
into irons, and forced to labour in the pope’s new works.
While the Romans were celebrating the victory obtained
over their enemies, Lewis king of Italy arrived to be crowned
emperor, in order that he might fhare the empire with his
father. This was in 850, and in 852 Leo faw his new city
completed, which was called, after the founder, the Leonine
city. In the following year Leo affembled a council at
Rome, for the purpofe of reitoring difcipline, and banifhing
abufes that had crept into the church: among other things
which they did, was the depofition of Anaftafius, cardinal

prefbyter of the church, for abfenting himfelf from his fee '
In the fame year, the illuftrious Alfred was fent

five years.

by.

——S ee — _— EE

L

by his father to Rome, to be educated under the care and
direétion of the pope. The Saracens continued {till to infelt
the court, notwith{tanding their late defeat and confequent
difafters: he accordingly fortified the cities on the coalt to
guard his people from their depredations, and he built a new
city which he called Leopolis. Scarcely had he finifhed this
city, when he was furprifed with the intelligence that the em-
peror Lewis was arrived in the neighbourhood of Rome,
at the head of alargearmy. Leo was foon informed of the
defign of his coming, which was to ei to trial Gratian,
commander of the Roman militia, one of the pope’s coun-
fellors, who was accufed of having folicited another com-
mander to join him in driving out the French, and calling
in the Greeks in their room. On the day of trial, the in-
nocence of Gratian appeared perfectly clear, and the accufer
was delivered up to be difpofed of at ‘pleafure. His life
was, however, {pared at the folicitation of the emperor.
Leo died in 855, after a pontificate of eight years and up-
wards. He was, according to Anaftafius, pofleffed of aH
the moral and Chriftian virtues, without the alloy of a
fingle vice. He left behind him two letters, anda difcourfe,
defigned for the inftrution of the clergy in the duties of
their office, which are to be found in the eighth vol. of the
Colle&. Concil.

Leo V., pope, a native of Ardea, afcended the pontifical
throne in the year 993, but fcarcely had he attained to this
diftinguifhed honour, before he was depofed by one of his
own priefts, and thrown into prifon, where he fhortly died
of grief.

Leo VI., pope, a Roman, was elected to the papal dig-
nity on the death of pope Jobn X., in the yearg28. He
held the high office but about fix months, when he was de-

ofed and imprifoned.

Leo VII., pope, a Roman, was raifed to the pontifical
- throne by the unanimous vote of the clergy and people, on
the death of John XI, in the year 936. He is highly com-
mended for his zealous efforts to reltore ecclefiattical difci-
pline, to reform the monaftic orders, and to correét the
abufes which prevailed in the Roman and other churches.
He died in 939, after having fat on the pontifical throne
three years and a half. He has left three letters, inferted
in the Colle@. Concil.

- Leo VIII., pope, though by others ftyled antipope, was

born at Reme, and was chief fecretary of the Roman
church, an office. in which he fucceeded his father. Upon
the depofition of John XII., in 963, Leo, on account of
his excellent charaéter, was elected to the pontifical dignity,
with the approbation, if not by the influence, of the em-
peror Otho. He enjoyed his fituation but a fhort time ;
the people, inftigated by John, drove him from his elevated
ftation, and Benediét-was placed there in his ftead, the par-
tizans of whom bound themfelves by the fanétion of an
oath, never to fubmit to Leo, whom they called the empe-
ror's pope. Leo was, however, in a fhort time reftored to
his holy office, and died after a pontificate of fifteen
months.

Leo 1X., pope, was born at Toul, in Lorrain, in the
year 1002, and being educated for the church, he was or-
dained deacon in 1025, and promoted to the bifhopric of
his native place in the following year. By his conduct
in that fee he acquired fo high a reputation for learning,
prudence, and piety, that on the death of pope Damatus I.
in 1048, he was chofen as the moft fit perfon to be his fuc-
ceffor. He went from Toul in the habit of a pilgrim, and
was received by the people at Rome with fongs of joy and
loud acclamations. An affembly of the clergy and people
was convened, at which he informed them of his having been

Vou. XX.

‘Michael Cerularius, patriarch of Conftantinople.

Eo,

nominated to the apoftolic fee by the emperor, but that he
did not confider his eleétion valid unlefs made by them, ard
that, therefore, they were at full liberty to choofe or rejeé&
hirs ; and that, if he were not unanimoufly chofen by them,
he would return to his bifhopric as willingly as he had un-
willingly left it. This addrefs was received with every de-
monitration of refpeét and fatsfaétion, and he was pro-
claimed fovereign pontiff under the title of Leo IX. In
the year 1049 he aflembled a council at Rome, which was
attended by the Italian and Gallican bifhops. By this coun-
cil all fimoniacal bargains were prohibited on pain of excom-
munication, and fome bifhops conviéted of crimes were de-
pofed from their high rank. When the council was broken
up, Leo took a journey into Saxony to vifit the emperor,
with whom he celebrated the feltival of St. Peter and St.
Paul at Cologne, and having fummoned the Gallican
bifhops and abbots to meet him at Rheims, he opened a
council. At this council, among other excellent decrees,
was reftored to the people the right of choofing their own
paftors. From Rheims Leo proceeded to Mentz, where
he held another council of German prelates, at which the
emperor, the chief lords and princes of Germany, aflifted.
Leo returned to Rome towards the clofe of the year 1049;
and in the following fpring he vifited feveral Italian cities,
reftoring every where the decayed difcipline of the church.
Soon after this he held a council at Rome, wiich is chiefly
memorable fér the unjuft fentence of condemnation which it
pafled upon the celebrated Berenger, without hearing him
in his own defence, or fo much as f{ummoning him to attend.
In 1053 he held another council at Rome, in which he con-
demned the praétice of the Greeks, in adminiftering the
eucharift with leavened bread, which was one of the princi-
pal fubjeéts of a letter addreffed by him at this time to
In the
mean time Leo had conceived a jealoufy of the Normans,
who had made a conqueft of Apulia, which they divided
into twelve counties. He was ftrongly prejudiced againft
them by the Apulians, who reprefented that their govern-
ment was cruel and tyrannical, and painted them as_barba-
rians without either laws or religion: he was, therefore de-
termined to expel them from Italy, which was one grand
obje&t of his laft journey into Germany, but the emperor
was too much engaged in his own affairs to afford any ma-
terial affiftance in his projeét. Upon Leo’s return he re-
folved to undertake the tafk himfelf. - Having therefore af-
fembled 2 numerous army, he marched with all poffible ex-
pedition to the borders of Apulia, but before he could gain
any decifive advantages, the Normans had put themfelyes
into a pofture of defence, and in the end they prepared for
offenfive meafures; and put themfelves under the command
of Umfred, count of Apulia, Richard, count of Averfa, and
the brave Robert Guifcard. Thefe experienced warriors.
fell upon the pope’s army with incredible fury, and after a
bloody aétion entirely routed it’ with immenfe flaughter.
The pope was now glad to fly, but was obliged in a fhort
time to furrender at difcretion. Leo now anticipated the
moft cruel treatment from thofe whom he had been accuftomed.
to think, and to treat as barbarous enemies. His apprehen-
fions were foon relieved: Umfred accofted him with all the
re{peét due to his character, and conducted him, attended
by the chief officers of the army, to hiscamp. There he
entertained him with great magnificence, and fet him at
liberty, providing him with an efcort. With this behaviour
of the Normans, Leo was fo greatly pleafed, that he ab-
felved them from all the cenfures which they had incurred,
and even approved of the conquefts which they had made,
and likewife encouraged them to add the redu¢tion of Ca- -

aay labria

LE 0.

labria to that of Apulia. The pope now received a letter
from the emperor, in which he expreffed a great defire to fee
the ancient union reftored between the fees of Conftantinople
and Rome, and offered to contribute whatever lay in his
power towards fo good a werk. Before any thing could be
done to effect this, the pope was feized with a fevere and
fatal illnefs, which put an end to his life in the year 1054,
at the age of fifty-two, after having governed the Roman
church five years and two months. He was zealous in re-
forming abufes, and is highly commended for his prudence,
his generolity, and Ins piety. For his attempts to aggran-
dize the holy fee he has been honoured with a place amorg
the faints in the Roman calendar. He was the firit pope
who made ufe of the Chriftian era in the date of his bulls,
his predeceffors having followed that of the Indiétions.
Nineteen of his letters are preferved in the ninth vol. of the
Colieét. Concils and feveral of his homilies or fermons were
publifhed at Louvain in'1565.

Lxro X., pope, born at Florence is December 1475, the
fecond fon of Lorenzo de Medici the Magnificent, bore the
baptifmal name of Giovanni, or John, was originally dettined
by his father for the church, and received the tonfure at the
age of feven years. Being then declared capable of receiv-
ing ecclefiaftical preferment, Lorenzo obtained two rich
abbacies ; and the lift given of the preterments accumulated
upon him at an early age, amounts to the number of twenty-
nine, a proof of the great intereft of his family; and of the
feandalous.corruption of the church. It was the great ob-
je of his father’s ambition to decorate his houfe with the
popedom, and upon the acceffion of Innocent VIII. to the
pontificate, Giovanni, then thirteen years of age only, was
nominated to the dignity of cardinal. Lorenzo was not
wanting in exertions to make his fon worthy of his prema-
ture advancement, and the difpofition of the youth, which
was grave and folid beyond his years, contributed to the
fuccefs of his inftru€tors. When he was nominated to the
eardinalate, it was made a condition that he fhould {pend
three years at the univerfity of Pifa in profeffional ftudies,
before he was invefted formally with the purple. In 1492
this folemn a€t took place, and he immediately went to re-
fide at Rome as one of the facred college. His father foon
after died, and was fucceeded in his honours in the Floren-
tine republic by his eldeft fon Piero. The young cardina!’s
oppofition to the election of pope Alexander VI. rendered
it expedient for him to withdraw to Florenée, from whence,
at the invafion of Italy by Charles VIII. he and the whole
family were expelled, and obliged to take refuge in Bologna.
About the year 1500 he again fixed his refidence at Rome,
where he refided during the rewsainder of Alexander’s pon-
tificate, and likewife in the early part of that of Julius IT.
cultivating polite literature, and the pleafures of elegant
fociety, and indulging his tafte for the fine arts, for mufic,
and the chafe, to which latter amufement he was much ad-
difted. The depreffion cf his houfe occafioned frequent
embarraffments in his finances, but his cheerful temper fup-
ported him under difficulties, and he extricated himfelf with-
out lofs of honour. In 1505 he began to take an active
part in public affairs, and was appointed by Julius to the
government of Perugia. By his firm adherence to the in-
tereft of the pope, the cardinal acquired the moft unlimited
eonfidence of his holinefs, and was entrufted with the fupreme
direGtion of the papal army in the Holy League againit the
French in 1511, with the title of legate of Bologna. At
the bloody battle of Ravenna, in 1512, he was made pri-
foner, and was conveyed to Milan, where the facrednefs of
his funétion caufed him to be treated with great refpec.
‘The French in their retreat carried the cardinal with them,

7

but on his arrival at the banks of the Po che effeGed his
efcape. About this time the family of the Medici was re-
ftored to its former condition at Fiorence, and the popular
conilitution of that republic was overthrown. The cardinal
contributed to this event, and remained at Florence, till the
death of Julius 11. called him fuddenly to Rome. » At the
{crutiny for a new pontiff in 1513, the eleGion was declared
to have fallen on the cardinal ae Medici, who was then only
in the thirty-eighth year of his age. He aflumed the name
of Leo X. and afcended the throne with greater manifelta-
tions of good-will, both from Italians and foreigners, than
moft of his predeceffors had enjoyed. One of his firlt aéis
was to interpofe in favour of forme confpirators againft the
houfe of Medici, at Florence, and: he treated with great
kindaefs the family of Sodoreni, which had long been at the
head of the oppolite party in that republic. He exhibited
his talte for literature by the appointment of two of the
molt elegant {cholars of the age, Bembo and Sadoleti, to
the office of papal fecretaries. With regard to foreign
politics, he purfued the fyitem of his predeceffor, in at«
tempting to tree Italy from the dominion of foreign powers:
and in order to counteraét the antipapal council of Pifa,
which was aflembled at Lyons, he renewed the meetings of
the council of Lateran, which Julius II. had begun, and
he had the good fortune to terminate a divifion which threat-
ened a {chifm in the church. Lewis XII. who had in-
curred ecclefiattical cenfure, made a formal f:bmiffion, and.
received abfolution. Having fecured external tranquillity,
Leo did not delay to confult the interefts of literature by
an ample patronage of learned fludies. He reftored to its
former fplendour the Roman gymnafium or univerfity, which
he effected by new grants of its revenues and privileges, and
by filling its profeflorfhips with eminent men inyited from all
quarters. The ftudy of the Greek language was a very par- .
ticular object of hisencouragement. Under the dire€tion of
Lafcaris a college of noble Grecian youths was founded at
Rome for the purpofe of editing Greek authors; and a
Greek prefs was eftablifhed in that city. Public notice was
circulated throughout Europe, that all perfons who poffeffed
MSS. of ancient authors would be liberally rewarded on
bringing er fending them to the pope. Leo founded the.
firit profefforfhip-in Italy of the Syriac and Chaldaic lan-
guages: this was in the univerfity of Bologna. With re-
gard to the politics of the times, the pope had two leading”
objets in view, viz. the maintenance of that balance of
power which might proteé& Italy from the over-bearing in-
fluence of any foreign potentate ; and the aggrandizement of
the houfe of Medici. When Francis 1. fucceeded to the
throne of France, it was foon apparent that there would ne-
ceffarily be a new war in the north of Italy. Leo attempted to
remain neuter, which being found to beimpracticable, he joined
the emperor, the Swifs, and other fovereigns again{t the French:
king and the ttate of Venice. The rapid fucceffes of the
Fretich arms foon brought him to hefitate, and even to ftand
aloof, and after the Swifs army had been defeated, the
pope thought it expedient to detach his canfe from that
of his allies, and to form an union with the king of
France. Thefe two fovereigns, in the clofe of the year
¥515, had an interview at Bologna, when .the famous
PraGMATic Sanéion (which fee), was abolifhed, and-acon-
cordat eftablifhed in its ftead. The death of Leo’s brother
left his nephew Lorenzo the principal objeét of that paffion
for aggrandizing his family, which this pontiff felt full as
{trongly as any one of his predeceflors. Under the inflyence
of this paffion, he found a pretext, in 1516, for iffuing a moni-
tory againit the duke of Urbino, and upon his non-appear-
ance, Leo iffued an excommunication againt him, and —

i ee i e+ A

LE O.

his whole territory, with which, together with the ducal title,
he invelted his nephew. In the fame year a general pacifica-
tion took place, though all the efforts of the pope were made
to preventit. In 1517, the expelled duke of Urbino colleted
an army, and, by rapid movements, completely regained his
capital and dominions. Leo, exceffively chagrined at this
event, would gladly have engaged a crufade of all Chriftian
princes againit him. By an application, which nothing

‘could juftify, of the treafures of thé church, he raifed a con-

fiderable army, under the command of his nephew, and
compelled the duke to refign his dominion, upon what were
ealled honourable terms. The violation of the fafe condu@,
granted by Lorenzo to the duke’s fecretary, who was feized
at Rome, and put to torture, in order to oblige him to re-
veal: his mailter’s fecrets, imprints on the memory of Leo X.
an indelible ftain. In the fame year his life was endangered
by aconfpiracy formed againit him, in which the chief actor
was cardinal Petrucci. The plan failed, and the cardinal,
being decoyed to Rome, from whence he had efcaped, was

' put to death; and his agents, as many as were difcovered,

were executed with horrid tortures. The conduét of Leo
on this occafion was little honourable to his fortitude or
clemency, and it was believed that feveral perfons fuffered
as guilty who were wholly innocent of the crimes laid to
their charge. To fecure himfelf for the future, the pope,
by a great ftretch of his high authority, created in one day
thirty-one new cardinals, many of them his relations and
friends, who had not even rifen in the church to the dignity
of the epifcopal office; but many perfons alfo who, from
their talents and virtues, were well worthy of his choice.
He beftowed upon them rich benefices and preferments, as
well in the remote parts of Chriftendom, as in Italy, and
thus formed a numerous and fplendid court attached to his
perfon, and adding to the pomp and grandeur of the capital.
During the pontificate of Leo X. arofe the daring Luther,
whofe life will be given farther on; neverthelefs, in this
place, we mutt notice certain faéts with which Leo and the
reformation are clofely connected. The unbounded pro-
fufion of this pope, in every objet of expence attached to
a tafte for luxurious. magnificence, had rendered it neceflary
to devife means for replenifhing his exhaafted treafury ; and
one of thofe which occurred was the fale of thofe indul-
gences which the church claimed a right of difpenfing from
the ftore of her fpiritual wealth. The commiffaries ap-
pointed for this traffic in Germany, exaggerated the efficacy
of their wares in {uch very extravagant terms, as gave great
offence to the pious and thoughtful. Luther, a public
‘preacher at Wittemberg, warmly proteited againit this
abufe in his difcourfes, and in a letter addrefled to the
eleétor of Mentz. He likewife publifhed a fet of propo-
fitions, in which he called in queftion the authority of the
pope to remit fins, and made fome very warm {ftrictures on
this method of railing money. His remonttrances produced
conliderable effe&t, and feveral of his cloth undertook to re-
fnte him. Leo probably regarded theological quarrels with
contempt, and from his pontifical throne looked down upon
the efforts of a German do¢tor with {corn : even when his
interference was deemed neceflary, he was inclined to lenient
meafures. At length, at the exprefs defire of the emperor
Maximilian, he fummoned Luther to appear before the
court of Rome. Permiffion was, however, granted for the
cardinal of Geta to hear his deferce at Augfburg. Nothing
fatisfactory was determined, and the pope, in 1518, pub-
lifhed a bull, afferting his authority to grant indulgences,
which would avail both the living, and the dead in purga-
tory. Upon this, the Reformer appealed to a general
council, and thus open war was declared, in which the

abettors of Luther appeared with a ftrength little calculated
upon by the court of Rome. The fentiments of the Clirif-
tian world were not at all favourable to that court. ‘* The
fcandal,’’ fays the biographer, ‘ incurred by the infamy of
Alexander VI., and the violence of Julius LI., was not much
alleviated in the reign of a pontiff who was charaéterized by
an inordinate love of pomp and pleafure, and whofe claffical
tafte even caufed him to be regarded by many as more of a
heathen than a Chriftian."’

The warlike difpofition of Selim, the reigning Turkifh
emperor, excited great alarms in Europe, and gave occafion
to Leo to attempt a revival of the ancient crufades, by
means of an alliance between all Chriftian princes ; he pro-
bably hoped, by this fhow of zeal for the Chriftian caufe,
that he fhould recover fome of his loft credit as head of the
church. He had, likewife, another obje& in view, viz. that
of recruiting his finances, by the contributions which his
emiffaries levied upon the devotees in different countries.
By the death of Maximilian in 15.19, a competition for the
imperial crown between Charles V. and Francis I. took
place. Leo was decidedly againft the claims of both the
rival candidates, and attempted to raife a competitor in one
of the German princes, but he was unable to refiit the for-
tune of Charles. At this period he incurred a very fevere
domeftic misfortune in the death of his nephew Lorenzo,
who left an infant daughter, afterwards the celebrated Cathe-
rine de Medicis, the queen and regent of France. The death
of Lorenzo led to the immediate annexation of the duchy of
Urbino, with its dependencies, to the Roman fee, and to the
appointment of Giulio, Leo's coufin, to the fupreme direétion
of the ftate of Florence. (See Crement VII.) The
rapid progrefs of the Reformation forcibly recalled the at-
tention of the papal court, and Leo, anxious for an amicable
negotiation, employed a Saxon nobleman to treat in perfon
with Luther, but the matter was, at this period, carried too
far to admit of reconciliation. Luther appealed to the
{criptures for his authority ; and the pope infilted upon un-
qualified fubmiffion to the decrees of the Catholic church.
The Reformer was perfuaded to addrefs a letter to his holi-
nefs ; but, inftead of expreffions of humiliation, it contained
much bitter inveétive againit the court of Rome. It was,
therefore, determined to condemn him and his doétrines ;
and a bull to that purpofe was iffued, June 15th, 1520,
which oceafioned a total feparation between the papal fee
and the reformers. The writings of Luther were publicly
burnt, an infult which he boldly retaliated by an equally
folemn and public conflagration of the papal decrees and
conftitutions, and the bull itfelf. Leo was not fatisfied
with his own exertions, but was defirous of gaining on his
fide the Imperial court. Before, however, the emperor
would condemn, he determined to heary in perfon, what
Luther had to fay in his own juflification, and a mandate
was iffued for his appearance at Worms. (See LuTHEr.)
We may obferve here, that Leo conferred on Henty VIII.
of England the title of ‘* Defender of the Faith,” for his
appearance on the fide of the church as a controvertial
writer. The tranquil ftate of Italy, at this period, allowed
the pope to indulge his tafte for magnificence in fhows and
{pectacles, and in the employment of thofe great artilts who
have reflected fo much luitre on his pontificate. - His private
hours were chiefly devoted to indolence, or to amufements,
frequently of a kind little fuited to the dignity of his high
ftation. He was not, however, fo much abforbed in them
as to neglect the aggrandizement of his family and fee.
Several cities and diltri€ts in the vicinity of the papal terri-
tories, and to which the church had claims, had been feized
by powerful citizens, or military adventurers ;. {ome of thefe

Beer the

LE O.

the pope f{ummoned to his court to anfwer for their condué ;
and in default of an exculpation of their crimes, he caufed
them to be put todeath. His holinefs next laid a plan to get
into his poffeflion the city aud territory of Ferrara. He
had fet his heart upon this objeét, and being unable to at-
tain it by open means, he had recourfe to treachery, and it
has been afferted that his plan included the affaffination of
the duke. The commander of a body of German troops
was bribed to deliver up one of the gates to the papal
forces, which-were to be in readinefs; but ne took the
pope’s money, and apprized the duke of the plot, which
was thus happily defeated Another project, which en-
tered deeply into the views of the pope, was the expulfion
of the French from Italy. In 1521, he formeda treaty with
the emperor forthe re-eftablifhment of the family of Sforza, in
the duchy of Milan. He engaged a large body of Swifs in his
fervice, who, under the pretence of different meafures, made
much progrefs againft the French, and drove their troops
before them ; but in the midft of thefe fucceffes, and while
public rejoicings were making in Rome on account of them,
the pope was feized with an illnefs, which at firft was con-
fidered as a flight cold only, but which put an end to his
life ina few days. This event happened on the rit of Dec.
1521; when Leo was in the 46th year of his age, and the
ninth of his pontificate. The people at large exprefled
much concern at his death, but the honours rendered ‘to his
memory were not fuch as might have been expefted. An
exhaulted treafury was the pretext for an economical funeral,
and amid{t all the eminent {cholars of his court, an illiterate
ehamberlain was appointed to pronounce his funeral oration.
Leo was himfelf but moderately furnifhed with folid erudi-
tion: he afforded liberal encouragement to ufeful and re-
putable ftudies, but he alfo lavifhed his patronage upon
productions and perfons of an oppofite character. The
merit of a fovereign in promoting thofe ornamental arts by
which alone he can difplay a magnificence fuperior to that
of a private citizen, can rank no higher than an exertion of
good tafte; and this quality may be undoubtedly conceded
to Leo. He was, however, rather the unfortunate inheritor,
than the creator of great talents. Michael Angelo and
Raphael had both rifen to fame under his predeceflor,
Julius II., who had planned and made a commencement
of the ftupendous edifice of St. Peter’s: the Vatican palace
had likewife received fome of its nobleft ornaments in his
and the former pontificates. But the reader who wifhes to
obtain an accurate view of the ftate of literature and the arts
in Italy prior to, and during the reign of Leo, will have
recourfe to Mr. Rofcoe’s ‘¢ Life and Pontificate of Leo X.,’
from which the foregoing facts are principally drawn. The
charaéter of this pontiff has been finely celebrated by Pope
in the following lines :

But fee! each mufe, in Leo’s golden days,

Starts from her trance ; and trims her wither’d bays ;
Rome’s ancient Genius, o’er its ruins fpread,

Shakes off the duft, and rears his.rev’rend head.
Then fculpture and her fifter arts revive :

Stones leap to form, and rocks begin to live ;

With {weeter notes each rifing temple rung,

A Raphael painted, and a Vida fung.

Lxro XI., pope, the fon of O&avian de Medici, coufin of
Cofmo, duke of Tufcany, was born in the year 1535. He’
was made archdeacon of . Florence, and filled the poft of
ambaflador from Francis, the great duke, at the court of
_Rome. He was created cardinal by Gregory XIII., and
by Clement VIII. he was fent legate to Henry 1V. of
France, and he was fuccefsfully employed in adjufting the

terms of peace between Philip I1., king of Spain, and the
French monarch, and for his good offices he received
from the latter a noble prefent. On the death of pope
Clement VIIL., in the year 1605, he was elected pope by
the unanimous fuffrages of the conclave when he took the
name of Leo XI. The Romans and Florentines were
highly delighted with his elevation on account of his diftin-
guifhed talents and virtues, and becaufe they knew that to
his zeal for the interefts of the church, he united a liberal
fpirit, a love of learning and learned men, and, as it were,
an hereditary tafte for the polite arts.’ On the day of the
proceffion, when the pope commences his office with great
pomp and form, the feveral orders of the city endeavoured
to furpafs each other in their demonttrations of joy on the
occafion. Their fatisfaGtion, however, was of very fhort
continuance, and was {peedily changed into grief and mourn-
ing, on account of his death, which happened on the 25th
day after his eleGtion, in the 7oth year of his age. Bower’s
Lives of the Popes. Bayle. Moreri. Lardner.

Leo Autatius. See ALLATiUS.

Leo, the Grammarian, of whofe perfonal hiftory nothing
is come down to us, was author of a continuation of the
Chronicle of Theophanes, in the Greek language, com-
prifing the lives of the feven emperors of the Eaft, from the
year 813 to 1013. It is annexed to Combefis’s edition of
the chronicle, printed at Paris in 1655. Moreri.

Lxo, Joun, named Africanus, a traveller and geogra-
pher, was a native of Granada of Moorifh extraétion.
When that city was taken by Ferdinand and Ifabella, in
1492, he retired into Africa, and on that account obtained
his furname. He ftudied the Arabic at Fez, was employed
by the king as ambaflador, and took feveral journeys into
Europe, Leffer Afia, and Africa, of which he wrote a
narrative in the Arabic language. He once fell into the
hands of fome pirates, and was fold as a flave to a mailer,
who prefented him to Leo X. The pontiff highly efteemed
him on account of his learning and knowledge, and having
perfuaded him to renounce Mahometanifm, gave him his
own names of John and Leo at the time of his baptifm.
He now applied himfelf to the attainment of the Italian
language, and tranflated into it his defcription of Africa.
This work is reckoned one of the mot curious of the early:
voyages and travels. The author defcribes what he had
himfelf feen, chiefly on the northern and weftern coafts of
that peninfula, and it fupplies deficiencies from the relation
of others; but asa geographical work it has various im-
perfeétions and defe&ts. It has been tranflated into Latin
and French. Leo probably died foon after he had rendered
his work into the Italian language in 1526. He was author
likewife of a treatife “ De vitis Philofophorum ;’’ printed
at Zurich in 1664. Moreri.

Leo of Orvieto, born in the territory of Orvieto, in
Tufcany, became a monk of the Dominican or Francifcan
order, who flourifhed towards the commencement of the
fourteenth century. He was author of two ‘*Chronicles,’’
one of the popes, down to the year 13143 and the other of
the emperors, terminating at the year 13c8. They were
brought into notice by John Lamy, who publithed them in
his «* Delicie Eruditorum, feu Veterum Anecdoton Opuf-
culorum Coelle¢tanea,” printed at Florence. Both the
chronicles were publifhed in 1737, in two volumes 8yo.,
with notes and illuftrations. The fecond volume contains a
fketch of the hiftory of France, written by John de l'Ifle,
fuppofed to have been a monk of the abbey of St. Dennis,
in the 15th century, entitled ‘de Geftis et Faetis memora-
bilibus Francorum.”? Moreri. .

Leo ps Monena, 2 learned rabbi, whofe Jewifh name

was

LEO

was R. Jehudah Arie, was born at Modena, and flourifhed
in the feventeenth century. He was for a confiderable time
chief of the fynagogue, and efteemed a good poet both in
Hebrew and Italian. He was author of a valuable work
on the ceremonies and cuftoms of the Jews, which is held
in eftimation by the learned of all nations. It is entitled
« Titoria de Riti Hebraici, vita et Offervanze de gli Hebrei
di quefti Tempi ;’’ the bet edition of this work was printed
at Venice in 1638. It was tranflated into the French lan-
guage in 1674, by Richard Simon, with fupplements re-
lating to the fe&ts of the Karaites and Samaritans. Leo
meant to have given an Italian tranflation of the Old Tefta-

ment, but he was prohibited from purfuing it by the Inqui- ,

fition. He compiled a Hebrew and Italian diétionar;,
entitled «« The Mouth of the Lion.”’ This work was pub-
lifhed at Venice in 1612, and was afterwards reprinted in an
enlarged form at Padua, in 1640. Leo died at Venice in
£654, in about the eightieth year of his age.

Leo pe St. Joun, a Freach monk, born at Rennes in
the year 1600. Before he entered into the religious pro-
feffion, his name was John Mace. He was nominated to
_all the honourable and confidential pofts of his order, and
acquired the efteem of popes Leo XI., and Alexander VIII.
and of feveral cardinals... He was an eloquent preacher, and
had the honour of performing the duties of his office before
Lewis XIII. and Lewis XIV.- He was the friend of car-
dinal Richelieu, by whom he was patronized. He died in
1671, leaving beliind him numerous works, the principal of
which is entitled « Studium Sapientie Univerfalis,” in
three volumes folio. His ‘* Hiftory of the Carmelites ;’’
*¢ Lives of different Romifh Saints ;”? and ‘* Journal of what
took place during the laft Sicknefs, and at the Death of Car-
ginal Richelieu,’’ are well known and frequently referred to.

Leo, in Botany, a name ufed by fome authors for the
columbine, or aguilegia. Columella, befides others, calls it
by thisname. See AQuILEGIA.

Leo, the Lion, in Zoology. See Frevis Leo. :

Leo, Formica. See Formica Leo.

Leo Pulex, a name given by M. Reaumur to a {fpecies
of infeéts which feeds on the pulex arboreus, or common
tree-puceron, in the fame manner that the creature called
the formica leo does on the ants: this being alfo, like that,
an animal, yet in an imperfeét ftate, and finally to be
changed into a different creature. This author has kept
up the remembrance of this analogy between them, by
giving this a fimilar name.

The leo pulex is ufually bred among the herds of the pu-
lices, which he devours moft unmercifully. He is a worm
of the hexapode, or fix-legged kind, and very foon arrives
. at the time of his change; after which he becomes a green
fly with four wings. Another animal of this kind, and not
lefs deftruGtive of this {mall race of animals, is a fix-legged
worm of a whitifh colour, and fmaller than the former,
which finally becomes a round-bodied beetle. Another
{pecies of thefe devourers this author calls vermis hy/friz, the
porcupine-worm, from the valt number of fpicule, or tender
prickles, with which he is armed. This alfo finally becomes
a round and fmall beetle. Reaumur, Hift. Inle&. tom.i.
See Lion puceron.

LEOBEN, or Leusen, in Geography, a town of the
duchy of Stiria, on the Muehr ; 68 miies S.W. of Vienna.
At this town the preliminaries of peace between the em-
peror and the French republic, were fettled on the zoth of
April 1797. N. lat. 47° 22'. E. long. 14° 55’.

LEOBSCHUTZ, or Lusscnurz, a town of Silefia,
and capital of a circle, in the principality of Ingerndorf;
16 miles N. of Ratibor. N, lat. 50° 5. E. long, 17° 44'.

LEO

LEOCROCOTTA, in Natural Hiflory, a name given
by the ancients to an animal faid to be the fwifteft of all
creatures in the world, It is defcribed as a mongrel or
baftard animal, unable to propagate its own fpecies, being
begotten upon the lionefs by the male hyena of fome of the
larger kinds: but is one of thofe animals, the exiftence of
which is much to be doubted. The Latin authors have
made fome confufion between this creature and the manti-
chora, attributing the things that have been faid of one to
the other.

LEOGANE, in Geography, a fea-port town of the
ifland of Hifpaniola, or St. Domingo, on the N. coaft. It
was once the feat of the French government. Although its
fituation is not good, the air is falubrious, and the foil of
the adjacent territory is fertile. In 1796, it was taken by
the Britifh. It is a place of confiderable trade, N. lat. 18?
30'. W. long. 73° 25'. See St. Dominco.

Lerocanr, Bay or Bight of, called alfo Cul de Sac of Leo-
gane, lies at the W. end of the ifland of St. Domingo, and
is formed by two peninfulas. It opens between Cape St.
Nicolas at the W. end of the N. peninfula, and Cape Dame
Marie, the N.W. point of the S. peninfula, 45 leagues
apart. At the bottom of the bay, which embofoms a valt
number of other fine bays, are the iflands Gonave, and on
the N. fide of the S. peninfula the ifles Reffif and Caymite.
The town of Leogane is fituated on the N. fide of the neck
of the S. peninfula, in the bay of Leogane, at the head of
a {mall bay which fets up E. from the bay of Grand Goave,
four leagues N.E. of the town of that name. See Sr.
Dominco.

LEOMINSTER, or Lemster, a borough and market-
town in the hundred of Wolphy, and county of Hereford,
Enzland, is fituated in a very rich and fertile vale abounding
with orchards, hop-yards, fine meadows, and arable lands.
Its immediate {cite is, as Leland defcribes, « fumwhat lowe,
and all the ground very neere about it is farre lower.’’ The
river Lugg flows on its north and eaft fides ; two fmaller
ftreams run through the town, and three other confiderable
rivulets pafs it within half a mile. Its extent from north to
fouth is nearly a mile ; and from eaft to weft about half a
mile. “ The towne of Leonminfter,’’ Leland fays, « is
metely large, and hath good buildinges of tymbre. The
towne, by reafon of their principall wool, ufe great dra-
pinge of clothe, and thereby it flourifhed. Syns of latter
days it chanced that the cittyes of Hereford and Worcelter
complained of the frequency of people that came to Lem-
fter, in prejudice of bothe their marketts ; whereupon the
Saturday markett was removed from Lemfter, and a mar-
kett on Friday newly affigned to it; fyns that time the
towne of Lemiter hath decayed. The antiquity of the towne
is moft famous by a monaftery of nunnes, that Merwaldus,
kinge of the Marches, built and endowed.”—«“ There
is but one paroche church in Leonmintter ; but it is large,
fomewhat dark, and of ancient building, infomuch that yt
is a greate likelihood that yt is the church that was afore
the conqueft. The common fame of the people about
Lemfter is, that king Merewald, and fome of his fucceffors,
had a caftle, or palace, on an hill fide by the towne of Leon-
minfter, half a mHe off by eaft.”” In the year 1055, Leo-
minfter was feized upon by the Welfh chieftains, who
{trengthened it by fortifications, the remains of which may
be traced even at the prefent period The town appears to
have been a place of fome confequence at the time of the
Domefday furvey: as that regifter records that the manor,
with its appurtenances, confilting of fixteen dependent
eftates, had been afligned. by Edward the Confeffor to his
queen Editha; and that it was governed by eight pier

eight

LE O

eight beadles, and eight free tenants. When’ the furvey
was made, the manor belonged to the king ; great part of
the cuitomary rent was paid as compofition for falt, fifh, and
eels. Here was alfo a wood fix miles in length, and three
broad; but part of it was even then begun to be aflarted,”’
and cleared for tillage; ‘an aerie of hawks’’ is alfo men-
tioned in the fame record. About the time of William
Rufus, the fortifications of Leominfter were {trengthened
and enlarged, the better to fecure it again{t the incurfions of
the Welfh. In the reign of king John, William de Braofe,
lord of Brecknock, a turbulent and high-fpirited baron,
plundered this town, and burned great part of it, together
with the priory and church. In Henry IV.’s reign, Leo-
miniter was for fome time in the pofleffion of Owen Glen-
dour, after he had defeated the earl of March. In the next
century, the inhabitants of this town took a decilive part
towards the eftablifhment of queen Mary on the throne ; for
which fervice fhe granted them the firft regular charter of
incorporation, with many valuable’ privileges. An annual
fair had been granted in 1170, by Henry II.; two addi-
tional fairs, each of fix days continuance, were granted by
Edward I.

The church of Leominfter, having been partly deftroyed
by fire March 18, 1700, was re-editied at the expence of
nearly 17,000/.; the whole of that part ufed for divine
fervice being entirely new. The church in its.prefent ftate
is irregular, both in its form and architeGture. The moft
ancient parts are the eaft wall, the north fide, the tower
which ftands at the north-weft angle, the weft end, and the
wall and windows of the fouth fide. In the interior the
chief part is modern, excepting what is called the back aifle,
which, as well as the lower part of the tower, is principally
of Saxon workmanthip. The exterior of the eaft end has
three large buttrefles, a High pointed window with inter-
feting mullions, and two {maller windows, On the north
fide is a very ftrong femi-circular arched door-way, with a
{maller one within it. The upper part of the tower is in
the pointed ityle and embattled ; the lower part 1s Saxon ;
it difplays a fingularly rich entrance door-way on the welt,
having a receffed arch, with three pillars on each fide, the
capitals of which are ornamented with fculptures of foliage,
a couchant man, a tyger, {nakes entwined round branches,
and birds. The mouldings fupported by thefe pillars are
flightly pointed, but are embellifhed with lozenges and zig-
zag work. Qn the north fide of the church is the nave and
north fide of the ancient flru@ture, which are feparated from
each other by a range of maffive circular columns, with
round arches, over which are Saxon arcades; the arch of
the tower which opens into this part is pointed, and reaches
nearly to the roof. Befides the church, there are four
places of religious worfhip in the town, for the refpective
denominations of Baptifts, Prefbyterians, Moravians, and
Quakers. During the time of rebuilding the church, divine
fervice was performed in a contiguous building, anciently
called the Chapelle in the Forbury, erected by Peckham,
archbifhop of Canterbury, about the end of the thirteenth
century. It was afterwards appropriated to the purpofe of
tuition, and thence called the fchool-houfe; but has lately
been converted into a regular theatre ; it is a plain building,
with pointed windows. The priory was fituated to the
north-eaft of the church, on the little river Pinfley; fome
of the buildings are yet ftanding, among which is the priory-
houfe, which has undergone: various alterations fince the
diffelution. The town-hall, or butter-clofe, as-it is com-
monly termed, is a fingular building, conitructed of timber
and platter about the year 1633. The architect was the
celebrated John Abel, who built the Shire-hall at Hereford,

and Wales, vol. vi.

LEO

in the year 1645. This fabric ftands on twelve oak pillars,

fuftained on ftone pedeftals; the brackets and {pandrils
above the arches, and the upper parts of the building, dif-
play much carving, A new aol was erected in the year
1750; anda market-houfe in 1803. Several improvements
have been recently made in the town ; the trade is flourifh-
ing, and many of the fhops are refpeétable. The clothing
and hat trade provide employment for a great number of
the inhabitants. The wool grown in the vicinity is pro-
verbially excellent ; the cyder alfo, and the hops, are held
in high eltimation,

The corporation confifts of a bailiff, chief fleward, re-
corder, twenty-four capital burgefles, a chamberlain, and
two ferjeants at mace. Two reprefentatives in parliament
are chofen by the corporation and inhabitants paying feot
and lot ; the number of voters being about 500; the earlielt
return was in the twenty-third of Edward I,

Leominfter is 137 miles-diftant from London ; the popu-
lation, as returned under the a&t of 1800, amounted to 3019;
the number of houfes to 736. The {cite of the caitle or
palace mentioned by Leland as belonging to Merwald, is
fuppofed to be the mount to the ealtward which overlooks
the Hay lane.

Berrington, about four miles to the north-eaft, was the
feat of the late Right Hon. Thomas Harley. About a mile
to the fouth-eaft from the town is Eaton, formerly the feat
of the Hackluyts, a family of great antiquity and refpe&-
ability. On the Brierley hills, about two miles fouth-weft-
ward from Leominfter, is Ivinton camp, a {trong fortifica-
tion divided into. two parts by an entrenchment more modern
than the outer works. This is fuppofed, with great pro-
bability, to be the camp occupied by Owen Glendour,
Price’s Hiftory of Leominiter, 8vo. Beauties of England

LrominsTER, a poft-town Of America, in Worcefter
county and ftate of Maffachufetts; 46 miles W. of Bof-
ton. Zthasa printing office and feveral neat buildings. This
townfhip was taken from Lancafter, incorporated in 1740,
and contains 1486 inhabitants. On the ftreams that pafs
through this town are feveral mills of different kinds. About
200,000 bricks are annually made here. The manufacture
of combs is alfo carried on in great perfeétion and with con-
fiderable profit.

LEON, in Ancient Geography, 2 promontory of Greece,
in the ifle of Eubcea.—Alfo, a promontory of the ifle of
Crete.—Alfo, a river of Phcenicia, Ptolemy.

Leon, in Geography, a province of Spain, called a king-
dom, fituated towards the N.W., and inclofed between Ef-
tramadura, Old Cattile, Galicia, and Portugal. Its form
isa kind of irregular long retangular figure. Its mean
length from N. to S. is eftimated at about 52 leagues, and its
mean breadth from E.to W. about 30 leagues. Thisis the
country which was formerly inhabited by the Vettones, men-
tioned by Strabo. It is bounded on the E. by Old Caftile;
onthe S.E andS. by Eftramadara ; on the W. by the pro-
vinces of Beira, Tra-los-Montes in Portugal, and Galicia ;
and on the N. by the Afturias. Its capital has given name
to the country, which was for a long time a feparate
monarchy ; but its crown was united with that of Cattile in
1069 ; but without lofing the title of kingdom. Its terri-
tory is mountainous ; neverthelefs it contains many beautiful
fields, good paitures, and large fertile vallies, which pro-
duce a great quantity of grain, as wheat, barley, &c. wine,
and excellent flax, bothin {mail quantities, vegetables, and
good fruits. 1ts mountains are covered with different kinds
of trees, and they afford iron and copper mines, mineral
waters, kc. The mules bred in this country are of a fupe-

I rior

LEON.

rior kind, and it furnifhes a good number of theep. The
river Duero almoit bifeéts the country. The kingdom of
Leon contains fix bifhoprics, viz. thofe of Leon, Salamanca,
Palencia, Zamora, Attorga, and Ciudad Rodrigo; fix
cathedral chapters, nine collegiate chapters, 2460 parifhes,
as well reétories as vicarages ; 196 convents, 23 hofpitals,
five afylums, two military governments, four intendencies
of provinces, a celebrated univerfity, four fuperior colleges;
25 colleges of all claffes, fix cities, 539 towns or boroughs,
2005 villages or fettlements, of which 76, formerly inhabited,
are now deferted. Its mountains that are particularly dif-
tinguifhed are thofe that form part of the Sierras of Pico
and Occa, formerly mount Idubeda; the former extends
from the E. of the fouthern point of the kingdom of Leon
tothe W.ot the fouthern point of Old Caftile: the latter
comes from the N. by E. point of Old Caftile, and extends
alittle way into the kingdom of Leon, at the S. point of
the E. Amongtt its rivers, which are numerous, we may
reckon the Sil, the Buroia, the Sabor, the Baeza, the
Arago, the Xero, the Pifuerga, the Alagon, the Agueda,
the Cea, the Exla, the Tuerta, the Obrega, and the Ber-
nefga, almoft all of whichrife in Leon or near its confines ;
the Duero, the Carrion, the Erefma, Rio de Salamanca or
Torme, &c. The principal towns of Leon are, on the N.
of the Duero, Leon, Aftorga, Zamora, Toro, Palencia,
Medina-del-Rio-Seco, Tor-de-Sillas, Villa Pando, Duenas,
Marfilla, Villa Franca, and Benevente; and on the S. of
the Duero, Salamanca, Ciudad Rodrigo, Alva-da-Tormes,
Pena-Arande, Pena-de-Frania, Carpio, Medina-del-Campo,
and Ledefma near Los Banos.

’ When the Gothic king Roderic was defeated by the
Moors in the battle of Xeres de la Frontera, the fugitives
difperfed to Galicia, A fturias, Lower Bifcay, and the coun-
try at the foot of the Pyrenees ; but their courage revived
and they rallied their forces under prince Pelagius, who, in
717, obtained a fignal victory over the Moors, and took pof-
feflion of Oviedo, of which he was acknowledged king. Hav-
ing regulated this little ftate, and gained new fubjeéts, he
again attacked the Moors, and retook from them the town of
Leon, and fome others. Thus was :aid the foundation of
this new kingdom, although Pelagius and his fucceffors only
took the title of kings of Oviédo or the Atturias, till
Ordagno II. who in gr5 affumed the title of king of Leon.
The kingdom of Leon pafled, in the year 1030, to Ferdi-
nand, furnamed the Great, then king of Cattile, by his
wife. In the kingdom of Leon there are 5598 fecular
priefts, 2064 monks, 1570 nmis, 196 convents, 2460 parifh
churches, 2695 villages, 31,540 nobles, 25,218 fervants,
and near 600,000 other inhabitants of all profeffions ; which
gives a total of about 665,000 perfons. The agriculture of
this country mizht be much improved, if the inhabitants avail-
ed themfelves of the water which their rivers fupply in the ir-
rigation of the land. They are alfo negligent in the culture
of fruit trees, and though they have fine rich paftures, their
flocks aresremoved from one part of the country to another.
The commerce of this province confifts chiefly of importa-
tion, and it fearcely furnifhes any thing to the neighbour-
ing provinces. It fends to Galicia part of the ferges and
baize manufactured at Rio Seco; but this is very trifling
compared with the goods which it is obliged to import. It
traffics in fome wines, fome of which, of an excellent kind,
are found in the country towards the S.E. Palencia had
formerly confiderable manufactories for cloth. At Zamora
there is ftilla manufaétory for hats; and they make fome
houfhold cloths in the country. The Englifh, by way of
Portugal, carry away, the madder of the environs of Ciudad

Rodrigo, and of Medina-del-Campo, In the province of

Leon there are four {prings of cold mineral waters. viz. at
Amutfco, about 31 leagues from Palencia, at Buron, at
Bavila-Fuente, four leagues E. of Salamanca, and Aftudillo,
nine leagues from Palencia. There are alfo four thermal
fprings, viz. near Almeyda, at Ledefma, at Bonar or Bonab,
fix leagues from Leon, and at Barnogs, near the frontiers of Ef-
tramadura and Cattile.. The inhabitants of this province are
very grave, and addiéted to taciturnity ; thofe who retain re-

‘mains of the national manners of Spain, and who live in the

mountains in the Mauregatos, near Aftorga, wear pyramidal
hats, a kind of ruff round the neck, a jacket or fhirt, and clofe
coat, wide breeches and f{patterdafhes. ‘The women of Mau-
regatos wear large ear-rings, a kind @f white turban, flat and
widened like a hat, and their hair parted on the forehead.
They have a chemife clofed over the chet, and a brown cor-
fet buttoned, with large fleeves opening behind. Their
petticoats and veils are alfo brown, Over all they wear
immenfe coral necklaces, defcending from the neck to the
knee; twifting them feveral times round the neck, pafling
them over the fhoulders, where a row is faftened that forms a
kind of bandage over the bofom ; another row is fufpended
lower than this ; and alfo a third and even a fourth row at
fome diltance from each other. The laft falls over the knee,
with a large crofs on the right fide. Thefe necklaces or
chaplets are ornamented with many filver medals, fhaped
with the figures of faints. Thefe ornaments are chiefly worn
on feftivals. On the days of religious folemnities, particu-
larly the Affumption, the fronts of the churches are illumi-
nated, bonfires are made before them, mulicians attend,
and the people dance all night; the women play the cattanets,
and are accompanied by an inftrument called ‘ Pandero,’”
which is a kind of tambour de bafque. De Laborde’s View
of Spain, vol. ii.

Leon, Legno, the capital of ‘the above province, or king-
dom, isa very ancient town, founded before the reign of Gal-
ba; it was called by the Romans ‘* Legio Septima Germa~
nica,’’ from the legion that bore that name being ‘tationed
there. This city is fituated between the two fourceés of the
Exla, which are called the rivers of Torio and Bernesja.
This is one of the moft famous and moft ancient epifcopal
fees in Spain, and pofleffed, in the time of the Gothic kings,
the privilege of appealing immediately to Rome. The
bifhop is fuffragan to the archbifhop of Compoftella, with-
out being in any refrect dependent on its jurifdiétion ; this
bifhopric poffeffes a revenue of 22,000 ducats. Its diocefe
contains 823 villages, 883 parifhes, 26 convents of monks,
11 of nuns, collegiates, and hofpitals. When the kings refided
here, tillthe 13th century, its population was contiderable;
but it is now much reduced. According to the ftatement
of 1788, there were within the jurifdiction of the intendant
of Leon 250,134 inhabitants. A great part of its walls
confilts of green marble. It contains 13 pariih churches,
one collegiate church, four convents of monks, five of nuns,
and a number of hofpitals and hermitages. Here are, the
royal ho:fes of San-Ifidoro and San-Marios of the order of
St. James ; anda chapter of noble canonefles, not cloiltered,
but who takethe vows. This town was the firft of any im-
portance which the Chriftians retook from the Moors.
Pelagius made himfelf matter of it in 722, fortified it, and
built a good caltle, to defend the approaches to it.

It had the honour of being the capital of the firlt Catholic
kingdom of Spain, and of being, for three centuries after the
invafion of the Arabs, the refidence of the kings. The
palace which the duke of Alphonfo built here at the end of the
12th century is ftillto befeen, “Among its moit {plendid:
edifices we may reckon the cathedral church, which in beauty
furpaffes the moft admired in Spain, and is one of the mott

4 attractive

Lz

attractive monuments of Gothic archite@ure. The hotel
of the counts of Luna is alfo large and handfome. The
town-houfe has a good appearance, with a tolerably regular
front. The palace of the Guzmam is magnificent, orna-
mented with a fuperb portal, and fecured by very ftrong
walls. Among the gates of the town one was formerly a fa-
mous prifon ; and at, the bottom is the ftatue of king Don Pe-
lagius, with an infcription, The Place Mayor has a beautiful
appearance. There is anumber of other fquares and hand-
fome fountains. Notwith{tanding the antiquity and import-
ance of this city it is very deficient in cleanlinefs, It is fur-
rounded by trees, and the country about it is every where
embellifhed ; it has beautiful promenades. as well as broad
and noble avenues of handfome trees. In the environs of the
town the corn harvetts are not abundant ; but this deficiency
is fupplied by many excellent vegetables, fruits, flax, and
verdant meadows, which furnifh good paftures. _ At Leon
there are feveral manufa¢tories for different woollen articles ;
ftockings, hofiery, leather, gloves, &c. are alfo made here.
Leon is 159 miles N.W. of Madrid. N. lat. 42°36’. W.long.
° Uy

; abe a town of Spain, jn Catalonia; 43 miles N.W of
Urgel. ;

Leon, a town of France, in the department of Stura ;
4miles N. of Savigliano.

Leon, Jfle of, a kind of ifland four leagues from Xerez,
in Andalufia, formed by a canal which furrcunds it, ten miles
long, and 24 feet deep in high water, and capable of admit-
ting the largeft fhips. This ifland was entirely deferted in the
feventeenth century, and there was fcarcely a houfe upon it.
At prefent the principal ftreet of the town is two miles
long, with rows of fhops.on each fide, and containing up-
wards of 2000 inhabitants. , Provifions are here abundant,
and the place exhibits a moving fcene. The ifland has an
alcade-mayor for the adminiftration of juftice ; a municipa-
lity compofed of a number of regidors, and a manufaéture
of ftained linen, refembling printed calico.

Leon, ariver which falls into the gulf of Mexico, from
the N.W., at the bay of St. Bernard.

Leon, a town of Mexico, in the province of Guadala-
jara; 40 miles E. of Guadalajara.

Leon, a town of Mexico, and capital of the extenfive
province of Nicaragua, fituated on a large lake of freth
water, abounding with fifh. It is a bifhopric, but a town
of little importance. It has about 1200 houfes, four
churches, and feveral convents. Its fituation near a moun-
tain, in which is a volcano, renders it fubje&t to earthquakes.
The lake is faid to ebb and flow like the fea. Realjo is a
{mall entrenched town, with an excellent port, and ferves
Leon the capital.

Leon de Caraccas. See CARaccas.

Leon de Guanuco. See Guanuco. ;

Lzon, New, one of the feven domains, called kingdoms,
into which the Spanifh dominions in North America are
diftributed. This name is reftri€ted by the maps toa {mall
province round the town of Monterey, which muft not be
confounded with another of the fame name, to the N. of
California, It is bounded on the N. by the Savage nations,
on the E. by New Mexico Proper, on the S. by a part of
Mexico, and on the W. by New Bifcay. New Leon pro-
per, a diftri@ ridiculoufly calleda kingdom, is divided from
Guadaleazar on the S. by the defert of Jaumave, and moun-
tains of Tamalipa. It is very mountainous, produces little
except lead, and is very thinly peopled. The other pro-
vinces of the domain of New Leon, befides New Leon pro-

er, are Sootander and Coaguila, or New Eftramadura.

LEONAN, a fmall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea, near

9

LEO
the N.E. coait or Borneo. N. lat. 6° 39/.
48'.

LEONARD of Pifa, in Biography, an Italian mathe-
matician, who flourifhed at the commencement of the thir-
teenth century, was the firft perfon who brought into Europe
the knowledge of the Arabic cyphers and algebra. He
gives an account of the fact himfelf, and fays, that being at
Bugia, a town in Africa, he was in{truéted in the Arabic
method of keeping accounts, and that, finding it more con-
venient, and preferable to the European method, he had
drawn up a treatife for the purpofe of introducing it into
Italy. From Italy the knowledge of the Arabic cyphers
and algebra was afterwards communicated to the other coun-
tries of Europe. He was author of a treatife on furvey-
ing, preferved in the Magliabecchi library at Florence.

LEONARDO Leo, principal organift of the chapel
royal at Naples, was not only admiréd and refpeéted by his
contemporaries, but his memory {till continues to be held in
reverence byevery profeffor that is acquainted with his works.
The firft opera of his compofition that we were able to find,
is « Sofomifba,’’ which was performed in Naplesin 1718,
and the lait, «* Siface,’’ in Bologna, 1737. Between thefe
he produced three operas for Venice, and four for Rome.
Leo likewife fet the «* Olimpiade”? of Metaftafio, in which
the duo, ‘“ Ne i giorni tuoi felice,”? and the air, “ Non fo
donde viene,” are admirable ; as is ‘* Per quel paterno am-
pleffo,”” in Artaferfe, the only air in that opera that we
have feen. ‘* Dirti ben mio vovice,’’ was in extreme high
favour, as fet by Leo, about the middle of the latt-cen-
tury, in England, where it was fure to be heard at every
mutical performance, both public and private. Leo like-
wife fet Metaftafio’s oratorio of ‘* St. Elena al Calvario,’’
of which we have feen fome very fine airs. His celebrated
«« Miferere,”’ in eight real parts, though imperfeally per-
formed in London at the Pantheon, for Anfani’s benefit,
1781, convinced real judges that it was of the higheft clafs
of choral compofitions.

The purity of his harmony, and elegant fimplicity of his
melody, areno lefs remarkable in fuch of thefe dramas as
we have been able to examine, than the judicious arrange-
ment of the parts. But the maffes and motets, which are
carefully preferved by the curious, and ftill performed in
the churches at Naples, have all the choral learning of
the fixteenth century. There are likewife extant, trios, for
two violins and a bafe, fuperior in corre€tnefs of counter-
point and elegance of defign to any fimilar productions of the
fame period. This complete mutiician is equally celebrated
as an inftruétor andcompofer ; and the ‘ Solfeggi,” which
he compofed for the ufe of the vocal ftudents, in the cor-
fervatorio over which he prefided at Naples, are {till eagerly
fought and ftudied, not only in:Italy, but in every part of
Europe, where finging is regularly taught.

This great mufician died about the year 1742, at the age
of fifty-three. His death was unhappily precipitated by an
accident which at firft was thought trivial ; for having a tu-
mour, commonly called a dur, on his right cheek, which
growing, in procefs of time, to a confiderable magnitude, he
was advifed to have it taken off; but whether from the un-
fkilfulnefs of the operator, or a bad habit of body, a morti-
fication enfued, which coft him his life. After expreffing
the reverence which we have always had from our earlieft
youth, for the produ@tions of this admirable compofer, we
fhall tranfcribe a character of him from « L’ Effai fur la Mu-
fique,’? drawn up with elegance, force, and feeling, which
does not feem to flow from an exclufive admirer of Rameau,
under the guidance of the intolerant preacher of the triple

progreffior.

E. long. 117°

* Leonardo

LEO

* Leonardo Leo, a Neapolitan, the firft mafter, and moft
fublime yenius for mufic of his time ; who is never mentioned
but with refpeét and admiration by every intelligent pro-
fefflor. They all aver that no compofer has given to mafic
that interefting elevation, chat impreflive dignity, which are
the principal charatteriltics of the {tyle of Leo. . A noble
4 always reigns in his compolitions; his ferious and

eeling charaéter has inftinCtively guided his pen. This has
made him partial to the chromatic, which he has fo ably
treated. In fpite of the difficulty of compofing in this
genus, he joins all the grace and {weetnefs which are fo de-
lightful, even in the moft natural mufic. His tafte and ex-
preffion will be always celebrated ; as all thefe natural gifts
were under the guidance of the moft profound knowledge
of his art. In fhort, this wonderful man cannot be too
highly praifed. His name and works are known to all Eu-
rope. He moft delighted in dramatic mufic, which, how-
ever, did not prevent him from enriching the church and
chamber with innumerable produtions of the mott finithed
kind. The following are fome of his operas ; in 1720,
Cajo Gracco ; in 1722, ‘Tamerlane and Bajazet ; in 1723.
Timocrate ; 1728, Argene; in 1729, Catone and Utica;
in 1735, La Clemenza di Tito ; and in 1737, Siface. This
truly great mufician died about the year 1742, at the age
of 53.”

LEONARDSTOWN, in Geography, a pott-town of
America, in the, ftate of Maryland, and capital of St.
Mary's county, fituated on the E. fide of Britton’s brook,
where it falls into Britton’s bay, five miles from its mouth
in the Patowmac; and containing about 50 houfes, a court-
houfe and gaol; 217 miles S.W. of Philadelphia. N. lat.

8718’.

3 LEONBERG, or Leonssenc, a town of Wurtemberg,
on the Glems; 6 miles W. of Stuttgart. N, lat. 487 51!
E. long. 9° 7’.

LEONE, one of the Navigator's ifles, about five miles
in circumference, E. of Fanfoué, from which it is feparated
by a channel.

. LEONES, a {mall ifland in the Atlantic, near the coaft
of Patagonia. S. lat. 50° 2’.

LEONESSA, atown of Naples, in Abruzzo Ultra:
19 miles N.W. of Aquila.

LEONFORTE, one of the largeft and handfomeft towns
in Sicily, ro miles from Argiro; fituated on an eminence.
The number of inhabitants amounts to 12,c00. The con-
vent of Capuchins is as populous as the town.

LEONI, a town of Naples, in Principato Ultra; 12
miles W. of Conza.

LEONICENUS, Nicuotas, in Biography, an eminent
Italian phyfician, was born in one of the Venetian {tates
in the year 1428. He was profeffor of medicine at Ferra-
ra during upwards of fixty years, and was the firft perfon
who undertook to tranflate the works of Galen into Latin.
In fact he was fo ftrongly attached to literary purfuits, and
to the duties of his profefforfhip, that he gave up little
time to the practice of his profeflion; and when his negli-
gence in this refpect was condemned, he faid, «* I do more
fervice to the public, than if I vifited the fick, by in{tructing
thofe who are to cure them.” He extended bis attention
alfo to the belles lettres, which he confidered as clofely con-
nected with the proper ftudy of philofophy and medicine ;
he wrote fome refpectable poetry, and tranflated into Italian
the hiitory of Dion Caffius, and the dialogues of Lucian.
Until the age of thirty, Leonicenus was tormented with fre-
quent attaeks of epilepfy, which reduced him at times to
melancholy and defpair. ‘This difeafe, however, afterwards
left him, and, by means of great regularity and temperance,

Vou. XX.

LEO

he attained the age of ninety-fix years, and died in 1524,
poffeffed of all his faculties, ‘Tio one who inquired, with
aftonifhment, by what fecret he had preferved this entire
poileflion of his faculties, together with an ereét body, and
vigorous health, at fo great an age, he replied, that it was
the effect of innocence of manners, tranquillity of mind, and
frugality in diet. The duke and fenate of Ferrara ereGted
a monument to his memory. He left feveral works, moft
of which have been feveral times reprinted. « De Plinii et
aliocum Medicorum in Medicina errovibus, &c."’ Ferrari,
1492. Inapokhumous edition, printed at Bafle, in 1532»
fome other opufcula were added, particularly « De Herbis,
Fru@icibus, Animalibus, Metallis, Serpentibus, Tiro feu
Vipera.""—** Liber de Epidemia quam Itali Morbum Galli
cum vocant, Galli vero Neapolitanum,” Venice, 1497. In
feveral fubfequent editions, the title «* De Morbo: Gal-
lico”’ was adopted.—* Praefationes in Libros Galeni a fe
tranflatos,’’ ibid. 1508, folio, with fome other treatifes.
“* Opus de tribus dotrinis ordinatis fecundum Galeni fen-
tentiam,"’ ibid. 1508, fol. Libri duo Galeni de curandi
ratione ad Glauconem Latiné verfi,"’ Paris, 1514, to.
‘«¢ Hippocratis A.phorifmorum Libri VII., Grece et La-
tine,”? ibid. 1526, 8y0. ‘* Convertio et explanatio primi
Libri. Ariftotelis de partibus Animalium,” Bafle, 154%,
8vo. * Galeni Ars Medica,’? Venice, 1606. Eloy Diét.°
Hitt. de Med.

LEONICO, Tomeo, Nicuoxas, was born jn Venice,
of an Albanian family, in the year 1456. He ftudied
Greek at Florence, and made fuch progreis, that he became
able to explain Ariftotle in the original language. For this
purpofe he was invited to Paduain 1497. He was brought
up tothe church, and taught the learned languages at Ve-
nice, but in 1520 he returned to Padua, where he gave in-
ftruétions to cardinal Pole. Pe was much attached to the
Platonic philofophy, and paffed his time remote from worldly
purfuits, and folely intent upon his ftudies. Bembo, Gio-
vie, and others, {peak of him with great efteem, and Eraf-
mus mentions him with honour, as a man equally refpectable
for the purity of his morals and the profundity of his erudi-
tion. Hedied in 1531, and was buried in the church of
St. Francis, at Padua. He tranflated feveral of the works
of Ariftotle, Proclus’s Commentary on the Timeus of
Plato, and other treatifes of the ancient philofophers. He
wrote ten dialogues on fubjeéts philofophical and moral, a
work, “ De Varia Hiftoria,”? and fome Italian poems.

LEONIDAS L., king of Sparta, fucceeded to the throne
in the year 491, B.C. -When Xerxes, king of Perfia, in-
vaded Greece, Leonidas was appointed by the Lacedemo-
nians to the chief command of their forces to oppofe him.
He marched at the head of 4000 men, to take poffeffion of
the ftraits of Thermopyle. Aware of the great danger of
the enterprize, he confidered himfelf as one devoted to the
fafety of the country. He pofted his fmall army fo fkilfully,
that the Perfians, on arriving at the ftraits, found that it
would be difficult to force them, and Xerxes endeavoured to
bribe the commander to his interelt, hy the offer of making
him matter of Greece. ‘The propofal was rejeSted with in-
dignation, and the monarch immediately fent a herald to
order the Grecians to-lay down their arms. ** Let him come
and take them,’’ was the reply of Leonidas. Thrice the
Perfians were repulfed with great lofs ; and whena trea-
cherous Greek had led a chofen body of 10,000 Perfians by
a fecret paffage to the rear of Leonidas, he was determined
to afford amemorable example of what the Greeks could do
when called upon to die for their country. Xerxes marched
his whole army to the entrance of the {traits, where Leoni-
das advanced to meet him, The efforts of valour, heighten.

32 ed

LEO

ed by defpair, were terrible, and the Spartan king fell amidft
aheap of flaughtered enemies. His friends defended his
body, till the appearance of the foe in the rear caufed the
furvivors to colleét into one clofe band, facing every way.
All thefe, overpowered by numbers, were left on the field
of battle, having amply revenged their fall. The Perfian
tyrant, enraged at his lofs, caufed the body of the hero to
be nailed to a crofs, but the memory of his valour and pa-
triotifm could not be obliterated, and the defence of Ther-
mopyle is confecrated among the nobleft actions of antiqui-
ty. The gratitude of his country raifed a {plendid monu-
ment upon the {pot to the fallen, and a funeral oration was
tor a long time annually pronounced amiditt the celebration
of martial games, over their tombs.

LEONINE, in Poetry, is applied to a kind of verfes
which rhyme at every hemiftich, the middle always chiming
to the end.

In this kind of verfe we find feveral ancient hymns, epi-
grams, prophecies, &c. Yor inftance ; Muretus, fpeaking
of the poetry of Lorenzo Gambaraof Brefle, fays,

«© Brixia veftrafes, que condunt carmina vates
Non funt nottrates tergere digna nates.”

The following one is from the fchool of Salernum :
“ Ut vites panam, de potibus incipe cenam.”’ °

The arigin of the word is fomewhat obfcure : Pafquier
derives it from one Leoninus, or Leonius, who excelled in
this way, and dedicated feveral pieces to pope Alex-
ander III. ; others derive it from pope Leo; and others,
from the beaft called /ion, becaufe it is the loftielt of all
verfes.

M. Fauchet makes the leonine rhyme the fame with what
the French call the rich, and we the double rhyme, i.e. where
two fyllables have the fame orthography, accentuation, and

ronunciation, with two others.

LEONOTIS, in Botany, fo called from Acw», @ lion, and
ovs, wros, the ear. Lion’s-ear. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl.
v. 1. 504, Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3.409. (Leonurus;
Tourn. t. $7.)—€lafs and order, Didynamia Gymmnofpermia.
Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Jul. Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
oblong, with ten flight ribs, permanent ; its orifice un-
equally toothed, with from fix to ten teeth. Cor. of one
petal, ringent ; tube cylindrical, longer than the calyx;
upper lip elongated, flightly concave, bearded, undivided ;
lower much fmaller, in three nearly equal fegments.' Siam.
Filaments four, concealed by the upper lip, two of them
longer than the reft; anthers of two oblong divaricated
lobes. Pi/f. Germen fuperior, four-lobed ; {tyle the length
and pofition of the ftamens ; {tigma cloven, acute, its upper
fegment fhortelt. eric. none, except the permanent calyx.
Seeds four, oblong, triangular.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with ten ribs ; unequally toothed. Upper
lip of the corolla elongated, bearded, undivided ; lower
much fmaller, in three nearly equal fegments. Lobes of
the anthers divaricated. Upper fegment of the ftigma
fhortett.

1. L. nepetifolia. Catmint-leaved Lion’s-ear. (Phlomis
nepetifolia; Linn. Sp. Pl. 820. Cardiaca americana annua,
nepete folio, floribus brevibus pheeniceis villofis; Herm.
Lugd. Bat. 115. t. 117.)—Leaves heart-fhaped, pointed.
Calyx with eight fpinous teeth; the upper one largeit.
Stem herbaceous.—Native of the Eaft Indies, from whence
fir Jofeph Banks procured it for Kew garden in 1778. It is
a tender annual, kept in the ftove, and flowering in Septem-
ber and O&ober. Hermann received the feeds from Suri-

LEO

nam; Linnzus from the Eaft Indies, and it flowered im
the Upfal garden. The whole plant is hoary, with extreme-
ly foft minute pubefcence. Stem four or five feet high, qua-
drangular, with oppofite fpreading branches. . Leaves oppo-
fite, two or three inches long, and one or two broad, heart-
fhaped, veiny, deeply crenate or ferrated, pointed, on /lalks
of their own length. /oqwers in denfe whorls, with linear
{pinous draéeas, and ftrongly fpinous calyx-teeth. Corolla
about an inch long, moft elegantly clothed with denfe fcarlet
hairs, paler at the edges.

2. L. Leonurus. Narrow-leaved Lion’s-ear. Lion’s-tail.
(Phlomis Leonurus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 820. Curt. Mag. t. 478.
Leonurus capitis bone {pei; Breyn. Cent. t. 86.)—Leaves
lanceolate. Calyx with ten regular teeth, five {maller than
the reft.—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence
it was brought into the European gardens, for the fake of
its beauty, early in the laft century, and is ftill kept in
greenhoufes, being propagated by cuttings, and flowering
abundantly in autumn. The /fem is fhrubby, feven or eight
feet high. Leaves lanceolate, rather narrow, bluntly fee.
rated, about two inches long, of a dull green, roughifh, ta-
pering down into fhort footitalks. F/owers large, in denfe
bra€teated whorls. Calyw downy, its teeth regular, very
fmall, and fearcely fpinous; the five alternate ones {maller
than the reft. Corolla two inches long, flender, incurved,
downy, of a fine tawny orange, or fomewhat fearlet colour,
the lower lip fmall and brown. ;

3. L. Leonitis, Round-leaved Lion’s-ear. (Phlomis Leo-
nitis; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 128. Ph. Leonotis; Linn.
Mant. 83. Leonurus minor, capitis bone {pei; Mill. Ic.
t. 162. f.1.)—Leaves ovate, blunt, crenate. Calyx with
eight awned teeth; the upper one largeft. _ Stem fhruibby.
—Native of the Cape of Good Hope, from whence it was
brought early in the laft century, but islefs frequent in our
ereenhoufes than the foregoing ; from which it differs in its
{maller fize, roundifh long-ftalked {mall /eaves, and rather
fhorter more obtufe corolla, befides the effential diftin@tions
of the calyx.

LEONTARI, in Geography, a town of the Morea; 20
miles N.W. of Mifitra.

LEONTESERES, in the Natural Hiffory of the An-
cients, the name of a {pecies of agate, famous in early times
for its imaginary virtues in taming the rage of wild beatts,
and not a little efteemed among us for its beauty. It is the
moft variegated of all the agates. Its ground colour is yel-
low, and its variegations are flame-coloured, white, black, and
green.

Sometimes it is one irregular congeries of all thefe co-
lours, but more frequently it is very beautifully variegated
with them in form of clouds and veins ; the black and green
particularly are ufually difpofed in concentric circles round
one or more points. It is found only in the Eat Indies, and
is very fcarce.

LEONTEVKA, in Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Novgorod; 40 miles S.E. of Valdai.

LEONTIASIS, in Medicine, a name given by the an-
cients to the elephantiafis, improperly called the Arabian
leprofy, from a {uppofed refemblance of the tuberculated
countenance of the patient, in fome inftances, to the vilage
of the lion (0). See ELEPHANTIASIS, j

LEONTICA, featts, or facrifices celebrated among the
ancients, in honour of the fun.

They were called /eontica, and the priefts who officiated
at them J/eones, becaufe they reprefented the fun under the
figure of a lion radiant, bearing a tiara, and griping in his
two fore-paws the horns of a bull, who ftruggled with him,
in vain, to difengage himfelf. tn

©

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The crities are extremely divided about this fealt: fome
_will have it anniverfary, and to have made its return not in
a folar, but in a lunar year; but others hold its return more
frequent, and give inftances where the period was not above

220 days.

. The ceremony was fometimes alfo called Mithriaca ;
Mithras being the name of the fun among the ancient
Perfians.

There was always a man facrificed at thefe fealts, till the
time of Hadrian, who prohibited it by a law. Commodus
introduced the cuftom afreth, after whofe time it was again
exploded.

LEONTICE, in Botany, a name adopted by Linnzus
from Pliny, as a fubftitute for Leontopetalon of 'Tournefort.
(See Leonroretaton.) Lion’s-leaf. Linn. Gen. 168.
Schreb. 223. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 148. Mart. Mill. Did.
v. 3. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 2.272. Sm. Prodr. Fl.
Grec. Sibth. v. 1. 234. Jufl. 287. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 254.
—Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Cory-
dales, Linn. Berberides, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of fix linear, fpreading
deciduous leaves, the intermediate ones {maller. Cor. Petals
fix, ovate, acute, twice as long as the calyx, Nectary of
fix half-ovate, fpreading, equal, ftalked fcales, inferted into
the bafe of the petals. Stam. Filaments fix, thread-fhaped,
very fhort, oppofite to the petals ; anthers erect, of two
cells, and two valves, burfting from the bafe upwards.
Piff. Germen fuperior, oblong-ovate ; ityle fhort, nearly
cylindrical, inferted obliquely upon the germen; ftigma

fimple. Peric. Berry hollow, inflated, globofe with a
point, of one cell, but flightly fucculent. Seeds few, glo-
bofe.

Eff. Ch. Corolla.of fix petals. Neétary of fix fpread-
ing {talked leaves, attached to the bafe of the petals, Calyx
of fix leaves, deciduous. Berry inflated, of one cell. Seeds
few, globofe.

1. L. Chryfogonum. Pinnated Lion’s-leaf. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 447. (Leontopetalo affinis, foliis quernis ; Moris. v. 2.
285. fect. 3.t. 15. f..7. Chryfogonum Diofcoridis ; Rauw.
It. t. 119. Chrifogono di Diofcoride ; Pon. Bald. 141.)—
Leaves radical, pinnated, deeply cut—Native of corn-fields
in Greece. Dr. Sibthorp gathered this {pecies near Aby-
dos. It is much to be regretted that fo curious a plant,
though cultivated by Miller, is now a ftranger to our gar-
dens, and that even dried fpecimens are fo very rare. Whe-
ther it be really the xpusoyrv» of Diofcorides, his fhort
defcription muft ever leave doubtful. The /eaves are not
much like an oak, nor the flower like a Mullein, though the
tuberous root may be compared to aturnip. He defcribes
his as very red within. “Authors reprefent our’s as having
a perennial, flefhy, fomewhat conical reot, producing feveral
upright {talked /eaves ; thefe are about a {pan long, fmooth,
rather glaucous, limply pinnate ; the leaflets not quite oppo-
fite, about nine or ten pair, feffile, oblong or roundifh, either
wedge-fhaped or in fome degree heart-fhaped at the bafe,
entire at the fides, but more or lefs deeply cut towards the
top. in our fpecimens they are by no means fo deeply
divided as in the figures above quoted, which have led pro-
feffor Wilidenow to fuppofe them whorled. Flower-/lalks
one or two, radical, a little taller than the leaves, many-
flowered, branched, corymbofe, round, {mootb, leafleis.
BraGeas elliptical, coloured, folitary at the bafe of each
branch, Flowers yellow, fomewhat like thofe of Celan-
dine. Anthers ovate before they burtt.

2. Li. Leontopetalum. Common Lion’s-leaf. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 448. (Leontopetalon ; Camer. Epit. 565. Ger. om.
236. Barrel. Ic. t. 1029, 1030. Moris. y. 2. tet. 3. t. 15.

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f, 6.) —Radical leaves twice or thrice ternate; ftem-leaves
ternate.—A bundant in corn-fields in the Levant, flowering
early in the fpring, and ripening fruit in May. Gerarde
fays, lord Zouch in his time brought a plant from Italy,
but, as far as he knew, it perifhed. Miller, however, ap-
pears to have raifed both this and the preceding from feed,
but could not preferve them, on account of the unfayour-
able {pring fo ufual here. Rost tuberous, perennial. Stem
folitary, erect, 12 or 18 inches high, branched, fmooth,
leafy. Radical eaves fomewhat like thofe of a Columbine,
on long ftalks, twice or thrice ternate, the leaflets rounded
or obovate, entire, confluent or decurrent, veiny ; thofe of
the ftem much fmaller, and fcarcely more than fimply ter-
nate. Flower-flalks corymbofe, foon racemofe, with ovate
concave bradeas. Flowers yellow, copious, much like the
laft. Fruit aninch long, more or lefs ovate, foon becoming *
a dry, membranous, curioufly reticulated bag, in the bot-
tom of which are three or four large round feeds. ‘The
Leantice incerta of Pallas, in his Travels, v. 3. 726.t. V.f. 35
which Willdenow has adopted by the name of L. veficaria,
feems a mere variety, differing a little, as is perhaps ufual,
in the fhape of the fruit, but otherwife agreeing exaGtly with
the Leontopetalum. Pallas was in doubt refpecting it, as
having feen nothing of the flowers.

3- L. altaica. Fingered Lion’s-leaf. Willd. n. 4. Pallas.
A&G. Petrop. for 1779. 257. t. 8.f. 1—3. Willd. Lamarck.
f. 2.—Radical leaves twice compound ; ftem-leaves fingered,
oblong.—Difcovered by Pallas on expofed parts of thie
Altay mountains. We have never feen this fpecies, but
Willdenow, who examined a dry fpecimen, fays, ‘ the ra-
dical kaves have their ftalk firlt three-cleft, and that each
divifion bears five elliptic-lanceolate, entire leaflets at its
fummit ; the ftem-leaves are in like manner quinate, gene-
rally three together in a whorl. Sraéeas elliptical, ob-
tufe.”? This latter part of the defcription accords with
Lamarck’s figure, copied, we prefume, from Pallas.

4. L. thaliGroides. Columbine-leayed Lion’s-leaf. Linn,
Sp. Pl. 448. (Canlophyllum thaliétroides; Michaux Bo-
reali-Amer. v. I. 205. t. 21.)—Stem-leaves twice or thrice
ternate ; terminal leaflets three-lobed, acute.— Native of
North America. It was procured from thence by Peter
Collinfon before 1755, and is {till preferved in fome curious
gardens, flowering in May. Root perennial. Stem a fooi,
high or more, ereét, fimple, bearing one thrice compoud
leaf, and another, clofe to the flowers, twice compound, both
feffile, but with long partial {talks ; leaflets dark green
above, glaucous beneath, rounded at the bafe, with two or
three deep acute fegments at their fore part ; as the fruit
advanees they become more rounded and much enlarged,
refembling fome large kind of Meadow-rue, or Columbine.
Flowers green, ina{mall, flightly compound, flender, ftalked
clufter, with little ovate acute bra@eas. The whole plant
is {mooth. Michaux defcribes the frwit as more pulpy than
in the above {pecies, and fingle-feeded, like the drupa of the
floe, but this is hardly fufficient perhaps to eitablifh, as he
does, a new genus. We findthe erry hollow, and appa-
rently fomewhat inflated, though far lefs than in the fecond
{pecies. American botanifts mult folve this difficulty.

5. L. triphylla. Three-leaved Lion's leaf.—Leaves ra-
dical, ternate, bluntly toothed. Stalk radical, fimple.
Flowers fpiked.— Gathered by Mr. Archibald Menzies, on
the weit coalt of North America. The root is perennial,
fomewhat creeping. Leaves folitary, on a flender, fimple,
upright, {mooth footfalk, about ten or twelve inches high,
with a few imbricated, elliptical, concave, ribbed fcales at
its bafe; leaflets three, feflile, two inches wide, fmooth, pale
green, beautifully reticulated with innumerable veins; ra-

242 * ther

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ther wedge-fhaped at their bafe, the fide-ones dilated late-
rally ; the outer margin of all wavy or bluntly toothed.
Flower-falk folitary, from the fame bud with the leaf,
but a little taller, fimple, flender, naked. Spike terminal,
about an inch long, of numerous, feffile, white flowers,
of whofe calyx or corolla we can find no traces, but the
ftamens agree fo well with thofe of Z. Leontopetalum, in their
very peculiar {truéture, that we venture to refer our plant to
this genus. The filaments are extremely flender at their bafe ;
the germen is ovate, with a thick, nearly feflile, oblique /tigma.

Lrontice is alfo a plant mentioned by the ancient
Greeks, and called by them cacalia.

Diofcorides tells us it had thefe names in common, and
that it was of great virtue in curing difeafes of the a/pera
arteria, or wind-pipe.

This medicinal plant of the Greeks was very different
from that we now call cacalia. Some have deferibed it to
have flowers like the oak, others like the olive-tree, but the
old manufcripts of Diofcorides all fay, the flowers were
like thofe of bryony. Hence it couid by no means be
the cacalia of the moderns ; nor is it eafy to fay, from fuch
fhort and uncertain accounts, what it was. See the pre-
ceeding article.

LEONTINI, or Leontium, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Sicily, called alfo, as Diodorus informs us, Xuthia,
a name given probably to the {mall diftri& in which it is fitu-
ated. It was fituated, according to Herodotus’s account of
it, between two rivers, which, after their jun&tion, ran into
the fouthern part of the gulf of Catana. One to the S. was
called « Liflus,’ now Liffo, and the other to the N. * Te-
rias,”? called St. Leonard’s ftream. The town was built, at
the fame time with Catania, by the Chalcidians, under the
conduct of Theocles, the Athenian, in the 1{t year of the
13th Olympiad, as we are informed by Thucydides; in
whofe time it was defended by two ftrong citadels, one
ealled the citadel of Phocea, the other the citadel of Bri-
einnia. The adjacent territory was fo fruitful, that it yielded,
according to Pliny, crops of corn an hundred fold, and
Cicero cal!s.it the grand magazine of Sicily. Its wines
were the molt delicious of the whole ifland, but the inhabit-
ants perverted the benefit into an occafion of intemperance,
fo that it became a proverbial faying, “the people of Le-
ontini are always at their cups.’ Leortium had its tyrants
as well as Syracufe, and between thefe two cities there fub-
fifted a conftant rivalfhip and enmity. This was the birth-
place of the celebrated rhetorician Gorgias, whofe eloquence
aftonifhed even the Athenians, and who perfuaded them to
andertake the unfortunate expedition under Nicias. Leon-
tium at length fell under the power of Syracufe, Dio-
nyfius the tyrant having removed the inhabitants thither.
The fituation of the caltle, and the fertility of the country,
rendered Leontium at all times a place of importance to the
= different nations which poffeffed Sicily. “The earthquake of
+1693 completed its deftru€tion, and reduced it to its prefent
ftate of wretchednefs. ‘Phe ancient city, built on four hills,
prefents to the obferver nothing but a {pot of ground torn
by four ravines, which lay open a few wretched grottos,
the fole remains of its former greatnefs. The cattle ftood
on a detached rock, oppolite to the city, which was ori-
ginally hewn out of it, and has been fucceflively built and
rebuilt according to the ftyle cf diflerent ages, and the pre-
vailing modes of befieging and defending places. ‘lhe
rich country of Leontium, fo luxuriant in cern, is now
ealled the plain of Catania; it is 12 miles wide by 20 in
length, and was formerly the country of the Lettrigons,
divided and bathed by the “ Simacthus,” the largeft river
in Sicily, which rolls along in its ream a quantity of black

LEO

and yellow amber, which is fought for where it difgorges
itfelf into the fea, and is wafhed up at Catania.

LEONTIUM, in Biography, an Athenian courtezan, at
one time noted for the licentioufnefs of her life, and after-
wards diftinguifhed by her application to the ftudy of the Epi-
curean philofophy. It has been afferted, that fhe did not de-
filt from her intrigues after fhe was an attendant on Epicurus,
but proftituted herfelf to the difciples of his {chool, and ever
to the philofopher himfelf. She became the wife of Me-
trodorus, one of the principal difciples of Epicurus, and
had a fon by him, whom Epicurus commended to the no-
tice and regafd of his executors. Leontium applied with
great diligence to the ftudy-of philofophy, and wrote, in
defence of the Epicurean do@trines, againft 'Theophrattus,
one of the principal of the Peripatetic feét. The book is
acknowledged by Cicero to have been written in a polite
and elegant ityle. Bayle. Moreri.

LEONTIUS, furnamed the Scholaffic, who flourifhed
in the fixth century, was a native of Conftantinople, was
educated an advocate and afterwards became a mouk. He
lived till about the clofe of the century. The principal
work of Leontiusis ** A Treatife on the Seéts of Heretics,’’
divided into ten difcourfes. It was publiflied in Greek and
Latin at Bafil, in 1578. He was alio author of various.
treatifes againft the Eutychians, Neftorians, and Appollina-
rifts; a difcourfe on the feftival celebrated between Eaf-
ter and Whitfunday ; and there are ‘¢ Orations’” and ** Ho-
milies’’ afcribed to him in the Bodleian and Vienna libra-
ries. Moreri.

LEONTODERON, in Natural Hiffory, a name giver:
by feveral authors to a f{pecies of agate, of a plain yellowifh
colour, without variegations.

LEONTODON, in Botany, derived from Ac», Atco,
a lion, and é3ov-, a tooth, and io called from a fimilarity in
the fhape of its jagged leaves to the teeth of alion. Lin-
neus beltowed this name upon the genus in juft preference
to the compound one of Dens Leonis given by Tournefort,
The Englifh name Dencelion, which is a corruption of Den?
de Lion, is expreffive of the fame idea, and might poflibly
have given rife to its botanical appellation. Dr. Smith has
deferibed the leaves of Leontedon Taraxacum, in his Intro-
dudtion to Botany, p. 157, as runcinate or lion-toothed, cut
into feyeral trauverfe, acute fegments, pointing backwards.
A ftriking character of this fort, which, at firit fight, fug-
gefts a name, borrowed from fome familiar or popular re-
femblance, is always defirable, and is fufficiently apparent
in this genus.— Linn. Gen. 402. Schreb. 529. Willd. Sp.
Pl. v. 3. 1544. Mart. Mill. Di&. v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. v. 2.
822. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 3. 120. Gaertn. t. 158. (Dens
Leonis; Tournef. t. 266. Taraxacum; Juli. 169. La-
marck. Illuftr. t. 653.)—Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly- ~
gamia “Equalis. Nat. Ord. Compofite Semiflofculofe, Linn:
Cichoracee, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common calyx imbricated, oblong ; its interior
feales lirear, parallel, equal ; outer feales fewer nm number,
often reflexed at the bafe. Cor. compound, imbricated,
uniform; the florets hermaphrodite, numerous, equal, each
of one petal, ligulate, linear, abrupt, with five teeth. Stam.
Filaments five, capillary, very fhort; anthers united into a
cylindrical tube. Pi/?. Germen nearly ovate ; ftyle thread-
fhaped, as long as the florets; ftiigmas two, revolute.
Peric. none, except the oblong, ftraight, at length reflexed,
calyx. Sveds folitary, oblong, rough ; down capillary, {ti-
pitate. Recept. naked, dotted.

Eif. Ch. Receptacle naked. Calyx double, imbricated
with rather lax fcales. Down. ftalked, hairy.

1. L. Zaraxacum. Common Dandelion. Linn. Sp. Ph

I E122.

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yt22. Engl. Bot. t. 510. Curt. Lond. fafc. 1. €. 58.

—Outer fcales of the calyx reflexed. Leaves lion-toothed,
fmooth. Perhaps the moft common of all plants, in mea-
dows, paftures, on rubbifh and on all cultivated land,
flowering from April to July. This troublefome though
handfome eed, has a deep and branching perennial root.
Leaves radical, runcinate, toothed, of a bright green cclour,
{mooth. J*lower-/alés fimple, longer than the leaves, hollow,
brittle, milky and fingle-flowered. J°/ower terminal, large,
golden-coloured, clofing in the evening. Sty/es hairy. Seeds
obovate, furrowed, bearing on a long footitalk a tuft of
fimple, radiated down. The diuretic qualities of this plant,
which caufed it to be called Piffnlit in French, procured it
a fimilarly expreffive name in this country, by which it is
well known to the vulgar. The whole herb is milky and
bitter, but like Lettuce or Celery becomes {weet by culture
or blanching. Curtis remarks that the French are very
partial to this fpecies in their falads. It is efpecially ufed
by the poorer fort of people, becaufe it is fo common and
fo eafily prepared.

2. L. paluffris. Marth Dandelion. Sm. Fl. Brit. 823.
Lyons Fafc. 48. Engl. Bot. t. 553. (L. lividus; Willd.
n. 3.)—Outer feales of the calyx fhorter, upright, ovate.
Leaves finuated and toothed, nearly fmooth. Found gene-
rally on moors and marfhes. At Hinton Moor, in Cam-
bridgefhire, by the Rev. Mr. Relhan, and at Heydon, Nor-
folk, by the Rev. Mr. Bryant. It flowers in June and
July. Root perennial, fpindle-fhaped. Leaves not quite fo
diltn&ly lion-toothed as in Taraxacum, fometimes inclined
to be hairy. Flower-falks about as long as the leaves,
fometimes decumbent. Calyx imbricated on all fides; its
fcales gradually fmaller outwards, ovate, acute, all ered.
Filorets golden-coloured, the outer ones purplifh at their
back. Seeds and Don very fimilar to the former {pecies.
Indeed this was confidered merely as a variety of that,
till Dr. Smith eftablithed the prefent plant in his Englifh
Botany. The whole herbage is more delicate and flender
than that of the commen Dandelion.

3. L. ferotinus. Late-flowering Dandelion. Waldf.
and Kitaib. Pl. Rar. Hung. v. 2. 119. t. 114. Willd —
Outer calyx fpreading. Stalk fingle-flowered. Leaves
runcinate rough, their teeth rounded and notched. A na-
tive of hills in Hungary.—Flower-/falk generally fmooth,
fometimes downy. ‘he fpecies is fufficiently marked as
being diftiné from ZL. Faravacum, to which it is nearly
allied in habit, from having the feales of its calyx {preading
and tticking out in all directions; its Aaves are alfo rough,
their lobes rounded and toothed.

4. L. levigatus. Smooth Dandelion. Willd. n. 4.—Outer
ealyx erect, clofe-preffed ; feales ovate. Stalk fingle-flow-
ered. Leaves deeply runcinate, toothed, {mooth. A native
of Spain. Radical leaves deeply runcinate, almoft pinna-
tifid, very fmooth and thin; teeth triangular, notched.
Flower-ftalks fmooth, afcending. Scales of the outer calyx
ovate, clofely-prefled. It differs abundantly from L. palu/-
tris in having its leaves more flender, and deeply cut, with
triangular notches.

5. L. obevatus. Obovate Dandelion. Willd. n. 5.—
Outer calyx {preading ; fcales ovate. Stalks fingle-flowered.
Leaves obovate, rather obtufe, toothed. Found, like the
lait, in Spain. Leaves obovate, generally very obtufe,
fometimes rather acute, toothed at the margin, fmdoth ;
their footftalks and mid-rib fometimes fringed. Calyx
furnifhed with external acute, fpreading feales. This is
decidedly diltinguithed. from all the other fpecies by the
Shape of its leaves.

LEO

This genus is much more ample as it ftands in Linnzus.
We have adopted all the fpecies retained by Willdenow,
who has removed the reft to different genera, as follows.
Leontodon bulbofus, and aureus, are referred to Hieracium:
L. haftilis, tuberofus, autumnalis, alpinus and hi/pidus to Apar-
gia of Schreber: L.. hirtus to Thrincia of Roth., and he
has followed Swartz in calling ZL. tomentofus, Tuffilago al-
bicans. We do not {cruple following Willdenow in reform-
ing the genus of Leontodon, ef{pecially as we have the au-
thority of Jacquin and Smith for having done fo in Tra-
Sopogon.

Lronropon Taraxacum, or Common Dandelion, in the
Materia Medica, &c. The young leaves of this plant in a
blanched {tate have the talte of endive, and make an ex-
cellent addition to thofe plants eaten early in the fpring
as falads. At Gottingen the roots are roafted and fub-
itituted for coffee by the poorer inhabitants; who find
that an infufion prepared in this way can hardly be diftin-
guithed from that of the coffee-berry. Dandelion is gene-
rally conlidered by medical writers as the moft aétive and
efficacious of the lattefcent plants; the expreffed juice is
fomewhat acrid, the root {till more bitter, and poffefling more
medicinal power than any other’ part of the plant. ‘T’arax-
acum has been long in repute as a mild detergent and ape-
rient, and its diuretic efleéts may be inferred from the vulgar
name it bears in moft of the European languages, “ quafi
lectiminga et urinaria herba dicitur.”” Bergius recommends
its ufe im obitru€tions of the liver, hypochondriatis, and
Jaundice. We have various proofs of the gocd effeéts of
the Taraxacum related by different authors, in jaundice,
dropfy, pulmonic tubercles, and fome cuianeous diforders.
The leaves, roots, flower-ftalks, and juice of dandelion have
all been feparately employed for medical purpofes, and
feem to differ rather in degree of ftrength than in any effen-
tial property ; therefore the expreffed juice, or a ftrong de-
cottion of the roots, has been moft commonly preferibed,
from one ounce to four, two or three times a day. The
plant fhould be always ufed frefh; for even extraéts pre-
pared from it appear to lofe much of their power by keep-
ing. —Woodv. Med. Bot.

LEONTODONTOIDES, in Botany. See Hyoseris..

LEONTOPETALO Aprrinis. See LEonrice.

LEONTOPETALOIDES, the name of a genus of
plants defcribed by Dr. Amman, being a fpecies of the
leontice of Linneeus ; which fee. See alfo Tacca.

LEONTOPETALON, from Atwyy Asovjo:, a lion, and
mladov, a leaf. Lion’s-leaf. Tourn. Cor. 49. t. 484-
See Lronrice.

LEONTOPODIUM, from Aw, a lon, and rec,
moder, the foot, has been applied as a name to feveral
plants, whofe thick and foft hairinefs, enveloping their
flowers or ftalks, asthe claws of a lion are enveloped, feems
to have given rife to the idea. Among thefe are Myo/atis
JScorpioides ; feveral {pecies of Gnaphalium, efpecially the
elegant Filago Leontopodium of Linnzus, now reftored by
Willdenow, very juitly, to Gnaphalium, where Linnzus at
firft placed it ; Alchemilla vulgaris, called Leontopodium by
Brunfelfius, v. 2.53 ; and Plantago creticw, the Leontopodium
of Clufius. What Diofcorides, the father of the name, in-
tended by his Accvjorsciov, is very difficult to be guefled. Dr.
Sibthorp thought it might be Micropus eredus, which is very
common in Cyprus and feveral of the Greek iflands ; but-it
hardly anfwers to the defcription.

LEONTOPOLIS, or Leonron, in Ancient Geagraphyy
a town of Egypt, and capital of a nome, which took the
name of. “* Leontopolitesnomos.” Ptolemy..

LEQNURUS,

LEO
\ “LEONURUS, from Arwyy a lion, and apo, a tail; a name

given by Tournefort to fome Linnwan fpecies of Phlomis,
(fee Leonoris,) but applied by Linnzus to the Cardiaca of
Tournefort, for which it is now retained. Motherwort.—
Linn. Gen. 295. Schreb.391. Willd. Sp. Pl. v 3. 114.
Mart. Mill. Dict. v.3, Aut. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 405.
Sm. Fl. Brit. 637. Brown, Prod. Noy, Holl. v. 1. 504.
Juf 114. Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 509. (Cardiaca ; Tourn.
t. 87.) —Clafs and order, Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat.
Ord, Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Jul.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
with five angles, and five awl-fhaped, {pinous teeth, perma-
nent. Cor. of one petal, ringent; tube narrow; limb
gaping; throat long; upper lip longeft, femicylindrical,
concave, gibbous, fhaggy, rounded and obtufe at the top,
undivided ; lower reflexed, in three deep fegments, not quite
equal. ‘Svam. Filaments four, concealed under the upper
lip, two of them fhorter than the others ; anthers oblong,
incumbent, their lobes parallel, and near to each other,
befprinkled with minute, globular, fhining, elevated granu-
lations. Pi. Germen fuperior, four-cleft; ftyle thread-
fhaped, the length and fituation of the ftamens; ftigma in
two equal acute fegments. Peric. none, the permanent ca-
lyx containing the feeds in its cavity. Seeds four, oblong,
convex on one fide, angular at the other.

Eff. Ch. Calyx with five teeth, pentagonal. Upper lip
of the corolla concave, hairy, undivided ; lower in three
deep, rather unequal, fegments. Anthers with parallel
lobes. Stigma equally divided.

1. L. crifpus. Cut-leaved Motherwort, Murray in
Linn. Syit. Veg. ed. 14.538. Nov. Comm. Goett. v. 8.
44. t. 4 —Leaves with three or five lobes, deeply toothed,
rugged and wavy. Corolla longer than the calyx.—Native
of Siberia. Said to have been cultivated in the Oxford
garden in 1658. It has all the appearance of being a luxu-
riant or monitrous variety of the following.

2. L. Cardiaca. Common Motherwort.
Pl. 817... Engl. Bot. t. 286. Fl. Dan. t, 727. (Car-
diaca; Ger.em. 705. Camer. Epit. 864. Rivin. Monop.
Irr, t. 20. £ 1.)—Upper leaves lanceolate; three-lobed or
undivided. Corolla longer than the calyx ; the middle lobe
of its under lip acute —Native of wafte ground in the more
northern parts of Europe, not frequent in England. It
loves a gravelly or calcareous foil, and is perennial, flowering
in July and Auguft. The 4erd is bitter, with a pungent un-
pleafant fmell. Stem a yard high, purplifh, fquare, regu-
larly befet with numerous, oppolite, ftalked, roughifh, dark-
green leaves ; of which the lower are broadeft, three-lobed,
and more or lefs deeply cut; the upper gradually narrower
and lefs divided, till they become lanceolate, acute, and
quite entire. F/owers numerous, in denfe whorls. Braéeas
awl-fhaped, pungent. Calyx-teeth {preading, rigid, nearly
equal, broad at the bafe. Corolla purple, variegated ; its
upper lip elegantly villous with white hairs. The anthers are
marked with fhining points, butthatisnot peculiar tothe genus.

. L. Marrubiafirum. — Small-flowered Motherwort.
Linn. Sp. Pl. 817. Ehrh. Pl. Exfice. n. 157. Jacq. Auttr.
t. 405 —Leaves ovato-lanceolate, ftrongly ferrated. Co-
solla fcarcely longer than the calyx; the middle lobe of its
under lip rounded, obtufe——Native of Bohemia, Germany,
Tartary and Siberia. The /eaves vary in breadth, and are
either itrongly ferrated or entire, but never cut or jagged
like the preceding. The calyw-ieeth alfo are narrower and
longer; and the corolle totally different, fcarcely exceeding
the length of the calyx, but flightly downy, and the middle
lobe of its under lip almoft heart-thaped, or at leait dilated

Linn. Sp.

ky bpd.

and very blunt. The roof moreover is faid to be only annual,
er biennial. The plant has little to excite notice, and is
only kept in curious gardens. ;

4. L. fupinus. Decumbent Motherwort. ‘Willd. n. 5,
—* Leaves mottly five-lobed ; the lobes obtufe, toothed at
the fummit. Calyx feffile. Stems afcending.’’—Native of
Siberia, communicated to profeffor Willdenow by his friend
Stephan. “ Root perennial. Stems feveral, half a foot high,
afcending, branched, fquare, downy. Leaves oppofite, half
an inch long, with three or five lobes, which are oblong,
fomewhat wedge-fhaped and obtufe, furnifhed at the extre-
mity with three or five obtufe teeth; downy on both fides,
efpecially the under. ootfalks the length of the leaves.
Whorls of four to fix flowers, feflile. Bradeas briftle-
fhaped, pointed, downy, fhorter than the calyx. Calyx
downy, its fegments ovate, {pinous. Corolla whites rather
longer than the calyx, its lip three-lobed, obtufe.’? Such
is Willdenow’s defcription, made from the dried plant, which
in almoft every minute particular accords fo well with our
Lamium palmatum, (fee Lamium,) that we fhould conclude
them to be the fame, were it not for the bradeas, of which
our plant is certainly dettitute.

5. L. tataricus. Tartarian Motherwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
818. (Cardiaca foliis tenuids et profundius incifis glabra ;
Mill Ic. v. 1. 53. t. 8o.)—Leaves in three deep divifions ;
their lobes jagged. Upper lip of the corolla flattened, up-
right, reflexed.—Native of Tartary. It differs from the
following merely inthe flower being fmaller, with a more
rounded upper lip, whofe extremity is reflexed. Gmelin,
who gathered both, thought them varieties, and we find no
difference to be depended on.

6. L. fibiricus. Siberian Motherwort. Linn. Sp. Pl.
818. Sm. Exot. Bot. t. 94. (Ballote inodora, foliis co-
ronopi; Amm. Ruth. 48. t. 8.)—Leaves in three deep
divifions ; their lobes jagged, bluntifh. Upper lip of the
corolla ftraight—Native of Siberia, China, and the Katt
Indies, a hardy annual in our gardens. S¥em two or three
feet high, branched. Leaves deeply cut in a three-fold
manner, into various deep divifions, moftly narrow and
bluntifh, more or lefs downy. F/owers crimfon, in denfe
whorls, with awl-fhaped bradeas. Calyx tilky. Corolla twice
as long as the calyx; its upper lip concave, but ftraight ;
lower in three lobes, the middle one dilated, heart-fhaped.
Mr. Sowerby found a double row of crimfon glands in the
mouth of the tube. The ca/yx is often {pinous, but not
always fo.

For the .. Galeobdolon of Willdenow; fee GALEOBDOLON.

LEOPARD, in Zoology, the Englifh name of the long-
tailed filis, or Friis pardus of Linneus; which fee.

Lrorarn’s Bane, in Betany. See Doronicum.

LEOPOLD L,, in Biography, emperor of Germany, fon
of Ferdinand III. was born in 1640. He was elected king
of Bohemia in 1654, and of Hungary in 1655, and he fuc-
ceeded to the imperial.crown in July 1658. His reign was
fruitful of important events. A war with the Turks, which
broke out in 1661, was brought to a conclufion in 1664, in
confequence of a vi€tory obtained over the grand vifier, at
St. Gothard, in Hungary. This was fucceeded by a revolt
of the Hungarians, excited by thofe infringements of their
privileges which have been continually renewed under the
princes of the houfe of Auftria. The execution of the leaders
in 1671, for a time, quelled the diforders, without removing
the caufes of difcontent. In 1672 Leopold joined in a
league with other powers to protect the Dutch againft
Lewis XIV.; at this crifis the Hungarian malecontents
took the opportunity of fhaking off the Auftrian yoke and

aflerting

LEO

afferting their original independence. Headed by count
Tekeli, and fupported by the Turks, they again rofe in
arms, and obtained various fucceffes againft the Imperialifts.
In 1682 a new war broke out between the empire and
France ; and about the fame time the breach of a truce by
the Hungarian revolters, and the irruption of a vaft Turkifh
army, reduced Leopold to the greateft danger. His general,
the duke of Lorraine, was obliged to retire under the walls
of Vienna, and the grand vizier laid fiege to that capital,
while the emperor with his court withdrew to Lintz. A
feries of fuccefles afterwards attended the imperial arms in
Hungary, and ail that had been lof was gradually reco-
yvered. The rebels were tried, the nobleft blood was fhed
without mercy or remorfe, and the Hungarians were fo far
humiliated, that an aflembly of the ftates, in 1687, declared
the kingdom hereditary in the houfe of Auftria, and elected
for their king the archduke Jofeph, then only nine years of
age. Three yearsafterwards, Leopold procured the election
of his fon Jofeph to the fucceffion of the empire, as king of
the Romans. The war with France was carried on with
various fuccefs, till the general peace, concluded at Ry{wick,
in 1697. In 1699 a long truce was agreed on between the
German and Turkifh empires, on terms favourable to Leo-
pold, whofe arms had obtained great glory under the illuf-
trious prince Eugene. The war, on account of the Spanifh
fucceffion,. plunged Europe again in blood. Leopold
gained over the eleGtor of Brandenburgh to the party of the
allies, by confenting to recognize him as king of Pruffia.
The events of the war were at firft unfavourable to the em-
peror, but the decifive battle of Blenheim or Hochttet, in
1704, changed the face of affairs. Leopold did not long
enjoy the brighter profpe¢t which was opening upon him: he
‘died in the following May, at the age of fixty-five, after a
reign of forty-fix years, leaving the power of his houfe much
augmented in his hands. ‘¢ His original education,’ fays
the hiftorian, “* which was that of an ecclefiaftic, had coin-
cided with his natural difpofition, in producing a cold
formality of character; and the narrownefs of his ideas
threw him into the power of favourites, whom his jealoufy
of authority led him frequently to change. The great ob-
jects of his policy were, however, purfued with a fteadinefs
which enfured their final fuccefs.’’ Modern Univer. Hitt.
Lrorotp I1., emperor of Germany, born in 1747, fon
of the emperor Francis I. and the emprefs-queen Maria
‘Therefa, was created grand duke of Tufcany about the year
1765, and during a reign of twenty-five years, difplayed a
conitant regard and attention to the happinefs and profperity
of his people. He carried into effe&t a number of improve-
ments relative to all the branches of adminiftration, which
rendered that portion of Italy peculiarly flourifhing. He
diminifhed the taxes, and yet augmented the revenue; in-
troduced an exact police ;. encouraged the arts, manufactures,
and agriculture ;. freed induitry from the fetters of numerous:
feftivals, meliorated the condition of the public hofpitals and
prifons, and promulgated an entire new code of laws, cha-
raGerized as well by their humanity as their fimplicity. In
the preface to this‘code he fays, ‘‘ We have confidered the
examination and reform of the criminal laws as one of our
principal duties ;”” and after much experience he fays with
true patriotic exultation; “ With the utmoft fatisfaction to
our paternal feelings we have at length perceived, that the
mitigation of punifhments, joined to a moft fcrupulous at-
tention to prevent crimes, and alfo a great difpatch in the
trials, together with the fuddennefs of punifhment to real de-
linquents, has, inftead of increafing the number of crimes,
confiderably diminifhed that of the fmaller ones, and ren-
dered thofe of an atrocious nature very rare ;”? fo rare, in-

LEO

deed, that during ten years not a fingle execution took place
in his dominions, Leopold proteéted the lower ranks from
the oppreffion of the higher, and his palace was ever acceflible
to the meaneft fupplicant. Though the father of his people, he
was alfo their maiter, and would admit of no oppofition to
his will; though fincerely defirous of doing good, he was
cold and faturnirie. In r790 the imperial crown, and the
fucceffion to the Aultrian dominions, devolved to him on the
death of his brother Jofeph. The refult of that unfortunate
prince’s fchemes had been an abfolute revelt of the Low
Countries, the difaffection of Hungary, and the jealoufy of
all the furrounding ftates. Leopold, by employing the arts
of conciliation, in conjunction with firmnefs and prudence,
was able in a fhort time to recover the Low Countries, to
quell the oppofition of the Hungaria malecontents, to
{trengthen his houfe by fplendid alliances, asd to eftablifh-
peace with the Ottoman Porte. He reftored a good under-
{tanding between the courts of Vienna and Berlin, and con-
curred with England in checking the ambitious projects of
Roffia. Soon after the commencement of the French revo-
lution, Leopold formed, at the congre/s of Pilnitz, a coa-
lition with Pruffia, for the avowed purpole of giving a go-
vernment to France, and thie fubfequent invation of that
country by the united forces of the twe powers is to be
regarded as a confequence of this alliance. Leopold did not
live long enough to witnefs the commencement of hoftilities.
He died in the month of March 1792, at the age of. forty-
four, leaving behind him a numerous progeny, of whom his
eldeft fon Francis II. fucceeded to the vacant throne.
Univer. Hift. New Ann. Regift.. Edié&: of the grand
duke of Tufcany, printed by the celebrated: Mr. John
Howard.

Leopold was paffionately fond of Italian poetry and mufic,
and is faid by Quadrio (Storia d’Ogni Poefia, vol..i.) not
only to have been the conftant patron of both, but to have
compofed maffes.and motets for his own chapel, and to have
written, and fet to mufic, himfelf, many. beautiful canzonets
and madrigals. This prince, early in his reign, retained in
his fervice the Italian lyric poet Minato, and Antonio
Draghi, to write and fet operas for the imperial court at
Vienna.

LEOPOLDSTADT, in Géography, one-ofthe fuburbs-
of Vienna, large and populous; fituated on the N. fide af
the Danube, and communicating with the city by a bridge.
—Alfo, a fortified town of Hungary, on the river Waac;
56-miles E. of Vienna. N..lat. 48° 28’. E. long: 177 54’.

LEOSTENIUS Sinus, in Ancient Geography, a guif of
Thrace, upon the Thracian Boiphorus, towards the northern
part of the Hermzan promontory.

LEOTAUD, Vincent, in Biography, a French jefuit,
and able mathematician, was bern at Laval-Louyfe, in the
diocefe of Embrun, and died in the year 1672. He pub>
lifhed a work on the quadrature of the circle ; ‘¢ Arithmeti-
cal Inftitutions, in four: books ;” a treatife “On Cyclo
metry ;”? a work “On Magnetology,” anda work. * On the:
Primum Mobile.”

LEOTTA, in Botany, perhaps fo called from: Aex<,- or
Azocy the people, or vulgar; yet it does not appear to. be either
a common genus of fungi, nor vulgarly ufed as food, like.
many others. Its afpeét indeed is ordinary.enough, being
that of a {mall Agaric without gills. Perfoon. Syn. Fung.
611. Obf. Mycolog. v. 2. 21. t. 5. f. 1. t. 6 £7, 2.—
Clafs and order, Cryptogamia Fungi. Nat. Ord. Fungi.

Eff. Ch. Head roundifh, reflexed at the margin and
clofely embracing the ftalk, bearing feeds in its expofed:
furface.

The fpecies enumerated by Perfoon are nine, four of:

which

LEP

arhich have a fmooth conical or ovate head, three an orbi-
cular one, and the other two are efteemed doubtful.

Among the firft is Z. AMitrula, the Elvela cucullata of
Batfch, f. 132, and probably Clavaric ferruginea of Sower-
by’s Fungi, t. 84 5 found in autumn growing copioufly on
decayed leaves of Scotch fir. The /lalé is near an inch high.
Head conical or ovate, of a pale cinnamon colour ; white and
fpongy within. }

In the fecond feGtionis L. /ubrica, Liane gelatinofa ;
Bulliard 296. t. 473. £. 2.) 5; not untrequent, after much
rain, in beech woods, It is of a light greenifh buff colour,
and tender fubltance. S¥a/é two or three inches high, hol-
low, tumid in the lower part; and the cavity is continued
into the Aead, which is rounded, deprefled, undulated, and
obfeurely lobed, about an inch in diameter, compofed as it
were of two coats, with a hollow {pace between. ;

Helwella Relhani, Sowerby t. 11, is one of the doubtful
{pecies.

LEOVILLE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Lower Charente; eight miles N. of
Montlieu.

LEOWITZ, Cyprian, in Biography,a celebrated aftrono-
mer in the fixteenth century, was born in Bohemia, and was
appointed mathematician to Otho Henry, elector palatine.
He acquired a high reputation by his aitronomical produc-
tions, of which the principal were “ Ephemerides ab anno
1550, ad Ann. 1606 ;”’ ‘* Expedita Ratio conftituendi The-
matis ceeleftis ;?’ ** Loca ftellarum fixarum ab anno Dom;
4549, uf{gue in Ann. 2029 3” and “De Eclhiptibus Liber.”
His celebrity occafioned Tycho Brahe to pay him a vifit in
the year 1569, when they had feveral converfations on their
favourite fubjeéts. Notwithitanding the great learning of
Leowitz, he was weak enough to become the dupe of judicial
aftrology. He died in Swabia in 1574. He had predicted
that the world would come to an end in 1584, and of this
prophecy many priefts and preachers took advantage as the
important period approached, and enriched themfelves at
the expence of the fears of their people. Bayle. Morert.

LEPA, in our Old Writers, a meafure which contained
the third part 6f two bufhels. Whence we derivea /eed leap.

LEPANTO, in Geography, a fea-port town of European
Turkey, in the province of Livadia, fituated in a bay for-
amerly called the «gulf of Corinth,”? now the ¢ gulf of Le-
panto”’ This town is fortified and defended by a caftle on
aneminence. N. lat. 38 37'. E. long. 22” o%

LEPAS, in Conchology, a genus of the multivalve order,
the animal of which, according to the Linnzan fyftem, is a
triton, the fhell affixed at the bale, and conlifting of many
unequal erect valves. This genus, as defined by Linneus
and Gmelin, comprehends two very diftin@& genera, the
union of which, under ene title, is liable to, much objection ;
though, for the fake of uniformity, we are not inclined in this
article to feparate them. One of thefe natural tribes, for
example, has the fhell of a conic form more or lefs tubular,
the bafe firmly affixed upon rocks or other extraneous fub-
ftances, without any tendinous tube; the fhell is compofed
of fix valves ; and the truncated cpening above is clofed by a
four-valved Operculum. In the other genus the fhell, in-
dlead of being conic, is broad, flattifh and wedge-formed,
and in many {pecies refembling, in fome degree, the {pear or
head of an arrow ; it is befides compofed, in general, of a
much greater number of plates or valves, the aperture of
which is lateral inftead of being at the fummit, and has no
operculum ; and laltly, the fhell is not affixed by its teftaceous
bafe, but is placed at the extremity of a tendinous tube, the
bafe of which unites it to the rocks or other fubftances to
which, for convenience and fecurity, the animal connects it-

LEP

felf. The very obvious diffimilarity that prevails between
thefe two genera attraéted the particular attention of early
writers, even before the time of our own countrymen Liller
and Petiver, the term Balanus being adopted for the former,
and Concha anatifera for the latter, and by thefe names the
two tribes of fhells are recognized in the writings of Gefner,
Aldrovandus, and others: Linnzus, notwithftanding thele
authorities, however, confolidated them together. Da
Cofta was the firlt among the Englifh authors who again fe-
parated them ; he affigned to the firft the original name of
balanus, or acern fhell, at the fame time that he retained
the former under the name of lepas, or in Englifh bernacle,
a term preferable, no doubt, to that of Concha anatifera,
which applied to a fingle fpecies rather than the whole
genus. The obfervations of Da Cofta, as they militate in
various refpeéts again{t the conchologi«al writings of Lin-
nzus, have never perhaps been regarded in this country with
fufficient attention, nor with ordinary liberality ; he is not,
we admit, on every occafion lucid, neither as a fyftematilt
does he deferve mention ; yet, upon the whole, his remarks
are often judicious, and almoit conftantly correét, and his
ftrictures on the genus lepas, as propofed by Linnzus, are
in particular fatistaCtory: he has reftored both genera ta
their proper ftation. Among the colleétors of fhells in Bri-
tain, from the time of Da Coita to the prefent, the names of
balanus and Jepas have been almoit conilantly adopted, but
the feparation of them is afcribed to Dr. Solander, and the
difcrimination of earlier writers ceafes to be remembered. In
England, as before obferved, the Linnean term of lepas has
been retained for one of the two genera; the continental
writers, on the contrary, though they adopt this genus in the
fame form, reject the word lepas, and fubititute that of ana-
tifa in its place; the French call it anatife, and under,the
latter term it 1s diftinguifhed by their belt writers. Having
pointed out the leading character of the two genera into
which the lepas of Linnzus and Gmelin is divided, it only
remains to enumerate the {pecies defcribed by thole and fuc-
ceeding writers to the prefent time.

Species.

Baranus. Shell conic, grooved; operculum, or lid
acuminated. Linn.» Fn. Suec. O. Fabr. Balanus maju/=
culus valvis porcatis (porcatus), Da Cofta. Ridged acorn
JSoell, Donov. Brit. Shells.

: Frequent on the Britifh and other European fhores, ad-
hering in vaft numbers to rocks, fhells and flones ; the colour
generally whitifh or greyifh, and the form rather variable.

BavanoteEs. Shell conic, truncated, and fmooth ;
operculum obtufe. Linn. Balanus parvus vulgaris, Petiv.
Balanus cinereus, &c. Lift. Common acorn fhell, Donoy. Brit.
Shells.

Found, like the former, in great abundance on the fhores of
Europe, and alfo thofe of the American and Indian feas.
When affixed on an uneven furface, the bafe of this fhell
fometimes extends down into a pretty Jong rugged tubular
{talk or root. ‘his variety is noted by Pennant, and an
extraordinary, but mutilated {pecimen, is fhewn in one of the
plates of Brit. Zool. Another occurs in Brit. Shells. Do-
nov. The colour is commonly greyifh ; the tips of the
valves, as in the laft-mentioned variety, greenifh. y

IxTeRTEXTA. Somewhat deprefled; and ribbed ob-
liquely. Donov. Brit. Shells. Lepas friaia, Pean.

. « This rare fpecies is the lepas intertexta of the Portland
mufeum, and was fifhed up at Weymouth, adhering to a
valve of the oftrea fubrufus, &c.’? Brit. Shells.

Cosrata. Somewhat conic and fulcated, the ridges

equidiftant

LEPAS.

equidiftant and divergent from the aperture ; operculum
fharp-pointed. Donov. Brit. Shells,

A new fpecies found adhering to pieces of broken rocks
on the coaft of Pembrokethire.

Conomnes. Shell conic, fmooth, valves pointed at the
tip, aperture very fmall. Donov. Brit. Shells.

A new fpecies defcribed as above, the {pecimen was found
by Mr. Bryer, of Weymouth, affixed to a fhell of the lepas
anatifera.

TriytinnasuLum. Shell conic, or bell-fhaped, obtufe,
tugofe, and fixed. Lepas tintinnabulum, Linn. Balanus
major, Lifter. Balanus major, the contc centre fhell, Grew.
Balanus maximus, Petiver. Balanus ore hiante magnus, Bor-
lafe. Gland de mer clochette, Davila. B. tintinnabulam, bell
acorn fhell, Donov. Brit. Shells.

Found adhering in large cluiters to the bottoms of fhips in
mot feas. A fuppofed variety of a dirty whitifh colour is
mentioned by Chemnitz as a northern kind.

Tura. Shell fubcubic, and fmooth; operculum acute
and tranfverfely ftriated. Miill. Zool. Dan.

Inhabits the North feas.

Boreacis. Shell erect, fubconic, aperture quadrangular,
operculum -acute and tranfverfely ftriated. Donov. Brit.
Shells.

A new fpecies, recorded as above flated. ‘A few fmall
clufters, with fome detached {pecimens of this curious f{pecies
of balanus, were difcovered about the year 1800, attached
to the bottom of the Warfpight fhip of war, when taken into
dock to be repaired, after lying in the harbour of Portfmouth
for a great length of time. Mr. J. Hay of Portfmouth
foon after found two or three fhells of the fame kind, by
dredging in Portfmouth harbour. The fpecies appears to
be very rare; we have one f{pecimen attached to the valve of
an oftrea rufus brought from Newfoundland.” Vide Brit.
Shells.

Diapema. Shell fubrotund, fix-lobed and furrowed.
Gmel. Balanus polythalamius, Walch. Diadem acorn fell,
Donov. Brit. Shells.

_ A curious and rare fpecies, about the fize of a walnut, or
fometimes larger; colour whitifh. Inhabits the European
and Indian feas.

Barznanis. Shell fomewhat conic ; lobes fix elevated
wrinkled and four-parted; the operculum membranaceous
and bidentated. Mull. Chemnitz,-&c. Whale acorn fhell,
Donov. ;

_, Yound adhering to the fins and peCtoral wrinkles of the
whale (Balena boops); its fize refembies the laft, but its
form is very much depreffed, colour the fame as in B. dia-
dema, as are alfo the furrews wf the lobes. This is erro-
neoufly defcribed by fome authors as the B. diadema of Da
Cofta; we poSefs the example defcribed by Da Cofta under
this name, and can in confidence affirm it to be the former
pecies. See Brit. Shells.

Pacmives. Shell ere&t, conic ; operculum acute and
tran{verfely ftriated. Olaf.

Size of a pea, and {mooth. Inhabits the ocean.

Gareata. Shell helmet-form, with a lateral aperture.
Schroet.

Difcovered adhering to the gorgonia verrucofa, and venti-
labrum ; fhell boat-fhaped and {mooth ; aperture rhombic.

Mirertra. Shell compreffed, ereét, and irregularly
ftriated. Linn. Balanus Rondeletiit, Gefn. Balanus chinenfis
JSrriatus, Petiv. :

Native of the Indian feas.

Tesrupinaria. Shell plano-convex ; rays fix excavated
and itriated. Linn.

Inhabits the depths of the ocean, and is ufually found ad-

Vou. XX.

hering to other fhells ; the form refembles a globe cut off in
the middle.

_ SCALPELLUM.
{fmooth, and feated on a fcaly peduncle. Linn.
Scaly lepas, Donov. Brit. Shells.

A moftt curious and very elegant fpecies, refembling in
fome meafure the following kind, but rather fmaller. ‘Gmelin
defcribes it as a native of the Norway feas, on the authority
of a fpecimen met with by Dr. Pontoppidan, the bifhop of
North Bergen, and which is defcribed by Mr.-J. Ellis in
the Philofophical TranfaGtions, A.D. 1758. He found it
fticking on the Norway fea-fan, and, from the peculiarity of
its ftruéture, was induced te call it the Norway fea-fan pen-
knife. « This very rare fhell is introduced into the Britifh
Fauna, on the authority of an example found attached to
fome fea-weeds, dredged up on the coalt of Weymouth,
which, after pafling through the collections ef the late
duchefs of Portland and Dr. Fordyce, is at prefent in our
poffeffion."’ Vide Brit. Shells. bi.

AwNATIFERA. Shell compreffed, five-valved, fmooth, and
feated on a pedicle. Linn. Concha anatifera, Merret.
Balanus compreffus, flat centre feel, Grew. Barnacle, Ge-
rard. Lepas anatifera, anatiferous acorn JSiell, Donov. Brit.
Shells. ;

Found in moft feas, andis ufually found affixed in clufters
to the bottoms of fhips, and pieces of decayed timbers
floating in the water. The colour whitifh, with a fine polit
beneath the thin epidermis, and tinged with reddifh or
blueifh-violet ; the flems of the fineft red.

The tentacula of thefe animals are long and peGtinated
like a feather, for which they were in faét miftaken in the
fixteenth century ; and hence arofé the whimfical belief that
the barnacle fhell was the parent of the barnacle goofe !
Nor was this the vulgar opinion only: it was fanétioned by
the grave details of learned naturalifts of that time, and par-
ticularly by Gerard, whofe obfervations are generally no-
ticed by authors, in defcribing this fingular marine produc-
tion. See Barnacte Goofe. See alfo Gerard’s Herbal,

=~ ASO
e There are feveral fuppofed varieties of lepas anatifera, in
one of which the peduncle is black.

ANSERIFERA. Shell comprefied, five-valved, ftriated,
and feated on a peduncle. Gmel.. Donoy. Brit. Shells.

-« A native of the American and Atiantic feas, and is
chiefly diftinguifhed from lepas anatifera by having the
valves ftriated with elevated lines; the valves in the former
being perfeGtly {mooth. lLepas anferifera has been hereto-
fore confidered as a native of the American and Atlantic .
feas; but that it inhabits likewife the Englith coait is cer-
tain, the fhell with the living animal having been dredged:
up at Weymouth.” Brit. Shells.

Dizata. Shell compreffed, five-valved, and thin; dorfal
valve dilated at the bafe with an acute angle, and feated on
a peduncle. Donov. Brit. Shells. Lepas fa/cicularis,
Ellis Zoophytes. Lepas figillatum, Muf. Portl. ?

The firit and only account we have of this kind of lepas,
except that inferted in “ Britifh Shells,”” is that given by
the late Mr. Ellis, from whom we merely learn that it is
from St. George’s Channel. The fpecimen appears to have
been fent by Mr. Ellis to the late duchefs of Portland, from
whence it pafled through the hands of the late Dr. Fordyce,
and at his death came into our poffeflion, under the title of
lepas figillatum of Solander. Unlike lepas anatifera, or an-
ferifera, (though it is larger than either,) the valves of this
fhell are uncommonly thin and brittle, in a certain degree
corneous, with the largeft lateral valve rather crumpled in
the ufual courfe of the ftriz, and marked trantverfely wich

4A obfolete

Shell compreffed, thirteen-valved, rather
Ellis.

LEP

obfolete rays. The hell is likewife covered with a fine pale
brown fkin, or epidermis, ‘lhe acute prominent dilation at
the bafe of the valve.on the back is very fingular. We mutt
be excufed for having expatiated with more than ufual mi-
nuténefs on local particulars, in defcribing the laft-mentioned
{pecies 3 as it is principally, and in fome inilances entirely,
on the authority of the individual examples mentioned, that
the fpecies are recorded, and their exiltence afcertained.

Avnita. Shell membranaceous, ventricofe, feated on a
tube, eared; mouth eight-valved, and dentated. Seba;
&c. Lepas. nuda comofa aurita, Ellis.

Inhabits the North feas, Tube long.

Pstrracus. Shell falcated behind,
wrinkled. Molina.

Native of Chili. Length an inch; the larger valves re-
fembling the bill of a parrot.

Minor. Shell reddifh, fix-valved, unequal ; operculum
pointed. Chemn,

An Indian fpecies. Shell marked with tranfverfe curved
lines, dotted with white.

Verruca. Shell hemifpherical, ferrated, fix-valved ;
the four outer valves and the operculum plaited. Spengler.

Native of the North feas.

AncustatTa. Shell elongated, fmooth, fix-valved; the
aperture narrow ; operculum very minute. Chemn. |

Country unknown.

Porosa. Shell granulated, ftriated, conic, and tubular ;
the operculum obtufe. Schroet.

Inhabits India. When living, the fhell is green, be-
coming black after death. A fuppofed variety of a-larger
fize, and broader in proportion, is defcribed by Klein under
the name of balanus major latus. P

ExonGata. Shell cylindrical, fnowy, pellucid, fix-
valved, and cleft above; lid obtufe, grooved, and tranf-
verfely ftriated. . Chemn.

P A fmall and very rare f{pecies, found in the Iceland
eas.

Pare.varis. Shell fix-valved; externally violet varie-
gated with white, and marked with fine longitudinal
ftriz ; within falcated; valves denticulated at the margin.
Spengler. ;

Native of Coromandel. A rare fpecies; teeth of the
valves inferted in each other alternately.

Spinosa. Shell conic, with twelve triangular valves, fix
of them more depreffed, lefs, and whitifh, with tranfverfe
firie ; fix purple, and lengitudinally ftriated, and all armed
with tubular recurved fpines. Gmel.

Inhabits India.

Vioracea. Shell thick, glabrous, fix-valved, and white,
with rays of violet. Chemn.

Native of India. The thell flightly grooved within.

Poxriciers. Shell compreifed, ereét, many-valved,
fmooth, and feated on a fhort, hard, fcaly, coriaceous pe-
duncle. Gmel.

Found in the Mediterranean. The four larger valves
turned towards-each other like the beak of a bird ; leffer ones
more than twenty.

Cyiinprics. Cylindrical, flightly curved, with a very
large oblique orifice ; operculum horned. Gmel. Balanus
maxillaris, Gronov. L-epas feffilis capenfis, &c., Ellis.

Native of Africa under the torrid zone. ‘

Crispata. Shell oval-truncated and conic, with fix
blueifh valves fhaded with white, and fix elevated reddifh
ones {pinous and perpendicularly Rriated. Schroet.

Country unknown.

Cariosa, Shell folid, white, depreffed with carious
grooves; within unequally fmooth. Pallas.

fix-valyed, and

Lane

Native of the feas about the Kurile ifles. ‘

StrmMiaA. Conic-convex, with four ferrated ftriated
valves; operculum two-valved. Mill. -

Inhabits the Danith fea.

LEPASTRUM, Gerived from the Greck azms, a feale
or plate, and acne, a flar, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a
genus of foffils, of the clafs of the felenite, compofed of
filaments arranged into broad plates, and thofe difpofed in
the form of a radiated ftar.

OF this genus there are two known fpecies: the one a
bright brownifh-white kind, with thinner flakes ; the other
a white dull-lookin® kind, with thick flakes. hey are
both found on the fhores of Sheppey Ifland in Kent, and
form themfelves in the cavities of the feptaria, called by
authors ludus Helmontii; and the feptaria, with thefe af-
fixed to them, have been accounted a feparate {pecies of that
body, and called the farred waxed vein, or ludus Helmonti¢
ftellatus.

LEPE, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the previace —
of Seville, celebrated for its grapes, figs, and wine; 10
miles E. of Ayamonte. .

LEPECHINIA, in Botany, was named by Profeffor
Willdenow, in his {ortus Berolinenfis, as a tribute of refpe&t
to the labours of John Lepechin, Fellow of the Academy of
Sciences at St. Peterfburg, who publifhed various: traéts
upon natural hiftory in the TranfaGtions of that Society.
Many of thefe were botanical monographs; fuch as, 1. A
defcription of ris Giildenfledtiana. 2. Nova fpecies Mentha
defcripta. 3. Quatuor Fucorum fpecies defiripte. 4. Refiec-
tions on the neceffity of ftudying the virtues of indigenous
plants. He appears, to have been an able chemift as well as
naturalift, and to have travelled through various proyinces
of the Ruffian empire in the years 1768 and 1769. We are
unable to difcover either the time of his birth or of his death,
though from the date of his Travels he muit have lived
about the middle of the laft century, Willd. Hort. Be-
rol. 21. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 390.—-Clafs and
order, 'Didynamia Gymnofpermia. Nat. Ord. Veriicillatey
Linn. Jabiate, Juli.

Eff. Ch. Calyx two-lipped. Upper lip of the corolla
cloven, lower one deeply divided into three nearly equal
fegments. Stamens {preading.

1. L. jfpicata. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3: 390.—
“¢ Spikes of flowers on bratteated footitalks. Leaves
ovate, crenate, truncated at the bafe."’-—The native countrys
of this hardy, perennial plant is unknown. The fpecies im
queftion was introduced into the Royal Gardens at Kew in;
the year 1800, by Mr. John Hunneman, who received it _
from his friend Willdenow in Germany. By the above fpe-
cific charaéter we prefume there are other {pecies.

LEPEIGA, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in;
the circar of Gangpour; 30 miles S.5.W. of Gangpour.

LEPEL, a town of Ruffian Lithuania; 55 niiles S.E..
of Polotfk. : , Oo

LEPERS. Sce Erepnanttasis and Leprosy. ;

Leprrs, J/fe of, in Geography, one of the New Hebrides,.
fituated between Efpirito Santo and Aurora ifland, eight
leagues from the former, and three from the latter, in S. lat..
15 22', and nearly under the fame meridian as the fouth-eaft
end of Mallicollo. It is of an egg-like figure, very high, and
18 or 20 leagues in.circuit. In the north-eaft part there is
anchorage half a mile from the land. It derived its name-
from Bougainville, who vifited it in 1765, and found the
inhabitants in general devoured with the leprofy. He de-
{cribes the inhabitants as being of two colours, black and
mulatto. Their lips are thick, their hair frizzled, and that
of fome is.a kind of yellow wool: they. are {mall, ugly, au

& EP

Few women were feen, but they were no lefs dif-
gultiug than the men. They were naked, hardly covering
their wailts witha mat. They carry their children on their
dacks in a kind of fearf; they wear ornaments in their nof-
trils ; and have no beads.

LEPIDIUM, in Botany, is the Azridioy of Theophraftus
and other ancient writers, and is faid by Profeffor Martyn
to be derived from Azz, a feale, no doubt from the fealy
appearance of its pods after their feed is difcharged, but
that is fo ufual a circumftance with plants of this tribe, that
we are rather inclined with Ambrofinus to confider the word
Lepidium as derived from Agrig:w, to de hot, or pungent, be-
caufe other plants which have agreed with this genus in its
quality of pungency, but in no other way whatever,’ have
been diftinsuifhed by the fame appellation, and hence its
Englifh name, Pepper-wort. Linn. Gen. 333. Schreb. 437.
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 431. Mart. Mill. Dia. v. 3. Sm.
Fi. Brit. 681. Ait. Hort. Kew. v. 2. 373. Julf. 241.
Lamarck. [lluttr. t. 556. Gertn. t. 141. Tournef. t. 103.
(Natturtium ; Tournef. t. 102.) —Clafs and order, Tetrady-
namia Siliculofa. Nat. Ord. Siliquofe, Linn. Cruciferae;
Juff. ;

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth of four, ovate, concave, deci-
duous leaves. Cor. cruciform, of four equal obovate petals,
twice as long as the calyx, with narrow claws. Stam. Fila-
ments moltly fix, awl-fhaped, the length of the calyx, the
two fhorter ones oppofite; anthers fimple. Pi/?. Germen
fuperior, cordate; ityle fimple, as long as the itamens;
ftigma obtufe. Peric. Pouch heart-fhaped, emarginate,
compreffed, acute at the margin, two-celled; valves boat-
fhaped, keeled; partition contrary, lanceolate. Seeds few,
ovate, pointed, narrower at the bafe, pendulous

Eff. Ch. Pouch notched, elliptical, with few feeds ; valves
keeled, contrary to the partition.

Obf. It is in fome cafes difficult to draw the line between
the pouch of this and Th/a/pi, even Gertner confiders them
as of the fame figure. He wouldretain in Lepidium, which
he withes to call Na/ffurtium, thofe which have folitary feeds,
«eferring the others to Th/a/pi. The regular corolla diftin-

ifhes this genus from Jéeris, with which it is otherwife
' moll clofely allied. The number of ftamens is few, in fome

{pecies is fewer than fix.

~The fpecies of Lepidium, in the fourteenth edition of
Linneus’s § yWema Vegetabilium, are twenty ; Willdenow has
twenty-nine. Of thefe L. didymum belongs to the genus
Coronopus, Fl. Brit. Three of the remainder are natives of
England. ;

L. petreum. Mountain Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 899.
Engl. Bot. t. 111. Jacq. Auitr. t. 131.—Leaves pinnated,
entire. Petals not longer than the calyx, flightly notched.—
This rare Englifh plant is found on St. Vincent's rocks near

- Briltol Hot-wells, which has been its habitat ever fince the
time of Ray. It is occafionally found in other places that
are open and expofed, in the fouth of England, flowering in
the early {pring Root biennial, fibrous. Stems two or
three inches high, fpreading, leafy, fomewhat downy.
Leaves alternate, unequally pinnatifid, of many pairs of
f{mooth oppofite fegments, which are elliptical or {patulate,
entire. Corymbs of many fmall, white, hexandrous flowers.
Pouch elliptic-oblong, comprefled, {mooth. Seeds roundith,
two in each cell.

-L. Jatifolium. _Broad-leayed Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp.
PL.-899. Engl. Bot. t. 182,—Leaves ovato-lanceolate, un-
divided, ferrated —This is alfo a {carce plant,*found in moift
faltifh marfhes, and on maritime cliffs, as at Sheringham, by
Cromer, in Norfolk, flowering in July.—Root perennial,

Wl made.

LE P

branched, very long. Stems three feet high, ereét, leafyy’
round, {mooth, panicled, many-flowered. Leaves alternate,

lanceolate or fomewhat ovate, attenuated at the bafe, ferrated

more particularly in the middle. J /owers. hexandrous,

{mall, white. Pouch elliptical, with a feflile {tigma. The

whole plant is biting and difagreeable. An infufion of it is

faid by Dr. Withering tobe emetic.

L. ruderale. Narrow-leaved Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 900. Engl. Bot. t. 1595.—Flowers with two ftamens,
without petals. Lower leaves pinnatifid, toothed; upper
ones linear, entire. —A native of muddy and calcareous foils,
which it prefers to fand, in the neighbourhood of the fea.
It keeps flowering from June to Augult. Root biennial,
branched. Stem a foot high, ereét, branched, leafy, wavy,
round, hoary. Leaves flefhy, fmooth. Lowers {mall,
apetalous, diandrous; the clufters when in fruit becoming
very long. Pouch elliptic or roundifh, emarginate, {mooth,
Seeds generally folitary, pendulous, obovate. Dr. Smith
mentions in his F/ora that he never found any petals to this
{pecies, nor more than two ftamens, though Withering de-
{cribes the petals as “ fometimes wanting,” and that the
ftamens are either two or four.

As to the foreign {pecies, we fhall fay a few words upoa
fuch as are more efpecially interefting. .

L. perfoliatum. Various-leaved Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 897. Jacq. Auftr. t. 346 —lLower leaves much divided
in a pinnate manner; upper ones heart-fhaped, embracing
the ftem, entire.—A native of Auttria and the Levant. It
flowers in July. Root annual. Stem a foot high, fmooth,
tinged with purple, dividing into various flender branches,
at the end of which are corymbs of imall and comprefled
flowers in long loofe fpikes. Ca/yx-leaves yellowifh-green.
Pouches orbicular, fmooth, having a fingle, bay-coloured feed
in each cell.

L. veficarium. Bladdery Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 898.
(L. orientale; Tourn. Cor. 15. Buxb. cent. v.41. 17.
t. 26.) —Leaves pinnate; fegments linear. Stems inflated
at their joints.—A native of Iberia, and the dry plains of
Media, where, according to Buxbaum, it flowers in July
and Auguft. Dr. Smith has perhaps the only fpecimen of
this {pecies to be feen in this country, which was given hina
by the celebrated M. Le Monnier from his garden at Vere
failles in the year 1786. Stem two or three feet high, re-
markably ‘inflated at the joints. Leaves pinnate, with long,
narrow leaflets. F/owers fmall, white. Pouch very fimilar
to that of LZ. ruderale.

L. alpinum. Alpine Pepper-wort. Linn. Sp. Pl. 89S.
Jacq. Fl. Auftr. t. 137.—-Leaves pinnate, entire, fmooth.
Flower-ftalk naked, afcendmg. © Petals larger than the
calyx. Pouches lanceolate, pointed.—A native of the Ger-
man, Swifs, and Italian Alps, where it may be feen in flower
from May to Auguit. This pretty little perennial has a
flender root. Stems very fhort, clothed with alternate leaves.
Flower-ftalks an inch or two in length, bearing a corymbofe
clufter. Leaves thick, dark-green. Flowers milk-white ;
their petals reundifh and entire. Pouch ovate or lanceolate,
compreffed, with the ftyle at the end. The whole plant is
{mooth, and has the flaveur of Crefs

L. fativum. Garden or Common Crefs. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 899. (Nafturtium hortenfe; Dod. Pempt. 711.)—
Flowers tetradynamous. «Leaves oblong, much cut and
jagged.—The habitat of this plant fo commonly cultivated
was unknown, till. Dr. Sibthorp difcovered it in Greece.
Root annual, white, fpindle-fhaped. Stem upright, fmooth,
from one to two feet in height, branched at the top. Stems
and branches terminated by a {pike of flowers, Lower

goo e's Wage 4 leaflets

LEP

kaflets totic refembling thefe of Parfley ; upper ones linear,
or lanceglate. Sowers fmall, white. Calyx very {mall,
greenifh. Pouch roundifh; valves winged. Seeds brown,
folitary, tafting like Muftard. This is undoubtedly the
Kepdxzuov of Diofcorides, and is in univerfal requeft for falads
in the winter and fpring. There are two varieties frequently
to be met with, one of them having broad, the other curled
leaves. It is faid to aét as a diuretic and antifcorbutic when
taken largely.

L. oleraceum. Notch-leaved Pepper-wort. Willd. n. 16.
Forft. Efeul. 69. (L. bidentatum; Montin in Nov. A&.
Nat. Cur. 6. 324. t. 5. a.)—Leaves elliptic-oblong, acute,
ferrated. Flowers tetrandrous—-A native of the fandy
fhores of New Zealand. Root perennial. Stem herbaceous,
from one to three feet in height. Zeaves {cattered, alter-
nate; the upper ones fimaller, ferrated only at the tip.
Flowers white. Pouches ovate, or heart-{haped, compreffed,
containing an ovate, acute, reddith-yellow feed in each cell.
Forlter fays that ‘this plant, together with Apium or
Smallage, and Yetragonia halimifolia, was of confiderable
fervice to the fhip’s crews under Captain Cook, when they
lay in Charlotte Sound.

L. virginicum, a native of the Caribbee Iflands, is eaten
by the natives in falads, like our Garden Crefs.

L. pijcidium, found in the South Sea iflands, is made ufe
of by the inhabitants for catching filh by inebriating them.
It refembles L. o/eraceum, and is efculent like that fpecies.

Leriprum, in Gardening, comprifes a plant of the herba-
ceous annual kind, of which the fpecies cultivated is the
garden or common crefs (L. fativum). But there are other
ipecies which may be cultivated for variety. f

It has feveral varieties, as with broad leaves, with curled
leaves, and the common fort with the leaves multifid.

Method of Culture.—Thefe herbaceous plants are raifed
by fowing the feed as wanted for ufe, at different times of
the year, as once a week or fortnight, where a conftant fuc-
ceffion of {mall herbs in their young growth is wanted for
falads, when only a few days or a week or two old; or,
where a conftant fupply of thofe fmall herbs is required in
their young feedling growth, fome feed, as juft noticed,
fhould be fown in fucceffion every week or fortnight at
furtheft, all fpring, fummer, and autumn; and once a fort-
night in the winter feafon.

The order of fowing them in the different feafons is,
in a warm fouth border, or other fimilar fituation, or under
a frame, &c. in the early {pring months; and as the warm
feafon advances, in any open compartment, all in as light
earth as the garden affords; but in fummer, or hot ary
weather, in fomewhat fhady borders, or in a free fituation,
fhaded with mats from the f{corching fun, and daily wa-
tered ; and in winter, in the warmeft fituation, or in fhallow
frames defended with lights, and under hand-glaffes ; but in
frofty or other very cold weather, in that feafon, on mode-
rate hot-beds ; and hot-bed fowings are alfo requifite during
the colder part of the {pring, or at any time in cold feafons,
where a fupply of thefe and other {mall falad herbs are re-
quired to be raifed as quickly as poffible. The method of
fowing the feed, in all the cafes, is very thick, as the plants
are moftly ufed in imall young growth, and generally in
fmall, flat, fhallow drills, about three inches afunder, fo
thick as almoft to cover the earth, being lightly earthed
over a quarter of an inch thick, or lefs; or on the plain
furface, firft raking it fmooth, then fowing the feed thick
as above, {moothing it down with the back of the fpade, and
either with the fpade fpreading fome fine earth lightly over
it as thinly as poffible, or covering it by fifting earth over it

LEP

evenly a fmall depth, juft to cover all the feed properly.
This fort of falad herb fhould always be cultivated fo as to
grow as rapidly as poflible, being cut while perfectly young,
and in a crifp ftate. See Small Salad Herns.

LEPIDOCARPODENDRON, in Botany, from Azz,
Armidoc, a feale, xxpros, fruit, and depo, a trees; a name
given by Boerhaave in his Hort. Lugd. Bat. ed. 2. y. 2.
183, to the Protee with hemilpherical heads of flowers, con-
{picuous for the ample and beautiful f{cales of their calyx, of
which Linnzus compofed his genus Leucadendron, in Gen.
Pl. 46, but which he fubfequently united to Protea. See
LEUCADENDRON.

LEPIDOIDES, A:riosd:, formed of Acxic, /cale, and
ado:y form, figure, or LEPIDOEIDES, in Anatomy, a name of
the {quamous or fcaly future of the cranium.

LEPIDOLITE, Wern., Jam. Lepidolithe, Haiiy.
Lilalite of {ome other mineralogitts.

The colour of this mineral is generally pale peach-blof-
fom red, or rofe red, with an admixture of grey; but it
alfo occurs of a pale violet and light cochineal red ; fome-
times the greyifh-red variety pafles into blueifh and greenith ;
and a variety has been obferved, in which the green ap-
proaches fifkin green.

Occurs only maffive; but its fragments are faid fometimes
to fhew a tendency to adopting a prifmatic form.

Its internal luftre is gliftening, paffing into fhining: it
appears fometimes between refinous and vitreous.

FraCture uneven, prefenting fine-grained and fealy diftin®
concretions ; fragments generally indeterminately angular,
with pretty fharp edges, which are faintly tranflucent.

It is moderately hard, pafling into foft; brittle; though
not eafily frangible.

Specific gravity, 2,854, Hally ; 2,816, Klaproth; 2,350,
Gerhard. 5

Before the blowpipe the lepidolite, after a flight degree
of intumefcence, melts. imto a milk-white femi-tranfparent

earl.
a pearl.

Klaproth was the firft who analyfed this mineral. Among

the refults of his analyfis was a deficiency of 64 fer cent.,
which a fubfequent chemical examination, (made by the
fame chemift, with a view to afcertain the prefence of pot-
ath, which he had a fhort time before difcovered in the
leucite) proved to be occafioned by the lofs of the fame
alkali, till then unfufpe&ed to enter the compofition of
mineral fubftances. Wauquelin afterwards found the fame
alkali, but in far greater proportion.

Silica - - 54.50 54.0
Alumine - 38.25 20.0
Oxyd ofiron - (0.75 1.0
Oxyd of manganefe 3-0
Potafh - 4.0 18.0
Fluate of lime = - 4.0
Lofs, partly water 2.50
100 100

Klaproth Beitr. ij. Vauquelin J. d. M. N° 51.

The fluate of lime, in Vauquelin’s analyfis, is probably
owing to particles of fluor fpar that were adhering to the
{pecimen examined by that chemift.

Lepidolite is found (exclufively, as it is fuppofed) on
mount Radifco, near Rozena in Moravia, in a kind of
gneifs, which is faid to pafs into granite on one fide, and
into mica flate on the other. The accompanying minerals,

5 with

With borax it fufes more readily isto @ tranfparent —

LBP

with which it is alfo mixed, are quartz, feld{par, fluor
{par, fhorl-beryl, apatite, and common fhorl.

Fichtel makes mention of a mafs mixed of brownifh-violet
grains of quartz, whitifh fhining feldfpar, and light and
dark coloured lepidolite, which, (if the laft-mentioned fub-
ftance be confidered as a fub{titute for mica, with which it
is indeed nearly allied,) conftitutes a particular kind of
granite hitherto unnoticed.

Beyer has defcribed a variety of lepidolite from Suder-
manland, in Sweden; but fome writers have doubted this to
be real lepidolite.

The lepidolite was, by its difcoverers and other mi-
neralogilis, referred to zeolite: it had alfo been miftaken
for a variety of foliated gypfum. laproth, who deter-
mined its real nature, {fubitituted for the taitelefs name of
Uilalite, that of lepidolite, derived from its fcaly ftru€ture.

What has been defcribed as cryftallized lepidolite, is the
red variety of fhorl-beryl, or picnite, which is likewife
found at Rozena in Moravia, in a quartzy matrix.

LEPIDOPTERA, from arm: a feale, and apo, wing,
in the Linnzan Syflem, an order of infects, with four wings,
imbricated with icales: in the mouth is contained a {piral
tongue, and the body is hairy. This order comprehends
three genera, viz. the papilio or butterfly, the {phinx, and
the phalena or moth; and each genus includes a number of
{pecies.

LEPIDOSARCOMA, from aAzzic, a fcale, and capz,
fief. Severinus, a furgical author, implies by this term a
farcomatous and fcaly tumour in the mouth.

LEPIDOSPERMA, in Botany, fo called by Labillar-
diere, from Aeris, Arwidoz, a feale, and orspux, the feed, be-
caufe of the fix permanent fcales which inveft the bafe of
that part. Labillard. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 14. t. 11—17.
Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 233.—Clafs and order,
Triandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calamarie, Linn. Cy-
peroidea, Sufl. Cyperacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spikelet imbricated every way, of one or
two flowers, and one feed; fcales feveral, ovate, concave,
acute, for the moit part empty. Cor. none, except we fo
call the fix flat, membranous, thickifh feales, united at their
bafe, which inveft the bottom of the germen. Svam. Fila-
ments three, capillary, proje€ting ; anthers terminal, oblong,
acute, pendulous. Pi/?. Germen fuperior, very fmall; ftyle
cylindrical, ereét, as long as the itamens, deciduous ; ttigmas
three, equal, recurved, flender, downy, acute. Peric. none.
Nut roundifh, obtufe, hard, not buriting, accompanied by
the above-mentioned fix feales, of one cell, with a fingle
roundifh kernel.

Eff. Ch. Spikelet of one or two flowers, and one feed.
Gtumes chaffy, imbricated every way, moit of them barren.
Six* flat combined permanent fcales at the bafe of the
germen. Style deciduous. Nut folitary, bald, obtufe.

This genus is allied to the C/adium of Browne’s Jamaica,
{confounded with Schoenus by Linnzus), but is diftinguifhed
by the fix fcales that accompany the germen. From the
Scleria of Bergius it differs in the number of its glumes, and
in having always androgynous {pikelets, of which the upper
flower 1s only male. Liabillardiere defcribes and figures
feven {pecies; Mr. Brown defines 19, all from the colder
parts of New Holland, or from Van Diemen’s land. They
are harfh rigid rufhy plants, one or two feet high, with
ftrong perennial roots, fimple leaflefs lems, encompaffed at
the bottom with feveral long, narrow, moftly equitant,
keaves, which are more or lefs comprefled and acute, their
edges either fmooth or minutely ferrated. ‘he panicle or
Spike is terminal, moftly branched or divided,

Examples of this genus are

Lav?

L. gladiata. Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 15. t. 12.—Pa-
nicle denfe, repeatedly compound. Stem comprefled with
an elevated rib at each fide; its edges {mooth, like thofe of
the leaves. Glumes rather fharp.—Gathered by Mr. Brown
at Port Jackfon, as well as in Van Diemen’s land, and the
fouth part of New Holland. The flem is ftout and rigid,
from eighteen to twenty-four inches high. Leaves half an
inch broad, fmooth. Panicle upright, large, of numerous
acute, oblong, {caly fpikelets.

L. tetragona. Labill. Nov, Holl. v. 1. 17. t.
Panicle denfe, fomewhat compound. Leaves quadrangular,
Stem bluntly angular.—Gathered by the author cited, in
Van Diemen’s land. The fquare /eaves are very remarkable.
It isa much fmaller plant than the foregoing. he {cales
of each /pikelet are from four to fix only. ‘The nut is ele-
vated on a more confpicuous fpongy bafe than in molt of
the other fpecies.

_ Nothing can give a more unfavourable idea of the fer-
tility, comfort, or beauty of a country,*than the prevalence
of fuch plants as thefe; flight examples of which may be
feen in our Schoenus nigricans, Nardus flriGa, and a few
others, found on the molt dreary and barren inland fands.
Such of them as inhabit the fea-fhore, anfwer the moft
valuable purpofe poflible, in forming a natural barrier
againit the encroachments of the ocean. See Etymus.

LEPIDOTES, in Natural Hiflory, the name of a ftone
bearing a refemblance to the fcales of fifhes. The word has
been ufed by fome, as the name of *thofe ftones which are
compofed of {mall flakes, or feales of talc, and by others to
exprefs the flones containing fifth, or the impreflions of fifh,
found in many parts of Germany.

LEPIDUS, M. Amittus, in Biography, a Roman
triumvir, was defcended from one of the mott illuftrious
families in Rome, and rofe to the higheft employments of the
ftate. On the death of Cefar, Lepidus, who was zealoufly
attached to his interefts, thought it prudent to conceal him-
felf. He afterwards joined Antony in driving away the
confpirators, and obtained the dignity of chief pontiff,
through the influence of that leader. Afterwards, when
Antony was treated as a public enemy, Lepidus commanded
an army of. feven legions in Tranfalpine. Gaul. Here An-
tony arrived in a very diltreffed fituation, and conjured his
friend to join his forces to thofe which he commanded. Le-
pidus refufed, but affured him he would not a@ with hoftility
againft him. Antony knowing in what eftimation he was
held by the army, rufhed into the camp of Lepidus, where
he was faluted with the loudeft acclamations. Lepidus was
now, in his turn, glad to fupplicate the aid of his com-
petitor. Antony treated him with apparent refpe&, left
him the nominal command, while he himfelf exercifed all the
real authority. By this conduét, Lepidus loft the confi-
dence of the fenate; and ina fhozt time he was declared a
public enemy, and Odavianus and Decimus Brutus were
{ent out‘againit him and Antony. In dividing the Roman
world between three mafters, Lepidus was allowed a place,.
principally by way of a conneéting medium between the
other two. He pofleffed a confiderable family-intereit, and
was not deftitute of military abilities; but he had neither
capacity nor temper to take a leading part in political con-
cerns. In the formation of the triumyirate, it was agreed,,
that while Antony and Oétavianus fhould carry on war
againft Brutus and Caffius, Lepidus fhould remain at Rome
with four legions, and maintain their authority in the capital.
At the bloody profcription, and while the butchery was ftilk
raging, Lepidus had the unfeeling vanity to infult the public
diitrefs by a triumph, on account of fome inconfiderable-
vitteries formerly. obtained by him over the revolted

Spaniards.

17.—

LE?

Spaniards. He was conful a fecond time, B.C. 42, with
Manutius Plancus. The part of the empire which was al-
lotted to Lepidus, after the Triumvirate (which fee)
was fully eftablifhed, was Africa. In the war with Sextus
Pompey, Lepidus brought a large force to Sicily, with
which he joined Odtayianus; and he fhared in the victory
obtained againft that great general. The confidence he feit
at being at the head of a large army, induced him to treat
his colleague with haughtinefs and neglect ; but he had foon
the mortification to fee himfelf deferted by all his troops,
who joined Octavianus. He now fupplicated his life of his
rival, which being granted him, he retired into a kind of
exile at Circeii, a {ma!l town in Latium, where he paffed
the remainder of his days in obfcurity. Plutarch. Univer.
Hitt.
LEPINE, Francesca Marcarita pi. See Mar-
GARITA. :
LEPIOTA, in Botany, from aAcric, a thin membranous
Jayer, or cuticle, the, firft feGtion of the great genus Agaricus
in Perfoon’s Synopfis Methodica Fungorum ; the character of
which is to have the gills dry and membranous, as the name
exprefles, not clouded nor footy, and the ftalk encompafled
with a ring. It includes twenty-nine {pecies, of which
Agaricus procerus is the firft and moft remarkable.
LEPISMA, in Entomology, a genus of aptera. Gmelin,
after the Linnean manner, defines it as having four feelers,
two of which are fetaceous, and two capitated; the lip
membranaceous, roundifh, and emarginated; antennz fe-
taceous; body imbricated with fcales; tail ending in fe-
taceous briftles; legs fix, and formed for running. The
_charaéter of lepifmz, as thus exprefled, combines the more.
effential charaGter of Fabricius with that of Linneus. La-
marck and others propofe fome further alteration; and,
laftly, Latreille, in whofe arrangement they form the firit
family (lepifmenz) of the order thyfanoura, divides them
into two diftinct genera: lepifma and machilis. The tree
lepifma, according to the new definition, has the antennz
inferted between the eyes, the body flat, and the tail ending
in three equal briftles. This genus walks and runs. In the
genus machilis, (which moves by fkipping,) the antennz are
feated under the eyes, the body convex, and the middle
briftle of the tail larger than thofe at the fides. The three
firft fpecies are defcribed by Linneus; the other by Fa-
bricius, and by Miiller the author of Zool. Dan. All the
fpecies, except the firft, are natives of Europe. In their
various ftates of growth they prey on decayed wood, and
moitt or rotten fubftances ; and are moft commonly found in
damp cellars, neglected water-courfes, lead gutters, and
fimilar fituations. The larve, like the pupa and perfe&
ftate, are furnifhed with fix feet, and are remarkable for
their aGtivity and {wittnefs.

Species.

Saccnarinum. Scaly, filvery; tailtriple. Fabr. Le-
pifma vulgaris, Scop. Ferbicina, Aldrov. Forticina plana,
Geoffr. Lepifma faccharinum, Donov. Brit. Inf.

Originally a native of America, from whence it has been
introduced and naturalized in Europe. The body is oblong
and tapering ; antennz as long as the body ; tail terminating
in three briltles, and two pair of fmaller ones beneath. It

fecretes itfelf among old furniture, and runs, when difturbed, |

with great agility: is often found among fugar.

Potyropa. Skipping ; tail triple; fegments of the ab-
domen villous each fide beneath. Fabr. JLepifima fcutata,
anda triplici, Linn. Donov. Brit. Inf.

TnhabitS among ftones and rubbifh on fandy fea-fhores,
and pofleffes the faculty of leaping to a prodigious height,

LEP

by means of the fprings under the tail; antenne as long as
the body.

Terrestris. Naked; tail triple. Linn. Fn. Suec.

Gmelin mentions the clofe affinity this indiftin& fpecies
bears to the podura tribe, to which it may perhaps belong.
It is entirely white and cylindrical, with obtufe antennz half
the length of the antenne.

Lineata. Tail triple; body brown, with two white
fillets. Fabr.

Inhabits old walls in Helvetia. Antenne as long as the
body, which latter is brown above, with cinereous fpecks ;
legs fhort ; thighs compreffed.

Vittosa} Brown, with a triple villous tail. Fabr.

Native of China. The head villous-whitifh ; body be-
neath whitifh ; middle fpine of the tail longer; legs thort
ard white,

Couttaris. Black, with a {nowy band on the neck and
end of the abdomen ; tail triple and villous. Fabr.

An inhabitant of the South American iflands. Antenne
as long as the body, and brown, with the bafe pale; head
whitifh ; beneath the tail two fhort briftles; legs pale.

Po.ypus. Scutate; tail triple. Mill.

Native of Denmark.
Mixurvs. Yellow; tat of three briftles. Miill.
Inhabits fame country as the latter. Appendages of the

tail fometimes wanting.

LEPITA, in Hindoo Mythology, a name of Sarafwati,
f{poufe of Brahma, and goddefs of literature, harmony, rhe-
toric, and the fine arts. See SARASWATI. —
alc ag one of Till’s names for a variety of gyp-

m.

LEPOIS, Nicwotas, in Biography, a phyfician of ces
lebrity in the fixteenth century, was born at Nancy, in 1527.
He ftudied medicine at Paris under Sylvius, together with
his elder brother, Anthony Lepois, who was afterwards firft
phylician to Charles III..duke of Lorraine. In this office
Nicholas fucceeded his brother in 1578. He fpent his
whole time in fick-chambers, or in his clofet, perufing the
ancient authors from Hippocrates downwards. He drew.
up the refult of his reading, correéted and corroborated by
his perfonal obfervatioa, in an aphoriftic form, chiefly with:
the view of being ferviceable to his fons, Chriftian and -
Charles, whom he deitined for the medical profeffion ; but his
friend the celebrated Foélius, and feveral other perfons, hav-
ing feen his MS. prevailed upon him to publifh ic. It was
firit printed at Franckfort, in 1580, in folio, under the
title of “ De cognofcendis et curandis pecipué internis hu-
mani corporis morbis, Libri tres, ex clariflimorum medi-
corum, tum veterum, tum recentiorum, monumentis non
ita pridem colle@i.’’ Boerhaave had fo high an opinion of
this author, that he edited this work, adding a preface tdug,
at Leyden, 1736, in two volumes 4to. Eloy Di&.. ;

Lepots, CHARLES, more generally known by his Latin
name, Carolus Pifo, was fon of the preceding, and born
at Nancy in 1563. He was fent at the age of thirteen to
the college of Navarre, at Paris, where he remained five
years, and diftinguifhed himfelf by his rapid advancement
in the knowledge of the languages, belles lettres, and phi-
lofophy. He received the degree of Matter of Arts in the
univerlity of Paris in 1581, and immediately commenced his
career in the {chools of medicine. After four years, {pent
in the faculty at Paris, he went to Padua in 1585, and vi-
fited the other {chools and the learned men of Italy before
he quitted that country. He returned to Paris in the he-
ginning of 1588, and took his bachelor’s degree in medicine,
and two years afterwards became a licentiate; but he left
Paris without having taken the degree of doétor, from ina-

2 : bility

ie i

bility to defray the expences of that ceremony, in confe-
quence of the {mall income left him by his father. He
therefore returned to his native city, where duke Charles III.
of Lorraine appointed him his confulting phyfician, and re-
tained him near his perfon both at home and in his travels.
Duke Henry II. likewife held him in the fame eftimation ;
and, among many other marks of his efteem for Lepois, he
inflituted a faculty of medicine at Pont-a-Mouflon, and
nominated him dean and firft profeffor. In order to under-
take thefe offices, he repaired to Paris, where he received

the degree of M.D., which gave him the power of con--

ferring the fame degree upon others, and commenced the
duties of his profefforfhip in November 1598. He had now
an opportunity of difplaying the itores of knowledge, which
his acquaintance with the Greek and Latin, Arabic, He-
brew, Italian, and Spanifh languages had enabled him to
obtain; he was indefatigable in his obfervation of difeafes,
and omitted no opportunity of examining by difleétion the
bodies of thofe who died; from which he juitly anticipated
the moit important improvements would accrue to medicine.
His reputation was clevated to the highcft degree, fo that
he was the phyfician of all the honourable perfons in Lor-
raine. His zeal in the prattice of his profeffion continued
unabated, and ultimately occafioned his death at the age of
feventy ; for he died of the plague at Nancy, whither he
had gone to adminifter relief to thofe afflicted by the pefti-
Ience, in the year 1633. He left the following works,
which have tranfmitted his reputation to pofterity ; particu-
larly the firft, entitled ‘ Seleftiorrm Obfervationum et
Confiliorum de preteritis ha€tenus morbis, effectibufque
preter naturam ab aqua, feu fcrofa colluvie et deluvie
ortis, Liber fingularis,?? Pont-a-Mouffon, 1618, in 4to.
This work paffed through feveral fubfequent editions, one
of which, (that of Leyden 1733,) was publithed, with a pre-
face, by the celebrated Boerhaave. A fele&ion from, or
an abridgment of it was alfo printed in 1639, with the title
of ** Pifo enucleatus,”? in 12mo. His other works were,
«Phyficum Cometz Speculum,” Ponte at Moationem,
2619, in 8vo.; and < Difcours de la Nature, Caufes, et
Remedes, tant curatifs que prefervatifs, des Maladies popu-
laires, accompagnées de Dyfenterie et autres Flux de Ven-
tre,’ ibid. 1623, in 12mo. Hie tranflated from the Spa-
nifh into Latin, ‘* Ludovici Mercati Inflitutiones ad ufum
et examen corum qui artem luxatoriam exercent,”’ Franck-
fort, 1625; in folic. He likewife publifhed the following
eulogy of his firft patron, «‘ Caroli III., Sereniffimi, Poten-
tiffimique Ducis Lotharingiz, &c., Macarifmos, feu felici-
tatis et virtutum egregio Principe dignarum coronz,”’ 1690.
Eloy Di. Hilt. de la Med.
LEPOMERO, in Geography, a town of New Mexico,
in the province of Hiagui; 130 miles E.N.E. of Riochico.
LEPORARIA Aauita, aname given by fome authors
to the melanaétos, or black eagle, from his deftroying great
numbers of hares. See Fatco melaronotus.
LEPORINUM Lagzium, in Surgery. See Hare-.ip.
Leporinum Rofrum, a term fometimes applied to the
portion of flefh frequently obfervable between the margins
of the fiffure in cafes of hare-lip. See HARE-Lip.
Lerorinum Genus, in Zoology, the name of a genus of
animals, fo called from their general refemblance to the hare
in fhape, and other particulars: the charaéters by which they
* are diftinguifhed from other quadrupeds are thefe ;. they
have feet divided into claws; they feed on vegetables; and
they have two very long teeth in the fore-part of their
mouths., Ray’s Syn. Quad. p. 204.
LEPORINUS Ocutus, in Surgery.
THALMIA.

See Lacorn-

LE P
LEPOTI, in Geography, atown of the principality of

Georgia, in the province of Kaket; 22 miles S.E. of
Kaket.

LEPPOWIRTA, a town of Sweden, in the govern-
ment of Kuopio; 24 miles S. of Kuopio.

LEPRA, Aimex, quafi rer, fquamofa, from remy a@
Jeale ; whence our Enolith term Leprofy 3 which fee. -

Lepra Lankeng, in Geography, a town of Thibet; 68
miles 5S. E. of Toudfong. ‘

LEPRAS, in Schthyology, the name of a fea-fith of the
turdus, or wrafle kind, remarkable for the great variety and
beauty of its colouring. It is feldom caught of more than
five or fix inches in length, and is confiderably broad and
flat. It fometimes grows to a foot long, but that only
in the ocean, never in the Mediterranean fea, where it is
ufually caught ; and even there very rarely. It is fpotted
all over like the body of a leopard. Jt is one of the mott
beautiful fith of the Mediterranean, but is not much eiteemed
at table, being of an infipid and watery talte.

LEPREUM, Lepreos, or Leprium, in Ancient Geogra-
phy, a town of Tripbylia, near the confluence of the rivers
Jardanus and Alcidon, N.W. of Chaa. Itis faid to have
been founded by a perfon of the name of Lepreos, a fa-
mous wreitler, who contended with Hereules, by whom he
was vanquifhed and killed. In the time of Paufanias, the
inhabitants of Lepreum affumed the appellation of Arcadi-
ans. In this town was a temple of Ceres, conftruéted of
bricks, and near it was the fountain called Aréné.

LEPRIA, an ifland on the coalt of lonia, mentioned by:
Pliny.

LEPROSO Amovenpo,. in Law, an ancient writ that
lay to remove a /eper, or /azar, who thrutt himfelf into the
company of his neighbours in any parifh, either in the
church or at other public meetings, to their annoyance..
The writ les againit thofe lepers that appear outwardly to
be fuch, by fores on their bodies, {mell, &c. and not againt{t:
others: and if a man bea leper, and keep within his houfe,
fo as not to converfe with his neighbours, he fhall not be-
removed. ote

LEPROSY, in Wedicine, a denomination which has been’
given toa variety of chronic difeafes, chiefly affeGing the:
fkin ; but which has not been exclufively appropriated to:
thofe that are characterized by the formation of fcales, as
the origin of the term imports. Even the Greek. writers:
themfelves, and more efpecially the later ones, have not ad-
hered uniformly to the proper import of the appellation ;
but the confwlion which has prevailed in fubfequent periods.
of medical hiftory, in regard to the application of this term,.

‘almoft bids defiance to the induftry and difcrimination of the

inquirer. ‘This is partly to be aferibed to the difficulty of
conveying accurate notions of cutaneous appearances by
verbal defcriptions, partly to the extreme variety in which
thofe appearances prefent themfelves, and partly to the neg-
le& of minute obfervation, where diflinGions can only be
detected by a careful and praétifed eye.. Thus the latter:
Greek. phyficians applied the term /epra in a more extended
fenfe than their predeceffors, and rendered future difcrimina--
tion more difficult. But this difficolty was exceedingly mul-
tiplied by the tranflators’of. the works of the Arabian phy-
ficians into Latin, after the revival of learning.. The Ara-\ -
bians appear to have diflinguifhed the lepra and elephantiafis
of the Greeks, by appropriate terms in.their own language :
but the trasflators rendered the word which denoted the latter
(viz. juzam,.and baras or albaras) by the Greek term lepra 3,
and the Arabic words (albohak and alkouba) which feem
to have fignified the fame with the lepra, alphos, and pfora
of the Greeks, they tranflated by the terms impetigo and:

morphea:

LEPROSY.

morphea refpectively. (See Willan on Cutan. Difeafes,
ad edit. p. 112. 117. and 126.) This produced the double
confufion of applying the fame appellation to a variety of
difeafes, and of denoting each difeafe by a variety of names ;
infomuch that almoft every fevere chronic affection of the
fin at length acquired the denomination of leprofy, which
became rather the name of a clafs of difeafes, than a {pecific
term. This confufion was ftill farther increafed, during the
middle ages ; when innumerable hofpitals and places of re-
fort, together with the means of fubfiftence, were provided
for thofe who were afllited by this prevalent malady ; and
when the epithet of /eprous was a fufficient claim upon the
charity of the Chriftian world. For every {pecies of ‘difeafe
affeGing the fkin was reprefented as /epro/y ; and multitudes
of idle and filthy perfons obtained a fubfiltence by ranking
themfelves in that clafs. c

The fame term, /epro/j, has, moreover, been applied by
the tranflators of the facred writings, to a variety of cuta-
neous difeafes, refpe&ting the nature of which there has been
fome difference of opinion; fome referring it to the fealy
lepra of the Greeks, and others confidering it as a variety of
the elephantiafis of the fame people ; we mean the leuce, vi-
tiligo, or albaras alba.

In order to arrive at a tolerably clear-notion of the feveral
varieties of {ignification, which have been given to the term,
we muft, therefore, confider it under four different heads ;
namely, the leprofy of the Arabians, of the Greeks, and
of the Jews, and the leprofy of the middle ages.

Leprosy of the Arabians, or Lepra Arabum, is the fame
with the Elephantiafis of the Greeks. See ELEPHANTIASIS.

Under that head, we have defcribed at length the fymp-
toms of this formidable difeafe, as detailed by Aretzus and
the other Greek phyficians; as well as the appearances,
which it has been faid to affume in the Weft Indies, in Ara-
bia, and in other fouthern climates, in modern times. We
mutt here, however, obferve, that the appellation of Arabian
leprofy has originated in error; and that the imputation of
having mifapplied the Greek term (lepra), which has been
generally caft upon the Arabian phyficians, appears to be al-
together incorre&t. This imputation arofe from the mifin-
terpretation of their tranflators, as above ftated: and as the
works of the Arabians were known only to European phy-
ficians, through the medium of thefe tranflations, into Latin,
it was naturally inferred that the original writers had com-
mitted the error. Avicenna defcribes the elephantiafis under
the title of juzam, or aljuzam, (the appellation which is
ftill given to the difeafe in Arabia, according to Niebuhr, )
and likewife diftin@ly treats of the albers or albaras, and
the albehek or albohek (morphza of the tranflators). . He
carefully diftinguifhes, however, the albaras from the al-
bohek, the former of which has feveral fymptoms in common
with the confirmed elephantiafis (aljuzam), and is faid often
to terminate init. Thefe fymptoms are, a lofs of fenfibility
in the parts affeCted ; a change of colour in the hairs, which
become white; and ultimately a lofs of the hair; and a
change in the colour and texture of. the fkin, and of the
mufcular flefh under it, which becomes white and bloodlefs,
like that of oyfters, and finally perifhes and falls off. Thefe
fymptoms have, in confequence of the miltakes of the tranfla-
tors of the Arabians, been transferred to the proper fcaly
lepra, and are conjoined, in the ordinary defcriptions of the
latter, with the fymptoms properly belonging to it alone.
But it feems obvious that the Arabian terms albohek and
albaras are of nearly the fame import as the Greek terms
alphosand leuce, which both Hippocrates and Celfus have
carefully diflinguifhed; confidering the former as a mere
blemifh of the fkin, but the latter asa formidable and almoft

incurable difeafe. See Lrucr. See alfo Hippoc. lib.
weps woQwy. Celfus, lib. v. cap. 28, and Willan on Cuta-
neous Difeafes, ord. ii. genus 1.

Leprosy of the Greeks, or Lepra:' Grecorum, is princi-
pally charaGterized, as the term imports, by the formation
of /cales on the furface of the fkin, which confit of morbid
lamin “of the cuticle, hard, thickened, opaque, and of a
whitifh colour, and appear in patches of different fizes,
having always nearly a circular figure. ‘

Such js the defcription of the difeafe which has been left
us by the Greek writers, and which is given as the charac-
ter of the /pra by the beft writer on the fubje& in our own
time ; wemean Dr. Willan. Hippocrates has not left any
circumitantial detail of the fymptoms of lepra, but {peaks
of it, together with the alphas, pfora, lichenes, &c. as an ex-
ternal blemifh, rather than a difeafe. The later Greek
writers, however, although brief in their defcription of
lepra, have pointed out the diftin@ions between it and thofe
fimilar affections, with which it was conjoined by their pre-
deceffors, Aétius ftates, that it differs from the /euce (viti-
ligo, or white elephantiafis) in not penetrating deeper than
the ikin, and leaving the fubjacent flefh found; from the
alphos, which, though fcaly, 1s more fuperficial ; and from
the p/ora, in having large feales, like thofe of fifh; whereas,
in the latter, only feurf, or branny exfoliations, appear.
(Aét. Tetrabib. iv. fermo i. cap. 134.) It mutt be here’
obferved that the pfora, fimply, fignifies a flight, fealy dif-
eafe ; and not the /cabies; or itch, which is defignated, to-
gether with the moift-tetter, by the epithet w/cerating pfora,
Lup 2rxwans. (Aét. loc. cit. cap. 126, 127, and 130. - Ga-
len, Introd. Paul. lib. iv. cap. 2.) Paulus /Egineta, in a
chapter ** On Lepra and Pfora,”’ obferves, that ** both thefe
difeafes are charaCterized by toughnefs and itching, anda
feparation of a melancholic humour ; but épra affeéts the
{kin deeply, in circular patches, at the fame time throwing
off feales like thofe of large fifhes; whereas p/ora is more
fuperficial, varioufly figured, and throws off little bran-like ©
fubftances.” (Lib. iii. cap. 2.) A€tuarius has given the
fame account of thefe difeafes. (De Meth. Med. lib. ii.
cap. 11.) This fealy s/ora will- be afterwards confidered,
under the appellation of Psorrasis, which Dr. Willan has
appropriated to it, in order to avoid the confufion which
would enfue in retaining the term p/ora, which has been
applied by many of the moderns exclufively to /cabies, or
itch.

Three varieties of the fealy lepra are obferved in this
country, accerding to Dr, Willan, which he has denominated
Lepra vulgaris, L. alphoides, and L. nigricans.

1. The /epra vulgaris firft fhews itfelf in fmall, reddifh, and
fhining elevations of the cuticle, on the tops of which thin
white {cales are feen within twenty-four hours from their ap-
pearance. After three or four days, the {mall elevations
are flattened, and at the fame time dilated, by an extenfion
of their bafes, to the fize of a filver penny. Thefe patches
continue to enlarge gradually, until they become nearly of
the fize of a crown piece; they always retain a circular or
oval form, are covered with dry feales, and furrounded by
ared border. The fcales often accumulate on them, fo as
to form a thick prominent cruft, which is quickly reproduced, »
whether it fall off fpontaneoufly, or have been forcibly de-
tached. On its removal, the furface appears, through a
magnifier, to be perous and irregular, or wrinkled ; but the
furrows do not coincide with the lines of the contiguous
found cuticle. The eruption is not attended with any pain
or unealinefs, excepting a flight degree of itching, felt when
the patient becomes warm in bed, and a fenfation of tingling

upon

LEPROSY.

brat any fudden change in the temperature of the atmo-
phere.

This fpecies of /epra often appears fir at the elbow, or

on the fore-arm, but more generally about the knee ; in the
latter cafe, the primary patch forms immediately below the
patella. Within a few weeks, feveral other fcaly circles ap-
pear along the fore parts of the leg and thigh, increafine by
Gegrees until they come nearly into contaét. The difvafe is
then often ftationary for a confiderable length of time: if it
does advance farther, its progrefs is towards the hips and
loins, afterwards to the fides, back, and fhoulders, and
about the fame time to the arms and hands. Ina great
number of cafes, the hairy fcalp is the part laft affected :
although the circles formed on it remain for fome time diftin&,
yet they finally unite, and cover the whole furface on which
the hair grows with a f{caly incruftation, producing, efpe-
cially in hot weather, a troublefome itching. In fome in-
ttances, the nails, both of the fingers and toes, are thickened,
and deeply indented longitudinally ; either the whole, or
=i part of each nail is harder, and more prominent than
ufual.
When the ‘pra extends to all the parts above-mentioned,
it becomes highly difguiting in its appearance, and not only
inconvenient, from the ftiffnefs and torpor which it occa-
fions in the limbs, but painful where the fin is red and ten-
der, as it fometimes becomes, in the flexures of the joints.
The difeafe, however, is feldom difpofed to terminate {pon-
taneoufly : it continues nearly in the fame ftate for many
weeks, or months, fometimes for feveral years, or even
during the remainder of life, yet without being apparently
conneéted with any diforder of the conftitution. An appro-
priate courfe of medicine, with a regular diet, aéts very
flowly on the lepra, but will at length accomplifh its cure ;
and it then proceeds to a termination in the following man-
ner. Firft, the incruftation feparates from about the cen-
tres of the patches, and is no longer reproduced. The
fcales being farther and farther removed, a circle of red
fhining cuticle, deeply indented, appears within the original
patch, which ftill retains a broad hard fealy ring, or bor-
der: this border continues till the cuticle within it affumes
the ufual colour and texture. It then gradually foftens, and
the cuticular lines being extended over it, every vellige of
the difeafe is erafed.

It may be obferved, with refpeét to the {caly Apra, that
the patches are generally firuated where the bone is neareft
to the furface, as along the fkin, about the elbow, and upon
the ulza in the fore-arm; along the fpine, os flium, and
fhoulder-blade ; and on the fcalp, They rarely appear on
the calf of the leg, on the flefhy part of the arm and thigh, or
within the flexures of the joints. The difeafe almoit con-
ftantly affects both fides, appearing at each elbow, or at
each knee about the fame time, and extending from thence
along the limbs in a fimilar manner, But although freh
patches arife, from time to time, in different fituations, there
is no ceffation of the complaint in the parts firit affeGied, as
happens in fome cutaneous difeafes ; but when it is about to
terminate, all the patches affume a favourable appearance at
the fame time, thofe neareft the extremities going off fome-
what later than the reft- When the extremities, back, loins,
and head, are all at the fame time covered with dry crults, it
might be expected that the obftruétion of the perfpiration
on fo large a furface would produce difagreeable confe-
quences; which, however, is not found to be the cafe.

The caufes of the common lepra are not fatisfactorily
a(certained. Some writers maintain that the difeafe is both
contagious and hereditary ; but its contagious nature has
probably been affumed from the erroneous notion of the

VoL. XX.

affinity between the /epra vulgaris, and the elephantiafis. Dr.
Willan (to whofe accurate obfervations we are indebted for
the defcription of lepra), affirms, juftly, that it is not a con-
tagious difeafe. He admits, however, that an hereditary
predifpofition to it is occafionally tran{mitted from.the parent
to the offspring. A flow pulfe, or a languid circulation of
the blood, and, what mult generally be conneéted with it,
a harfh, dry, impermeable ftate of the fkin and cuticle, ap-
pear to conttitute a fundamental part of the pre-difpofition?
The morbid effe&ts of fuch a ftate of the integuments are
mott likely to be felt in the declive of life: accordingly, the
difeafe is of more frequent occurrence, and proves more in-
veterate after the age of forty, than at any earlier period ;
an obfervation made long ago: by Hippocrates and Galea.
Willan. loc. cit.

Among the exciting caufes of this form of the pra,
particular kinds of diet, as dried meats, fifh, oatmeal,
and fome incongruous: fixtures of food, are ufually men-
tioned, but not on fufficient authority: at leaft the dif
order is very frequent in this metropolis and its environs,
where the articles of diet juft mentioned are little ufed.
Nor does it appear that the general opinion, that /epra is
more prevalent in fifhing-towns on the fea-coaft, than in
other fituations, refts upon any better foundation. Ex-
pofure to cold and moifture, and the accumulation of fordes
on the fkin, are the only exciting caufes of this variety
of lepra which Dr. Willan has been able to point out. From
the laft-mentioned caufe, he ‘fays, it frequently arifes in
bakers, bricklayers, labourers, coal-heavers, duft-men, labo-
ratory-men, and others who work among dry powdery fub-
ftances ; for thefe perfons are not able to attend very care-
fully to perfonal cleanlinels, from the want of public baths, and
an imperfect fupply of water in their own houfes. For our
own parts, however, we have feen the difeafe moft frequently
in females, where the la{t-mentioned circumftances had not
operated.

2. Lepra a/phoides. In this form of /epra, the fealy patches
are fmaller than in the lepra vu/garis, and have their cen-
tral parts a little depreffed. ‘The eruption ufually begins
about the elbow, with dillin@, hard, protuberances, not
much larger than pimples, and of a dullredcolour. ‘Thefe,
in a fhort time, dilate to nearly the fize of a filver penny :
two or three days afterwards the central part of them
fuffers a depreffion, within which minute white fcales may
be obferved. The furrounding border, however, full con-
tinues to be raifed, but it retains the fame fize, and the fame
red colour as at firlt. All the fore-arm, and in many cafes
the back of the hand, 1s {potted with fimilar patches, which
feldom become confluent; but there is fometimes a white
incruftation round the point of the elbow. This eruption
appears in the fame mainer upon the joint of the knee, but
without fpreading far along the thigh or leg. It rarely, if
ever, appears on the trunk of the body, or on the face.

This is a difcafe of long duration, and not lefs difficult to
cure than the foregoing {pecies of lepra: even when the
fcaly patches have been removed by a perfeverance in the
ufe of fuitable applications, the cuticle remains for a long
time red, tender, and brittle; but the fmall hairs of the
fkin are not deftroyed, nor altered in their colour and tex-
ture, as fome authors have fated, and as occurs in the /ewee.
This form of the difeafe feems to have been ranked: by the
ancients under the head of white alphos, which Galen af,
firms is a flighter affection, and lefs rough than the common
lepra. Celfus, indeed, has clafled it (under the generic
term vitiligo) with the. /euce ; but he points out with care the
diftinétion between the flight a/phos and the incurable leucé.

The exciting caufes of this torm of the difeafe are pro-
4B bably

LEPROSY.

bably the fame as thofe of the preceding fpecies. It chiefly
afleéts women and children; and is not unfrequently feen,
according to Dr. Willan, in thofe who are employed to drefs
flax, hair, or feathers.

3. The lepra nigricans does not differ much from the
Jepra vulzaris, with refpe& to its form or diltribution ; but
chiefly in the colour of the patches, which are dark and livid.
‘Vhey appear firlt on the legsand fore-arms, extending after-
wards to the thighs, loins, neck, back, and hands: their
central part is not depreffed, as in the alphsides. ‘They are
fomewhat {maller than the patches of the L. vulgaris, and
have a livid or purplifh border. The flcin, ikewife, appears
of a livid colour through the fealy incruttations, which are
feldom very thick. It is further to be obferved, that the
{cales are more eafily detached than in the other forms of
lepra, and that the furface remains longer excoriated, dif-
charging lymph, often with an intermixture of blood, tilla
new incruitation forms, which is hard, brittle, and irregular.
This complaint is particularly troublefome when it covers
the fealp.

The lepra nigricans affe&ts foldiers, failors, feuller-men;
flage-coachmen, butchers, brewers’-labourers, and others,
whofe occupations are attended with much fatigue, and
expofe them to cold and damp, and to a precarious or im-
proper mode of ‘diet. Women, habituated to poor living,
and con{tant hard labour, are alfo lable to this difeafe. It
was probably comprifed under the denominations of black
alphos (M:Axt), by the Greeks, and of d/ack aldohak by the
Arabians (or black morphea of their tranflators.) ,»On com-
paring their accounts, however, it will be found that fome of
them reprefent the black alphos as fmooth and fhining, like
the leuce ; while others affert that it is rough and fealy. By
this inaccuracy refpecting the Z/ack as well as the white
alphos, they have led fueceeding writers to conjein the lepra
and elephantiatis, difeafes generically different.

Treatment of Lepra Gracorum. —In the treatment of lepra,
the Greek phylicians always premifed bleeding and {trong
purgative medicines; but they feem to have depended
chiefly on external applications, fuch as alum, fulphur, nitre,
lupines, cabbage-leaves, elm-bark, the dung of goats, mice,
and foxes, human urine, and the gall of bears. They like-
wife ufed feveral vegetable and mineral fubftances, which
had a corrofive or velicating quality ; as hellebore, colo-
phonia, the roots of white lily, onion, bryony, afphodel,
ranunculus, and anemone, the feeds of muftard, and horfe-
radifh, quicklime, vitriol, &c. Remedies of this kind, or
even blilters, are, however, found to have only a temporary
effe@, their operation being foon fucceeded by a re-produc-
tion of the fcaly crafts: Liniments, compofed of tar, or of
fome mercurial preparations, have been much employed,
both in ancient and modern practice, with fomewhat more
beneficial effect,

Of all the external remedies, however, which can be em-
ployed in the two firlt {pecies of lepra, frequent bathing or
twajbing is the moft advantageous. Dr, Wills was averle to
warm-bathing, or the external ufe of any mineral water,
from fome theoretical notions, and cenfures efpecially the
Bath waters, as having converted many cafes of flight
eruption into a confirmed leprofy. (De Medicam. Operat.
fe&. iii, c. 7.)° It is pretty well afcertained, however,
from experience, that not only the waters of Bath, but
alfo the fulphureous waters of Harrowgate, Croft, Mof-
fat, &c. ufed both externally and internally, prove very
beneficial in many cafes of the lepra. Where the fkin
33 Hot very irritable, much advantage may be alfo derived
from baths prepared with a folution of alkalized fulphur,
and muriate of foda; and when the furface is very tender,

fimple ablution with warm water, or bran and water, has
the effet of abating the tingling or itching of the fkin,
of encouraging the removal of the feales, and of rendering
the fkin fofter and more pliable. Similar effefts are pro-
duced by the ufe of the Bath waters, according to Dr, Fal-
coner. (See Memoirs of the Med. Society of London,
vol. iv.) The method in general purfued,”” this refpet-
able phyfician ftates, ‘‘ is to order the patients to bathe
twice or thrice a week, according to their age, itrength,
and other circumftances. This courfe is accompanied with
a direction to drink the waters, which, at a medium, are
taken in the quantity of about a pint daily, and are thought
thus to fecond the good effects of the bath, by promoting
an eafy and gentle perfpiration. If the amendinent appears
to proceed according to expeétation, no other medicines
are given, but occafionally fuch as are opening, if the body
be coftive.”” Dr. Falconer alfo ftates, that the whole num-
ber of perfons admitted into the Bath hofpital for this difeafe
in the {pace of four years, from June 12th, 1775, was 83 ;
of whom were difcharged 52 ‘‘cleanfed,’’ and 24 ‘ much
better.”

Bathing in fea-qwater, Dr. Willan obferves, is a certain
auxiliary inthe cure of lepra. ¢¢ It is ufual, and feems pro-
per, firit to ufe a bath of warm fea-water, till the fkin be
foftened, and the fcaly incruftations removed ; after which
a cure is foon obtained, efpecially in young perfons, by
bathing in the open fea. As the difeafe is apt to recur in
winter, or in fpring, the fame plan may be requifite for
feveral fucceffive fummers ; but I have known it, by perfe-
verance, finally eradicate the complaint. A fimple warm-
bath,’’ the fame phyfician obferves, “‘ with moderate fric-
tion, likewife contributes to remove the fcales, and to pro-
duce a foft red skin, which, in time, regains the ufual colour
and texture. This plan is fufficient in the {lighter eafes of
lepra, without the ufe of internal remedies. If the difeafe
affe€ts the extremities only, bathing the whole body is not
neceflary ; it may be enough to apply fteam, or warm-water,
frequently to the diferdered parts.” Loc. cit.

Of the mercurial preparations employed externally, we
learn from the fame author, the muriate, (or fublimate, )
and the unguentum hydrargyri nitrati, feem moft efficacious
in reftoring the cuticle, after the leprous crufts are removed.
He does not, however, think the latter preferable to the
tar-ointment, which Dr. Willis and others have recommended.
This ointment fhould be well rubbed upon the parts affeé&ted
every night, and carefully wafhed off, the following morn-
ing, with warm-water, or with a flight alkaline lotion. We
may add, that in flight or incipient cafes, where there .is
much drynefs and an inirritable itate of fkin, the feales may
be often removed by a fpirituous lotion ; and that the thick
cru{ts which fometimes form upon the patches, may be fof-
tened and removed by {trong alkaline applications. The ufe
of the decoGtions of /olanum dulcamara, or herb bitter-{weet,
or of elm-bark, by way of lotion, has alfo been found of con-
fiderable fervice in feveral inftances.

Many internal remedies have been employed and recom-
mended for the cure of lepra, the efficacy of which has not
been itrongly eftablifhed by fubfequent experience, Re-
fpeGting thefe, Dr. Willan remarks, that antimonials, ful-
phur, and nitre, have not alone any confiderable efficacy 5
that decoGtions of emollient herbs, of guaiacum-wood,
farfaparilla, mezereon, or of elm-bark, which have been
recommended as fpecifics, by no means deferve that cha
racter ; that calomel, Aydrargyrus calcinatus, pilule bydrargyri,
or mercurial fri€tions, applied fo as to produce falivation,
do not remove the difeafe ; and that the nitrous and muriatic
acids, lately recommended in ob{tinate cutaneous eruptions,

though

LEPR OS ¥.

though fuccefsful in fome cafes of lepra, have been given in
other cafes, for three or four fucceflive months, without any
manifelt advantage. The tin@ture of cantharides has often
been prefcribed for the /pra Grecorum, as on the authority
of Dr, Mead; but that phyfician recommended it only in
gafes of elephantiafis, or lepra Arabum; and it has been
found totally ufelefs in the fealy lepra. See Falconer, loc.
eit. Willan, loc. cit.

The following fubftances may be mentioned, however, as
having evinced confiderable efficacy, when taken internally,
in many cafes of lepra. The corrofive muriate of mercury,
diffolved in {pirit, and taken in {mall dofes for a length of
time, has fometimes proved ufeful ; efpecially when its ope-
ration was affifted by fome antimonial, given at the fame
time, with any. of the decoétions above-mentioned. The
caultic potafs in folution, or ugua kali puri of the late dif-
penfatories, given in the dofe of twenty or thirty drops,
thricea day, in a cupful of any mild fluid, has alfo mani-
fetted fome influence over the difeafe. But the preparations
of arfenic have been employed with more confiderable fuccefs,
in obftinate cafes of lepra, both in form recommended by
the late Dr. Fowler, and in that of Dr. De Valangin. The
dofes of the folution preferibed by Dr. Fowler are larger than
are neceflary. Five or fix drops taken three times a day will
be generally fufficient for an adult. We have feen feveral
cafes in which the difeafe yielded readily to this remedy.
See Dr. Willan’s Treatife, 2d edit. p. 137, where is alfo an
intereiting communication on the fubject, from Dr. Girdle-
ttone, of Yarmouth.

Among the vegetable remedies, the tinGture of Slack hel-
Jebore has been occafionally prefcribed by Dr. Willan, its
dofe being regulated fo as not to diforder the bowels, and
he is of opinion that it has fome efficacy ; but not more than
the mineral remedies already mentioned. The decoétion of
the twigs and leaves of the folanim dulcamara (Linn.), has
alfo been found beneficial in the fcaly lepra, when taken in-
terually, as well as when applied externally as a wafh. Out
of twenty-three cafes, in which it was employed by Dr.
Crichton, two only refilled its a&ion ; all the others were
cured. The decoétion is now ordered in the pharmacopeia
of the College, an ounce of the plant to be boiied in a
pint anda half of water down to a pint. OF this decoction
Dr. Crichton prefcribed two ounces, at firft, to be taken
every morning, noon, and eveaing, but the quantity was
afterwards increafed, until the pint was confumed every
day ; at the fame time, the patient was ordered to wath the
fin with a ftronger decottion of the fame plant, which con-
fiderably accelerated the cure. The remedy feldom begins
to exhibit any evident good effects for the firlt eight days,

The remedies above-mentioned are applicable only to the
twe firft {pecies of lepra ; none:of them being particularly
ferviceable in the lepra nigricans. This form of the difeale
requires, in the firit place, a regular and nutritive plan of
diet, with moderate exercife ; it may be afterwa:ds wholly
removed by the ufe of cinchona, and the mineral acids, fea-
bathing, &c. Willan, loc. cit.

It muft be obferved, before we conclude, that, in the ve-
nereal difeafe, circular patches fometimes appear, which
refemble thofe of the lepra nigricans in fize and colour, but
which are not incrufted. The drynefs and harihnefs of the
fin, fo remarkable in the lepra ve/garis and alphsides, do
not occur in the venereal lepra; its patches, when fomewhat
advanced, being as foft and pliable as other parts of the flcin.
'Thefe patches are generally diftinct, and at a diftance from
each other; they feldom exceed the fize of a fhilling ; yet
it is probable, Dr. Willan remarks, that they might ac-
quire a greater magnitude, if the progrefs of the difeafe

were not early arrefted by the ufe of mercury. As the
difeafe yields to the influence of this remedy, acircular red
{pot appears for fome time in the place of each declining
patch, and a minute fhallow depreflion, like a cicatrix, is lett
at the centre; but no permanent difcolouration of the {kin
remains, as in fome other cafes. If no medicines were
employed, thefe, like other fyphilitic eruptions, would at
length terminate in ulcerated blotches.

Leprosy of the Jews. he nature of this difeafe, which
appears from the writings of the Hebrew legiflator to have
prevailed extenfively among that people, after they quitted
Egypt under his guidance, has been the fubjeét of much dif-
cuflion, and of conliderable difference of opinion. Some
writers have referred it to one of the fpecies of leprofy
above-mentioned, and fome to the other; and fome ayaia
have confidered it as a difeafe peculiar to the Hebrew peo-
ple, differing from every malady with which other nations
have been affliéted, and fent by Providence upon them, as a fu-
pernatural-punifhment. Many of the ancient hiftorians affert,
that the Hebrews were expelled the Egyptian territories, in
confequence of the general or even univerfal prevalence of the
leprofy among them. Manethon, an Egyptian, who wrote
ahiftory of the religion of his anceftors, makes this aflertion ;
and a fimilar account is given by Lyfimachus, Plutarch,
Juftin, Tacitus, and others. The learned Jewifh writer, Jole-
phus, however, treats thefe accounts as altogether fabulous ;
and ftates fome fubftantial arguments in proof of their abfur-
dity and falfehood. (See Jofeph. Antiq. Judaic. lib. ni. and
contra Apicn, lib. i.) The concurrent teftimony of the hif-
torians, phyficians, and poets of antiquity, indeed, goes to
prove, that the inhabitants of Egypt, for many ages, were
{ubject to e'ephantiafis, and that, in faét, the difeafe ori-
ginated on the borders of the Nile; and modern obfervation
has afcertained its more recent prevalence in the fame couns
tries. This circumftance feems to have led fome writers
to conclude, that the Hebrew leprofy was the elephantiafis,
or lepra Arabum, as it has been called. But a confider-
ation of the fymptoms, enumerated by the divine lawgiver,
fanctions the conclufion, which the majority of writers have
drawn upo the fubjeét, that it was neither the elephantiafis,
in its ordinary tubercular form, on the one hand, nor the
{caly lepra of the Greeks (which, however, it more nearly
refembled in its external appearance) on the other; but that
it was the /euce of the Greek writers, the vitiligo of Cellus,
and the white albaras of Avizenna, and the other Arabian
phyficians. (See Lyvcr.) See alfo Leon. Fuchfii, Para-
dpx, lib. ii. cap. 16. Greg. Horit. Obf. Med. lib. vil. p, 330.

1. Campanelle, Ord. Medic. lib. vi. cap. 23. art. 3.
Forefti, Obf. Chirurg. lib. iv. Obf..7. Raymond, Hitt. de
V’Elephantiafis, p. 64. - Henfler, vom Abendlandifcher
Auffatz, p. 341. :

It will be {ufficient to compare the obfervations of Avi-
cenna, when pointing out the dittinétion between the white
albaras and the alguada (morphea cf the tranflators), with the
marks of difcrimination detailed in the book of Leviticus,
re{pecting the unclean leprofy, and thole forms of it which
were not deemed unclean, in order to be convinced that the
fame difeafe is, in both cafes, under the view of the writer.
Avicenna {tates that ‘* both fpecies of alguada (viz. alphos
and melas of the Greeks) are confined to the fkin, and
merely {uperficial ; but the albaras affects both the fkin and
the fleth, even to the bones.’? And again; ‘ there is this
difference between the white aleuada and the white albaras,
that hairs grow upon the {kin affected with the former, ‘and
they are of a black or brown colour; but thofe, which
grow in the a/laras are always whife ; and at the fame time
the ikin is more deprefled or funk, than the reft of the fur-

4B 2 face

LEP R O'S Y.

face of the body. Some depreffion may, perhaps, occur in
the euada, but it is very flight. Moreover, a punéture of
the {kin with a needle draws blood in the guada; but no
blood follows it in the Jaras, only a watery humidity ; and
this isincurable.”? (Avicenne, Canon. Med. lib. iv. Fen. iii.
tra. iii. cap. 9.) In the five or fix fpecies of leprofy
defcribed by. Mofes, namely, as commencing with a feab or
bright {pot, a fwelling, a rawnefs of the flefh, a boil or
ulcer, and a burning or inflammation, as well as the leprofy
inthe head, and that conneéted with baldnefs, it will be ob-
ferved, that the two charaeriftic fymptoms are the white-
nefs of the hair, and the depreffion of the Jhin conjoined, as in
the quotation from Avicenna. The whitenefs of the fur-
face alone, without change of colour in the hair, or any
depreffion (as it occurs in the alphos, morphea, or lepra
Grecorum), is exprefsly afferted not to conititute an unclean
leprofy. « When a man fhall have in the fkin of his flefh
a rifing, a feab, or bright {pot, and it be in the fkin of his
flefh ike the plague of leprofy, then fhall he be brought unto
Aaron the prieft, or unto one of his fons the prielts ; and
the prieft fhall look upon the plague in the fkin of the flefh.
Andif the dair of the plague is ¢urned white, and the plague
in fight be deeper then the jin of his flefh, it is a plague of
leprofy, and the prieit fhall look upon him and pronounce
him unclean.” But “if the bright /pot be white in the fkin of
his flefh, and in fight be mot deeper than the fkin, and the hair
thereof be not turned cuAite ; then the prieft fhall fhut him up
that hath the plague feven days,’’ in order to afcertain the
nature of the difeafe by future infpe&tion. <* And the prieft
fhali look on him the feventh day ; and behold, if the plague
in his fight be at a ftay, and the plague fpread not in the
fin, then the prieft fhall {hut him up feven days more ; and
the prieft fhall look on him again on the feventh day: and
behold, if the plague be fomewhat dark, and the plague
fpread not in the fkin, the prieft fhall pronounce him clean 3
it ic but a feab ; and he fhall wath his clothes, and be clean.”
Leviticus, chap. x1.

Nay it appears that the whitenefs of the fkin, even when
extending over the whole body, was not confidered as con-
ftituting of itfelf the true leprofy, unlefs fome excoriation,
or appearance of ‘raw fleth,”’ was conjoined with it, or the
hair was changed to white, cr the depreffion of furface was
obferved; and even after excoriation had occurred, if it
were {caled over, or became white, neverthelefs the perfon
was declared clean. ‘* And if a leprofy break out abroad
in the fkin, and the leprofy cover all the {lin of him that
hath the plague from his head even to his foot, wherefoever
the prieft looketh; then the prieft fhall confider ; and, be-
hold, if the leprofy have covered all his flefh, he flail pro-
nounce him clean that hath the plague : it is all urned white :
be is chan. Bat when raw fe/h appeareth in him, he fhall
be unclean, And the prieft fhall fee the raw flefh, and
pronounce him-to be unclean: for the raw fleth is unclean 5
it is a leprofy. Or, if the raw flefh turn again, and be
changed into white, he fhall come unto the prieft, and the
prieit fhall fee hin: and, behold, if the plague be turned
into white, then the prieft fhall pronounce him clean that
hath the plague; he is clean.”’ (Loc. cit.) And, in like
manner, when the cutaneous difeafe originates from a ‘ boil,”’
or froma “ hot burning,” (iid. vers 18 and 24,) in either
cafe, if, in the place of the boil or burning, there be “a
white rifing, or a bright fpot, white, and fomewhat reddifh,
and it be fhewed to the prieft ; and if, when the prieft feeth
it, behold, it be in fight Jower than the fkin, and the hair
thereof be turned white, the prieft fhal! pronounce him un-
clean; it is a plague of leprofy broken out of the boil.
But if the prieft look on it, and, behold, there be no qhite

hairs therein, and if it be not Jower than the fkin, but be
Jfomewhat dark ; then the prieft fhall fhut him up feven days,
&e. ;’’ and if, in the mean time, it remains flationary, * it
is a burning doi/, and the prieft fha!l pronounce him clean.”’

And, farther, when the hairy fealp, or the beard, is af-
fe&ted with leprofy, «if it be in fight deeper than the fling
and there be in it a yellow thin hair,” the perfon is pronounced
unclean ; ‘it isa dry feall, even a leprofy upon the head or
beard.””? But even if there fhould be no depreffion of the fur-
face, yet if there be likewife no d/ack and thick hair, (i. e. hair
of the natural appearance, ) it is {till to be confidered as ** the
plague of the feall,”’ and the perfon is to be fhut up for feven
days, and to be fhaven, for the purpofe of more accurate
invettigation.

Laftly, when after thefe fucceffive feclufions and exami-
nations, at intervals of feven days, in any of the cafes, the
unclean leprofy is confirmed ; then «the leper in whom the
plague is, his clothes fhall be rent, and his head bare, and
he fhall put a covering upon his upper lip, and fhall cry ¢ un-
clean, unclean? All the days wherein the plague fhall be in
him, he fhall be defiled ; he is unclean: he fhall dwell alone ;
without fhe camp fhall his habitation be.”

It is to be inferred, from the preceding quotations, that
the Hebrews, during their migration from Egypt to the
land of Canaan, were fubjeét to a variety of difeafes of the
fkin and mufcular folids, to which the appellation of leprefy
was applied, as a general term ; but that the moft incurable
and loathfome-fpecies, which was called the /:profy, by way
of eminence, was that malady, which has been fubfequently
known in the ‘countries which they traverfed and inha-
bited, and on all the eaftern fhores of the Mediterranean,
under the various denominations above ment‘ ned, of /euce,
vitiligo, albaras alba, and elephantia alba (Pin. Hilt. Nat.
lib, xxv. cap. 5). hat it was not the elephantiafis of
Aretzus, in which the face was deformed with tubercles,
the lips thickened, the nofe dilated, the ears enlarged and
tuberous, and the countenance diftorced, witha reddifh brown
complexion tending to black ; and ultimately with an ulcera-
tion of the rugous and tuberculated parts, (fee ELepmanTia-
sis,) is obvious from a perufal of the foregoing defcription.
The extreme cwhitexe/s, indeed, is mentioned in various parts
of {eripture, as characteriflic of the leprofy, and is feveral
times compared to that of fnow. This colozr is the only.
circumitance that is ftated, in refpeé to the miraculovs le-
profy of the hand in Mofes himfelf, as well as in that of Mi-
riam and Gehazi: (fee Exodus, chap. iv. ver. 6, alfo 2 Kings,
chap. vi. v. 27. Numbers, chap. xii. v. 10.); andthe bright
and {mooth furface and depreflion of the {pots alfo afford a
contrat to the prominent and rough tubercles of elephanti-
afis. Neverthelefs the leuce has fome affinity to the elephan-
tiafis in the lofs of fenfibility in the integuments and muicles
which are affeGted by it. It would feem, however, to be
a legitimate inference from the filence of Mofes, that the
tubercular elephantiafis was either ex'remely. rare, if not alto-
gether unknown to the Hebrews, or that it was not deemed
unclean or contagious.

It is fearcely neceflary to remark to the Englifh reader,
that the word plague, in the preceding paflages, obvioufly
fignifies only the fpot or difeafe ; and implies nothing petti-
lential or infe&tious. The word, in the Septuagint, -is
a2, idus, plaga, (a firoke); the latter of which is ufed in the
Vulgate

It 1s by no means clear, indeed, that this form of leprofy
was actually contagious, or was even deemed contagious ;
although fo much care was enjoined by the law in the exami-
nation of the fymptoms, and the expulfion of the difeafed
from the camp was ftritly commanded, in cafe the aa

©

LEPROSY.

of the true leprofy were afcertained. For in the firft place, no
apprehention of the communication of the difeafe by infec-
tion is any where expreffed ; the leprous perfon is {aid to
be unclear’. But other circumitances, where no contagion
or communication of difeafe could be fufpeéted, were faid,
in like manner, torender a perfon unclean ; and the law en-
joined, in thefe cafes alfo, a temporary feparation of the perfon
from fociety, and fimilar rites, offerings, and ablutions, at
the time of being declared clean before the prieft. (Levit.
chap. xv.) Thus any iffue or difcharge from the body, the
occurrence of the catamenia in women, child-bearing, &c.
all rendered a perfon unclean, and equally fubject to fepara-
‘tion and the fubfequent ceremonies. It would feem, there-

’ fore, that the loathfome and foul nature of the difeafe,
which infpired this people witha fimilar horror and difgutt
to that which is felt towards a corpfe (‘‘ tanquam nihil a ca-
davere diferentes ;’? Jofephus Antiq. Judaic. lib. iii. chap. x,
fee alfo Numbers, chap. xii. ver. 12.) was the principal rea-
fon for the feverity of the law of exclufion, which was
ordained againft lepers. For we are informed by Jofephus
himfelf, that, fo far from being fuppofed to be capable of
infeting thofe about them with their difeafe, ‘lepers, in many
countries, not only mix in fociety, but are even held in high
eitimation ; fo far from being banifhed, or looked upon with.
contempt, they are honoured, in warlike expeditions, with
military dignities, and with offices of truft in the adminiltra-
tion of public affairs; neither are they excluded from the
places of public devotion.’’ (Loc. cit.) The fcriptures, in-
deed, furnifh us with an example of the high ftation of a
leper, in the perfon of the Syrian general, Naaman, who was
in great favour with hisking. Andevenamong the Ifraelites
themfelves, it would feem that the exclufion of the leprous
was not very rigidly enforced. For we find Gehazi, the
fervant of Elifha, {till in the employment of the prophet,
and converfing even with the king, after the leprofy had been
infliGed on him “and his feed for ever:’? (fee 2 Kings,
chap. v. and vi. and again chap. viii. v. 4.) to fay nothing of
the four lepers fitting at the gate of Samaria, who after-
wards returned to communicate the news of the defertion of
‘the Syrian camp. (Ibid. chap. vii.) And in after times the
Jeprous had free accefs to Chrift, and joined in the crowds
that followed him. (St. Matthew, chap. viii.) They were
alfo inhabitants of the towns and villages; for Jefus was
‘in the houfe of Simon the leper, in Bethany.’ Ibid.
chap. xxvi. v. 6.

Thefe facts, then, afford more than prefumptive evidence,
that the Hebrew leprofy, the deuce, or vitiligo alba, was not
a contagious difeafe, any more than the white fealy leprofy,
-which is common in our own time. And there is much rea-
fon for believing, that even the tuberculated leprofy, or
elephantiafis, was equally void of contagious qualities, as
we fhall prefently ftate, notwith{tanding the {trong affertions
to the contrary among the ancients, We have already ob-
ferved, however, that the latter was confidered as a confe-
quence of the white leprofy in many inftances, or as the fame
difeafe, ina more fevere degree; for the lepra was faid to
change into elephantiafis (Galen. de Tremor. preter Nat.
cap. 13.) : and tuis author alfo mentions two cafes, in which,
on the contrary, elephantiafis was changed into lepra by a
particular mode of treatment. Galen, de Simplic. Med.
Fac. lib. xi.

Little canbe faid, that fhall poffefs any intereft, refpect-
ing the treatment of the’/euce, or Jewith leprofy. It was
generally deemed an incurable difeafe in ancient times, and
is almoit unknown, we believe, at prefent in Europe. It
ftiil, perhaps, appears occafionally in Iceland, and other
northern regioss, as a precurfor, or asa modification of the

8

elephantiafis, according to the obfervation of a late intelli-
gent traveller in the ifland juft mentioned. He ftates, that
he faw a woman affected with a horrible difeafe, which is
there called Likthrau, by which her face was fo corroded as
to prefent a moft difguiling {pedtacle. * Her legs and hands,”
he adds, * were {wollen to an enormous fize, thefe latter be-
ing alfo covered with a thick and almof white kin lying in great
ewrinkles.”? (Hooker's Journal of a Tour in Iceland, p- 186.)
The thickened and rugous fkin, with the ulcerations of the
face, belong to elephantialis; whi'e the morbid whiteneft is
chara¢teriflic of leuce. Mr. Hooker alfo expreffes his opi-
nion, that this difeafe was not contagious. No light has
been thrown upon this difeafe by a ftill later traveller in the
fame ifland, who has recounted the fymptoms of elephanti-
alis, as commonly given in books, and apparently added
nothing from perfonal obfervation. (See Mr. Holland’s
Paper on the Difeafes of Iceland, in the fir G. Mackenzie’s
« Tour’’ in that ifland, juft publifhed. Dec. 1810.) Profef!or
Henfler mentions a cafe, which he once faw for a few mi-
nutes, and which appears to have ref¢mbled that mentioned
by Mr. Hooker. “ The whole countenance was puffed up; the
cuticle was of a dirty white, or whitifh-grey colour, dry
and fhrivelled ; but foft to the touch, as if diftended with
a watery fluid ; with fiffures here and there, from which
fome exudation took place.”? The cuticle alfo exhibited
fome furfuraceous and powdery exfoliations. Henfler re-
marks, that the comparifon (applied by Aaron to his filter
Miriam, in Numbers, chap. xii. v. 12.) of fuch a perfon
to a dead and macerated fetus, is a moft happy illuitration
of the appearance. (‘¢Let her not be as one dead, of
whom the flefh is half confumed, when he cometh out of
his mother’s womb.’’) The phyfician who attended the pati-
ent, feen but once by Henfler, compared the appearance
of the fkin to that of thick, ftiff, dried leather ; it was fo
thick, that an experienced furgeon made feveral attempts
to open a vein, without fucceis, in various parts of the
body. There was great fwelling, ftiffnefs, and tention of the
eyelids, with a frequent ophthalmia, and great fenfibility to
light. A thick and foetid cruft covered the fealp. Shetwas
twice fo nearly cleared of the leprofy, fo as to go out of
doors again; the firft time by large dofes of conium with
fublimate of mercury ; the fecond, by tinéture of cantha-
rides, after antimonials and mercurials had increafed the
fymptoms. A third time fhe was improving much, under
the ufe of {mall dofes of arfenic, which, however, was ne«
cefflarily omitted, and fhe ultimately died. (Henfler yom
Abendlandifchen Auffatz 3° Abfchmtt. § 11. p. 351.) It
is worthy of remark, that the leprofy, in this cafe, fufpended
a pulmonary confumption, the fymptoms of which never af-
terwards returned.

OF the caufes of this form of leprofy, we fhall fay
nothing, until we come to treat of the leprofy of the middle
ages. .

With refpect to the leprofy of bonjés and of clothes, men-
tioned in the Mofaic code, it is probable that the expreffion
was merely analogical, the {pots and difcolourations which
appeared upon the walls and articles of apparel being looked:
upon as refembling the leprous {pots : while, at the fame time,
as they were moit probably the confequence of humidity,.
the appearance of them might either actually accompany,
or precede and prognofticate, difeafes in the inhabitants of
the houfes and wearers of the garments. Sper chap. xiii.
and xiv.) It is no where faid that the difeafe, called leprofy,,
is capable of being communicated to the inhabitants or
wearers, in thefe cafes; but that it is unclean. The
gartnents were ordered to be burnt, and the ftones to be
taken away, and replaced by others, or the houfe ultimately

to

YE PRIGSY.

vto be deftroyed, when, after certain infpectiions by the prieft,
the greenifh or reddith {pots in them continued.

Leprosy of the middle ages. ‘The hittory of Europe, frem
the fixth to the fifteenth century, $s fearcely lefs full-of the
deferiptions of the phylical diltrefles of the people, occa-
fioned by famine, pettilence, and difeafes of the most loath-
fome and fatal kind, than of the political aud moral evils
axhich befet them, Among the maladies of thofe times, le-
profy, uader all the forms to which the term has been ap-
plied, appears to have exilted fo generally and unceatingly,
as to have claimed a more univerfal attention than even the
vplague itfelf, _ lt was one of the firlt fubjects, on which the
aétive benevolence of the early Chriilians exerted itfelf, and
-ultimately it abforbed a very large proportion of the wealth
of Chriitendom, which was appropriated by the donations
of the pious to the maintenance and relief of thofe who were
aMicted with it. Thefe immenfe chavities, however, were
at length adminiftered under great abufes, and afford no ac-
curate grounds upon which to calculate the extent of the
prevalence of the malady.

In inveftigating the hiftory ef the difeafe in the middle
ages, we fhall probably find it fufficiently clear that the
elephantiafis, or tubercular difeafe, (the Lepra of the tranf-
Jators of the Arabians,) was the principal form again{k
which the precautionary laws were framed; but that almoit
all cutaneous difeafes were popularly confidered as Of a le-
prous nature; that, in fact, many miltakes were committed,
and many wilful deceptions practifed, by which other
dileafes were confounded with clephantiafis ; and that its
difappearaace from Europe is probably the refult of the
amelioration of the moral and phytical condition of fociety,
which the progrefs of civilization and {cience has brought
about. 7

The general opinion, which was prevalent among the
~Greeks and Romans, that leprous difeafes originated in
Ecypt, is in fome meafure confirmed by the particular con-
fideration given to them in the firit hiitory of man; and the
amore copious and dillind deferipsion of thefe dileafes, fub-
dequently given by the Arabian phyficians, as well as the ac-
counts publifhed by travellers in more recent times, (fee thofe
of Profper, Alpinus, Yournefort, Niebuhr, Bruce, &c.)
who witnefled their frequent occurrence in that and the
acighbouring countries, have led to a common belief, that
the infeGion was brought into Europe, in the eleventh cen-
tury, by the armies that returned from the erufade. But
independently of the doubts, which may be entertained, in
refpect to tbe contagious nature of elphantiafis and leuce,
there is fufficient evidence recorded, efpecially among the
tranfaGtions of the faints, in proof of the prevalence of le-
profy in the welt, at a much earlier period. Lepers are
snentioned in many public aéts, according to Muratori
{ Antiquit. Ital. Med. AZvi. t. ii. diff, 16.), in the fixth
century; and Gregory of Tours {peaks of a place, where
.thefe unfortunate perfons were accuitomed to wath them-
felves, as well as of a hofpital appropriated for them. Gre-
gory the Great, in the fame century, likewile aliudes to the
tubject, and particularly mentions one leper, ‘quem denfis
vulneribus morbus elephantinus defezdaverat.”” In the fol-
lowing century, Rhotaris, king of the Lombards, pub-
Jithed an edi& againitJepers, by which tliey were confidered
.as dead in the tai, and enjoined not to-come near to found
perfons, but tod apprife them af their approach, by making
anoife with a wooden clapper. There was a river near
Aiki, in Lombardy, tamous in thofe times for the cure of
Jeprofy; whence, in the eighth century, the Lombards
awere conlidered as a filthy leprous people; and the wife pope

Sylvelter, upon the plea of leprofy, difiuaded the king of

France from marrying a Lombard princels. So early as
the eighth century, St. Othmar, in Germany, and St. Ni-
cholas de Corbie, in France, inflituted leprous houfes,
which had been already numeroufly eftablifhed in Italy.
King Pepin, in 757, and Charles the Great, in 789, iffued
ordinances, by which the marriages of lepers were diffolved,
and their affeciation with the healthy prohibited. In
the life of St. Athanafius, in the ninth century, lepers
are alfo mentioned ; and indeed, in general, the acts of the
faints, compiled by the Bollandifts, are replete with exam-
ples of the malady, throughout Europe, in the middle ages 5
even in the life of St. Antoninus, fo early as the fourth cen-
tury, acafe of leprofy, “ horrendiflima elephantie lepra,’?
is mentioned, Muratori, loc. cit. ; alfo Raymond, Hif-
toire de 1’ Elephantiafis, p. 107: Henfler, tiber den Auffatz,
p- 211.

Thefe fa&s imply the general prevalence of leprofy in Eu-
rope, long antecedent to the Crufades. It is clear, how-
ever, that many fevere difeafes affi&ted Europe to a much
greater extent, and with augmented virulence, about the
period when thofe fanatical expeditions were executed, or
rather from the tenth to the fixteenth centuries, than before ;
and, among the reft, the leprofy appears to have been ever}
where prevalent. Every country abounded with its hof-
pitals, eftablifhed for the exclufive relief of lepers, although
the number, of thefe inftitutions has been probably exagge-
rated. Several authors have, by an error in tranflation,
quoted Matthew Paris (Hift. Angl. ad annum 1244) for
an affertion, that nineteen thoufand lazarettos exilted in
Chriftendom; but that author only ftates, that the hofpi-
ta'ers were, at that period, pofiefled of 19,000 manors.
“ Habent ho/pitalarii novem decim millia maneriorum in
Chriltianitate.’? 1: is affirmed, however, that Lewis VIIL,
king of France, made bequeits, in the year 1227, to two
thoufand /eproferies within his own kingdom, (Raymond,
loc. cit. 106. Colleét. des Hift. de France. Du Cange,
Glofs. voc. Lazari.) In this country, there were a great
number of thefe eftablifhments. It is affirmed, that the city
of Norwich alone contained five. (Sprengel, Gefchichte ii.
Theil, p. 491; who quotes Hutchinfon, in the Polit. Mag.
for Feb. 1789, p. 93-) ‘The mott extenfive inflitution of
this kind was in Leicefterfhire, at a place thence called
Burton-Lazars ; it was founded in the reign of king Ste-
phen, and dedicated to the Virgin and St. Lazarus, and be-
came poffefied of immenfe riches; fo that all the inferior
lazar-houfes in England were in fome meafure fubject to
the matter of it, as he himfelf was to the mafter of the
lazars at Jerufalem. (See Nichols’s Hitt. of Le?
In London there were fix, according to Becket, the largel
of which was that of St. Giles, without Temple Bar.

Moreover, the general exillence of leprous difeafes is fare
ther evinced by the creation of an order of knighthood,
which fprung from the fingular combination of military ar-
dour witha zeal for the religion of peace, fo prevalent in
thofe times. In the parable of the rich man and the poor
man covered with ulcers, recorded in the New Teftament,
the latter was mentioned by the name of Lazarus ; whence
the devant difpofition of the times invented a St. Lazarus,
whofe name was given to the order of knighthood, and
who was deemed the tutelary faint of the leper-houfes, -and
of each individual leper. So far, indeed, did the miftaken
piety of the age extend, that not only was every man, who
returned from Paleftine affeGted with foul fores, deemed a
faint, Lazarus; but was particularly recommended to the
devout, as one under the {pecial punifhment of God, for the
benefit of his foul. Wherefore pious perfons of the highelt
rank believed that they could bring themfelves no greater

6

favour

LEPROSY.

favour in the eyes of the Deity, than by their attention to
thefe holy fufferers, by wafhing, kifling, and even licking
their wounds. Not only priefts and archbifhops, but even
kings are recorded to have performed this naufeous piety at
certain feafons. King Robert of France, and Louis IX.,
have been particularly mentioned as practifing thefe cere-
‘monies. (DuCange. voc. Lazari. Joinville Hift. de St.
Louis. Sprengel, Gefchichte, ii. 489, &c.) The knights
of St. Lazarus had the double duty afligned them of holy
warriors and attendants upon lepers; and the lazarettos were
placed generally under their controul. Lepers, indeed, were
admitted into the order, and the mafter of it was alfo re-
quired to be a leprous knight. (Moéhfen de Medicis
equeltri dignitate ornatis, p.56. quoted by Henfler.) The
immenfe wealth, which they accumulated, became at length,
however, a temptation to the rapacity of fome fovereigns ;
and Philip V., efpecially, accufed all the hofpitallers in
France of high treafon, by confpiring with the Turks and
Jews, feized their property, and ordered them to be burnt.
Sprengel, loc. cit. Mezeray Hilt. de France, ii. p. 71.
We may obferve, by the way, that the application of the
name of Lazarus to every thing relating to leprofy, affords
another proof of the very vague manner in which the fub-
jet has been generally confidered. For not only was the
difeafe of Lazarus not termed leprofy by the divine {peaker
of the parable; but the flatement that his body was
*¢ covered with fores,’’ neither reprefents the picture of the
Jewifh leprofy, nor of the elephantiafis, nor yet of the lepra
of the Greeks. (See a learned diff. by Fred. Hoffman,
De Morbo Lazari,” in his works, Supplem. tom, ii.
553:
: oa all the towns, where lazarettos were eftablifhed, me-
dical officers were appointed by the police, to examine all
perfons, who were {uppofed to be affected with leprofy,
previous to their feclufion in thofe receptacles; indeed,
where no fuch eftablifhments exifted, huts were erected a little
way out of the towns (where alfo the hofpitals were gene-
rally placed) for each individual leper. The rules and
edicts, with regard to the condué of the lepers, were, as
far as the circumitances admitted of it, nearly copied from
the Mofaic laws. It is obvious, however, ' from the writings
of thofe phyficians, who held the office of examiners after
the revival of learning, and indeed it was avowed by them,
that the ¢udercular leprofy, or elephantialis, was the difeafe,
to the deteétion of which their inquiries were particularly
direGted. The earlieit writers, who appeared in the dawn
of modern learning, (and feveral of whom added original ob-
fervation to what they borrowed from Avicenna, and the
other Arabians,) defcribed the elephantiafis under the ap-
pellation of lepra. (See the works of Guid. de Cauhiaco ;
Gul. de Saliceto, and the Compendium Medicine of our
learned and able countryman, Gulbertus, who lived
about the reignvof Edward I., and has left a defcrip-
tion of leprofy, fo full and minute, as to evince a
eonfiderable fhare of perfonal obfervation, notwithttanding
the charge of plagiarifm from the monk, Theodorick, which
Dr. Friend enforces againft him.) Greg. Horit, who was
one of the appointed examiners at Ulm, in Bavaria, at the
end of the fixteenth century, has left us the particulars of
the examination, ufually practifed by himfelf and his col-
leagues, when fummoned by the magilitrates for that purpofe.
After the preliminary queitions relativeto the age and fami-
ly of the perfon brought before them, they examined him
refpecting the exiftence of the difeafein his parents and pro-
genitors; his habits of life and*his affociates, with a view
to the probability of contagion ; his peculiar temperament,
and previous ftate of health, and particularly as to the fup-

preffion of cuflomary evacuations; and then as to the clis
mate, foil, habitation, and diet, to which he had previoufly
been accuftomed. They then queltioned him, /eriatim, a8 to
the ftate of all the funétions, mental and corporeal: and
laftly, denudatis partibus omnibus, they examined the whole
body, with a view to afcertain the prefence or abience of the
following external fymptoms. Firlt they infpected the head,
to fee whether the hair was beginning to fall off; whether
that of the beard was becoming fofter and thinner ; and
that of the eye-brows and eye-lafhes was difappearing ; and
whether, when the hairs were pulled up by the roots, a part
of the fkin was brought away with them ; whether the eyes
were round and grim, the ears acuminated, the lips thick,
the nofe tumefied externally, the noftrils, internally fluffed
and ulcerated, the face unequally {welled with tubercles,
and of a livid red hue? Whether the veins under the tongue
were enlarged with tubercles, as if varicofe ?. Whether the
fkin was unétuous, fo that water ran off it, or there were
under it tubercles nearly without fenfibility, efpecially be--
hind the ears, and on the extremities? Whether the fkin
was rough, like that of an unfeathered goofe, or affected
with horrid fiffures, and ruge, refembling the hide of an ele--
phant, or covered with warts, like the grandines of {wine,
or affeGted with morphea, impetigo, or a dry and incurable
Jeabies ? Whether there were any nodes about the joints ?-
Whether the mufcles of the extremities, efpecially about
the thumbs, were emaciated? Whether the nails were in-
curvated? Whether the fkin was fenfible to the punGture of
the furgeon’s needle? Whether there were offenfive ulcers,
with a bad habit of body, efpecially ulcerations and fiffures
in the fingers and toes?) and whether the voice was hoarfe
and obtufe? They then drew fome blood, for the purpofe
of examining it. Thefe fymptoms being prefent,”’ fays
the author, * we deem the difeafe elephantialis, and decree
that the patient, inafmuch as he is affected with an incurable
and contagious leprofy, is to be feparated from all commu-
nion with the healthy.’?? Gregor. Horiftii Obf. Med. lib. vii.-
Obf. xviii. Epilt. J. H. Hoptnero.

It is obvious, however, from the acknowledgment of
Horft himfelf, as well as from the concurring obiervations
of feveral phyficians before his time, that the elephantiafis
was by no means the only difeafe of the kind admitted into.
the lazarettos. He goes on to obferve, that where the tu--
bercles of the face, the thick lips, acuminated ears, flat--
tened nole, round eyes, (the effential fymptoms of elephan-~-
tialis,) are abfent ; yet where the patients are affected only.
with a dry and foul {cabies, with puftular eruptions, fiffures,
and branny exfoliations, which conititute the p/ora cf the.
Greeks ; or even with great itching, emaciation, ulceration, ~
and exfoliations of thicker {cales, affecting alfo the head and .
face, which are the /epra of the Greeks ; neverthelefs they.
are fent to the lazarettos, if they are poor, for the means of -
fubfiftence. ‘* Hence it happens,’’ he adds, ‘¢ that here,
and elfewhere, very few initances of real elephantiafis are.
found in the lazarettos, whillt many are there, affected only
with an obitinate p/ora or lepra Gracorum.’’ We have alfo
the direct teltimony of an able obferver, Van Foreett, (better
known by his Latin appellation, Foreftus,) who prattifed
at Alcmaer and Delft, in the middle of the fixteenth cen-
tury, and who has alfo left an account of the mode of exa--
mination of lepers, adopted by himfelf, that a very {mall .
proportion of the perfons, who wandered about the Low.
Countries, as lepers and beggars, were true lepers ; but were
merely affected with icabies, or fome external defadation of
the fkin. “* Nay,’ he fays, ‘ not one in ten of them is truly
a leper, or afflicted with the legitimate elephantiafis.”” And :
he.adds the authority of a phytician at the Hague, who nin

wi

LEPR OS Y¥.

with him, lamented the careleffnefs or ignorance of the public
examiner at Harlem, ky whoma great number, (quem plurimi,)
who were the fubjects of fome ordinary cutaneous eruption,
were declared leprous. (See Forefti, Obferv. Chirure.
lib. iv. Obf. vii. Schol.) But, above all, Riedlin, who
was phyfician to the leper-houfe at Augiburg, affirms that,
out of fifty-nine cafes, he faw but one which was elephantia-
fis, and that ina flight degree ; all the reft were inftances of
the p/oraand /epra of the Greeks. (See Shroeck, Mifc. Ann.
1689, p. 61, and Henfler, loc. cit.) It is probable, more-
over, that in addition to all the ordinary cutaneous difeafes,
which were thus denominated leprofy, the /curvy itfelf (we
mean the true /corbutus, which was formerly fo well known
in our fleets, and which appears to have been not unfrequent
in the middle ages, during periods of {carcity and famine)
was confounded with the fame difeafe. This idea was thrown
out by Hoffmann. Quando mecum perpendo hodierni
veri fcorbuti fymptomata, vix mihi temperare poffum, quin,
iis cum adflictionibus elephantiacorum collatis, feorbutum
leviorem elephantiafeos effe fpeciem afleram 3 at inde miram
morborum pro diverfa regionumac aeris conftitutione muta-
tione confiderem. Sed tranfeat hec conjeétura, digna que
penitius inveftigetur.”” (De Morbo Lazari, § v.) Prof.
Sprengel alfo fufpeéts that thofe forms of leprofy, which
have been called mal de Ja rofain Atturia, and pellagra in
Lombardy, were fcorbutic (Gefchichte der Arzneykund, ii.
486.) : and many analogies between the two difeafes are
Seas out by Raymond. Hitt. de l’Elephant. p. 118, et
eq.

Vshefe leprous complaints began to decline in number and
violence, in Italy, about the end of the fifteenth century,
and in France and Europe, in general, in the fixteenth. In the
middle of the fifteenth century, indeed, the tubercular dif-
eafe, elephantiafis, was almoft unknown in Italy. For
Ant. Beniveni, who died very old at the beginning of the
fixteenth, obferves, that he once faw at Florencea ftranger
affected with elephantiafis ; a difeafe, he fays, almoft never
feen (in his time) in Italy, and almoft unknown to phyfi-
cians. At the beginning of the fixteenth century, Alex.
Benedetti and Joh. de Vego omit the tubercular leprofy from
the lift of difeafes, mentioniag it only curforily, and not from
experience ; but the latter {peaks fully of morphea, impe-
tigo, baras, alopecia, mal morto, and other difeafes that
have been claffed with leprofy. (Henfler, loc. cit.) About
the middle of the fixteenth century, I'rancis I. ordered the
number of lepers in each lazaretto, or maladrérie, to be re-
ported, and after appropriating a fuflicient fum for their
fupport, ordered the remainder of their revenues to be
given to the grand almoner, for general ufe. In the feven-
teenth century, leper-houfes were {till continued, (though
fimilar meafures had been generally adopted fince the de-
cline of the difeafe throughout Europe,) and were greatly
abufed by the admiffion of beggars, and idle vagrants of all
defcriptions, who employed every fpecies of trick to imi-
tate leprofy, or to produce appearances of cutaneous difeafe.
The elephantiafis itfelf, however, ftill occafionally appeared,
of which feveral recorded cafes are referred to by Henfler.
Some writers, indeed, have fuppofed, that the changes,
which took place from the clofeof the fifteenth century
downwards, were rather changes of names than an actual
difappearance or diminution of leprofy ; and that the vene-
real difeafe, which was firft noticed at that period, was in
fa&t the /eprofy with a new appellation. Indeed, fome au-
thors actually denominated the morbus Gallicus, or fyphilis,
a leprofy ; as Campanella, who treats of it among other
leprous difeafes, under the title of lepra Gallica. (See his
Med. Pradict. lib. vi. cap. 23.) But although the fecondary

fymptoms of fyphilis might be miflaken for leprofy, or
called leprous, in common with other ulcerations and cuta-
neous affections, in a confiderable number of inftances, and
for fome time ; yet, as the learned and able Aftruc, after
Leonicenus and others, has fhewn, there were fo many points
of obvious and decided difference, in the fymptoms and pro-
grefs of thetwo difeafes, as rendered fuch a confufion to any
great extent improbable. (See Aftruc. de Morb. Vener.
vol. i. lib.i.) | Neverthelefs, when we reflect upon the un-
varying adherence to ancient authority, which charaéterized
the profeffion for centuries after the revival of learning 5 and.
when we confider, that the meafles and {mall-pox, for in-
ftance, were deemed the fame difeafe, including alfo fearlet
fever, fo late as the time of Diemerbroeck (fee his Traétat.
de Variolis et Morbillis, cap. 13.) ; we hall readily con-
ceive, how flow the early phyficians would be in acknowledg-
ing a new difeafe, which had not been mentioned by the
Arabians, and with what facility they might confound it
with the old, under a denomination fo vaguely interpreted,
as that of leprofy.

-At all events, we are entitled to infer, from the pre-
ceding view of the fubje€t, that, during the middle ages,
moft erroneous notions prevailed refpecting the leprofy ;
and that the terrors of the ancients, refpe€ting the con-
tagions and unclean nature of deuce and elephantiafis, were
transferred almolt indifcriminately to every chronic cutaneous
difeafe, whether fealy, fcabby, puftular, or ulcerous, con-
tagious or non-contagious, which then occurred. And as
we are now well acquainted with the latter clafles of difeafe,
(although, from caufes to be mentioned immediately, they
may be much lefs frequent than formerly ), as we know that
all the forms of fealy difeafe, fuch as the modifications of
lepra, pforiafis, ichthyofis, and pityriafis, to ufe Dr. Wil-
lan’s nomenclature, as well as the running tetters, or impe-
tigines, the veficular eruptions, herpes, miliaria, and pom.
pholyx, and the lichenes, prurigo, &c. among the papu-
lous affeétions, are all void of any infectious quality; we
mutt be fatisfied, on the one hand, how miflaken was the
charity, which ere€ted thoufands of hofpitals, and appro-
priated immenfe treafures, for the maintenance of thofe who.
were affected by thefe diforders, and for the fancied fecurity
of the healthy ; while, on the other, we fee the cruelty and
abfurdity of the regulations and ceremonies, which were in-
ftituted in regard to fuch patients, fomewhat after the man-
ner of thofe enjoined in the thirteenth chapter of Leviticus,
for the Jewifh lepers. In faét, a perfon affected with the
real or fuppofed leprofy, was treated like a dead body: fu-
neral obfequies were performed, and maffes faid for the be-
nefit of his foul. The whole is thus defcribed by a French
writer.

«© A prieft, clothed in a furplice and ftole, repaired with
the crofs to the leper, who was prepared for the ceremony.
The holy minifter began by exhorting him «to bear patiently,
and in a fpirit of refignation and penitence, the incurable
affliGtion with which God had ftricken him ; he then befprin-
kled the fufferer with holy water, and conduéted him to the
church. Here the leper put off his ordinary clothes ; and,
having put on a black habit prepared for the purpofe, fell
on his knees before the altar, between two treftles, and heard
mafs ; after which he was again fprinkled with holy water,
This ceremony, it will be remarked, differed very little from
that which is ufually performed at funerals. While the leper
was conducted to the church, the fame verfes were fung as
at burials, and after the mafs, which was alfo the fame as
that which was performed for the dead, the Libera was fung,
and the leper was then conduéted to the houfe deftined for
him. When he had arrived, the prieft again exhorted and

confoled

LEPROSY.

confoled him, and threw a fhovel-ful of earth on his feet.
The hut (where there was no lazaretto) was {mall, and was
furnifhed with a bed and bedding, a veffel for water, a chett,
a table, a chair, a lamp, a towel, and other neceflaries. He
was prefented with a cowl, two fhirts, a tunic, and a robe
called Aoufe, a little cafk, a funnel, a rattle (des eliquettes),
a knife, a ftick, and a girdle of copper.

«Before the prieft quitted him, he interdi¢ted him from ap-
pearing in public without his leper’s habit and naked feet ; from

oing into churches, mills, or where bread was cooking ;
ae wafhing his hands and clothes, &c. in the wells and
brooks ; from touching any commodities that he defired to
purchafe at market, except with a ftick, in order to point
out the article wanted; and from entering houfes, or
taverns, for the purpofe of purchafing wine, as he had only
the privilege of remaining at the door, of afking for what he
required, and receiving it in his little cafk. He was farther
enjoined not to draw water, but with a proper veflel ; never
to reply to the queftions of any one who met him on the
road, unlefs he was to /eeward, in order that the inquirer
might not be infeed by his breath, and the contagious
odour exhaling from his body ; never to place himfelf in
narrow roads; never to touch children, nor to give them
any thing which he had touched; never to appear in public
meetings ; and never to eat or drink with any but lepers.
In fhort, thefe wretched people were regarded as dead
among the living: their children were not baptized at the
fonts ; and the water employed at their baptif{m was thrown
into lonely places. When a leper was fick, the prieft admi-
‘niftered the facrament to him, and extreme unétion; and
when he died he was buried in his hovel, or in the place of
interment appropriated for the leprous.”” See Ogée, Abregé
de l'Hift. de Bretagne, prefixed to the Diction. de Bre-
tagne.

oo moft places thefe miferable outcafts were allowed to
enter the towns, near which their hevels or lazarettos
ftood, at certain times of the year, efpecially about Eafter
and Chriftmas. The following~law exilted at Marfeilles.
« Prefenti conftitutione firmamus deinceps obfervandum,
quod nulli Leprofi feu Mezelli, divites vel pauperes, poffint
vel debeant ftare infra Maffiliam, nec converfari deinceps,
nifi tantum per xv dies ante pafcha, et per viii dies ante
Natale Domini, &c.” (Stat. Maffil. lib. v. cap. 15.)
When they walked, or came into a town, they made a
noife with their rattles, to warn paffengers of their pre-
fence. In fhort, their fituation was truly melancholy.
The ties of marriage were diffolved, where one of the par-
ties only was affected; but-they were allowed to marry
when they could find a leprous companion. They were,
indeed, allowed the ufufruct of property ; but they could
neither transfer nor inherit it: they were deemed to have
fuffered a civil death, and to be “ hors de la loi mondaine”’
See Henfler, loc. cit. § 4. Sprengel, loc. cit. p. 491-2.
Raymond, p. 112.

Yet not only were thefe laws executed’ againft multitudes
who were affected with cutaneous difeafes, neither properly
leprous nor contagious; but it is even very queftionable
whether the true tubercular elephantialis itfelf, any more
than the lefs formidable daras alba, or leuce, were atually
contagious. We have already ftated the reafons which
tend to difprove’ the infectious nature of the latter. (See
Leprosy of the Jews.) The evidence again{t the probability
of contagion, in the cafe of elephantiafis, refts partly upon
the faéts, which are cafually mentioned, in more ancient
times ; and partly upon thofe which have been more care-
fully and correétly afcertained nearer to our own. The
ebfervations of Aretzus, which have been echoed by almoft

Vor. XX.

all fucceeding writers, are given with an appearance of terror,
excited rather by an acquiefcence in the popular belief, than
from any actual knowledge of the fa. When we defcend
to the early ages of Chrittianity, we find thefe terrors per-
petuated by the laws refpecting lepers, which were at once
the effe&t and the caufe of a continuation of the popular
opinions ; but at the fame time, we find kings and bifhops
mixing familiarly and frequently with thefe very objeéts of
legal profcription, and condefcending to offices which re
quire the clofeft contact with their perfons, not only without
any expreffions of apprehenfion, but without any one recorded
inftance of the difeafe being fo communicated : we find, too,
that fora term of feveral days, during certain fafts and feltivals,
thefe infected people are a¢tually allowed to mix in the towns ;
faéts which ftand in direét contradiGtion to the traditional
prejudices and laws upon the fubje&.

Defcending, ftill farther, to the period when learning and
obfervation had again enlightened the minds of men, we find
thefe very prejudices and laws extending equally to a nume-
rous tribe of cutaneous diforders which we know are not
contagious, as to the elephantiafis; an error which mut
render the accuracy of the opinion, as to the contagious
quality of the latter, exceedingly queftionable. At the
fame time we difcover the contention between obfervation and
pre-conceived opinion in the minds of the learned, which
almofts breaks forth in the admiffion of the truth. Thus
Fernel, who adopted the common notion of its contagious
quality, admits, neverthelefs, that from all the obfervations
he has been able to make, he has never difcovered a cafe
which proved its exiftence (De Morb. Occult. lib. i.
cap. xii.) ; and Foreftus, Fabricius, Plater, &c. who ftill
held the popular opinion, expreffing their aftonifhment at
feeing the daily commerce between the leprous and healthy,
even in married perfons, without any communication of the
difeafe ; fo that they are compelled to afcribe its origin te
certain qualities of the air and the diet.

When we come to the evidence of our own times, we
have ftill more convincing teftimony of the non-contagious
nature of the tubercular leprofy. Dr. Thomas Heberden,
ftill retaining fomewhat of the prejudices of education,
when fpeaking of the cafes of the difeafe which he faw at
Madeira, fays, ‘* Notwithftanding the juft abhorrence which
every one entertains of this loathfome difeafe, it certainly is
not /o contagious as is commonly imagined ;” and then he
relates his obfervations, which prove that it is nof at all con-
tagious. ‘ For I have never heard of any one,’’ he adds,
“< who has contraéted the diftemper by contaé& of a leper;
and, on the contrary, I not only am a daily witne/s of com-
munication between lepers and other people, without the leaft
ill confequences, but ézow feveral inftances where a leprous
hufband, married to a found wife, has cohabited with her
for a long feries of years, and had feveral children by her,
without her having contraéted the leaft fymptom of the dif-
order, although the children have inherited it; and vice
verfé between a leprous wife and found hufband.” (See
Med. Tranf. of the Coll. of Phyf. vol.i. p. 32.) Still more
recently, Dr. Adams has inveftigated the nature of elephan-
tiafis, in the fame ifland, where there is fti!l a lazaretto,
near Funchal; and his obfervations not only confirm thofe
of Dr. Heberden, as to the non-contagious nature of the
difeafe; but they alfo fhew that other miftakes, which
eriginated probably in the terrors of the imagination, when.
the difeafe had acquired the appellation of Satyriafis (from
the acuminated ears, flattened nofe, and rugous front) ;
namely, that fo far from being poffeffed with a /ibido inexple-
bilis, the pro-creative appetite and power are gradually de-
ftroyed, if the difeafe arife in the age of manhood, and

4C never

LEP ROS Y¥.

never developed if it commence before that of puberty.
See Adams on, Morbid Poifons, 2d edit. chap. 15.

It is true, that about the middle of the 18th century,
Dr. Hillary had deferibed the elephantiafis as occurring in
the Wett Indies, with all the charaCteriftics attributed to it
by the ancients. But the defcription of that learned phy-
fician is but too obvioufly a tranfcript of the account given
by Aretzus, uncorrected by his perfonal obfervation. (See
his Obf. on the Dif. of Barbadoes.) In this the learned
writer affords but one example, among a long feries of
medical {cholars, in whom authority but .too often dimmed
the eye of obfervation, or diftorted its views.

Tf the leprofy of the middle ages, then, were not conta-
gious, whence did it originate and fpread fo widely ?. Pro-
bably the-hint thrown out by Foreltus, Plater, and others,
and more fully developed in the excellent treatife of -Ray-
mond, already often quoted, may afford an adequate expla-
nation of the faét ; to wit, that the uncultivated and marfhy
condition of the foil; the confequent humid and miafmatous
condition of the atmofphere ; the falt, putrid, indigeftible ali-
ment, and the frequent fearcity even of that which the phy-
fical and political diforders of the times produced ; the infa-
lubrious condition of the towns and habitations, both in
re{pet to bad fituation, want of cleanlinefs, and other per-
nicious circumftances; in fhort, thefe combined evils, which
appear to have exifted in thofe times and countries where the
‘leprous, among other frequent and diftrefling maladies, pre-
vailed, were, in all probability, the fources from which thefe
cachettic difeafes fprung.

It has been’ fatisfactovily fhewn, from a review of the
domeftic hiftory of the times, in which frequent and fatal
epidemics have raged, how much thefe were connected with
the circumftances juft enumerated (fee Epimremic, and
HeautH) ; and it is interefting to trace the diminution,
and ultimately the total difappearances of thefe peftilences,
in proportion to the amelioration of thofe phyfical and
moral evils; and to difcover, that while the happinefs and
comforts of man are extended by the advancement of civili-
zation, the worft difeafes that harafs and fhorten life are at
the fame time nearly extinguifhed. (See the excellent Obf.
on the Increafe and Decreafe of different Difeafes, by Dr.
Heberden; alfo, Ann. Med. Regifter and Review.) If
we turn from the febrile plagues to the more chronic mala-
dies which are the fubje& of the prefent article, .we find that
they have generally gone hand in hand. (See Scurvy, lenis
Sacer, Ercort, &c.) The hiftory of the uray, in particular,
affords an analogical illuftration of the influence of the cir-
cumftances alluded to, in producing many of the loathfome
fymptoms enumerated among thofe of leprofy ; efpecially
the defedations of the fkin, the fwellings of the limbs, the
ulcerations, fungous excrefcences, fcetid difcharges, gan-
grenes, and lofs of joints and limbs ;—appearances as hide-
ous as any of thofe afcribed to leprofy. Now, this difeafe
has been banifhed from our fleets within the laft half century,
folely by the fub&itution ef wholefome and digeftible aliment,
and by the adoption of ventilation and internal eleanlinefs ;
it has, in like manner, been fubdued in Germany, and thofe
parts of the north of Europe, where it prevailed fatally in
the time of the Romans, in proportion as agriculture and the
arts have changed the face of that once marfhy and uncul-
tivared region, and obtained a regular fupply of nutritious
and wholefome food.

If our {pace would admit of a review of the phyfical
and politica’ circunftances of the times, in which leprous
difeafes have been fo extenfively prevalent, it would be eafy

to adduce ample proof that, from the beginning of hiltory,,

thefe maladies hmve occurred under fuch {lates of fociety ;.

and that they have commonly vifited, almoft . exclutively,
thofe clafles of fociety who were molt expofed to the in-
fluence of thofe cireumftances ; namely the poor. Lower
Egypt has, from the earlieft antiquity, been fubje& to thefe
difeafes, and from the extenfive inundations oceafioned by
the overflowing of the Nile, can never be rendered a dry or
falubrious country. ‘The ancient hiflorians concur in their
defcriptions of its heavy and milly atmofphere, furcharged
with vapours. (Strabo, lib. xvii.) The inhabitants ate a
glutinous fort of bread made of the roots of the /otus, &e. 5.
and ufed much fifh in every ftate; and having few trees,
they had no wholefome fruits to conjoia with their diet.
But how much more imperfeGily the Hebrews were nourifh-
ed in their long march through the wildernefles of Arabia
is obvious, and indeed recorded; to which all the infalu-
brious circumflances of a camp were added. Perhaps no
combination of circumftances could be conceived. more
favourable, as well to the produétion of frequent petlilences,
as to the excitement of thofe cacheétic ftates of the body,
in which fcorbutic and leprous affeétions originate, than the
foil and marfhes of an uncultivated land, the fordes and
miafmata of an immenfe encampment, frequent fcarcity of
provifions, fatigue, and univerfal public anxiety and diflatis—
fa€tion, for the quelling of which the great leader had re-
courfe to fupernatural means.

It appears from the account of Prolper Alpinus, a pro—
feflor of Pavia, who vifited Egypt late in the fixteenth cen-
tury, that both the lepra and elephantiafis of the Greeks.
were common among fhe poor at that period; and he attri-
butes them to the caufes above-mentioned. ‘ They are
compelled through poverty,’’ he fays,. “to drink muddy
and femiputrid water; they eat the flefh of camels and beet,

and fifh falted and half putrid, caught in the marfhes and .

lakes ; but they principally live upon a fort of cheefe, im-
mederately falted and femiputrid, which is fold at a very
low price:’’? (De Medicina AZgyptior, lib. 1. cap,,xiv.)—a
diet very much refembling that formerly ufed on fhip board
in long voyages ; when, as we have been informed, the falted
provilion, which had been fometimes two years in. caflc,.
emitted an almoft intolerable ftench during its maceration,
before being cooked.

Without attempting to trace the progrefs of leprous dif-
eafes, in conneétion with the phyfical and political derange-
ments in various countries, (a fatisfactory fketch of which
the reader will find in Raymond’s treatife,) we fhall merely
exemplify this view of the fubjeé& by a flight notice of the
{tate of Europe in the middle ages, when leprofy and peiti-
lence of every {pecies prevailed.
when the empire at length fell under the repeated aflaults of
the northern invaders to the tenth, the finelt parts of Eu-
rope lay in a ftate of devaftation, little cultivation was prac
tifed, all the arts were neglected or loft, and clothing, habi-
tations, and food were alike infufficient and unwholefome =
and for three centuries more this defolation was increafed, if
poflible, by the inceffant wars that were waged. There
were fourteen plagues in the fourteenth century, with inter—
vals of but fix years between each; and frequent famines,.
The food confifted, even in England at a later period, of
much falted provifion, efpecially in the winter, and of a:
hard and black bread, chiefly of rye, to the fearcity of
which corn, rather than to its ergoted or difeafed condition,
the ignis facer, malades ardens, and other fimilar maladies,,
fhould doubtlefs be attributed. So little were vegetables
cultivated, indeed, or gardening underltood, even in the fix--
teenth century in this country, that, in the year 15095
queen Catharine could’ not procure a-fallad, till Henry fent
to the Netherlands, and engaged a gardener to come over to

raife

From the fifth century,

LEP

raife the proper articles here. (Northouck’s Hilt, of Lond
book: i. chap. 7.) How totally deftitute of fuch diet muft
the people in general have been at a much later period!
See Hearru of London.

In fhort, in whatever country an uncultivated foil, a
marfhy furface, and a humid atmofphere have been found,
together with a diet generally confifting of a falted, femi-
putrid, infufficient, or indigettible aliment, and compofed
chiefly of animal flefh or fifth, with a {mall proportion of
nutritious vegetable matter; there, from the earlieft times,
thuman life has been fhortened by the multiplication of pef-
tilential fevers and cachexies of a leprous and fcorbutic na-
ture. Therefore, as Raymond obferves, even if the eccle-
fialieal writers of the middle ages had left us no records of
the hiitory of fuch maladies; the hiftory of the foil, of the
circumftances of the times, and of the food generally ufed,
would afford an inconteftible monument of the exiftence of
leprofy. “

OF the cure, or of the attempts to remedy a difeafe which
was generally admitted to be incurable, it would be futile
to enter into any detail. The treatment of thofe forms of
Cutaneous difeafe, which were claffed with the elephantiafis,
will of courfe be defcribed under their refpective heads.

LEPSIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the fea of
Rhodes, near the coaft of Caria. Pliny.

LEPSINA, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,
in Livadia, anciently called «* Eleufis’”? of which confiderable
ruins remain; 12 miles N.W. of Athens. See Exrusryra.

LEPSIS, in the Greek Mufic, is a name given to one of
the rules of the ancient melopeia, called alfo fcmetimes,
euthia ; by which the compofer difcerns in which of the three
fyftems of founds he fhould place his melody :—in the grave
part of the feale, called Aypatoides ; the acute, called netoides,
or the mean, called me/oides. See MrLovasra and Usus.

LEPSTI, in Geography, a town of European Turkey,

in the province of Macedonia, in the gulf of Saloniki; 12
miles S. of Jenitza. —
- LEPTA, in Botany, fo called from Azrio:, flender, or
‘minute, from the remarkable diminutivenefs of its flowers.
Loureir. Cochinch. v. 1. 82,—Clafs and order, Tetrandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Hederacee, Linn. Vites, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth inferior, fpreading, fmall, di-
vided into four ovate fegments. Cor. Petals four, fome-
, what triangular, furrowed, inflexed, twice as long as the
calyx. Stam. Filaments four, awl-fhaped, inflexed, inferted
into the receptacle at the angle of the bafe of the petals;
anthers ovate, two-celled. :/. Germen fuperior, round-
ifh, four-furrowed ; ftyle fcarcely any; ftigma obtufe.
Peric. Berry four-lobed, lobes ovate, flightly confluent to-
wards the centre, fingle-feeded. Sveds roundifh.

Eff. Ch. Calyx four-cleft, inferior. Corolla of four
triangular petals. Berry four-lobed, four-celled, each cell
containing a feed. j

1. L. triphylla, Loureir. Cochinch. A native of woods
in Cochinchina, and called by the natives Cay Mat.—This
tree is about ten feet high, and exceedingly branched.
Leaves ternate, lanceolate, entire, waved, fmooth. Flowers
white, very fmall, in compound, fmall, axillary clufters.

We are acquainted with this plant from Loureiro’s ac-
count only, which approaches fo nearly to many different
things, that we dare not offer any conje€ture refpecting it.
The habit of this genus very much refembles that of Ci/us,
but the charafer of its fruit appears to be effentially
different.

LEPTADENTA, from Acxhs, flender or fharp, and o.dnvy
voc, a gland, expreflive of the contraéted acute termina-
tion of the mafles of pollen, which makes a very peculiar

rf?

part of the generic charaéter, Brown Afclep. 23. Mem. of
the Wernerian Soc. y. 1. 34,.—Clafs and order, Pentandria

Digynia. Nat. Ord. Contorte, Linn, Apocinee, Juil. Af-
clepiadee, Brown.
Eff, Ch. Corolla fomewhat wheel-fhaped; tube fhort ;

orifice crowned with five fcales, ftanding between the feg-
ments; limb bearded. Crown of the ftamens wanting.
Anthers unconnected, fimple at the top. Mafles of pollen
erect, attached by their bafe, contra&ed and pellucid at the
fummit. Stigma pointlefs. Follicles.....

Mr. Brown has examined three fpecies, reducible to this
genus, in the Bankfian herbarium, none of which are yet
deferibed, nor has he named or defined them fpecifically.
One was gathered by Forfkall. They are all natives either
of the Eaft Indies, or of Africa. They appear to be pe-
rennial, herbaceous, climbing plants, clothed with a grey-
ifh, impalpable, powdery down. Leaves flat, oppofite.
Umbels between the footflalks, fometimes cymofe. Stigma
minute.

LEPTANTHUS. See Hereranruera.

LEPTASPIS, from aczios, flender, and asm, a. fbield,
a genus of grafles, feparated from Pharus by Mr. Brown
in his Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 211, on account of the pecu-
liar ovate concave outer valve of the corolla; but its habit
and inflorefcence are fo like Pharus Jatifolia, that the author
himfe!f candidly expreffes his doubts of the propriety of
this meafure. One fpecies was found by fir Jofeph Banks
in the tropical part of New Holland; another comes fromm
the Molucca ifles.

LEPTAUREA. See Zorcta.

LEPTIS Macna, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Africa, on the fea-coaft, in the Syrtic region, at the S.E.
extremity of that which was particularly denominated Tri-
polis; not far to the E. of the river Cinyphis. It was alfo
called Neapolis. Leptis was a Roman colony, and in pro-
cefs of time became epifcopal. See Lumpra.

Lertis Parva, Lempta, a town of Africa, on the fea-
coaft, S.E. of Adrymetum, about a mile in compafs. Some
ruins of the ancient town remain. See Lemprva.

LEPTOCARPUS, in Botany, from Azrio:, flender or
Sharp, and xzpxo:, fruit, the minute feed or nut being pointed
with the permanent bafe of the ftyle. Brown. Prodr. Nove
Holl. v. 1. 250.—Clafs and order, Disecia Triandria. Nat.
Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn. Junci, Jufl. Reftiacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Male, Cal. of feveral coriaceous, keeled fcales,
either fafciculated or imbricated, each one or two-flowered.
Cor. Petals fix, membranous ; the three inner ones thirner
and narrower. Stam. Filaments three, flattifh; anthers
fimple, peltate.

Female, on a feparate plant, Ca/. and Cor. as in the
male. Pi/?._ Germen fuperior, roundifh; ftyle folitary,
thread-fhaped ; ttigmas two or three, oblong, downy, acute.
-Peric. Nut {fmall, roundifh, not buriting, tipped with the
bafe of the ftyle, with one cell and one kernel.

Eff. Ch. Male, Calyx-fcales cluftered or imbricated.
Petals fix. Anthers fimple, peltate.

Female, Cal. and Cor. as in the male. Style one. Stig-
mas two or three, Nut cruftaceous, fingle-feeded, crowned
with the bafe of the ftyle.

“A genus of hard rufhy plants, of nearly the fame de-
fcription as Lepido/perma ; {ee the conclufion of that article;
but more akin to the Linnean Rejffio, from which it differs
in having a fimple fingle-feeded nut, inftead of a capfule
with two or three cells and as many valves. The ftems are
generally quite fimple, leaflefs, but clothed with theaths
iplit at one fide. Flowers either in tufts, or in {pike-like
catkins. Mr. Brown thinks thofe which come under the

4C2 firlt

LEP

firft defcription may hereafter be feparated from the latter.
Examples of Leptocarpus, are Reflio diflachyos of Rottboll’s
Icones 8. t. 3. f. 5, and Schoenodum tenax of Labillardiere,
Nov. Holl. v. 2. t. 229, the female plant.—Seven fpecies
are defined as natives of New Holland, and there are fup-
pofed to be feveral at the Cape of Good Hope, befides the
above Reflio, and R. imbricatus of Thunberg.

LEPTOCEPHALUS, in Ichthyology. See Morris.

LEPTODECARHOMBIS, a name given by Dr.
Hill to fome prifmatic varieties of felenite. See Gypsum.

LEPTOMERIA, in Botany, named by Mr. R. Brown
in allufion to its flender habit ; from Pia ett and epic,
a portion or foare. Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 353.-—
Clafs and order, Pentandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Calyci-
fore, Linn. Elezagni, Juff. Santalacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth fuperior, of one leaf, in four
or five deep, widely {preading, permanent fegments, inter-
nally coloured. Cor. Petals none. Neétary glandular,
crowning the germen, in four or five lobes.’ Stam. Fila-
ments four or five, awl-fhaped, fhorter than the calyx, in-
ferted into the bafe of each fegment; anthers roundifh. Pi/.
Germen inferior, ovate; {tyle very fhort ; ftigma depreffed,
of from two to five rays. Peric. Drupa ovate, more or lefs
juicy, crowned with the calyx. Seed folitary.

Ef. Ch. Calyx of one leaf, wheel-fhaped, fuperior,
bearing the ftamens. Neétary glandular, crowning the ger-
men, four or five-lobed. Stigma divided. Drupa of one
feed.

Eight fpecies are defined by Mr. Brown, as natives of
New Holland. They are flender branched fhrubs, with
feattered minute ‘eaves, or none at all. Flowers ‘minute,
white, reddifh or green; generally {piked, with a fmall de-
ciduous bra@ea to each; fometimes axillary, without brac-
teas. The genus is akin to thofe {pecies of Thefium which
grow at the Cape of Good Hope, but differs in its glandu-
Jar ne€tary, which is either of one piece, lobed, crowning
the germen, or compofed of glands, each of which ftands
at the bafe of one of the fegments of the calyx. Three of
the fpecies have a ftarry five-rayed acute ftigma, and five-
cleft, fpiked, bra€teated flowers; among which is L. Bil-
Jardieri, (Thefium drupaceum ; Labill. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 68.
t. 93.) from Van Diemen’s land, a flender much-branched
fhrub, fix feet high. One, Z. acerba, found at Port Jack-
fon, has a two-lobed obtufe ftigma, four-cleft flowexs, and
no leaves. The remaining four have a drier drupa, a notched
blunt ftigma, and five-cleft flowers, and all grow on the
fouth coaft of New Holland.

LEPTOS Lisanorts, in the Materia Medica of the An-
cients, a name given by fome of the Greek writers to: the
fmall frankinceenfe, that is, fuch as came to their hands in
fmall flakes, broken from the larger maffes in the gathering
or packing up. This was alfo called manna thuris, the
manna of frankincenfe, the word manna being of old ufed
to exprefs any thing formed of granules, or fmall pieces.
The ‘ancients efteemed this /eptos libanotis, or manna thuris,
‘when pure, beyond any other kind, for they always valued
that frankincenfe moft, which was drieft and moft brittle;
and fuch only as was fo, could break off in thefe {mall

flakes. The medicine, however, foon became fubjeét to adul-.

teration, and loft its credit; for the duft of the frankincenfe
being allowed to be put up among this manna thuris, Diof-
corides tells us, that in his time people, greedy of gain,
had found the way to adulterate it, by adding, inftead of
this genuine duft, the fifted powder cf the refin of the pine-
tree. See FRANKINCENSE.

LEPTOSPERMUM, in Botany, fo named by Forfter,
from Aewo:, flender, and omepucr, feed, becaufe the numerous

_t. 36. f. f—I.

‘pointed, obfcurely three-ribbed.

‘teeth, ftamens and ftyle are purplifh.

LEP

feeds are remarkably fmall and flender. Fortt. Gen. 36.
Smith Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 260. Willd.
Sp. Pl. v. 2.948. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 181. Juff.
323- Lamarck. Dié&. v. 3. 465. Illuftr. t. 423. Gertn.
t. 35.—Clafs and order, /cofandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord.
i idee Linn. Myrti, Juff. ean

en. Ch. Ca/. Perianth half-fuperior, in five deep,
ovate-oblong, or roundifh, often coloured fegments. Cor.
Petals five, with claws, roundifh, equal, twice the fize of
the calyx, and much longer than the ftamens. Stam. Fila-
ments numerous, inferted into the calyx, awl-fhaped, in-
curved, fhorter than the corolla; anthers fmall, roundifk,
two-lobed. Pi/?. Germen half-inferior, turbinate ; ftyle
fimple, columnar, erect, about the length of the ftamens ;
ftigma capitate, umbilicated, undivided. Peric. Capfule
roundifh, coated in the lower part, of three, four, or five
cells, and as many valves, burfting at the upper part, the
partitions from the middle of each valve, oppofite to each
calyx-tooth. Seeds numerous, linear, fomewhat angular,
tapering at each end, very {mall, inferted into the central
column.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-cleft, half-fuperior. Petals five,
longer than the ftamens, furnifhed with claws. Stigma
capitate. Capfule of three to five cells. Seeds angular.

Obf. ZL. ambiguum only has the ftamens longer than the

corolla.
This genus of New Holland fhrubs was confounded by
Dr. nee! with Philadelphus, and by Gertner, Fortter,
and others with Metrofideros and Melaleuca. The former is
diftinguifhed from it by having the ftyle deeply four-cleft,
with fimple ftigmas, the petals broad at the bafe and feffile,
leaves oppofite and deciduous, and the habit indeed altoge-
ther unlike; Metrofideros differs in its fimple ftigma, ex- |
tremely long thread-fhaped ftamens, and more dilated habit,
in which chara@ters Melaleuca accords with the latter, with
a few exceptions as to habit in the foliage of fome fpecies,
but differs from it and from Lepto/permum in the polyadel-
phous ftamens.—The fpecies of the genus before us are
rigid, branched fhrubs, of rather humble, fometimes prof-
trate, growth, aromatic when bruifed ; their /eaves alter-
nate, {mall, entire, evergreen ; flowers numerous, ufually
folitary, white, often with a purple tinge about their
organs of impregnation, The following are all at prefent
known to us.

1. L. feoparium. New Zeeland Tea, or common South.
fea Myrtle. Andr. Repof. t. 622. (L. fquarrofum ;
Gaertn. v. 1.174. t.35- Melaleuca {coparia; Linn. Suppl.
343. Forft. Prodr. 37. Pl. Efe. 78. Schrad. Sert.
Hannov. 25. t. 15. Philadelphus fcoparius; Soland. in
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2. 156. Tea plant; Cook’s
Second Voyage, v. I. 100. t. 22.)— Leaves ovate, fharp-
Calyx {mooth; its teeth
membranous and coloured.— Native of the coaft of New
Zeeland, where it was difcovered by fir Jofeph Banks and
Dr. Solandér, and was thought by captain Cook to have
been very ferviceable to the health of his crew. Its infufion
or tea is pleafantly aromatic and fragrant; if not fuffered
to ftand too long, in which cafe it becomes bitter. Mixed
with an equal quantity of the New Zeeland Spruce, (fee

‘Dacryprum,) it was found to make excellent and highly

palatable beer, of the moft falutary qualities, the Dacrydium
being too aftringent alone. This plant, raifed at Kew
from feed in 1772, is eafily kept in our green-houfes, and is
covered in fummer with elegant white bloffoms, whofe calyx-
In New Zeeland it
becomes a {mall tree. The aves are numerous, feattered,
ever-green, {mal!, nearly feflile, entire, fharp-pointed, rigid,

fmooth,

LEPTOSPERMUM.

imooth, dotted, paler beneath, more or lefs ovate, but
varying extremely in length and breadth, fo that the two
varieties indicated by authors are by no means diftinly
marked, and the gardeners make many more, which are
‘equally evanefcent. The cap/ule is hard and woody, perma-
nent on the old branches long after the feeds are difperfed,
as in moft New Holland plants of this family.

2. L. flavefiens. Yellowifh South-fea Myrtle. Sm, Tr.
of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 262. Willd. n. 3. Brown in Ait.
Hort. Kew. ed. 2. n. 2. (L. Thea; Willd. n. 2. Mela-
leuca ‘Thea; Schrad. Sert. Hannov. 24. t. 14.)—Leaves
linear-lanceolate, obtufe, without lateral ribs, Calyx
‘{mooth; its teeth membranous, coloured, naked. Native
of New South Wales. It was procured from thence for
Kew garden, by fir Jof. Banks, about 1787. The branches
are longer, and more flexible, than in the former; /eaves
narrower, longer, almoft linear, inclining to elliptic, and
pointlefs: Petals white, often with a purple tinge, turning
yellowifh in drying. The calyx-teth are coloured, that
is, whitifh, not green; which Willdenow, in copying the
character, has omitted, and this caufed the fame omiflion in
Hort. Kew.

3. L. attenuatum. Fine-branched South-fea Myrtle. Sm.
n. 3. Willd. n. 4.—Leaves linear, flightly lanceolate,
acute, three-ribbed. Calyx clothed with filky hairs; its
teeth membranous, coloured, nearly naked.— Native of New
South Wales, fent to Kew by fir Jof. Banks in 1795. Its
flender habit, and narrow acute /eaves diftinguifh this from
both the former. The flowers moreover are {maller, often
two together, their flalks. germen, and bafe of the calyx
clothed with filvery, filky, rather fpreading hairs. Petals
and calyx-teeth white, It blofloms from May to July.

4. L. grandifolium. Large-leaved South-fea Myrtle.
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 6. 299.—Leaves lanceolate,
fharp-pointed, obfcurely five-ribbed, downy benedth. Calyx
hairy; its teeth membranous and coloured.—Sent. from
Port Jackfon, New South Wales, in 1795, by Dr. White
to Mr. Lambert. It is larger than any of the foregoing in
all its parts; the /eaves above an inch long, and near a
‘quarter of an inch broad, lanceolate inclining to obovate,
with a fmall prominent fharp point; fhining and {mooth
above, except when young; paler, opaque, dotted, downy,
and marked with two flight lateral ribs, on each fide the
principal one, beneath. /owers large, white and hand-

fome, feffile and folitary at the ends of the fhort lateral leafy’

branches. The back of their ca/yx-teeth, as well as the ger-
men, is covered with long, white, fhaggy hairs.

5. L. trinerve. Silky South-fea Myrtle. (L, lanigerum ;
Willd. Sp. Pl..n. 5. Melaleuca? trinervia; White’s
Voyage, 229. t. 24.)—Leaves lanceolate inclining to obo-
vate, three-ribbed. Calyx filky; its teeth leafy, perma-
nent.— Native of New South Wales; Dr. White. This
has much the habit of the laft, but is in all its parts only
about half the fize. The /eaves vary in breadth, and are
more or lefs obovate. The germen, with the calyx and its
teeth, are entirely clothed externally with beautiful, -clofe-
preffed, filky or filvery hairs. Petals white.

6. L. lanigerum. Hoary South-fea Myrtle. Brown in
Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. n. 4. Sm, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3.
263. (Philadelphus laniger; Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. v. 2.
156.) —Leaves oblong or obovate, ob{curely three-ribbed,
fomewhat hairy. Calyx clothed with long fhaggy hairs.
—Native of Van Diemen’s land, and of New South Wales.
In the Tranf. of the Linn. Soc. this was confounded with
the laft, but Mr. Brown has corre@ed that miftake. The

refent fpecies has the germen and whole calye remarkably
ies with long fpreading hairs, not filky with clofe or ereét

ones. The /eaves when young are more or lefs hairy, and
the young branches downy. The feales of the flowerin
buds appear alfo to be larger and more permanent, imbri-
cated, elliptical, and externally hairy.

7. L. parvifolium. Small-leaved South-fea Myrtle. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 263. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. n. 5.
—Leaves obovate, imbricated, riblefs. Young branches
and calyx clothed with {preading hairs ; teeth membranous,
coloured, naked..—Sent to us from New South Wales by
Dr. White in 1795. It is faid to have been communicated
to Kew garden by fir. Jof. Banks in 1789. The /aves are
not a quarter of an inch long, numerous, imbricated, either
obovate or exaétly elliptical, blunt, flat, thickifh, without
any rib, dotted, fmooth, on fhort pale fmooth ftalks.
Flowers terminal, folitary, fmall, white. Germen and bafe
of the calyx clothed with fpreading hairs, but the teeth are
naked, roundifh and coloured. The younger branches are
rough with coarfe, long, f{preading hairs.

8. L. imbricatum. Imbricated South-fea Myrtle. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. y. 6. 3>0.—Leaves obovate, imbricated,
riblefs. Branches and calyx fmooth; teeth membranous,
coloured, naked, keeled —Gathered at Port Jackfon, New
South Wales, by Mr. David Burton, and communicated
to us by fir Jof. Banks in 1797. It greatly refembles the
laft, but the copious little eaves are {till more ftrikingly im-
bricated, efpecially on the long lateral branches, which more-
over are {mooth, as well as every other part. The flowers
are extremely {mall, ftanding two or three together about
the end of each branch; their germen and calyx perfeGly
naked ; the teeth of the latter fharply keeled, which in
L. parvifolium are only a little convex.

g- L. arachnoideum. Cobweb-flowered South-fea Myrtle.
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 263. Gaertn. v. 1. 174. t. 35.
f. 3.—Leaves awl-fhaped, fharp-pointed. Branches hairy.
Germen and calyx entirely clothed with long f{preading hairs.
—Native of New South Wales. The /fem is ftout, appa-
rently of humble growth, with numerous, fhort, zigzag,
leafy, hairy, lateral, compound branches. Leaves crowded,
awl-fhaped, fharp-pointed, {mooth, dark-green, about half
an inch long, channelled above, convex beneath, refembling
fome flender kind of juniper. F/oqwers fmall, folitary,, ter-
mninating the fhort {ubdivifions of the branches, and remark-~
able for the very long and fine white f{preading hairs, like a
{pider’s web, which clothe the germen and whole calyx. It
is a ftranger to our gardens.

10. L. juniperinum. Juniper-leaved South-fea Myrtle.
Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 263. Venten. Malmaif. t. 89.
—Leaves linear-lanceolate, fharp-pointed. Young branches
filky. Calyx fmooth; its teeth membranous, coloured,
naked.—Native of New South Wales. Myr. Fairbairn
raifed it in Chelfea garden about the year 1790. This is an
upright buthy /orub, whofe young branches are ciothed with
filky hairs. ‘he /eaves are larger, and ftill more like juniper,
than thofe of the preceding; filky when young. Flowers
numerous, white, folitary at the ends of the very fhort, la-
teral, axillary, leafy fhoots. Germen deprefled, {mooth as
well as the calyx and its teeth, which are broad and co-
loured,

11. L. triloculare. Three-celled South-fea Myrtle. Ven-
ten. Malmaif. t. 88,— Leaves linear-lanceolate, fharp-pointed.
Calyx filky ; its teeth coloured, minutely fringed. Stamens
fifteen, _ Capfule of three cells,;—Native of New Holland,
We know it only by the plate and defcription in M. Vente-
nat’s fuperb Jardin de la Malmaifon. The habit and
foliage are much like the laft. Branches downy and reddifh.
Germen rather more elongated, clothed with fhort filky
down, as are alfo the calyx-teeth, which are fringed, and

9 coloured

LEP

coloured of a purplifh red. Petals white.
teen, and cells of the fruit only three.

12. L. baccatum. Pulpy-fruited South-fea Myrtle. Sm.
Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 264. (L. juniperifolium ; Cavan.
Ic. v. 4. 18. t. 331. f. 2.) — Leaves linear-lanceolate, fharp-
peinted. Bracteas {mooth. Germen and calyx-teeth downy.
Capfule with a pulpy coat.—Native of New South Wales,
fent to Kew garden by fir Jof. Banks in 1790, A
low depreffed rigid fhrub, with the habit and foliage of our
Englith dwarf variety of the juniper. Flowers much like
fome of thofe laft defcribed, but their germen and whole
calyx with its teeth are clothed with white cottony, rather
than filky, hairs. The germen is clofely enveloped in fmooth,
fomewhat fringed, concave draéeas, which, being taken for
the germen itfelf, caufed an error in the original defcription
of this {pecies ; but indeed that part becomes {mooth as it
ripens into fruit, as well as very thick and pulpy. The
petals are yellowifh in the dried plant, but probably white
when recent, like L. flavefcens. Cavanilles’s fynonym feems
rightly applied in Hort. Kew. though he deferibes the calyw
as fmooth. The fruit in our plant, as well as his, has five
cells.

13. L. ambiguum. Hook-leaved South-fea Myrtle. Sm
Tr. of Linn. Soc. y. 3. 264. Exot. Bot. v. 1. 115. t. 59:
( Metrofideros corifolia; Venten. Malmaif. t. 46.)—Leaves
linear-lanceolate, recurved at the point. Calyx nearly
{mooth; its teeth leafy, lanceolate, naked. Stamens longer
than the corollan—Native of New South Wales, fent to
Kew garden by fir Jof. Banks in 1791. It forms a hand-
fome bufhy evergreen fhrub, bloffoming plentifully-in the
green-houfe in {ummer. The branches are downy. Leaves
numerous, crowded, dark-green, channelled, dotted, blunt-
ifh, recurved at the tip, often roughifh. lowers white,
with very numerous {preading /famens, that are peculiar in
this genus as being longer than the corolla, yet not near fo
long as in Metrofideros, and the capitate fligma ttamps our
plant a Leptofpermum, which the habit altogether confirms.
Ventenat defcribes the germen as of three cells only; we
find four or five, fo that this character appears variable.

14. L. virgatum. Wand-like South-fea Myrtle. Fortt-
Gen. 36. Willd. n. 12. (Melaleuca virgata; Linn. Suppl-
343- Forft. Prodr. 37.)—Leaves oppofite, linear-oblong,
bluntifh. Stalks axillary, three-flowered.—Gathered by
Forfter in New Caledonia. As Willdenow has admitted
this into Leptofpermum, we would not leave it out, notwith-
landing the reafons given in Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 265,
which {trongly induce us to think it a decandrous Beckea.
The famens are ten. Leaves oppofite, whereas in every cer-
tain Lepio/permum they are alternate. The umbellate fower-

falks too are not natural in this genus.

15. L. pubefcens. Downy Twifted South-fea Myrtle.
Willd. n. 6. See Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 3. 263.—Leaves
elliptic-obovate, downy, twifted, with a {mall recurved point.
Germen and calyx-teeth downy.—Native of New Holland,
common in gardens. We fubjoin this as a {pecies taken up by
Willdenow from the Linn. Tranf. but whofe limits we have
not yet fully determined. It does however feem diftin&
enough from Janiger and trinerve, as well as from all the reft.
Much more light is to be expected relative to all the {pecies
of this genus from the fequel of Mr. Brown’s Prodromus,
and we therefore leave thefe two laft {pecies for future deter-
mination, efpecially as the pubefcens is not received into the
fecond edition of Hort. Kew.—For fimilar reafons we leave
unnoticed the three fpecies figured in Cavanilles, t. 330
and 33x, which moft ig ee are referable to fome of the
above ; but his plates and defcriptions are infufficient to de-

Stamens but fif-

LEP?

termine which, and would therefore fill be ufelefs, if by
any means determined. ;

LEPTOSTACHYA, from ble Mac and saxu-s
a [pike of flowers, elegantly applied by Mitchell to the Phry-
ma of Linneus, and retained by the latter as the fpecilic
name. See PirryMa.

LEPTOSTOMUM, from a:z‘o:, lender or narrow, and
sojcy the mouth, expreffive of the narrow orifice of the cap-
fule. Brown. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 320.—Clafs and
order, Cryptogamia Mufci. Nat. Ord. Mu/ci.

Eff. Ch. Capfule oblong, without furrows, terminal.
Lid hemifpherical, without a beak. Fringe a fimple, flat,
annular, undivided membrane, from the inner coat.

All the four known fpecies of this genus are natives of
the fouthern hemifphere. They are mofles of a denfely
tufted mode of growth, with upright, branched, perennial
ftems. Leaves moderately fpreading in every direction,
broadifh, entire, revolute, with a ftrong midmb, and a ter-
minal hair, which is fufpeéted by Mr. Brown to be fome-
times branched. Fruit-italk terminal. Capfule either ere&
or drooping ; tapering at the bafe into an inverfely conical
apophytfis ; much contraéted at the mouth. Veil fmooth
and naked, deciduous.

1. Lv inchnans. ‘Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 320. t. 23.
f. 2.— Leaves obovate, obtufe. Capfule drooping, obovate-
oblong.—F ound by Mr. Brown in Van Diemen’s land, upon
rocks and {tones at the eaft fide of Table Mcuntain,. near
the fummit, in 43° fouth latitude, and from 3000 to 3509
feet perpendicular above the fea. This mofs is two or three
inches high. Svems but little branched, leafy in the upper
part, denfely clothed with rufty down below. Leaves
rather concave, very minutely dotted or reticulated, tipped
with a twilted hair 3th the length of each leaf. Frwit-flalk
brown, {mooth. Sheath at the bafe accompanied below
by numerous abortive piftils and capillary, jointed, fuccu-
lent threads.

2. L. eredum. Leaves oblong-parabolic, obtufe. Cap;
fules oblong, ere&t. - Found by Mr. Brown on the eaft
coaft of New Holland, in a mountainous part of the coun-
try, growing on rocks near the banks of the rivers Hawkef-
bury and Grofe. Stems about as tall as the former,
fimple or branched, clothed with rufty down in their lower
part, leafy above. Leaves crowded, a little incurved and
clofe-prefied by drying, each tipped with a fimple hair.
Fruit-flalk elongated, brown, fmooth. Capfule itraight,
‘The fd had fallen off.

3- L. gracile. Leaves ovate-oblong, rather pointed ; ter-
minal hair half their length. Capfule oblong, flraight, »
drooping.— Gathered by Mr. Archibald Menzies, at Dufky
bay in New Zeeland. ‘The flems are denfely tufted, fome-
what branched, about an inch high, thickly clothed with
rufty down in their lower part. Leaves yellowith-green,
dotted, clofe-prefled when dry, pellucid, ftrongly revolute,
with a very thick rib, and a {mooth terminal hair. Frus/-
talk near two inches high, flender, tawny, with a fheath at
the bottom, the fummit very flender and drooping. Cap/ule
nearly pendulous, a quarter of an inch long, flender, ftraight,
flightly {welling in the middle, of a dark opaque brown.
Lid very {mall, obtufe, of a ftill deeper brown.

4. L. Menziefii. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute ; ter-
minal hair a quarter their length. Capfule cylindrical,
drooping, recurved.—Difcovered by Mr. Menzies at Staten-
land in 1787. We, as well as Mr. Brown, are indebted to
him for fine fpecimens of this and the laft. The flems of
L, Menziefii are half an inch or more in height, mottly
fimple, with denfe rulty fibres and roots. eaves bright
yellowifh-green, crowded, finely dotted, wavy and clofe-

» 2 Prefled

Oe ag

preffed when dry, with a fhortifh terminal hair. 'ruit-flalk
about an inch high, folitary, ereét. Cap/ule light brown,
fmooth, one-third of an inch long, drooping, cylindrical,
fingularly recurved, with fomewhat of a turgid appearance,
Lid very fmall; after it is fallen the white, membranous,
very delicate fringe becomes diftinGly vifible.

Mr. Brown with good reafon fufpe&s Bryum macrocarpum
of Hedwig, Crypt. vy. 3. t. 10, may belong to this genus.
If fo, there is an error in the delineation of its fringe; and
it will prove the only known fpecies whofe leaves are tipped
with a branched hair. i

LEPTUM, in Antiquity, a {mall piece of money, which,
according to fome, was only the eighth part of an obolus ;
but others will have it to be a filver or brafs drachm.

LEPTURA, in Entomology, a genus of Coleoptera: the
antenne are fetaceous ; palpi four, and filiform ; wing-cafes
tapering towards the tip; thorax flender and rounded.
Thofe of the Linnzan lepture which have the lip entire,
conftitute the genus Donacia of Fabricius ;.and fuch as have
the lip bifid form a part of the lepture of that author ; for

the latter do not exclufively confift of thofe infeéts which,

according to the Linnzan chara¢ter, belong to leptura ;
leptura abbreviata of Fabricius, for example, is necydalis
major of Linnzus, and leptura variegata, the Gmelinian
necydalis variegata. Mott of the leptura tribe are furnifhed
with legs of pretty confiderable length; run with much
f{peed’ and aétivity ; and are found on flowers.

Species.
Golden ; pofterior thighs clavated and den-

Leptura aquatica, Linn. Leptura aquatica
Donov. Brit. Inf. Donacia dentaia,

AQUATICA.
tated. Fabr.
JSpinofa, Degeer.
ore ng

The colour of this fpecies varies from reddifh, or braffy,
to green; the antennz blackifh, with pale teftaceous at the
joints ; head witha line down the middle ; thorax grooved ;
body beneath downy ; legs obfcure, teftaceous. Common
in Britain, and other parts of Europe, on aquatic plants,
particularly the nymphza. —

Sumerex. Golden; thighs fimple. Fabr.

An European fpecies, perhaps leptura aquatica mutica o
Degeer. ’ ; .

Fascrata. Golden; wing-cafes with a purple longitu-
dinal band. Herbft. Leptura aquatica fafeiata, Degeer.

Inhabits watery placesin Europe. ‘The thighs fometimes
armed with teeth.

Micans. Polterior legs bidentated; fhanks fimple ;
wing-cafes glofly-violet. Hoppe.

Allied to L. aquatica, and inhabits the fame places.

Ho tosericea. Shining-green; antenne and legs fuf-
cous, black ; pofterior thighs dentated. Herbft.

An European fpecies, found in damp fields, &c.

PAtusrris. Blackifh-violet ; antennz and legs chefnut;
potterior thighs dentated. Herbit.

A native of Pomerania ; found in marfhes.

Cryerwa. Cinereous, fpeckled with coppery.

Inhabits with the former. j ;

Marcainatus. Pofterior thighs one-toothed; wing-
eafes golden ; margin and fpot at the bafe rufous; abdomen
and legs filvery. Hoppe.

On aquatic plants in Germany.

Nympum#. Potterior thighs dentated;. thorax and
wing-cafes coppery ; body cinerecus, downy. Fabr.

Native of Europe, on the leaves of the nymphza alba.
The head is coppery ; antennez and mouth. black ; body:
beneath filvery-brown.

SacitTaniZ. Potterior thighs one-toothed ;. wing-cafes

%

Herbft.

LEP

green-golden, minutely punétured and truncated ; abdomen
and legs golden. Hoppe.

Antenne blackifh ; thorax wrinkled and furrowed.

ViouackA. Deep black, and fomewhat brafly ; wing-
cafes obfcure, violet ; abdomen fanguineous. Pallas.

Size of leptura aquatica, and inhabits Siberia.

JENEA. Pofterior thigh armed with one tooth ; wing-
cafes brafly, equal, rounded; abdomen and legs brafly,
Hoppe. Lepture enca, Linn.

Native of Europe.

Bicotor. Golden; thorax above, with the wing-cafes,
green, the latter with ftrie of impreffed dots ; poflerior
thighs dentated. Linn. Muf. Lefl.

An European fpecies.

Fusca. Potterior thighs with a fingle tooth; body
brown; wing-cafes ftriated and punctured ; mouth, antennx,
andlegs rufous. Linn.

Inhabits with the former.

Crassivrrs. Pofterior thighs unarmed ; body. green-
bronzed, beneath cinereous, brafly ; wing-cafes {triated
with pundtures, and marked with tranfverfe {mall lines ;
mouth, antennz, and legs rufous. Linn.

Native of Europe.

Rurescens. Pofterior thighs dentated; body xeddifh-
bronze; beneath cinereous-bronze ; wing-cafes {triated,.
punctured with crenated wrinkles. Linn,

Inhabits Germany and Sweden.

Nivipa. Pofterior thighs toothed ; body fhining-green
gold; wing-cafes ftriated and pundtured, with crenated’
wrinkles, and a broad, common, purple-green fillet 5. abdo-
men, antenne, and legs gold. Linn.

Native of Europe.

Carutea. Potterior thighs dentated; body blue ;.
wing-cafes ftriated, punétured with crenated wrinkles; ans.
tenne braffy. Linn.

Inhabits Europe.

Cuavirrs. Pofterior thighs unarmed; body. braify 5.
abdomen covered with filvery down. Fabr. «

Native of Germany, on aquatic plants.

Fascicutata. Body black ; pofteriorlegs long; thighs:
unarmed ; the fhanks with a tuft of long feathers.. Fabr.

Inhabits Cayenne ;. the body very flender, with a filvery
glofs beneath.

Lixganis. Pofterior thighs unarmed ;. wing-cafes linear,
truncated, fhining-brafly ; legs fomewhat teltaceous. Hoppe.

A. {pecies found in Europe ;: antenne blackifh ; abdomen
cinereous.

Hyprocnartis, Pofterior thighs unarmed; wing-cafes
cinereous, gloffy, rounded. at the end ;, body ‘and legs cines-
reous. Hoppe.

Native of Germany ; the antenne cinereous.

Mucronata. Pofterior thighs unarmed ; body above
livid ; beneath, head, and antenne black; thorax with two
divergent lines ;, wing-cafes {pinous at the end. Hoppe.

Vuueanis. Pofterior thighs unarmed; body filvery-
green; wing-cafes flriated and pun@ured, with crenate
wrinkles, and a broad, common, purple-green fillet ; head,
abdomen, and legs filvery-ath.

** Lip bifid.

Unreunctata. Black ; wing-cafes rufous, witha black
dot inthe middle. Fabr.

Inhabits about Drefden.

Hasrara. Deep black ; wing-cafesred; tip and future
in the middle black. Fabr. Stenocorus niger, Fc. Geoffr.

Native of the fouthern parts of Europe. Segments of

the abdomen with filvery down at the edge..
Birunc-

LEPTURA.

Black, villous; wing-cafes livid, with a
Fabr.

BipuncraTa.
black dot in the middle.

Inhabits Siberia. :

Tomentosa. Thorax villous and golden ; wing tefta-
ceous, with the tip black. Geoff. :

Head and antenne black ; wing-cafes {mooth, flightly
notched at the tip; abdomen covered with filvery down ;
tail emarginate; legs black.

Native of France.

Meranura. Black, wing-cafes reddifh or livid, the
future and tip black. Scheeff.

Tnhabits Europe on flowers.

Levis. Black; wing-cafes and legs livid, future, and
tip of the wing-cafes black. Fabr. Leptura futuralis.

Antenne black ; body clothed with filvery down. Na-
tive of Europe. ;

Livina. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous and without
{pots ; legs black. Herbft.

Wing-cafes rounded at the tip, and fcarcely emarginate.
Native of Germany.

Vittica. Ferruginous ; antenne, wing-cafes, and breaft
brown. Scheff., &c. Fabr.

Inhabits Europe ; firft joint of the antenne rufous.

Meriprana. Thorax fomewhat fpinous; wing-cafes
faftigate ; breaft fhining. Scheff. ;

Male blackifh, female teftaceous ; legs of the larva long.
A native of Europe.

Srricitata. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, with a
blackifh fillet. Fabr.

Native of Sweden. ‘

Emareinata. Black; wing-cafes purple, tip black,
and emarginate. abr. :

Inhabits Cayenne, the abdomen bidentated at the end ;
fegments fhining filvery at the bafe.

SanGurINoLenta. Black ; wing-cafes fanguineous. Linn.
Fn. Su. Leptura dubia, Scop.

Native of Northern Europe.

Rusra. Black; thorax, wing-cafes, and fhanks purple-
red. Linn.

Inhabits Sweden.

Testacea. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous ; fhanks ru-
fous ; thorax rounded behind. Fabr.

Found in the north of Europe, and is fuppofed to be the
male of the former, ;

Revestita. Teftaceous ; wing-cafes, breaft, and an-
tennz deep black. Schreber. :

Native of Germany. ‘

Pusescens. Black, with cixereous down, rib of the wing

teftaceous at the bafe. Fabr.
Inhabits Sweden.
Virens. Silky greenifh ; antenne varied with brown and

green. Oliv.
SmaracpuLa. Silky greenifh; antennz and legs black.
Fabr.

Inhabits Sweden.

Arra. Body entirely deep black. Oliv. Fabr. _ Lep-
tura athiops, Poda.

Legs fometimes teftaceous ; abdomen with white filky
down.

Humera.ts. Black; fhoulders and abdomen ferruginous.
Fabr.

Native of Germany.

ScureLyaTa. Black; feutel white. Fabr.
Inhabits Italy.
Sururata. Cinereous; wing-cafes teftaceous, with a

black future. Fabr.

Found in Germany ; the antennz teftaceous, with black
tip ; legs rufous, the joints black.

ExcLamationis. Black; wing-cafes with a yellow line
down the middle, and a dot at the bafe. TFabr., &c.

A {mall {pecies found in Sweden.

Lunrina. Ferruginous; wing-cafes teftaceous.
&e.
Inhabits deferts of Hircania.

Fabr.,

Femorata. Black; thighs rufous at the bafe. Fabr.
Found in Saxony.
Ruricornis. Black; antennz and legs rufous. Fabr.

Native of Italy. Body covered with yellowifh down.

Mareinata. Black; margin of the wing-cafes and
hind-fhanks rufous. Fabr.

Inhabits Norway.

Nigra. Wing-cafes tapering ; body black, polifhed;
abdomen red. Schaef re , 7 ’

An European fpecies.

‘Pragusta. Body covered with golden down ; head and
tip of the wing-cafes black. Fabr. ~

Firft joint of the antenne ferruginous ; legs red,

Native of Europe.

QuaprimacuLaTa. Black ; wing-cafes teftaceous, with
a black ring. Oliv.

Native of Germany. :

4-Gurtata. Brown; wing-cafes black, with two fer-
ruginous dots at the bafe. Fabr.

Inhabits Saxony.

Rostrata. Dull braffy; legs yellow. Fabr.
, Supsprnosa. Black; wing-cafes teflaceous, with four
black bands, the firft punctured ; antenne and legs yellow.
Fabr. &c.

Perhaps the female of the laft. Head black, witha ful-
yous frontal band ; wing-cafes emarginate ; three fegments
of the abdomen yellow. Native of Germany.

AvuRvLENTA. Black; fore and hind margin of the
thorax golden; wing-cafes teftaceous, with tae fimple
black bands. Fabr.

Inhabits Germany ; fegments of the abdomen edged with
white. ;

Dusra. Black and fomewhat villous ; wing-cafes tef-
taceous, dotted with black ; legs black. abr.

Native of Siberia. Allied to Leptura attenuata.

Sexcurrata. Black; wing-cafes with three yellow
fpots. Fabr.

Inhabits Germany. Herbft.

QuaprirasciaTa. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, with
four indented black bands. Linn. Leptura oétomaculata,
Degeer. Cerambyx fafciatus, Scop. ;

Native of Europe. :

3-FascraTa. Black ; wing-cafes with three yellow bands,
the firft interrupted. Fabr. ;

Antenne pale afh, with the bafe black ; firft band on the
wing-cafes compofed of two dots, the fecond with a {mall
tooth, the third lunated. Inhabits Sweden and Germany.

Rericutata. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous at the
bafe, reticulated with yellow, and tipped with black,
Fabr. : te

Native of Italy. The antenne black ; joints at the bafe
yellow; legs rufous, with black joints.

Sericea. Green-blue; wing-cafes fomewhat faftigate.
Fabr.

This and the feven following inhabit Eurepe.

Cotuaris. Thorax globular, and with the abdomen red ;
wing-cafes black. Fabr.

Vireinea. Thorax globular and black; wing-cafes
violet*; abdomen rufous, Oliv,

, Carre-

: LEPTURA.

Carnonarts. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, tipped
with brown. Linn. iS

Native of Africa. Antenne yellowifh at the bafe ; tho-
‘rax and wing-cafes {mooth,

Lutezicornis. Yellow; thorax with two black lines ;
wing-cafes with four black bands. Fabr,

Inhabits Carolina. Head and antennz yellow ; legs yel-
low ; pofterior thighs with a black ring.

4-PustuLatTa. Black; wing-cafes with two remote fer-
wuginous fpots. Fabr.

Native of Sweden.

8-Macutata. Black; wing-cafes livid, with four black
fpots. Scheff.

An European {pecies.

InrerroGationis. Black; wing-cafes yellow, with a
longitudinal curved black line, and four marginal {pots.
Linn. Donovy. Br. Inf.

Native of the northern partsof Europe. _

Maxernetia. Blackith; future of the wing-cafes, two
marginal {pots, and tip yellow. Fabr.

An iuhabitant of Italy.

6-Macutata. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous, with three
indented black bands, the anterior one a little interrupted.
Scheff. &c. F

Native of Europe.

7-PunctaTa. Black ; thorax teftaceous, with a black
dot ; wing-cafes teftaceous, with feven black dots. Fabr.

Small, linear; head with a large frontal teftaceous
{pot ; abdomen teftaceous; legs black. Native of Hun-

ary.
= t2-MacutatTa. Black; wing-cafes yellow, with fix
large black {pots oneach. Fabr.

Native of Siberia.

AtreNuatTa. Wing-cafes tapering, yellow, with four
black bands ; legs teftaceous. Scheff.

Inhabits Europe ; abdomen entirely black, or rufous,
with the tip black.
CaLcaRaTa.
four black bands, the firlt punGtured, fecond interrupted ;

potterior {hanks bidentated. Herbit.
~ Nicetra. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous ; anterior fhanks
rufous. Linn. j

Eryturopus. Black; legs red; bafe of the thighs,
tips of the fhanks, and ends of the legs black. Linn.

5-Macurata. Black; antenne annulated with black;
legs and wing-cafes teftaceous, the latter with five black
fpots and three bands. Linn.

Fusca. Brown, with golden downs; bale of. the an-
tennz teftaceous; fore thighs and fhanks teftaceous, the
former with four teftaceous bands, the latter teftaccous at
the bafe. Linn.

* Monrio. Thorax orbicular; body entirely black and
polifhed. Fabr.

Native of Sweden.

Cerameyciroruis. Black, with whitifh down; wing-
cafes yellowith, with five black fpots and a line in the
middle. Herbtt.

Found in Hungary and Auttria.

Russtca. Black, with whitifh down; wing-cafes yel-
lowifh, with five black fpots and a line in the middle.
Herbit.

Inhabits Ruffia.

Leavis. Black, beneath filky; antennz yellowith-brown;
anterior legs ferrugiuous. Herbtt.

Native of Pomerania.

SopstitiALis. Black; antennz ferruginous at the bate ;

Vou. XX. ‘

Black ; wing-cafes tapering, yellow, with

legs and wing-cafes yellow, the latter edged with black,
Herbtt.

Inhabits Pruffia. ° *

4-Norata. Black, with yellowifh down, beneath with
whitith ; antennz brown at the bafe; thighs ferruginous
at the bafe; wing-cafes punétured with two orange {pots
Herbtt.

Same country as the preceding.

SeLenpipae Black, with yellow down; wing-cafes
glabrous at the tip; legs fulvous; antenne brown, with fer-
ruginous bafe. Herbit.

Inhabits Germany.

Prumires. Brown, punctured; thighs fubclavated;
hind-legs very long, the fhanks rufous at the tip. Pallas.

Country unknown. :

Rurires. Black; legs rufous; thighs black at the
bafe. Schaller.

Native of Germany.

OcTO-MACULATA.
fix black {pots and tip.

Inhabits Saxony.

ScHALLeRI. Brown; bafe of the thells with four rufous
fpots. Schaller.

Ivhabits Germany.

Pumita. Brown; anterior legs teftaceous, the thighs
black above. Schaller.
Native of Saxony,

catharticus.

Usrurata. Black; thorax and wing-cafes teftaceous, -
tipped with black; legs teftaceous.

Inhabits Germany on flowers.

Parisina. Black; bafe of the antenne and thighs red-
difh. Thunb,

Oblong, narrow. Inhabits Germany.

BieustuLrara. Wing-cafes black, ftriated with dots,
and marked with two te!taceous fpots. ‘Thunberg.

Inhabits Upfal. :

Scoporpu. Abdomen and thorax at the pofterior margin
red; wing-cafes teltaceous, pellucid, and attenuated; tip
and margin below the middle black. Scop.

Nscripzs. Black; wing-cafes dull yellow-teftaceous ;
legs black. Gmel. Degeer, &c,

Country unknown.

Verna. Black; anterior fhanks fulvous.

Native of Denmark.

Macutosa. Black; wing-cafes livid-teftlaceous; an-
tenn {potted with black. Degeer.

Country unknown.

Lununata. Black; thorax witha narrow yellow band
behind; wing-cafes with two ferruginous lunules. Swe-
derus. ,

Inhabits the Cape of Good Hope.

Bicororara. Pale ferruginous; eyes, wing-cafes,
wings, and tail above black. Leptura bicolor, Swederus.

Native ef America.

Virrata. Pale teftaceous; antenne annulated with
fufcous; wing-cafes dotted with black, with four yellow
ftripes. Swederus.

Inhabits America.

10-PunctaTa. Black; thorax fubglobular ; wing-cafes
with ten dots. Lepech.

Inhabits Ural.

Varia. Villous, hoary; thorax fubglobular; wing-
cafes black with white dots, and four interrupted bands.
Lepech.

Same country as the former.

4D Viriwis,

Black ; wing-cafes teftaceous, with
Schaller.

A rare {pecies, found on rhamnus’

Mill.

LEP

Virivis. Greenifh; thorax fomewhat ovate, with two
darker lines ; the back black. Lepech.

Native @£ Siberia.

Nrreys. ‘Thorax globular, and with the abdomen black,
with yellowifh thining down; wing-cafes black, with four
broad yellow bands ; Nees ferruginous. Forlter.

Inhabits North America. :

Birtweata. Blackith-brown; thorax with two yellowifh
lines ; wing-cafes with fcattered dots. Scop.
* Found in Carniola.

CzruLeA. Blue; anterior fhanks rufous.

Native of Italy.

Squatipa. Black; wing-cafes teftaceous at the bafe
and inner margin. Scop.

Same country as the former.

Brearrita. Black; thorax ferruginous with a black

Scop.

line ; wing cafes with a common ferruginous fpot. Schrank. .

This and the two following are natives of Germany.

Ferruainea. . Black; wing-cafes ferruginous, with a
broad patch of black. Schrank.

Lamepa. Black; wing-cafes with three white bands.
Schrank. ; é

Macurata. Black, with yellow downy fpots; thorax
globular; antennz half as long asthe body. Geoffr.

This and the five following are inhabitants of France.

Navia. Black, with yellow down; wing-cafes with
two black glabrous fpots. Geofir.

PuncruLata. Blackifh; head and thorax red, dotted
with black. Geoffr.

Srricgosa. Yellow downy ; wing-cafes with three nar-
row black bands. Geoffr.

Gauuica. Blue; fhanks rufous; thorax fubglobular.
Geoffr.

CRASSIPES.
Geoftr.

_ BIMACULATA.
dotted, with a fpot and waved line of white.

Inhabits Europe.

Vittosa. Black, villous; thorax cylindrical, with pale
longitudinal line. Mull.

Native of Denmark.

LEPTURUS, in Botany, from arrtnz, flender, and x72
the tail of an animal, a genus of grafles, elteblifhed by Mr.
Brown, Prodr. Noy. Holl. vy. 1. 207, and fo called from its
long flender cylindrical fpike. It is founded on Rottbollia
repens, Forft. Prodr. 9. u. 50, with a queition whether
R. incurvaia of Linneus and FI. Brit., as well as R. fii-
formis of Roth, may not belong to the fame. The chief
difference between Lepturus and Rottbollia feems to lie in the
joints of the {pike being fingle-fowered in the former, two-
flowered in the latter; for in the detail of the florets, re-
f{pecting the prefence or imperfeétion of the parts of impreg-
nation, this tribe of grafles, and indeed all graffes, are to
be trufted with great caution.

Lerrurus, in Ichthyology. ~The name is of Greek ori-
gin, and is formed of A:vixs, flender, and vex, a tail, ex-
preffing that the fifh bearing this name has a very long and
flenéer tail. See Tricniunus kpturus.

Lerrturus, in Ornithology. See Puaxrron ethereus.

LEPUS, the Hare, in Affronemy, a conttellation of the
fouthern hemifphere; whole ftars in Ptolemy's catalogue
are twelve; in that of Tycho thirteen ; in the Britannic ca-
talogue nineteen. See ConsTELLATION.

Lepus Aqueus, the water-hare, in Ornithology, a name
given to the crefte1 diver, or colymbus of America, which
1s the fame f{pecies with the large European kind, though

Deep black; thighs thick and rufous.

Rufous ; thorax cylindrical ; wing-cafes

Mull.

LEP
defertbed by many authors asa different bird. It has the

name of the fea-hare or water-hare, from its great nimble-
nefs in the water. It is caught with much difficulty ; and
the Mexicans have a thoufand fabulous ftories about it. See
Cotymbus criflatus.

Lepus, in Zoology, a genus of the order of Glires, in the
clafs of Mammalia, the chara&ters of which are that the
animals of this genushave two fore-teeth in each jaw; in
the upper jaw is a fecond inner row of fore-teeth, which are
confiderably fmaller than the outer or primaries; the fore-
feet have each five, and the hind-feet four toes. - Thefe ani-
mals are very timid; they live on vegetable food; and they
ufe the hind-feet in walking as far as the heel, running by a
kind of leaps, or repeated bounds. ‘They have either ex-
ceedingly fhort tails, named /cuts, or none at all.

* With tarls. *

L. Vifeaccia, Vizcacha, Vifeachos, the Peruvian hare,
with a longifh tail, befet with briftles. Molin. Hilt. Nat.
Chil. Hares of this fpecies inhabit the p'ains and bafes of
mountains in the colder parts of Peru and Chili. The fur
is of a moufe colour, and fo fine and foft, that, in the time
of the Incas, it was woven into cloth for the Peruvian nobles,
and is that employed for bonnets by the Chilefe. In habit
and manner this {pecies refembles the rabbit, and digs holes
under ground, in which are two contiguous chambers, one
in which it fleeps, and the other, which is lower, isemployed
for eating its provifions, that are colleGted in the night; the
tail is bufhy, and much longer than that of any other fpe-
cies, and in general it turns up and is ufed as a weapon of
defence. ;

2. L. Timidus, common hare, has a very fhort tail, the
ears longer than the head, and black at the ends. Of this
there are two varieties, viz. the horned common hare, L. #-
midus cornutus, having flightly branched horns, an animal
probably fabulous; and the yellow common hare, L. timidus
melinus, of a ftraw colour, of the fame fize with the hare,
and running like it. Cook’s Voy. iii. Pennant’s Quad.

This {pecies inhabits the whole of Europe, and more
plentifully in Bulgaria ; in the northern parts of Perfia,
Japan, Ceylon, and almoft the whole of Afia; in Egypt
and Barbary ; in North America, and even in Chili. The
hare is very timid, very quick in its fight and hearing, and
very {wift, particulatly in running up hill; when hunted it
runs circularly, gradually leffening the circuit, and often
doubling back parallel to its path, and leaping through a
great interval at the turn, in order to throw off the dogs.
(See Hare Huntine.) The hare feeds only by night, and
chiefly on the twigs ‘and bark of fhrubs and young trees.
It is hunted for {port with dogs or hawks, and, in India,
with fome fpecies of the cat genus. It is faid to be
fond of the found of a drum ; it is much infeited with
fleas ; it does not burrow, but makes a kind of neft,
called by f{portf{men a ‘ form,” among buihes or long
grafs ; its urine is foetid, which it takes care not to dil--
charge in its neft. It does not pair, but breeds often in.
the f{ummer and fpring, the male purfuing the female,
when in feafon, by the fcent; after going 30 pr 31 days,.
the female brings three or four at a liter ; and as hares
are very lafcivious, fuperfetation is not uncommon. It is
about two feet in length, when full grown between eight
and nine pounds in weight, fometimes, though rarely, twelve 5.
the head is oblong or oval; the ears long and tipt with
black, the eyes large, prominent, and black, placed much
outwards, and provided with a nictitating membrane,
which remaius open when the animal is afleep ; the upper

8 lip

LEP U,&.

lip -is divided; the fnout furnifhed with long white
whifkers, the chin white; the fur on the face, back, and
fides white at the roots, black in the middle, and tawny
red at the ends; the breaft and throat are reddifh ; therbelly
is white; the tail is black above and white beneath; the hind
thighs are ftrong, thick, and flefhy, with a cavity on each
fide at the pubes; the feet are thickly covered with hair on
the foles. This animal is fond of birch, parfley, and pinks.
Its flefh was forbidden by the Druids, but much efteemed
by the Romans. For other particulars, fee Hane.

3. L. Variabilis, varying hare, Alpine hare, has a very
fhort tail, the ears fhorter than the head ; the whole fur be-
comes white in winter, except the tips of the ears, which re-
main black. Of this fpecies there is a variety, called the
L. variabilis hybridus, or {purious varying hare, the fides of
which only turn white in winter. This {pecies inhabits the
coldeft and moft hilly parts of Europe and A fia, as Scotland,
Norway, Lapland, Ruffia, Siberia, Kamtfchatka, Greenland,
and in America, about Hudfon’s bay, and Labrador. The
fpurious variety is a mixed breed, between the varying and
common f{pecies, fuftaining a partial change of colour, and
found only in the fouthern and weftern parts, of Siberia. In
autumn the varying hares fometimes collect in flocks of 5 or
600: ériven from the mountains of Ruffia and Siberia, they
migrate in queft of fubfiitence into the lower country, and re-
turn in {priag. The flefh of this {pecies is harder, drier, and
lefs favoured than that of the commen kind. It never mixes
with the common fpecies, but keeps on the tops of the
higheft hills; it dees not run {wiftly, but when purfued,
takes fhelter in the clefts of rocks; is eafily tamed and very
frolickfgme ; fond of honey and {weatmeats ; it eats its own
dung before a ftorm; changes to white in September, and
recovers its grey colour in April; and it is fubject to thefe
changes when kept in a warm room; in Greenland, it is
always white. Penn. Quad. Arétic Zool. Forfter. Phil.
‘Tranf. Ixii.

4. L. Niger, the black hare, has a very fhert tail, fur
entirely black, or very dark tawny, the whole year, and
inhabits Siberia, and the government of Caffan. It is much
larger than the common kind, and very gloffy.

. Li. Americanus, American hare, Hudfon’s bay hare,
Hudfon’s bay quadruped, Phil. Tranf. Ixii. with the
tips of the ears and tail grey, has a very fhort tail. The
hind legs are a half longer than the body; the tips of
the ears and tail grey. This fpecies inhabits North Ame-
rica. In New England, Canada, and farther north, this
{pecies acquires a long, filky, filver-white coat of fur during
winter, the edges of the ears only remaining grey: to the
fouth it retains the whole year a fhort fur of an afh colour,
mixed with rulty and black, on the neck and body, the legs
pale-afh colour, and the belly white. It is fmaller than the
common hare, fhelters in hollow trees and under fallen tim-
ber, and breeds once or twice a year, producing from five
to feven at a litter; the fore legs are proportionaily fhorter,
and the hind legs confiderably longer than thofe of the com-
mon kind.

6. L. Tolai of Buffon, Baikal hare of Pennant, the Dau-
rian hare of Erxleb. the cuniculus leporinus of J. G.
Gmelin, has a fhort tail, and the edges of the ears black.
This fpecies inhabits the country beyond the lake Baikal,
in the defert of Gobi or Cobi, and as far as Thibet.. This
is larger than the former fpecies; in fummer of much the
fame-colour with the varying hare, and in winter a little
paler ; the legs are {maller and the hind legs longer ; the
tail longer than that of a rabbit, but fhorter than that of
the common hare, and like that black, efpecially at the root.
Tt does not burrow, runs ftraight forward when purfued,

and fhelters in the holes of rocks. Its flefh is white, like
that of the rabbit.

4. L. Minimus, Chilefe hare, has a very fhort tail, and
the ears of an uniform colour. Molin. H.N. Chil. This
{pecies inhabits the kingdom of Chili. It is fmall, not ex-
ceeding the fize of a {mall rat; its body is of a eonical
form, its ears are {mall and fharp-pointed, its fnout is
lengthened, the fur is fine and very fhort ; the fleth is white
and good for food, It refembles the domeltic rabbit in
variablenefs of colour, in its prolific quality, producing al-
moft every month fix or feven young ones at a time; and in
Chi'i it is dometticated.

8. L. Capenfis, Cape hare, has a bufhy tail, as long as
the head, and red feet. It inhabits the country three days’
journey from the Cape of Good Hope; dwells in the fif-
fures of rocks, and does not burrow; about the fize of a
rabbit, and probably the fame animal that is mentioned by
Adanfon as found in G®inea, which, he fays, is fmaller than
the common kind, with a colour between that of a rabbit,
and has white fiefh.

g. L. Cuniculus, common rabbit, has avery fhort tail, almoft
of the fame colour with the body, ears black at the points,
and hind legs fhorter than the body. Of this fpecies there
are the following varieties, viz. cuniculus ferus, or wild rab-
bit, of a brownifh-grey colour ; cunic. domeflicus niger, of an
uniform black colour ; cun. domefficus albus, of an uniform,
white colour, with fiery red eyes ; cun. dome/ficus variegatus
pied tame rabbit, of a pied or mottled black and white
colour ; cun. domefficus argehteus, fitvery tame rabbit, of a
filvery grey or ath-colour, with tawny feet. This f{pecies
inhabits naturally the warmer parts of Europe, Afia, and
Africa; it is not a native of Britain, but has fubfifted in a
wild and tame {tate in this country for feveral. ages,
It occupies principally dry fandy ‘oils, in which it forms
long winding burrows; confining iticif to thefe holes
in the middle of the day, and wandering in the even-
ing, night, and morning, in fearch of food. It feeds on
all kinds of green vegetables and grain. Its flefh is white
and muchefteemed. The female breeds fix or feven times
in a year, going 30 or 31 days with young, and bringing
from four to eight at a litter : it acquires its full fize in fix
months, and lives about eight or nine years ; the male is very
{alacious, and apt to dettroy the young ; rabbits are preyed
upon by hawks, badgers, and polecats, and are caught by
means of terriers, nets, and ferrets. Numbers of them aré
bred ina wild {tate in places fet apart for the purpofe, called
“ warrens,”’ and many are bred in houfes in a domeftic ttate.
The wild variety is of a brown afh-colour, having the upper
part of the tail black, and the under part white. The fur
of the filvery variety is valuable.

10. L. Saccatus, hooded rabbit, Ruffian rabbit, has a double
fold of the fkin behind the head, and another under the
throat. This animal's habitat is unknown. It is defcribed
by Mr. Pennant, from a drawing in the Britifh Mufeum by
Mr. Edwards, and called by him a Ruffian rabbit, but it is
unknown in that empire.

11. L. Sericeus, Angora rabbit, is covered with long,
waved, filky hair. The Ruffian rabbit is reckoned by
Gmelin a variety of this. It inhabits Angora in Afia Mi-
nor, and is exceedingly beautiful on account of its fine, white,
filky fur, which is a valuable article in commerce.

** Having no Tails.
12. L. Bra/ilienfis, Brafilian hare, named “ Tapeti’’ by

the natives, has very large ears, no tail, and, for the moit
part, a white ring or collarround the neck. (Pallas Glir.)
This f{pecies inhabits South America and Mexico ; it 1s of

4D2 the

L £2?

the fame colour and maguitude with the common hare, but
darker, with timilar large ears; in its general appearance it
refembles the rabbit. It lives in the woods, does not bur-
row, and its flefh is good food.

13. L. Pufillas, calling-hare of Pennant, has no tail, tri-
angular ears, white at the edges; the upper parts of the
body are dark-brown, mixed with blackifh-grey, and the
aunder parts hairy. (Schreber.) This fpecies inhabits the
fouthern extremity of the Ural mountains, about the Irtifch
and the funny hills to the fouth of the Altaic chain. It
feeds chiefly on the flowers and bark of the Cytifus fupinus,
Robinia frutefcens, Cerafus pumila, and Malus fylvettris; digs
holes in dry places, amid bufhes, and leads a very retired
life, near its burrows, which are long and intricate, with a
very fmall entrance. Thefe animals are difcovered by their
voice, which is very loud and fonorous, like the piping of a
quail, and may be heard at a great diftance ; it 1s repeated
at fhort intervals, three, four, or even fix times, moitly at
night and morning, and never in winter or bad weather.
This fpecies is gentle, and eafily tamed; it fleeps little,
drinks frequently, and is moft aétive in the night feafon ; its
pace is not quick, but by leaps.

14. L. <Alpinus, Mountain hare, Alpine hare of Pallas,
&c. Muttela Daurica, or Daurian wealel, has fhort rounded
ears, and no tail, is of a bright bay colour, with brown
ears and hind feet. (Schreber.) This animal inhabits the
Altaic charm of mountains, to the extremity of Afia, and
beyond the Lena and Yenifei, occupying the moft rugged
and inacceflible fhelves of the mountains, burrowing in the
clefts of the rocks, or living in the hollow trunks of decay-
edtrees. Its voice or cry refembles aloud whiftle. The
mountain hare is preyed on by fables and Siberian weafels,
and is much infelted by the Oeftrus leporinus, a f{pecies of
gad-fly, which lodges its eggs in their fkins, and often
deftroys them. This fpecies varies in fize from feven to
nine inches in length, and weighs from 14 pound to four
ounces.

15. 1. Ogotona, the Ogotona hare, or Mongalian wea-
fel, has oblong, oval, fomewhat pointed ears, of the fame
colour with the body, which is pale grey ; but it has no tail.
(Schreber.) It inhabits the mountains beyond the lake Bai-
kal, and all Mongalia, efpecially the great defert of Cobi ;
dwelling fometimes in rocky places, among ftones, or
forming in the fand with two or three entrances. Its voice
is fharp and clamorous; it feeds chiefly on the bark of the
Pyrus baccata, and on the fuckers of the dwarf elder, and
in {pring on various herbs which grow on the fandy foil. It
is mmble, and fearcely capable of being tamed ; it is preyed
upon by various fpecies of the weafel tribe, by the Manul
cat, hawks, wood-peckers, and owls; it differs from the
calling and mountain hares, chiefly in fize, being about 65
inches long. It procreates in fpring, and the young ones
are fully grown by the end of June.

LEPYRODIA, in Botany, Arrupwdns, fealy, fo called on
account of the inner fcales at the bafe of each flower.
Brown Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 247.—Clafs and order,
Divecia Triandria. Nat. Ord. Tripetaloidee, Linn. Junci,
Jal. Reffiacee, Brown.

Eff. Ch. Flowers either dioecious or hermaphrodite.
Petals fix, nearly equal, prominent, with one or two fcales
at their bafe, within the proper fcale of the fpike, or
catkin.— Male, Stamens three. Anthers fimple, peltate.
A\ rudiment of a piftil. . Female, Styles three. Capfule of
three cells, three-lobed, burfting at the prominent angles.
Seeds folitary.

This genus is very near Elegia, Linn. Mant. 2) 162,
{which was afterwards funk in Refio), but differs in the

6

LEP

prefence of inner feales to the flowers, and in the male
flowers being like the female, with nearly equal petals, as
well as in having the fheaths of the {tem permanent, not
feparating juft above their bafe, and in the fimaller fize
of the {pathas. ‘The Calorophus of Liabillardiere nearly
anfwers to the above chara¢ter, but is a totally different
lant.

i 1. L. gracilis. Stems fomewhat branched. Sheaths tight.
Spike compound ; its lower branches rather diftant. Three
outer petals fhorteft.—Gathered by Mr. Brown at Port
Jackfon, New South Wales.

2. L. frida. Stems perfe&ly fimple. Sheaths tight.
Spike compound ; its branches rather crowded. Petals all
nearly equal.—Native of the fouth coaft of New Holland.

3. L. feariofa. Stems perfeétly fimple. Sheaths lax.
Spike compound ; its branches imbricated, divided. Three
inner petals {maileft. Found at Port Jackfon.

4. L. hermaphrodita. Stems perfeétly fimple. Sheaths
lax. Spikes nearly fimple. Flowers hermaphrodite. —
Found on the fouth coait of New Holland.

Our account of this genus is entirely taken from Mr,
Brown's work, with jome flight difference in terms, accord-
ing to what we have ufed in the articles Leprocarpus and
LEpPIDOSPERMA.

LERANG Pornt, in Geography, a cape on the N. coaft
of the ifland of Java. S. lat. 6° 37!. E. long. 111° 27!,

LERAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri& of San-
cerre > § miles N. of Sancerre. ‘The place contains 1109,
and the canton 6544 inhabitants, on a territory of 170
kiliometres, in 7 communes.

LERCHEA, in Botany, was fo named by Linnzus, as
a tribute of refpe& to the botanical acquirements and pub-
lications of John James Lerche, principal phyfician to the
Ruffian armies, who was bora at Potfdam in the year 1703,
and who died at St. Peterfburg in 1780. He publithed a
defcription of certain plants growing at A ftrachan, and in the
provinces of Perfia which border on the Cafpian fea. This
tract is printed in the 5th vol. of the New Traniactions of
the Academy Nature Curioforum, Appendix 161. 206.
He alfo furnifhed an account of the Nymphea Nelumbo of
the Cafpian fea. Haller. mentions that Lerche made many
curious obfervations on the agriculture and botany of the
countries through which he travelled.—Linn. Mant. 155.
Schreb. 453. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 586. Mart. Mill. Diét.
v. 3. Jufl. 421.—Clafs and order, Monadelphia Pentandria.
Nat. Ord. unknown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth of one leaf, tubular, five-toothed,
permanent. Cor. of one petal, funnel-fhaped ; tube longer
than the calyx; limb five-cleft, nearly ere&t. Stam. Fila-
ments fcarcely diltin& from the tube of the germen ; an-
thers five, oblong, placed upon the tube of the germen.
Pifi. Germen fuperior, fomewhat ovate, terminated (within
the corolla) by an obtufe tube; ityle within the tube of
the germen, thread-fhaped, the length of the ftamens; ftig-
mas two or three, rather obtufe. Peric. Capfule fome-
what globofe, torulofe, of three cells, {ometimes only two.
Seeds numerons.

Eff. Ch. Calyx five-toothed. Corolla funnel-fhaped, five-
cleft. Anthers five placed on the tube of the germen,
Style fingle. Capfule of three cells and many feeds.

1. L. /ongicauda. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 14. 610. Mant.
256. There is no figure of this folitary fpeeies of Lerchea,
which is a native of the Eaft Indies, and a /foruéd of irregular
growth, furnifhed with ftraggling jointed branches. Leaves
oppolite, on foot-ftalks, lanceolate, {mooth, entire, a foot
in length, Svipulas {word-fhaped, fhorter than se ba

8.

LER

italks. Spike terminal, flender, a foot high ; flowers remote,
{eattered, {mall.

The above defcription is entirely taken from the works
of Linnzus, the only perfon who ever faw the plant. No
trace of it is to be found in his herbarium, yet it is to be
prefumed the fpecimen exifts fomewhere in his collection,
probably without a name.

LERENZA, in Geography, a town of New Granada ;
25 miles N. of Tunja.

LERGE, a town of Sweden, in Weft Gothland; 4
miles N. of Gothenburg.

LERI, Joun ve, in Biography, a French Proteftant
minilter, was born at La Margelle, a village in Burgundy, and
profecuted his academical fludies at Geneva. In 1556 he
was feleGted to accompany two minifters, on a miffion to
join an intended colony of the reformed religion in Brazil,
under the protection of admiral de Coligny. On their ar-
rival, they found their proje& fo involved with difficulties,
that Leri returned to France insthe following year, having
endured aftonifhing hardfhips during his voyage. He after-
wards was admitted to the office of the miniltry, and exer-
cifed it at La Charite, at the time of the maflacre of St.
Bartholomew, when he was obliged to make a very haity
efcape to the town of Sancerre. It was during the memo-
rable fiege of th’s place that he was granted a paffport from
marfhal de la Chatre, permitting him to retire wherever he
pleafed ; he went to Bern in Switzerland, where he was re-
ceived in the moft kind and hofpitable manner by M. de Co-
ligny, fon of the admiral. In 1574 he publifhed an in-
terelting «¢ Hiftory of the Siege of Sancerre:’”? giving an
account of the tranfaétions of that fiege, and of the horrors
of famine to which the Proteftants {ubmitted in defence of
their religion, and all that was dear to them, which was
widely difperfed, and went through many editions. In 1577
he publifhed an account of his voyage to Brazil. He died
at Bern in 1611, greatly regretted by all who knew him.
Bayle. Moreri.

LERIA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the /Egean
fea; one of the Sporades, according to Strabo.—Alfo, a
town of Spain, in the Tarragonenfis, and in the interior of
the country of the Edetani. Ptolemy.

LERIDA, in Geography, ciently called J/erda, a town
of Spain, in Catalonia, diftinguifhed in ancient and modern
‘hiftory for the great events which have rendered it memor-
able. It was the capital of the country of the Ilergetes
long before the firft invafion of Spain by the Romans, and
had its own particular princes. In the plains of Lerida
Scipio gained a fignal victory over Hanno, the Carthagi-
nian general, A.U.C. 537. It was, likewife, under the
walls of this town that Julius Cafar conquered the lieute-
nants of Pompey, A.U.C. 705. The beauty of its fituation
and the fertility of the country attraéted the attention of
the Romans; and as foon as they had made a conqueft of
it they planted colonies there, and gave it the title of
_ Municipium Ilerdenfe.”? This town, having fallen under
the dominion of the Goths, embraced the Chrittian religion,
and was the feat of a celebrated council held here A.D.
528, or 524. A council held here in 546 is remarkable
for two of its cations: one prohibiting eccletiaftics from
fhedding human blood, and another permitting the com-
munion to be adminiftered to magicians when they are
dying. After the conqueft of the Moors, it became at firit
fubje&t to the caliphs of Damafcus, and afterwards to the
Moorifh kings of Cordova; but its own governor ereCting the
ftandard of rebellion and ufurping the fupreme power, it
had a feparate king. In 1149, Raymond Berenger, the
lait count of Barcelona, who had juft afcended the throne

LER

of Aragon, took Lerida from the Moors, and from that
time it formed a part of Catalonia.

This town is fituated on the declivity of a hill, at the top.
of which the caftle ftands, on the right and welt bank of
the river Segra, which bathes the walls of it. It is long,
narrow, almolt triangular, clofe, and ill built. It has one
tolerable ftreet, a quarter of a league in length, but, like the
others, narrow and ill paved. A quay, lately built, ex-
tends through the whole length of the town, which forms
a kind of promenade for the inhabitants. ‘Their number
is about 18,000. It is an epifcopal fee, fuffragan to Tarra-
gona. Its diocefe includes 150 parifhes ; Lerida itfelf
has one cathedral chapter, four parifhes, eight convents of
monks, three of nuns, one hofpital, and one college. The
town has a civil and military governor, a {mall garrifon, and
an alcade-major for the admimiltration of juftice. Its uni-
verfity, eftablifhed in 1300, by James II., king of Aragon,
was fuppreffed by Philip V. at the commencement of the
eighteenth century. The cathedral is the only edifice in
Lerida that claims attention. Lerida formerly carried on
a trade in falt-fith, which has wholly failed. Its prefent
commerce is confined to the exportation of fome produc-
tions of the land, chiefly fruits and pot-herbs ; great quan- -
tities of which are fent to Urgel and Aragon. The ad-
jacent country is very fertile, and valuable on account of
the variety and abundance of its produce ; confifting of
wheat, oats, flax, hemp, oil, wine, beans, and all kinds
of excellent fruits and pot-herbs. The country is inter-
feted with canals fupplied by neighbouring rivers, and is -
fkilfully and carefully watered. Some filk-worms are alfo »
bred here, but in no great number; 62 miles E. of Sara--
goffa. N. lat. 41°29’. E. long. 0° 2s).

LERIKA, a town of Swedifh Lapland; 100 miles -
W.N.W. of Tornea.

LERILLON, a fmall ifland in the Grecian Archipe-
lago, near the N. coaft of the ifland of Lero.

LERIN, -a town of Spain, in Navarre ; .15 miles E. of
Eftello.

LERINA, in Ancient Geography, Lerins; an ifland of the »
Mediterranean, upon the coaft of Gallia Narbonnenfis, S.W. -
of Nicea. Strabo, who calls it ** Planafia,’’ from its.form -
and fituation, fays that it had a garrifon.

LERINS, in Geography, a name given’ to ‘two. {mall :
iflands in the Mediterranean, near the coaft of 'France, about
fix miles S. of Antibes ; .called “ St: Marguerite” and :
s¢ St. Honorat ;”’ near thefe are fome other iflets.

LERMA, a difmantled town of ‘Spain, in Old Caftile,’.
on the Arlanza; 23 miles S. of Burgos.—Alfo, a town of
Mexico, in the province of Yucatan ; +12 miles S. of Cam-
peachy. 3

LERNA, in Ancient Geography; a lake or marfh,:now >
called «* Molini,”’ in the Argolide, a little N- of Genefium.
It is rendered famous by the fable of the defeat of the ~
hydra with many heads, which retired hither and was killed
by Hercules. The people of the country pretend that
near this lake Neptune ran away with Proferpine; in me- -
mery of which event were annually celebrated the myfteries
confecrated to Ceres: and hence thefe mytteries were deno- -
minated the ‘ Lernzan mytteries.’’ Near the lake was a :
wood confecrated to this goddefs, which commenced at
mount Pontinus. Paufan. Corinth. 1. ii. c. 36.

LERN#A, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs Vermes, and
order Mollufca, which is charaerized by Linnzus as having
an oblong, fomewhat cylindrical and naked body ; tentacles »
or arms two, or fometimes three on each fide and round, by
which it affixes itfelf to any fubftance ; two ovaries project- -
ing like tails from the lower extremity. ‘They are without

” €YCSy -

LER

eyes, and are very troublefome to fifh, adhering very firmly
to them, chiefly to the gills and fins. There are fifteen fpe-
cies, which we fhall briefly enumerate.

Species.

Brancuiaris is one of the largeft, being about two
inches inlength. The body is round and flexuous, the mouth
is lateral, and feated between three flightly branched horns.
It inhabits the northern feas, and is found adhering to the
gills of cod-fifh. It is ufed as food by the Greenlanders.
Mill. Zool.

The body of this fpecies is hollow, membranaceous,
thicker, before and behind; dull white, dirty red. The
neck is long, tubular, and filiform ; tail ending in a perpen-
dicular groove ; ovaries two, compofed of long twilted
cirri.

Cyprinacra. Body cylindrical, clavate behind ; thorax
forked; teutacula lunate at the tip. It has four tentacula,
two of them lunate at the tips; it is only about half
an inch long, and of the thicknefs of a {mall flraw ; the
body is rounded, of a pale greyifh-white, glofly on the fur-
face, and fomewhat pellucid ; it is thruft out of a kind of
fheath at the bafe, which is of a white colour, and a thick
fin; towards the other extremity of the body there are
three obtufe tubercles, one of which is much larger than the
reit. It is found on the fides of the bream, carp, and roach
of our ponds and rivers, in abundance.

SaLmonea, or Salmon loufe. Body obovate; thorax in-
~verfely heart-fhaped ; tentacula two linear and approaching
-each other. It is rather more than half an inch long, and is
found, as its name imports, adhering to the falmen about its
gills. Barbut.

The body is pale and foft, head {mall, oblong, rather
convex, with two horizontal lips; the upper one is armed
with two rigid moveable hooks, the lower fhort, bifid ; ab-
domen inverfely ovaté ; ovaries round, granulate within, and
as large as the whole body.

AseEtuixa has a lunated body, and cordated thorax, and
is found in the gills of cod-fifh and ling. Barbut.

Hucnonrs. Body knotty; two tentacula; ovary dou-
ble and united behind; is found in the gills of the falmo
hucho, in northern lakes and rivers. The body is clear white
and fomewhat cartilaginous. 4

Ciavara. Body cylindrical, fubfinuate and tripled be-
neath the tip and fnout. Mill. It is found in the fins,
gills, mouth, and eyes of the Perea Norwegica.

Unciara. Body rather heart-fhaped ; fnout fimple,
curved, and the mouth terminal. Mull. It is found on the
gills and fins of cod-fifh in the Greenland feas. ‘The body
is foft, pale, with a longitudinal groove down the middle of
the back ; the ‘ovaries are rounded and thickened towards the
tip.

Goxixa. Body rhomboid; it has two arms before and
two behind, all of which are nodofe; the head is armed
with two curved horns. Shaw. Mill. It inhabits the gills
of the Cottus gobio, or Miller’s thumb, and is nearly three
quarters of an inch in length.

Body blueifh-white ; head roundifh, with two imcurved
horns ; the mouth is placed between the horns, and is fur-
nifhed with three lips; the tentacula are angular, curved,
knotty ; inteftines tranflucent above 3 tail bifid; ovaries {pi-
ral, round, fubulate.

Raprara has a f{quare deprefled body, with three pair
of arms and four horns. Mull. It is found in and about
the mouth of the Coryphena rupeftris, in the Greenland feas.
It is rather more than an inch in length; whitifh or cine-

zeous, and rough with hardifh tubercles ; the fides a little

LER

crenate ; head depreffed, rounded, and covered with numerous
papille ; ovaries large, oboval.

Noposa. Body fquare tuberculate ; with two very fhort
arms beneath on each fide. Mill. Shaw. It inhabits about
the month of the Perca Norwegica. ’

Body foft, pale cinereous, convex above, and concave be-
neath, with four hard white tubercles in the middle of the
back, and five white teeth on each fide ; head rounded, and
divided by a ftreak in the middle.

Cornuta. Body oblong, with four ftraight emarginate
arms; head fubovate. Shaw. Mill. It is found on fome
fpecies of the Pleuronectes.

Body covered with a pellucid fkin ; front with two horns
anda fingle tooth; the mouth has two feelers ; ovaries brown,
and its eggs are of a tawny colour.

Pecrorais. Head orbicular ; hemifpherical; abdo-
men obcordate, with a terminal truncate papilla.
Shaw. It is found en the gill and pectoral fins of the
flounder, or Pleuronectes fleflus, and other {pecies of the
fame genus.

Body white, diaphanous, covered with fmall blackifh
{pots ; the crown has two falciform projections ; fnout conic,
truncate, with four minute horns, two fhort fpines, and two
feelers near the third conic fpine. Two tentacula, not
curved ; ovaries two, rather narrow, fub-annulate, and of
equal diameters.

Lor, found on the gills of the Gadus lota, has four
unequal ovaries; the mouth has two hooks ; four cruciate
appendages.

CycrorrertnA. Body round, flexuous, with a double
orifice in the middle of the fnout ; {nout terminated by three
horns, divided into three parts. It inhabits a fpecies of the
Cyclopterus, or Lump-fifh.

Body refembles the branchialis above defcribed, but the
horn is flender, turned up and entire at the tip ; tail is nar-
rower, with two convex lobes on each fide ; ovaries fimple,
{piral, and nearly five inches long when extended. There
is another variety which is rather lefs and has greenifh
ovaries.

Pixnarum is of a reddifh colour ; head cylindrical and
roftrate on the fore-part ; it has two tentacula, which are
lunate, and bifid at the tip. Itis found on the dorfal fins
of the Gadus barbatus.

Body depreffed, flefhy, grooved on the back, with a cylin-
drical arm placed on the fore-part of the back, concealed in
a groove ; the ovaries long and cylindrical.

LERNEB, in Geography, a town of Algiers ; 20 miles
S. of Tipfa.

LERO, anciently Lero, or Leros, an ifland of the Gre-
cian Archipelago, N.N.W. of that of Ca/amo (which fee).
Strabo fays that it was formerly inhabited by a colony of
Milefians. It is about eight milesiong, and two broad. It
has a good harbour and a few coves, and alfo high mountains, in
whofe bofoms mines and quarries of marble might be worked;
its foil is ungrateful, and its inhabitants are under the neceflity
of feeking fuccours abroad by navigation and traffic. N.
lat..37°/12!. E. long. 26° 35".

LERONA, a town of Italy, in the Orvietan; 7 miles
N.W. of Orvieto.

LEROT, or Garden Squirrel of Buffon, in Zoology. See
Myoxus WNitela.

LE ROY & veut, a form of words, by which the
royal affent is fignifed by the clerk of the parliament to
public bills ; to private bills this aflent is exprefled by /oit
fait comme il eff defiré.

Le Roy s’avifera. By thefe words to a bill, prefented
to the king by his parliament, is under{tood his abfolute

denial

Mill, -

LES

denial of that bill in a more civil way; and the bill
thereby becomes wholly null and void. See Royan and
ParviaMENT.

LERVADILLA, in Geography, a town of Spain, in
the province of Leon; 12 miles S. E. of Ciudad Ro-
drigo.

LERWIA, or Lerwes, in Zoglogy. See ANTELOPE
Lerwia. :

LERWICK, in Geography, a fea-port town, fituated in a
parifh of the fame name, on the eatt fide of the Mainland of the
Shetlandifles. It is diftinguifhed as the feat of the courts held
by the fheriff-depute of this ftewartry, and as the general
rendezvous of all the veflels employed in the whale-filhery.
The harbour is one of the fafelt and largeft in Great
Britain. Itis formed by the ifland of Breffay, and is parti-
cularly commodious from the circumftance of having two
entries, one from the fouth, and another from the north.
On the outfide of the north entrance is a funk rock, which
is called the Unicorn. It derived its name from the Uni-
corn man-of-war, which was fent in purfuit of the earl of
Bothwell, when that nobleman fled to Shetland. As this
veffel appeared at the mouth of the fouth entry, before
her approach was difcovered by the earl, he with difficulty
efcaped by the north paiiage. ‘The Unicorn eagerly pur-
fued, but having no pilot on board, fhe ftruck upon this
rock and was wrecked. The town of Lerwick is about half
‘a mile in Jength, and isirregularly built, but contains feveral
excellent houfes. Near the north end is a {mall fortification,
called Fort Charlotte. It is ufually garrifoned by a party
of invalids, and ferves to proteét the north entry of the
harbour. About a mile and a half. from the town are the
remains of twoancient Danifh caltles. The parifh extends
about fix miles along the coait, but at no point is more than
one in bread'h. The furface of the ground is for the moft
part rocky and mountainous. Immediately upon the fhore,
however, there are many very fine arable fields, the foil of
which, though light and fandy, poffefles confiderable fer-
tility. The population of the whole parifh, according to
the parliamentary returns in 1800, amounted to 1706 per-
fons; about goo of whom are refident in the town. Sin-
clair’s Statiftical Account of Scotland, vol. iii. commu-
nicated by the Rev. James Sands.

LESARA, a {mall ifland in the Baltic, E. of Aland.
N. lat. 60° 18. E. long. 20° 19’.

LESBIAN Cymatium. See Cymatium.

LESBIUM Marnor, a name given by the ancients toa
f{pecies of marble of a blueifh-white, fometimes ufed for the
vafes and other ornamental works, but principally in the
walls of public buildings.

- LESBONAX, in Biography, a native of Mitylene, who

flourifhed in the firft century of the Chriftian era, was a dif-
ciple of Timocrates, afterwards became a teacher of philo-
fophy in his native city, and obtained a great number of
fcholars. He was author of many books of philofophy,
and Photius fays he had read fixteen orations written by
him, Two of thefe, it is fippofed, have reached modern
times, and were firft publifhed by Aldus, in his edition of
the ancient orators, in 1513. They were afterwards pub-
lithed by Henry Stephens, with the orations of A®{chines,
Lyfias, and others. They were alfo publifhed, in 1619, by
Gruter. lLefbonax is faid to have been the author of a
treatife «* De Fizuris Grammaticis.’’ He left a fon named
Potamon, an eminent rhetorician at Rome, in the reign of
the emperor Tiberius. So fenfible were the magiltrates of
Mitylene of ‘his merits, and of the utility of his labours,
that they caufed a medal to be ftruck in his honour: one
of which was difcovered in the fouth of France about four-

.

LE:S

{core years ago, and an engraving of it publithed in 1744,
by M. Cary, of the Academy of Marfeilles. Moreri.
LESBOS, in Ancient Geography, now called Metelin, an
ifland of the Grecian Archipelago, fituated N.E. and S.W.
and occupying in its length the port of the gulf of Adra-
myttium, on the coaft of Afia Minor. It extended in
latitude from 39° 5' to 39° 30', S.E. of the ifland of
Lemnos. It is faid, that the Pelafgi firft fettled themfelves in
this ifland under the conduct of Xanthus, fon of Triopus,
king of the Pelafgi, driven from Argos, who paffed from
Lycia to this ifland, called Iffa, and named by him Pelaf-
gia. Seven generations after this time, the inhabitants pe-
rifhed in the deluge of Deucalion, or rather in an inundation
that overwhelmed this ifland. It was then left defolate.
In procefs of time Maccareus, an inhabitant of Ionia, after-
wards denominated Achaia, formed an eftablifhment in this
>ifland. This prince was accompanied with Ionians and
fome other people of different nations. Lefbus, it is faid,
came hither fome time after Maccareus, his progenitor.
Euftathius, in his Commentary on the third book of the
Odyfiee, fays, that this ifland contained five towns, viz.
Lefbos, whence it derived its name, Antiffa or Iffa, Pyrrha,
Methymna, and Mitylene, whence this ifland has been fince
called Mitylene and Metelin. This laft town was the capital.
Lefbos, originally governed by rulers chofen among its own
inhabitants, became afterwards fubjet to the dominion of
foreign tyrants. It fuceffively pafled under the domination
of the Perfians, and then under that of the Greeks, till its
liberty was reftored to it by Alexander the Great. This
liberty it preferved till the time of Pompey, who reduced
it into the ftate of a Roman province; continuing, how-
ever, for fome time to Mitylene its ancient privileges.
The Crufaders next eftablifhed themfelves for a certain pe-
riod, and the Genoefe were matters of it when the empire
of the Eaft fell into the hands of the Turks. It was on
this occation that Mahomet IT. ten years after the capture
of Conftantinople, equipped a confiderable fleet in order to
fubdue it. Mitylene, Methymma, and molt of the places:
of this ifland had been well fortified; the knights of Rhodes
fuccoured it; and the inhabitants, who knew the cruelties
committed by the Turks at the capture of Conftantinople,
were all difpofed to defend their lives. ‘The Ottoman forces,.
although very confiderable, would undoubtedly have mif-
carried againit thoufands of heroes, if thefe heroes had not
been betrayed by the treachery of Lacco Gattilufio, who
thought of obtaining the fovereignty of the ifland by deli-
vering it up to Mahomet. Accordingly, he perfuaded his
coufin Gattilufio to fign a fhameful capitulation. How-
ever, as a recompence for the treachery of the one, and for
the weaknefs of the other, Mahomet caufed them to be cru-
elly put to death a fhort time after. Lefbos gave birth to
feveral perfons of diftingtion ; among whom we may reckon
Alczus, alyric poet, who long declaimed againft tyranny ;
Sappho, the celebrated pociefs, whom antiquity has placed
among the Mufes, and who, by an unfortunate paflion, was-
impelled to precipitate herfelf from the promontory Leu-
cates ; Theophra{tus, a difciple of Plato and Ariftotle ;
Pittacus, whom Greece reckons among her fages, and who, .
more ardently defirous of the happinefs of his fellow.
citizens than of his own, conceived and executed the pro-
ject of ufurping power in order to reftore liberty to his
country ; and laftly, Potamon, barn at Mitylene, a diftin—
guifhed rhetorician, who lived at Rome under Tiberius...
‘This latter, wifhing to return to his country, and there efta-
blith a chair of eloquence, obtained from Tiberius letters,,
in which it was exprefsly mentioned, that whoever fhould:
dare to infult Potamon, would infult in his perfon the em-
: peror>

LES

peror himfelf, We might alfo mention, in more modern
times, the two brothers, Barbaroffas, fons of a porter, who
from fimple failors, became famous pirates, and were after-
wards, in fucceffion, fovereigns of Algiers. The younger,
appointed high admiral by Soliman I., is more known than
his brother in the hiftory of the Ottoman empire. For an
account of the prefent flate of Lefbos, fee METELIN.

LESCAILLE, James, in Biography, a Dutch printer

and poet, born in 1610, was defcended from a family of
diftinétion and much confideration at Geneva, which took
refuge in Holland on account of fome perfecution. By
profeffion he was a printer and book{eller, and gained great
reputation by the beauty and accuracy of various editions of
books which he publifhed. He was in high eftimation as a
poet, and was noticed by the emperor Leanold. He died
in 1677, leaving behind him a daughtey, ee born ip
1649, and fo diftinguifhed by her poetical talents, that fhe
was called the Dutch Sappho. Her brother-in-law, Ranck,
publifhed, in 1728, a volume of her works, which contains
feven tragedies, belides other pieces. She died in 1711.
Moreri.

LESCANGO, in Geography, a town of Spain, in the pro-
vince of Guipufcoa; 9 miles $.S.W. of Tolofa.

LESCAR, a town of France, in the department of the
Lower Pyrenées, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@
of Pau; 3 miles N.W. of Pau. Before the revolution, it
~was the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Auch. The place
contains 1885, and the canton 7823 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 177% kiliometres, in 15 communes.

LESCHERES, a town of France, in the department
of the Upper Marne; 9 miles S. of Joinville.

LESCIVER, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak ;
tor miles W. of Hamadan.

LESCZYN, a.town of Poland, in Volhynia; 24 miles
NN. of Berdiczow.

LESDIGUERES, Francis pe Bonne, Duke of, in
Biography, was born of an ancient family, in the Upper
Dauphine, in 1543. He was brought up to the military
profeffion, and acquired, while he was yet a young man,
fo much reputation for fill and true courage, that he was
chofen by the Calvinifts of his native province their leader,
after the death of Montbrun. Soon after the command
devolved upon him, he took a number of provinces, and at
‘length the capital of Grenoble. This was in the year 1590.
When the duke of Savoy, taking advantage of the difturb-
ances in France, projected an invafion of Provence and
‘Dauphiné, Lefdigueres, who acted as an independent com-
mander, covered the latter province with his arms. He
now fent to court to demand the government of Grenoble,
which Henry IV. could not grant him, as he had, by the
advice of his council, referved it for a Catholic ; the envoy
being refufed his requett, he applied to the council aflembled,
&* Gentlemen, if you do not thiak it proper that my mafter
fhould have this government, you fhould think of the means

@f taking it from him.’’ This energetic anfwer was not
difpleafing to the king, who was glad to be under the
neceflity of promoting a general xe the Proteltant per-
fuafion. Lefdigueres was, from this time, appointed lieu-
tenant-general of the king’s armies in Piedmont, Savoy,
and Dauphine, and by his vigilance and aétivity difap-
pointed ail attempts of the duke of Savoy, who was
accuftomed -to call him \the fox of Dauphine. When
that prince was conftru@ing a {trong fort on the French
territory, Lefdigueres was reproached by the king for
allowing it, to which -he replied, “ Your majefty has
occafion for a good fortrefs to bridle that of Montmelian.
Since the duke of Savoy is willing to build one at his ex-

LE.

pence, let him do it: I engage, as foon as it is completed,
and furnifhed with cannon and ammunition, to take it from
him’ He performed his promife, and his fervices were
rewarded, in 1608, with the ftaff of a marfhal of France,
and his eftate of Lefdigueres was ereéted into a dukedom
and peerage. In the fucceeding reign he faved his old an-
tagonilt, the duke of Savoy, when attacked by the armies
of Spain. In 1620, when the civil war was renewed, he
received great offers from his party, the Calvinilts, to accept
the poft of commander-in-chief, but he preferved his fidelity
to the king, and accompanied him into the field. Upon
the death of the conftable of France, nothing but his reli-
gion ftood in the way of his fucceeding to the high office,
and this obftacle he removed by abjuring the Calviniltic
creed. The patent which conferred upon him the office,
gave as a reafon for his appointment, that it was on account
of “his having been always victorious, and never vau-
quifhed.”” Having apoftatized from his creed, probably
for the fake of honours and wealth, of which he was exceed-
ingly avaricious, he did not hefitate to take the command
againft his party, and was uniformly fuccefsful in the fervice,
till his death, in 1626, when he had attained to the age of
eighty-four. Notwithftanding his defects, Lefdigueres had
a great mind: while leader of the Calvinifts, his principal
domettic was bribed to affaffinate him: the plot was dif-
covered, and taking the man afide, he ordered him to arm,
at the fame time he armed himfelf: ‘* Since you have pro-
mifed,”’ faid he, “¢ to kill me, try to do it now, and do not*
forfeit your chara&ter for valour “by an aét of cowardice.”
The man threw himfelf at his feet, confeffed his crime, and
the general not only pardoned, but continued to employ ~
him.

LESIGNA, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Aude ; 11 miles W. of Narbonne.

LESINA, anciently Pharos, an ifland in the Adriatic,
between Brazza and Corzola Nigra, about 44 miles long,
and 5—8 broad, lying from W. to E. in N. lat. 43° 30'.
In the higheft parts it is rocky and barren, but neverthelefs
contains fome good land, Yielding abundance of corn. Its
principal produ@tions are alfo wine, oil, figs, almonds, faf-
fron, honey, aloes, oranges, wool, cheefe, and falt. Marble,
in great quantities, is found on the ifland. Salt-fifh is the
chief article of commerce. Its capital is Lefina ; which is
a {mall, fortified town, at the bottom of a bay near Cape
Pellegrino, the fee of a bifhop, and refidence of a governor,
with a capacious and fafe harbour. The number of inha-
bitants is reckoned about 1200; 20 miles S. of Spalatro,
N. lat. 43° 5’. E. long. 16° 50'.—Alfo, a town of Naples,
in Capitanata, the fee of a bilhop, fuffragan of Benevento,
ona lake of the fame name communicating with the Adriatic ;
almoit totally deftroyed in 1627 by an earthquake; 26
miles N.W. of Manfredonia. N. iat. 41° 59’. E. long,
14° 30'.

LESKA U, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Pilfen ;
7 miles E. of Plau.

LESKEA, or Lesx1a, in Botany, an Hedwigian genus
of moffes, named by its author in his Hift. Nat. Nottarsea
Frondoforum, y. 2. 93, in memory of his friend Lefke,
profeflor of Economy at Leipfic, and afterwards of Nat.
Hitt. at Marburg, who died in 1786, aged 35. ‘This genus
is by Britifh botanifts united to Hypnum, as agreeing there-
with entirely in habit, and differing only in a very minute
and uncertain chara¢ter of the inner fringe, which is fur-
nifhed with 16 fimple teeth, inftead of double or compound
ones. See Frince or Mossss, and Hypnum.

LESKEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in Pome-
relia; 6 miles N,N.W. of Marienburg. :

LESKIRCH,

LES
LESKIRCH, a town of Tranfylvania; 14 miles W. of

Fogaras.

PESKNITZ, or Lesnerz, a town of Silefia, in the
principality of Oppeln ; 18 miles S.E. of Oppeln. N. lat.
50° 25’. E. long. 13° 6.

LESKO, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Gallicia; 48
miles S. of Lemberg.

LESKOVETZ, atown of European Turkey, in Bul-
garia ; 84 miles W.N.W. of Sophia.

LESLEY, Joun, in Biography, bithop of Rofs, of an
eminent family in the northern part of Scotland, was born
in 1527- He waseducated at Aberdeen, and was prefented,
in 1547, with a canonry in the cathedral of that city.
Having obtained this preferment, he {pent fome years at the
French univerfities, and took his degree of doétor of laws at
Paris. In 1554, he returned to Scotland, and, taking
orders, was appointed official and vicar-general of the diocefe
of Aberdeen. He took a moft ative part againft the re-
formation, which was now taking root in Scotland; and
appeared as a principal champion of the Roman Catholic
party, in a difputation held between them and the reformers
at Edinburgh, in 1560. When the young queen Mary was
invited to return and aflume the reins of government, he
. was fent over by the Catholics to perfuade her to throw
- herfelf into the arms of the Popifh party. He embarked
* with her at Calais in 1561; and foon after her arrival was
created one of the fenators of the college of juftice, and
privy-counfellor. Shortly after this, he was nominated to
the fee of Rofs. He did not confine his labours to the
duties of the church, but was appointed by the queen to
colle& and revife the fubfifting laws of the realm; and
the colle&tion printed at Edinburgh in 1566, called the
black aéts of parliament, from being in the black letter,
was the refult of its labours. When the unfortunate queen
had taken refuge in England from the fury of the covenanters,
and commifiioners were appointed by queen Elizabeth to exa-
mine the difpute between her and her fubjeéts, the bifhop of
Rofs was one of thofe whom Mary -chofe for the defence of
her caufe. When reafoning and argument were found to be
ineffeGtual, he joined in confpiracies, for her deliverance,
which were dangerous to the perfon and government of
Elizabeth. He urged the duke of Norfolk to thofe defigns
which proved his ruin, and was himfelf involved in confider-
able danger ; he was taken into cuftody, his papers fearched,
himfelf committed to the Tower, treated with the utmoft
rigour, threatened with capital punifhment, and, after a
long confinement, fet at liberty, on condition that he fhould
leave the kingdom. Heaccordingly went into the Nether-
lands, and employed hintfelf in the moft prefling folicitations
to the kings of France and Spain, the German princes, and
at length to the pope, in order to obtain Mary’s liberation.
He publifhed feveral books in her defence, and in vindication
of her right and title to the crown of England. In 1579,
he was appointed fuffragan and vicar-general of the archbi-
fhopric of Rouen ; but on making his vifitation of the diocefe
he was feized, imprifoned, and forced to purchafe his liberty
by a high ranfom. In 1593, he was nominated to the
bifhopric of Conftance. When there was no hope left him
of returning to his own country, he retired to a monaftery
near Bruffels, where he died in 1596. He was a man of
learning, an able ftatefman, and a faithful fervant and fubje&
of his fovereign: his principal works, as an author, are,
1, his hiftory, entitled ** De origine, moribus, et rebus
-geftis Scotorum,’’ in ten books: of thefe the laft three
books aré dedicated to the queen, to whom they were pre-
fented in Englifh, before their publication in Latin: and,
2, a geographical work, entitled ** Regionum et Infularum

VoL. XX. ;

LES
Scotie Defcriptio.”” Gen. Biog. Robertfon’s Hitt. of
Scotland.

LESLIE, Jonny, an Irifh prelate in the 17th century,
was born in the north of Scotland, and received the early
part of his education at Aberdeen. From this place he was
fent to Oxford to complete his ftudies. He afterwards
vifited Spain, Italy, Germany, and France for farther im-
provement, and made a proficiency in polite literature, as
well as in the abftrufe branches of learning. He was fo
great a mafter of the Latin, that it was faid of him when
in Spain “ Solus Leflius Latine loquitur.’? He continued
abroad twenty-two years, became conyerfant in courts, and
procured the favour and friendfhip of many foreign priuces :
and on his return he was honoured with the patronage of
Charles I., who admitted him into his privy-council, in which
he was continued by Charles II. after the reftoration. In
the church of Scotland he was preferred to the bifhopric of
Orkney, and was tranflated, in 1633, to Raphoe, in Ireland.
Here he built a ftately palace in the form of a cattle, which
was found of great utility in the civil wars, as it fuftained
a fiege, with the bifhop as a kind of commander, who was,
in fact, the laft perfon who maintained the ftruggle in de-
fence of the royal caufe in thofe parts. After the reftora-
tion, he was preferred to the bifhopric of Clogher. He
died in 1671, being upwards of an hundred years old, and
having worn the mitre more than fifty years. He wrote
many curious and very learned works, which he defigned
for publication, but which were deftroyed, together with
his valuable library and MSS., the fruits of many years col-
leétion, in the civil wars. Biog. Brit.

Lestiz, CuHarves, fecond fen of the preceding, was
educated in grammar-learning at Innifkilling, and, in 1664,
was admitted a fellow commoner of Trinity-college, Dublin,
where he took his degrees. Upon the death of his father
he came over to England, and entered himfelf of the
Temple, at London. He foon abandoned the ftudy of the
law for that of theology, and was, in 1680, admitted into
holy orders. In 1687, he was made chancellor of the ca-
thedral church of the diocefe of Connor. About this time
he made himfelf extremely obnoxious to the Popifh party in
Ireland, by a zealous oppofition to their do&rines, and by
an earneft attachment to the Proteftant religion, which he
endeavoured to propagate by every means in his power.
The Papifts, encouraged by the reigning prince, James II.,
aimed at engroffing civil as well as {piritual offices; and a
high-fheriff of their party was appointed for the county of
Mawctsbens Mr. Leflie, as a magiftrate, and as converfant
with the law of the land, was applied to with regard to the
legality of the appointment: he inftantly decided that it
would be as illegal for the people to permit the fheriff to
aét, as it would be in him to attempt it. The magiftrates,
at the next quarter-feffions, inquired if the fheriffs were
legally qualified, to which he replied, that “ he was ap-
pointed by the king, and was of the king’s religion.” The
anf{wer to this was, that they boldly agreed to commit him
for intrufion and a contempt of the court. Mr. Leflie, not-
withftanding his attachment to the law of the land, had
imbibed the doéirines of paffive obedience and non-refiftance,
which fo warped his underftanding, that, at the revolution,
he refufed to take the oaths to William and Mary. He
was, in confequence of this conduét, deprived of his prefer-
ments ; and in 1689 withdrew with his family into England.
Here he employed his pen in fupport of the caufe and the
party which he embraced, and was elteemed one of the
ableft champions which the non-jurors had. He publifhed
an anfwer to the ‘ State of the Proteftants in Ireland, under
the late King James’s Government,” by bifhop, afterwards

4k archbifhop,

EES

archbifhop, King. He publifhed a weekly paper, entitled
% The Rehearltl” confilting of dialogues on the affairs of
the times: this was continued fix or feven years, when the
papers were collected and publifhed together ; and it was faid
by bifhop Burnet, that the fame thread-of the argument is
' purfued through them all, againft the ldwfulnefs of refift-
ance in any cafe whatever, deriving the fource of government
wholly from God. Mr. Leflie wrote againft Deifts, Jews,
Papilts, Socinians, and Quakers: all his writings he after-
wards colleGted, excepting an illiberal piece againft the
learned Tillotfon, and publifhed in two volumes folio. The
frequent vifits which he made to the continent, rendered him
obnoxious to the Britifh government; and the hatred of
him was much increafed by a piece, entitled “ The heredi-
tary Right of the Crown of England afferted,’* of which he
was the reputed author. He went.to Bar-le-Duc to at-
tempt the converfion of the fon of James II. to the Proteftant
religion, in the hope that he might one day be fettled on
the throne. Towards the clofe of queen Anne’s reign, he
took much pains in recommending him as her fucceffor.
The attempt was made in vain ; and after the rebellion of
1715, he retired with the young Pretender to Italy. In
1721, he made up his mind to return and die in his native
country ; and his friends implored the proteCtion of govern-
ment, which was granted. He died at his own houfe in Glaf-
lough, in the county of Monaghan. He was unquettionably
a man of extenfive learning and great merit, and diftinguifhed
by his piety, humility, and integrity. Biog. Brit.

LESNEVEN, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of Finifterre, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Breft; 13 miles N.E. of Breft. The place
contains 2030, and the canton 16,024 inhabitants, on a
territory of 167£ kiliometres, in 10 communes. N. lat.
48° 34'. W. long. 4° 14!.

LESNICA, a town of Lithuania, in the palatinate of
Minfk ; 48 miles N.E. of Minfk.

LESNIOW, a town of Poland, in Volhynia; 18 miles
8. of Lucko. ;

LESNO, a town in the duchy of Warfaw; 35 miles
8. of Pofen.

LESOANDELOR, atown of Afiatic Turkey, in Ca-
ramania; 40 miles §.S.W. of Cogni.

LESPARRE, a town of France, and-principal place of
a diftri€, in the department of the Gironde; 11 miles
N.N.W., of Bourdeaux. ‘The place contains 800, and the
canton 15,247 inhabitants, on a territory of 5424 kiliome-
tres, in 18 communes. N. lat. 45° 19!. W. long. 0° 50!.

LESPEDEZA, in Botany, fo named by Michaux, in
compliment to his friend and patron Lefpedez, governor of
Florida, who was very favourable to his botanical expedition
through that country, though it does not appear that the
governor himfelf was a botanift. Michaux Boreali-Amer.
v. 2. 70.—This genus differs from Hedy/arum, fee that arti-
cle, in its legume, which is elliptical and turgid, fmooth,
of one cell, with a folitary feed. The ftigma moreover is
faid to be capitate and fomewhat conical.—The leaves are
mottly ternate, rarely fimple——It appears to be a good
genus, and merits further examination, for its {fpecies will
probably be found rather numerous. Examples are L. /e/i-
liflora, (Hedyfarum junceum ; Walter Carolin. 184. Me-
dicago virginica; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1096.) a native of Virgi-
nia and Carolina: and L. polyftachya, Michaux, t. 40, (He-
dyfarum hirtum; Linn. Sp. Pl. 1055.), found in Carolina
and Georgia. The habit is flender and fhrubby. Flowers
{mall, purplifh, in longifh ftalked fpikes.

LESSANITZ, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Kaurzim; eight miles §.E. of Prague.

LES

LESSAY, a town of France, in the department of the
Channel, and chief place of a canton, in the diftri@ of
Coutances ; 11 miles N. of Coutances. ‘I'he place contains
1503, and the canton 13,644 inhabitants, on a territory of
260 kiliometres, in 13 communes.

LESSEE, a law term employed in leafing’ land, to
fignify the tenant. See Lease.

LESSEES, « term ufed by {portfmen for the dung of a
wild boar.

LESSINES, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Jemappe, and chief place of a canton,
in the diftriét of Tournay ; fituated on the river Dender,
and celebrated for its linen manufacture ; 23 miles W.S.W.
of Bruflels. The place contains 3037, and the canton .
14,708 inhabitants, on a territory of 115 kiliometres, in 11
communes. L

LESSING, Gorrnorp, Ernraim, in Biography, was
born at Kamenz, in Pomerania, in 1729. Having received
the early part of his education partly at home, and partly at
a boarding fchool, he was admitted, at the age of twelve, to
the free-{chool of Meiffen, where he remained five years,
and laid in a ftock of Greek and Latin. Some odes of
Anacreon, which he tranflated at this {chool, were afterwards
publifhed in his works. His removal to the univerfity of
Leipfic opened a new f{cene to him; he paid little attention
to the le¢tures of the profeffors, but ftudioufly fought out
the company of the ftudents moft diftinguifhed for talents,
and bold and fingular opinions. He became a frequenter of
debating clubs, and was not furpaffed by any perfon in the
focieties in the originality of his fentiments, and the acute-
nefs with which he defended them. After he had fpent
three years at the univerfity, his father, who could ill bear
the expence, urged him to take orders, or to purfue fome
profeflion by which he might {upport himfelf. He declined
this reafonable propofal, and fet about tranflating, and ori-
ginal compofitions for the ftage. After many changes, and
much roaming about, he went to Gottenburg, where he
took his degree of Mafter of Arts, with a view to a pro-
fefforfhip at Gottingen, but he ftill continued to find fup-
port by literary employment, which confiited in tranflations,
compilations, and fome original pieces. Te was a great
proficient in the game of chefs, a circumftance that intro-
duced him to the acquaintance of Mofes Mendelfohn ; and
the printer Nicolai made the third of a literary trio, who
mutually fharpened each other’s’ intellectual faculties, and
influenced each other’s opinions. Ramler the lyric poet,
Sulzer the critic, and Suffimilch the ftatiftic writer, were oc-
cafionally of their parties, and Germany perhaps could not
then boaft of converfations more literary and enlightened.
In conjunétion with Nicolai and Mendelfohn, he undertook a
periodical work, entitled “‘ The Library of Belles Lettres,’”
which was a kind of review of works in polite literature,
with original correfpondence. In 1760, he was eleéted a
member of the Academy of Berlin, and foon after was ap-
pointed fecretary to general Tauenzier ; his income at this
period was confiderable, which he fpent liberally upon his
relations and friends. His military affociates gave him a
tafte for high play, which he found arguments to juftify.
In 1762, he accompanied his general to the fiege of Schweid-
nitz ; but after the peace, he was introduced to the king of
Pruffia, and then refumed his literary occupations at Berlin.
Though he produced many works, yet they were not the
fource of much profit, and, in 1769, his circumftances were
fo narrow, that he was obliged to fell his library for fup-
port. At this critical juncture he met with a’ generous
patron in Leopold, heir-apparent to the duke of Brunfwick,
through whofe means he was appointed librarian at Wolfen-

buttle.

L-ES

buttle. One of the fruits of this very defirable fituation
was a periodical publication, entitled “* Contributions to
Literary Hiftory,” containing notices and extraéts of the
moft remarkable MSS. The “ Contributions’’ were made
the vehicle of «* Fragments of an anonymous Writer dif-
covered in the Library at Wolfenbuttle,” which confifted
of direé&t attacks upon the Chriftian revelation. They occa-
fioned a great commotion among the German theologians,
and would not have been printed but for the interference of
prince Leopold with the licencers of the prefs. In 1778
they were fuppreffed. Lefling, from his rifing fame, and
conneGtion with prince Leopold, with whom he went on a
tour to Italy, was fo diltinguifhed among the German lite-
rati, that feveral potentates of that country made him offers
of an advantageous fettlement. Nothing, however, would
lead him to break his conneétion with his liberal patron the

rince of Brunfwick, who, by his acceffion in 1780 to the
overcignty, was enabled to augment his favours towards him.
His latter publications were ‘* Nathan the Wile ;”’ a fecond
part of the fame drama, entitled «* The Monk of Leba-
non;” and “ A Differtation on the Education of the
Human Race.”? He died at Hamburgh in the month of
February, 1781. Monthly Mag.

LESSOE, in Geography, an ifland of Denmark, in the
Scaggerac, nine miles long, and from one to four wide; with-
in are fome {mall villages, and about it fome iflets ; about 12
miles from the coaft of Jutland. N. lat, 57° 17’. E.
long. 11°.

ESSOE, a town of Norway, in the province of Agger-
huus ; 145 miles N.N.W. of Chriftiania.

LESSON, in the Manege, is ufed for any piece of in-
ftruGtion in that art, whether given to the {cholar or the
horfe.

"Lessons, among Ecckfiaftical Writers, portions of the holy
fcripture, read in Chriftian churches, at the time of divine
fervice.

In the ancient church, reading the feriptures was one part
of the fervice of the catechumens, at which all perfons were
‘allowed to be prefent, in order to obtain inftruétion.

The church of England, in the choice of leffons, proceeds
‘as follows ; for the firft leffon on ordinary days, fhe directs,
to begin at the beginning of the year with Genefis, and fo
continue on, till the books of the Old Teftament are read
over, only omitting the Chronicles, which are for the moft
part the fame with the books of Samuel and Kings, and
other particular chapters in other books, either becaufe they
contain names of perfons, places, or other matters lefs pro-
fitable to ordinary readers.

. The courfe of the firft leffons for Sundays is regulated
after a different manner. From Advent to Septuagefima
Sunday, fome particular chapters of Ifaiah are appointed
to be read, becatife that book contains the cleareft prophe-
cies concerning Chrift. Upon Septuagefima Sunday Ge-
nefis is begun, becaufe that book, which treats of the fall
of man, and the fevere judgment of God inflicted on the
world for fin, beft fuits with a time of repentance and mor-
tification. After Genefis, follow chapters out of the books
of the Old Teftament, as they lie in order ; only on feftival
Sundays, fuch as Eafter, Whitfunday, &c. the particular
hiftory relating to that day is appointed to be read; and on
the Saints days, the church appoints leffons out of the moral
books, fuch as Proverbs, Ecclefiaftes, Ecclefiafticus, &c.
as containing excellent initruétions for the condué& of life, -

As to the fecond leffons, the church obferves che fame
courfe both on Sundays and week-days ; reading the gofpels
and A&s of the Apoftles in the morning, and the epiitles
im the evening, in the order they ftand in the New Tefta-

LES

ment; excepting on faints days and holy days, when fuck
leffons are appointed, as either explain the myftery, relate
the hiftory, or apply the example to us.

Lessons for the Virginal, Spinet, and Harpfichord, have un-
dergone great changes in the denomination and arrangement
of their movements, from the time of queen Elizabeth te
the prefent. In that princefs’s virginal book, now in the
pofleffion of vifcount Fitzwilliam, we find pavana in general
to be the flow movement, and galliarda the quick. Now
and then a fantafia, a coranto, and a gigg; but as fingle
movements, not parts of a fuite of leffons, Preludium, or
prelude, frequently occurs without leading to any other
movement; as does paffamexzo, alman, toccata, once; but
the reft are chiefly old tunes with variations, Thefe pieces
are all written on a ftaff of fix lines.

Lady Nevil’s Virginal Book—This lady was a pupil of
our admirable countryman Bird ; and all the leffons in her
book, a thick quarto, ate of his compofition. They are
admirably tranfcribed by John Baldwayne, a finging-man
of Windfor, and a celebrated copyift of that time, 1591.

Its contents are; ‘* My lady Nevil’s grounde, with eight
variations, Qui pafe, four variations. March before the
battle, 12 military movements. Old tunes varied. Groundes
and fancies, with 18 pavans, and two leffons of yoluntaire,
all neatly written on four-ftaved paper of fix lines.

Thus far all our mufic for keyed-inftruments was in MS,
But in the reign of James I. the following book appeared in
print, ftill on fix-lined paper. ‘‘Parthenia, or the Maydenhead
of the firft Muficke that ever was printed for the Virginalls;
compofed by three famous Matters; William Byrde, Dr,
John Bull, and Orlando Gibbons, Gentlemen of his Ma-
jefty’s moft illuftrious Chapel. Dedicated to all the Mafters
and Lovers of Mufick.’’ The pieces in this collection feem
to follow in /wits, of which the firft is of Bird’s compofition ;
as preludium, pavana, galliardo, all in G minor; then a
prelude, and a galliardo in C; and a pavan, and two gal-
liardos in G, by the fame.

The next author in the colleétion is mafter door Bull,
whofe pieces are arranged in the following order, “A
pavan and two galiards in A minor; prelude, pavan, and
galiard, in G major; two galiards in D minor.”? Orlando
Gibbons’ pieces have little connetion, being a galliardo
in C natural; a fantafia in four parts, in A minor; a pavan in
do.; the queen’s command in C, and a preludium in G.
This book was again engraved on copper in 1651, fol.

The title of Handel’s two fets of leffons is in French, and
the movements. of each /uit have the fame denominations
as many French compofers of leffons had long ufed in
Louis XIVth’s time; as prelude, allemande, courante,
gigue, with fometimes adagio, farabande, allegro, and air
with doubles, or variations, which include all the technica of
the firft book.

In the fecond book, he has prelude, aria con variationi,
minuet, chacone, and gavotta. The movements of the
fecond book are of a lighter kind than thofe of the firft,
as the firft and third fet of Corelli’s fonatas are called ‘¢ Suo-
nate da Chiefa,”? and the fecond and fourth fets, << Suonate
da Caméfa.”

Scarlatti’s leffons are almoft all fingle pieces, and we be-
lieve Alberti’s were the firft harpfichord leffons publifhed in
England, that were called fonatas, ‘¢ Suonate da Cimbalo,’*
which, without accompaniments, is {till the general title of
what ufed to be called leffons,

LESSOR, a legal term applied to the landlord, pro-
prietor, or perfon who lets the land. See LrEase.

LESTANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the Friuli ;
35 miles W: of Udina, ;

4E2 LESTI,

Ane Oe

LESTI, a town of Sweden, in the government of Wafa ;
§4 miles E. of Jacobitadt. ;

LESTIBUDESIA, in Botany, named in honour of M.
Leftiboudois, a French naturalift. Aub. da Petit Thouars,
Plant. Ins. Afric. v. 1. 53. t. 16. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl.
VW. 1. 413.

This genus is feparated from Celofia only on account of its
ftigmas, which are three or four, flender and reeurved, inflead
of being capitate or two-lobed. It includes Celofia paniculata
and frigyna of Linneus, with fome others, but Mr. Brown
hints that it is probably not a natural genus, nor eftablifhed
on fufficient grounds. His L. arborefcens, the only f{pecies
mentioned as found in New Holland, was gathered by fir
Jofeph Banks in the Tropical part of that country. It has
a ‘hrubby twining {tem ; elliptic-oblong, fomewhat pointed,
fmooth leaves; terminal as well as axillary panicles; and
three ftigmas, which, accordingto Dr. Solander’s remarks,
are deeply emarginate. The manner in which the fruit burits
has not been obferved. t

LESTIGUANO, in Geography, atown of Etruria; 27
miles W. of Volterra.

LESTOFF. See Lavesrorr.

L’ESTRANGE, Sir Roger, in Biography, was a great
lover of mufic, anda performer. His family, one of the
mott ancient in Norfolk, were always great patrons of mutic,
and muticians. Jenkins was frequently an inmate at Hunf-
ton, where, during the feventeenth century, when times
were tranquil, profeffors and dilettanti frequently affem-
bled to fing madrigals, and make ufe of feveral chefts of
viols in the performance of fancies in fix parts, by the bett
compofers of the times.

LESTRIGONS, in Ancient Geography and Fabulous
Hiffory, inhabitants of Sicily towards the S.E., who are
reprefented to have been a ferocious people. It is reported
that they took Elpe, the daughter of Polyphemus the Cy-
clop, by force from Ulyffes, who had feized her and was run-
ning away with her, and returned her to her father. If we
may credit the poets, both the Leitrigons and the Cyclops were
real, cannibals, who devoured fix of Ulyffes’s companions.
The learned Bochart will have the rife of this fable to be,
that the Leftrigons were anciently called Leontini, a name
derived from their barbarous and cruel manners; “ 2 Leon-
tinis moribus.’? ;

LESTWITHIAL, in Geography. See Lasstwitntat.

LESZAISKO, a town of Auttrian Poland, in Galicia;
28 miles N.W. of Przemyfl.

LET-Fall, in Sea Language, the word of command for
putting out a fail, when the yards are aloft, and the fail
is to come down from the yard; but when the yards are
ftricken down, then the fail is loofed below, before they hoift
the yard.:

Lct-fall is not properly faid of top-fails, becaufe they lie
on the top; and therefore the word for them is, Heave out
your top-fails. Nor can it be applied to the mizen; for the
word 1s, Strike the mizen and fet it. So that in ftriétnefs the
term /et-fall belongs only to the main-fail, fure-fail, and fprit-
fail, when their yards are hoifted up aloft.

Let-in, in Ship Building, is the letting of one thing into
another for fupport or fecurity, as the beams into the clamps,
Sr: into the beams, &c, by fcores being cut to receive
them.

LETAC, in Geography, a cape on the W. coatt of the
ifland of Jerfey ; fix miles N.W. of St. Aubin.

LETALA, a town of Sweden, in the government of
Abo; 30 miles N.W. of Abo.

LETHAIS, a town of Mingrelia, on the Black fea;
xo miles N, of Anarghia.

LE.

LETHAM, a town of Scotland, witha market, in the
county of Fergus; five miles E, of Forfar.

LETHARGY, in Medicine, xnbagyos, Andagyiay fignifying
literally an indolent forgetfulne/s, (defidia obliviofa,) from rxSn
and sivyeory is commonly ufed to denote an inceflant and irre-
fiftible fleepinefs, accompanied by an impaired ftate of the
memory, but without delirium.

The lethargy is, in fat, a minor degree of apoplexy, and
originates from the famie caufes, and implies a fimilar ftate of
preffure on the brain, the common centre of the nervous
energy, as occafions that difeafe. Various denominations
have been given to lethargic complaints, according to the
difference of the degree of feverity, and fome nofologiits
have treated of thefe varieties as diftinct {pecies of difeafe.
Sauvages, for inflance, has three genera of fleepy affeétions,
Lethargus, Cataphora, and Carus. The cataphora he de-
fines, a {tate of fomnolency, from which the patient may be
eafily roufed, without fever, delirium, or lofs of memory ;
the lethargy, a foporofe ftate, from which the patient may be
ealily roufed, accompanied with the greateft torpor of the me-
mory and imagination, and with fever ; and carus, a profound
fopor without froring ; for when the f{moring is prefent, he
denominates it apoplexy. (See his Nofol. Method. Clafs iv.
Ord. 5:) But it is obvious, as Dr. Cullen long ago obferyed,.
that thefe various appellations ard definitions defignate the
fame difeafe, in different degrees of feverity ; we may, there-
fore, refer to the article Aportexy for a general view of
the nature of the malady. We may obferve, at prefent,
that it originates from fome compreffion upon the fub{tance of
the brain, by which its funétions are impeded, and its influ-
ence on the fyftem at large, through the medium’ of the
nerves, ob{truéted; that fuch compreflion may be occafioned
by fraétures of the fkull, when the fra€tured portion of the
bone is depreffed inwards ; from tumours within the head ;
from over-diftention of the blood-veffels of the brain; or
from fluids effufed in or upon the brain ; but that the moft
frequent of all thefe caufes of compreffion is a plethoric
ftate, or an accumulation and congettion of blood in the venous
veflels of the head, operating, according to its degree, in
producing over-diltention or effufion. ;

LLethargic complaints may, therefore, both precede and
fucceed actual apoplexy, and are not unfrequently the
forerunners of a fit. From this confideration, the import-
ance of obviating their progrefs in the outfet, before a rup-
ture of the veltels of the brain, or actual effufion, takes
place, muft be obvious ; for, however impracticable it may
be to remove the fluids fo effufed, or to occafion their ab-
forption, fo as to preferve the life of the patient, or to fave
him from an incurable palfy, if he furvive; yet, in the pre-
vious ftate of mere plethora of the veffels of the brain, the .
proper remedies may be employed with every profpet of re-
moving the lethargic fymptoms, and warding off the impend-
ing danger. he. plethora may be corrected by general
evacuations by blood letting, if there is an imminent threat-
ening of apoplexy; or by local evacuations by means of
leeches, {carification, and cupping, blitters, or ifflues, where
the danger is lefs imminent. At the fame time, ‘the alvine
excretions fhould be promoted by proper laxative medicines,
the diet fhould be light, and rather fpare, and unftimulating,
confitting of a large proportion of vegetable matter ; and
fermented liquors of all kinds fhould be very fparingly
taken, or altogether difearded. Exercife in the open air
fhould be regularly perfifted in, and the hours appropriated
te fleep fhortened, In a word, a lethargy is to be confi-
dered as an. impending apoplexy, or an apoplexy already be-
gun, and to betreated accordingly. See APoPLEXy.

LETHE, Ann, in the Ancient Mythology, one of the

Io rivers

LET

rivers of hell, fignifying oblivion or forgetfulnefs ; its wa-
ters, according to poetic fiction, havin the peculiar quality
of making thofe who drank them entirely forget every thing
that was pait; or, according to Virgil, “longa potant ob-
livia vite.’

_ Lerue, Leth, or Lathe, a meafure or portion of land,
making one of the ancient divifions in England.

King Alfred divided England iato counties, as it ftands at
prefent ; thofe counties he fubdivided into hundreds or tith-
ngs. The hundred was a divilion, wherein were a hundred
officers to fecure the peace; the /ethe or lathe comprehended
three or four of thefe hundreds.

Lernae was alfo the jurifdiGion of a vifcount : ora kind
of affize, held oncea year in each village, about Michael-
mas. Whether this was initituted by Alfred, or not, isa

uettion,

LETHERS, in Geography, a town of Hindooftan, in
the circar of Sumbulpour; 16 miles W.N.W. of Sumbul-
pour,

LETHRABERG, or Lapresore, a town of Den-
mark, in the ifland of Zealand; four miles S.W. of Roef-
child.

LETHUM, in Ancient Mythology, was diftinguifhed by
the Roman poets from mors, or death. See Petronius Arb.
ver. 263.

Mr. Spence conjeCtures, that by Lethum they meant that
general principle, or fource of mortality, which they fup-
pofed to have its proper refidence in hell; and by mors, or
mortes, the immediate caufe of each particular inftance of
moriality on our earth. The poets give him a robe, but
mention his arms being exerted out of it, as reaching at his
prey. They hint at hiscatching people in a net, and his
- hunting them as they did beafts, within his toils. They re-
prefent Lethum as nearly related to Sleep; and Valerius
Flaccus, in particular, acquaints us that they were bro-
thers. Val. Flac. viii. ver. 74. Spence’s Polymetis, p. 261.
263.

LETI, Grecory, in Biography, was born at Milan in 1630.
He received his education at the Jefuits’ college at Cofenza,
and afterwards paffed fome years in an unfettled ftaze, manifeft-
ing a ftrong repugnance to the ecclefiaitical profeffion, which
was propoied to him by his uncle the bifhop of Aquapen-
dente. Falling in company, at Genoa, with an officer of

the Calviniltic perfuafion, he became a convert to the re- -

formed religion, and openly avowed it at Laufanne. He
went to Geneva in 1660, married there, and fettled as a man
of letters. His talents were held in fuch eftimation, that
the right of citizenfhip was prefented to him gratuitoully ;
but his temper was fo farcaitic, as to involve him in great
troubles, and in 1680 he retired to England. Here he was
favourably received ; a penfion was granted him, and he was
promifed the office of hiftoriographer; but before he obtained
it, he was ordered to quit the kingdom en account of fome
freedom which he had exercifed ina work entitled “« Teatro
Britannico,"’ He went to Amfterdam, became acquainted
with the celebrated Le Clerc, who married his daughter,
and obtained the title of hiftoriographer of that city. Leti
was a moft induftrious writer; his works are faid to amount
toahundred volumes. Moit of them are hiftorical, but they
are frequently deflitute of truth, and cannot be relied on
unlefs f{upported by other authority than the diétum of the
writer. Alli his works are written in Italian, in a lively
ftyle, but diffufe and void of talte. His beft produtions
are the lives of Sixtus V.; Charles V.; queen Elizabeth ;
Philip II,; and Cromwell, He died fuddenly in the year
1701.

Let, in Geography, a {mall infland in the Eaft Indian

L£ T

fea, near the ifland of Timor. N. lat. 8° 28. E. long,
129° mg.

LETLING, atown of Brandenburg, in the New Mark;
five miles E. of Cuttrin.

LETNA, a river of Ruffia, which runs into the Viatka,
at Podrelfkoi. j

LETSCHKOM, or Opiscu, a town of Afiatic Turkey,
and capital of Mingrelia; the refidence of the chief and fee
of a Greek archbifhop ; 60 miles N. of Cotatis.

LETTER, or Lerrersacnu, a town of Bavaria; 11
miles N. of Bamberg.

LETTER, Lirera,a charaéter either in print or writing,
by which any people have agreed to exprefs one of ‘the
founds, ufed in conveying their thoughts to each other in
{peech.

Letter is by fome defined a fimple uncompounded found
of the voice; that cannot be fubdivided into any more fimple,
and generally marked with a particular character.

But it mult be owned that, {tri@ly fpeaking, a letter is not
the found itfelf, but rather the fign of a found ; for ypauuc,
litera, is derived from yeypapyxs, of yexOv, to write; and
itera is formed from iitus, the participle of /inere, to fear, or
mark ; whence obliterare fignifies to blot out.

Where a fign or charaéter does not exprefs a found en-
tirely fimple, but one refolvable into feveral, it is not fo
properly a letter as an abbreviation, containing in itfelf as
many letters as its power does fimple founds. This is evident
in the Latin &, x, and the Greek £, ),>, &c. which are
compofed of e,t, 4, 5, xc, az, or, &c.

On the contrary, a fimple found, though expreffed by
feveral charaéters, is yet to be efteemed one letter; for #4,
ph, are fingle letters; as muchas, ¢, and f.

The letters, f, g, 4, 4, 9; x» y, % were unknown to the
ancient Romans, as is proved by Daufquius in his Orthogra-
phy, where he traces the origin of the feveral letters. See
F, G, H, &e.

Grammarians diftinguifh letters into vowels and confonants ;
into mutes, diphthongs, liquids, and charaGeriflics. See each
of thefe terms refpetively.

The Hebrews divide their letters into guttural, asa, h, ch,
gn, aleph, he, cheth, hain, exprefled by yOmN35 dental,

as z, s, ts, r, sh, zain, famech, tfade, refch, fchin, ex-
preffed by WrASDds; labial, as b, m, u, p, beth, mem, vau,
phe, expreffed by the word habe lingual, or thofe chiefly
formed by the tongue, as d, #, L n, th, daleth, teth, lamed,

‘nun, thau, exprefled by nj907 3 and palatal, asg, i, ¢, k,

T . =
ghimel, jod, caph, koph, expreffed by p>? Sf

Printers diftinguifh their letters into capital, majufcule,
initial, or upper-cafe letters, which ferve for the titles of
books, proper names, &c. ; and minufcule, fmall, or under-
cafe letters ; which are again divided, according to their
fize, into pearl, nonpareil, pica, greatprimer, cannon, &c.

They have alfo their flourifhed letters, engraven on wood or
metal, which take place of the illumined letters of the an-
cient manufcripts.

There are letters of various fizes, or bodies; each of
which, again, are fometimes calt with the Roman, fometimes
an Italic, and fometimes an Englifh, or Black letter face.
There are alfo bodies with Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, the
mufic face, &c.

Letters make the firft parts or elements of grammar, con-
ftituting the fubje&t of orthography ; an aflemblage of thefe
compofes /yllables, of thofe wards, and of thefe /entences.
See each under their titles. one

e

LETTER.

.

The alphabet of every language confifts of a certain
number of thefe letters, which ought to have a different
found, figure, and fignification. See ArpHaser.

As the difference of articulate founds was intended to
exprefs the different ideas of the mind, fo one letter was ori-
ginally intended to fignify-only one found, and not, as at
prefent, to exprefs fometimes one found, and fometimes
another: which practice has brought a great deal of confu-
fion into the rn ete and rendered the learning of the mo-
dern tongues infinitely more difficult than it would otherwife
have been. This confideration, together with the poverty
of all the known alphabets, and their want of fome letters
to exprefs certain founds by, has occafioned feveral attempts
towards an univerfal alphabet, to contain one enumeration
of all {uch fingle founds or letters as are ufed in any lan-
guage. A thing of very confiderable ufe; a fpecimen of
which is given us by Mr. Lodwick, in the Philofophical
TranfaGtions. See Univerfal Cuaracter.

According to Crinitus, Mofes invented the Hebrew letters;
Abraham the Syriac and Chaldee ; the Pheenicians thofe of
Attica, brought into Greece by Cadmus, and thence by the
Pelafgians into Italy ; Nicoftrata the Latin; Ifis the Egyp-
tian : and Ulphilas, about three hundred and feventy years
after our Saviour, thofe of the Goths. Yet as to the firft
letters, what they were, who firft invented them, and among
what people they were firft in ufe, there is {till room to
doubt ; however, fetting afide conjeGtures and prejudice,
the bufinefs of antiquity feems to lie between the Egyptians
and Chinefe. Philo attributes the firft invention of letters
to Abraham ; Jofephus, St. Irenzus, and others, to Enoch ;
Bibliander, to Adam; Eufebius, Clement Alexandrinus,
Corn. Agrippa, &c. to Mofes; Pomponius Mela, Hero-
dian, Rufus Feftus, Pliny, Lucan, &c. to the Pheenicians ;
St. Cyprian, to Saturn; Tacitus to the Egyptians ; and
fome to the Ethiopians.

The Egyptian mummies and obelifks prove a great anti-
quity on the fide of the hieroglyphics; but if the Chinefe
chronology may be credited, their charaéters are much more
ancient than thofe of the Egyptians. The Chinefe make
Fohi, the firft of their kings, fuppofed by many learned
and judicious writers to have been no other than the pa-
triarch Noah, the inventor of their letters, and compute
him to have lived two thoufand nine hundred and fifty years

before Chrift, during all which time they pretend to have °

certain and written accounts in their books. If this holds
true, their charaéter muft be older than Mofes by fgurteen
hundred years, and even prior to Menes, the firft king of
Egypt, by five hundred years ; fo that the Chinefe letters
appear to be the moftancient of that kind; and the book
Yekim, faid to be written by Fohi, the moft ancient
book.

But as China is fo remote, and had fo little communication
with thefe parts of the world, we may reafonably make ano-
ther enquiry into the original of letters in the hither parts of
Afia, Egypt, and Europe. Here, indeed, the Egyptians
feem to have the belt title. It is more than probable, from
the obelifks, &c. that their hieroglyphics were the firft man-
ner of writing, and the original chara¢ters in thefe parts, as
being prior to Mofes; and were made, at leaft in great
meafure, while the Ifraelites were flaves among them, and
confequently not well qualified for inventions fo very curious
and judicious.

To this fource the learned bifhop Warburton afcribes the
origin of alphabetical writing among the Egyptians: for as
philofophy advanced, and their learned men wrote much, the
exa& delineation of hieroglyphic figures became too te-
dious and too voluminous; and they, therefore, by degrees

\

perfeéted another character, which he calls the running hand
of hieroglyphics, refembling the Chinefe characters, which
being at firft formed only by the outlines of each figure,
became at length a kind of marks. See HieRrociypuics.
This running character was denominated by the ancients
hieroglyphical, and led to the compendious ufe of letters by
an alphabet, which method of writing, as the ancients inform
us, was invented by the fecretary of an eh ahem king, and
firft ufed for fecrecy in the conveyance of letters of ftate,
whence it was called epiftolary writing : but afterwards let-
ters became common, and, as he obferves, hieroglyphics
fecret and myfterious. This political alphabet, he adds,
foon occafioned the invention of afacred one, ufed by the
priefts, and called hierogrammatical. But the precife time
of the invention of Egyptian letters cannot be fo much as
guefled at, becaufe hieroglyphics continued in ufe long after
letters had been found out : it is certain that they were very
early, becaufe the invention of them was afcribed to their
gods. Bifhop Warburton farther conjeétures, that Mofes
brought letters with the reft of his learning from Egypt,
and that he both enlarged the alphabet, becaufe the Hebrew
alphabet which he employed in the compofition of the Pen-
tateuch is confiderably fuller than that which Cadmus
brought into Greece ; and altered the fhapes of the letters,
reduciag them into fomething like thofe fimple forms in
which we now find them, in order to prevent the abufe to
which they would be liable as hieroglyphic marks and fym-
bolicimages. He argues, that, confidering the importance
of letters among the Hebrews, with regard to the integrity
of their religion, if God had been the immediate author of
them, Mofes would have recorded the hiftory of their in-
vention, as the beft fan€tion to their ufe and beft fecurity
from the danger of hieroglyphic writing, to which this peo-
ple, fo fond of Egyptian manners, were very powerfull
inclined. Divine Legation, vol. ii. p. 1.124, &c. See alfo
on this fubje& Sharpe's Origin of Languages, p. 56, &c»
Many of the fathers, and fome learned men among the
moderns, have imagined that the knowledge of alphabetic
writing was either fupernaturally imparted to our firft pa-
rents, or difcovered very foon after the Creation by the
effort of their own powers. Others have fuppofed that al-
phabetical letters were introduced very early after the de-
luge, about the time of the difperfion of mankind, to
which period the records of the Chaldean aftronomy very
nearly extend. Mr. Shuckford, who fuppofes' that they
were invented both in Affyria and Egypt, Pes a that
the great proje&t of Babel, next to the building of the
tower, was the improvement of language, by diffolving the
monofyllables, of which the firft language of mankind con-
fifted, into words of various lengths, in order to obtain
new fets of names for new things; and that a projet of
this kind might gradually lead to the invention of alphabe-
tical letters. Con. of Sacred and Prof. Hitt. vol. 1. p. 248.
But to thefe conjectures it may be replied, that we have
no authentic relation of any alphabetic charaéter before
the flood; the account of the infcription upon pillars by
the firft Mercury from Manetho, or of Seth mentioned
by’ Jofephus, being too fabulous to deferve credit. Be-
fides, if they had been in ufe among the patriarchs after
the deluge, many occafions occur, in which they would
not have been omitted: and aspwe have no account of
the ufe of alphabetic characters in epiftles or contracts, or
for other purpofes to which they would naturally be ap-
plied, we may infer that they were not known. ‘To which
we may add, that none of the revelattons of God to the
patriarchs, were enjoined to be recorded till the giving of the
law. Others have afcribed the invention of letters to the
Arabs,

LETTER.

‘Arabs, before the time of Mofes ; but when we confider the
rudenefs of their lives and manners, this opinion is by no
means probable: and, therefore, the greater number of
writers among Jews and Chriftians, both ancient and modern,
have contented themfelves with tracing their origin to Mofes,
fuppofed to be the fame with the Egyptian Thoth or
Hermes, mentioned in the hiftory of that nation ; alleging
that God taught him the ule of alphabetic letters, in the
exemplar of the two tables, written, as the text aflures us,
with the finger of God; which words can be underftood to
mean only that they were written by a divine order and direc-
tion, as is evident by Pay ae Exod. xxxiv. 27, 28. and
ch.x. 4. It has been faid by fome of the advocates of this
opinion, that the elements of language were thus fuperna-
turally revealed to Mofes upon the firft arrival of the If-
raelites before Horeb, but that their chara¢ters, with the
arrangement of them, might be left to his difcretion. But
it feems more probable, that letters were at this time well
known to the Ifraelites, as God thought fit to deliver the
firft elements of their religion in that kind of writing: more
efpecially as the hiftory of fo momentous a circumftance
is not recorded; a circumftance, the memory of which
would have been one of the greateft barriers againift
idolatry. From the [Ifraelites, it is fuppofed this art
of alphabetical writing paffed to the Syrians, and from
them it was communicated to the Phoenicians and Egyp-
tians: though it feems probable that it was of a more an-
cient date among the latter than the time of the decalogue,
or the delivery of the law on mount Sinai.

Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Chronology, allows the Midian-
ites, fprung from Abraham by his concubine Keturah, to
have inftruéted Mofes in the knowledge of writing.

Neverthelefs, whether Cadmus and the Pheenicians learnt
letters from the Egyptians, or from their nearer neighbours
of Judea and Samaria, is a queftion; fince fome of the
books of the Old Teftament, being written in letters, is more
likely to have given them the hint, than the hieroglyphics
of Egypt. But when or wherefoever the Phoenicians learnt
this art, it is generally agreed, that Cadmus, the fon of
Agenor, firft brought letters to Greece; whence, in the
following ages, they {pread over the reft of Europe.

Herodotus, in his fifth book intitled Terpfichore, informs
us, that thofe Pheenicians who accompanied Cadmus into
Greece, and fettled there, among many other arts and {ci-
ences, introduced intc that country the knowledge of letters,
which the Greeks, in his opinion, were ignorant of till that
time: their firit letters were fuch as were in ufe among the
Phoenicians ; but fome time after they altered them a little,
both with regard to their make and found ; which alteration
fome have fuppofed to have been the change of the Hebrew
charaGers into thofe that were afterwards called the Sama-
ritan ; and as at that time many of the neighbouring parts
were inhabited by fuch as were originally Ionians, who alfo
had received their letters from the Phesicians, they mixed
the one with the other; and hence thofe chara¢ters were
termed Pheenician, becaufe they were brought out of Phoe-
nicia into Greece. Herodotus alfo adds, that he faw at
Thebes, in Beeotia, in the temple of Ifmenian Apollo, three
tripods, that had infcriptions upon them in Cadmean let-
ters, which very much refembled the Ionic. The time of
this expedition of Cadmus into Greece, is fixed by fir Ifaac
Newton to about the 1045th year before Chrift. ‘The num-
ber of letters which Cadmus brought into Greece, accord-
ing to Ariftotle, as cited by Pliny, was eighteen; but ac-
cording to Plutarch and Pliny himfelf, fixteen; to which
Palamedes, in the time of the Trojan war, added four, and
Simonides four; fo that the Greek alphabet was gradually

perfected. The alterations and improvements introduced
into Greece have led fome writers to afcribe the invention
of the alphabet to the Greeks: thus, Voffius de Arte
Gram. lib. i. cap. 10. afferts, that Cecrops, who was much
older than Cadmus, was the firft author of the Greek let-
ters; and others afcribe them to Lincus, or to Palamedes.
(Diod. Sic. lib. iii. Tacitus, lib. xi. cap. 14.) But the
more general opinion of the ancient writers is that they
were derived from the Pheenicians and Egyptians. Dio-
dorus (lib. v.) fays exprefsly, that they were invented by the
Syrians, and communicated by them to the Pheenicians, who
changed the form of the charaéters brought into Europe
by Cadmus. Pliny, (Nat. Hilt. lib. vii. cap. 56.) fays, that
he is of opinion, that they were Aflyrian, though he acknow-
ledges that others thought they were invented by the Egyp-
tians, and that Mercury was their firft author. Diodorus,
(lib. ii.) afcribes the invention of them to the fame perfon ; and
likewife Plutarch Sympof. lib. xx. cap. 3.and Cicero de Natura
Deorum, lib. tii. And the era of this invention is com-
puted by chronologers to be as early as the year of the world
2054, and before the incarnation 1950 years. The Greeks
retained the names and orders of feveral of the oriental or
Cadmean letters, though they altered the form of them ;
and there are feven letters, viz. T, A, H, K, A, P, T, whofe
original figures were retained by the Grecks with little va-
riation. As to the Latins, all writers agree, that they
received their letters from the Greeks, being firft taught
the ufe of them by fome of the followers of Pelafgus, who
came into Italy about 150 years after Cadmus came into
Greece ; or by the Arcadians, whom Evander led into thefe
parts about 60 years after Pelafgus. Pliny (lib. vii.cap.56 )
and Solinus imagined the Pelafgi to have been the firft
authors of the Latin letters ; but Tacitus (lib. xi. p. 131.)
was of opinion, that the firft Italians were taught letters by
the Arcadians; and Dionyfius Halicarnaffus (lib. iii.) ex-
prefsly affirms the famething. That the Latin letters were
derived from the Greek feems very probable from the fimi-
litude which the ancient letters of each nation bore to one
another. Tacitus (Annal. lib. xi.) obferves, that the fhape
of the Latin letters refembled that of the moft ancient
Greek ones ; and the fame obfervation was made by Pliny,
lib. vii. cap. 58. and confirmed from an ancient table of brafs
infcribed to Minerva. Scaliger Digreffl. ad Annum Eufeb.
1617, and Voflius, lib. i. cap. 24, 25. have adopted and fup-
ported the fame opinions. See thofe citations in Shuckford’s
Conn. vol. i. p. 223, &c. :
Thus we find, that Greece was the centre from which
the rays of fcience fhot into the weftern world ; and the
barbarous nations which penetrated into Italy towards the
clofe of the Roman empire, carried arts and learning back
into the North; or the knowledge of letters might be in-
troduced among the northern nations from the borders of
Affia, in an earlier age. (Sharpe’s original Powers of Let-
ters. Obfervations on Alphabetical Writing, 1772.) Rud-
becks, who, in his Atlantica, claims the glory of all in-
ventions, from all other nations, for the Swedes, maintains,
that the Ionians had letters before Cadmus; that at the
time of the fiege of Troy, the Greeks had but fixteen
letters, whereas the Pheenicians had twenty-two ; whence,he
concludes, that it was not either Cadmus, or the Pheeni-
cians, who taught this art to the Greeks. But, becaufe the
ancient northern nations had juft fixteen letters, like the
Greeks, he concludes the Greeks muft either have taught
them to the people of the North, or have learnt them of
them. But becaufe the form and make of the Runic let-
ters is more artlefs and coarfe than that of the Greek letters,
he concludes, that thefe laft muft be derived from the former ;
12 taking

Let
taking it asa principle, that thofe who derive any thing from
another, polifh and improve it. He even afferts, that b
the golden apples, which Hercules was obliged to teal,
mutt be underftood the letters in ufe among the Hyper-
boreans,

There are few things on which there has been fo much
written as on the original Hebrew letters. Origen, Eufebius
Cefarienfis, St. Jerom, &c. have made it the fubjeét of their
enquiry. See Hesrew and SAMARITAN. ;

The art of joining letters to form words, and of combin-
ing the one and the other an infinite number of different
ways, is a fecret unknown to the Chinefe. Intftead of the
alphabetical letters, they at firft, like the Egyptians, ufed
hieroglyphics ; they painted, rather than wrote ; {triving, by
the natural images of things drawn on paper, to exprefs and
communicate their ideas toone another. ;

To remedy the inconveniences of this method, they
ehanged, by little and little, their manner of writing, mak-
ing it more fimple, though lefs natural. They even invented
feveral charaGters, to exprefs things that did not.come within
the reach of painting to reprefent : as voice, fmell, thoughts,
paffions, anda thoufand other objeéts that have no body or
figure. From feveral fimple ftrokes they afterwards framed
others more compound ; and in this manner multiplied the
letters and charaéters to infinity, contriving one, or more,
for every word.

This multitude of letters feems the fource of that igno-
rance which we find among the Chinefe ; their whole lives
being {pent in learning their letters, they have no time to
apply themfelves to the ftudy of things, but think them-
felves very learned when they are able to read. There are
fearcely any of them that know all their letters ; they think
it-is a great progrefs they have made, when, after forty or
fifty years hard itudy, they are able to underftand fifteen or
twenty thoufand. But the generality of their learned men
eome fhort of this. Father Le Compte is of opinion, that
the greateft do€tor among them never underftood half of
their letters well ; for the whole number he reckons eighty
thoufand. ‘his isa prodigious inconvenience to foreigners,
of which the miffionaries in that country make loud com-
plaints.

Among the Chinefe letters, there are fome now almoft
worn out of ufe, and only preferved out of refpedt to
antiquity. There is a fecond clafs, much lefs ancient than
the former, only ufed in public infcriptions. A third,
much more regular and beautiful, ufed in printing, and
even in ordinary writing. However, as the ftrokes are
to be diftin@ly formed, they cannot be written with any
expedition. For this reafon, they have invented a fourth
kind, where the ftrokes, being clofer, and lefs diftant from
each other, allow them to be written with more eafe and readi-
nefs; and this they call the running letter. See CHINESE
Tongue.

The Americans had no letters before the difcovery of that
country by the Spaniards. The Acaanibas engrave their
memorable events and epochs on {tones and metals ; their
fongs fupply the reft. In Peru and Chili, to keep an ac-
count of their goods and chattels, and to preferve the me-
mory of their particular affairs, the Indians have recourfe to
certain knots of wool; which, by the variety of their co-
lours and ties, ferve inftead of chara@ers, and writing. The
knowledge of thefe knots, which they call guipos, is one of
their great fciences; but which is always kept as a fecret,
and never revealed to the children, till the fathers think them-
felves at the end of their days. See on the fubjeé& of this
article Lanewace, GRAMMAR, and WRriTING.

Lerrers, or Literal Notation, in Mufic. The Greeks

LET

ufed all the twenty-four letters of their alphabet as mufical
characters; and thefe not fufficing for all their modes and
ae in their natural flate, were fometimes ufed as capitals,
ometimes {mall ; fome entire, fome mutilated ; fome doubled,
and fome inverted ; to the amount of 1620 notes. See
Axystus, and Norarion.

Letter, Doniinical, See Dominica.

Lerrer, Double. See Douste.

Letter, Final. See Finau.

Lerrer, Guttural.. See GutTuRaL,

Lerrer Foundery. See Founpery.

Letrer Founders’ Furnace. See Furnace.

Lerter Founders’ Mould. See Moutp.

Lerrer, Labial. See Lasiar.

Lerrers, Numeral, are thofe ufed, inftead of ciphers, te
exprefs numbers.

The Roman numerals are, C, D, I, L, M, V, X ; which
are all formed by defcribing a circle, and drawing two lines
through it, croffing each other at right angles in the centre.
See CHARACTER. :

Lerrer, Nundinal. See NuNvDINAL.

Lerten is alfo a writing addrefled and fent to one.
EpIsTLe.

By 9 Geo. I. cap. 22. amended by 27 Geo. II. cap. 15.
knowingly to fend any letter without name, or with a ficti-
tious name, demanding money, &c. or threatening, without
any demand, to kill or fire the houfe of any perfon, is made
felony without benefit of clergy. And by 30 Geo. Il.
cap. 24. perfons fending letters with or without a name, or
with a fidtitious name, threatening to accufe any one- of a
crime punifhable by law with death, tranfportation, pillory,
or any other infamous punifhment, in order to extort money
or goods, fhall be punifhed at the difcretion of the court by
fine and imprifonment, pillory, whipping, or tranfportation
for feven years.

Lerters of ab/olution were formerly granted by an abbot,
to releafe any of his brethren from the obligation of fub-
jetion and obedience, and to make them capable of enter-
ing into any other religious order.

Lerrer of attorney, in Law, a writing authorizing an
attorney to do fome legal a& in our ftead: as, to give feifin
of lands, to receive debts, to fue a third perfon, &c. And
letters of attorney are either general or fpecigl. Welt.
Symb. par. 1. ftat. 7°R. II. cap. 13.

The nature of this inftrument is to give the attorney the
full power and authority of the maker, to accomplifh the
a& intended to be performed. Sometimes thefe writings are
revocable, and fometimes not fo; but when they are revoca-
ble, it is ufually a bare authority only ; and they are irrevo-
cable, when debts, &c. are affigned to another; in which
cafe the word irrevocable is inferted.

Lerrers claus, or clofe, are oppofed to eters patent.
See CLosEe Rolls.

Lerrer of credit, among Merchants. See CREpIT.

Lerrers communicatory. See LitERx communicatorie.

Lerrer of exchange. See Birt and ExcHANGE.

Lerrer of licence, in Trade, an inftrument or writing
granted to a man who has failed, or broke, figned and
fealed by. his creditors; which letter ufually gives a longer
time for payment: fo that the debtor, having fuch an
affurance, may go about his bufinefs, without fearing an
arreit.

Lerrers of mart, or marque, are letters under the privy
feal, granted to the king’s fubje€ts; impowering them to
take, by force of arms, what was formerly taken from them
by the fubjeéts of fome other ftate, contrary to the law of
mart. Letters of marque, in the Britifh dominions, are va

: e

See

LET

he granted by the admiralty ; and they empower the com-
mander of a merchant fhip or privateer to cruife againit
and make prizes of the enemies fhips and veffels, either at
fea, or in their harbours. See Marque.

Lrrrer miffive, in the Eledion of a Bifbop. See Bisnor.

Lerrer miffive, in Chancery. If a peer is defendant in
this court the lord chancellor fends a letter miffive to him,
to reque{t his appearance, together with the copy of the
bill: if he neglects to appear, then he may be ferved with
a fubpeena ; if he continues {till in contempt, a fequeftration
iflues out immediately againft his lands and goods, without
any of the mefne procefs of attachments, &c. which are di-
rected only again{t the perfon, and therefore cannot affect a
lord of parliament. The fame procefs iffues againft a mem-
ber of the houfe of commons, except that the lord chan-
cellor does not fend him any letter miffive.

Lerrers patent, or overt, are writings fealed with the
great-feal of England, whereby a man is authorized to do
or enjoy any thing, which of himfelf he could not do. They
are fo called, on account of their form; as being open with
the feal affixed, ready to be fhewn for the confirmation of
the authority given by them; and ufually direéted or ad-
dreffed by the king to all his fubjeéts at Jarge, thus, and in
fome other refpects, differing from clofe letters. See CLosz
Rolls.

Common perfons may grant letters patent ; but they are
rather called patents, than letters patent; yet for diitinc-
tion, thofe granted by the king, are fometimes called letters
patent royal.

Letters patent conclude with tofe meipfo; charters with
hiis teftibus. See PATENT.

Lerrens of refpite, letters iffued out by a prince, in favour

_of honeft unfortunate debtors, again{t too rigorous cre-
ditors,- whereby payment is delayed for a certain term.

The ufe of thefe letters is very ancient. Cafliodorus ob-
ferves, they were in ufe in the time of Theodoric, king of
the Goths; others will have them introduced towards the
end of the eleventh century, by pope Urban II. in favour
of thofe who went on the croifades.

They are ftill in ufe in France and fome other countries,
and take their name, @ re/pirando, becaufe thev give the
debtor a breathing time.

St. Louis granted three years refpite to all who made the
voyage of the Holy Land with him.

Lerters circular, dimifory, frank, monitory, pacific, paf-
chal. Sce the feveral adjectives.

Lerrers of fafe-condu€. See SAare-condud.

LETTERE, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Amalfi; 12
miies W.N.W. of Salerno. N. lat. 40° 43'.. E. long. 14°
20!.

+ LETTERED, Letrapos. See Lireratt,

LETTERKENNY, in Geography, a townfhip of Ame-
rica, in Franklin county, Penniylvania; containing 1497
inhabitants.

LetTEeRKENNY, a poft-town of the county of Donegal,
Ireland, fituated on the river. Swilly, over which it has a
bridge. It is 113 miles N.W. from Dublin.

LETTERN, from Le@rinum, the reading def in an-
cient churches, &c., from which the epiltles and gofpels of
the liturgy were read. The deflcs for the former frequently
reprefented the prophet Mofes with his horned countenance,
thofe for the latter an eagle, the well-known emblem of St.
John the Evangelitt.

LETTES, a people of Ruffia, derived from the Slavi
and evincing a near affinity with the Vendi. Originally they
were one people with the Lithuanians; as is evident from

Vou. XX, '

] 4 E ¥

the identity of their language and even of their names, Jn
the middle ages the following denominations are ufed witli
out diftin@tion; viz. Letthnia, Letthovia, Lithavia, Litfo-
nia, Lottavi, Litthvini, Letthovini, Letthvani, Lettones, &c.
Probably, fays Tooke, the Lettes obtained their particular
name from their firftt homeflead. In the circle of Valk.
not far from the town of Vendra, a river named Lecta
takes its rife; this river is called in Lettifh “ta Latte,’
and a Latte is in their language Latvis, a man living by the
river Latte. Tull towards the end of the twelfth centucy
Livonia or Lettland was entirely unknown to the Germes
hiftorians ; it is mentioned only by Danes, Swedes, and
Ruffians. “By the two former on occalion of their piracies,
and by the Ruffians for denoting their dominion Gver that
country. Although Neftor, the oldeft and moft authen-
tic Ruffian annalift, does not exprefsly mention the Lettes;
this may poflibly be owing to their not being at that time
a particular nation diftinét from the Lithuanians It ap-
pears unqueftionable from many teltimoniws, that the dif-
tri€t inhabited by the Lettes on the Laltic already belonged
to Ruflia in the earlieft periods of its monarchy ; it never-
theleis appears that Livonia had then no fettled coniti-
tution, nor was bound to the parent ftate by any firm
political tie. (See Livonia.) The homeftead of the
Lettes is not the whole of Livonia, but only a part of
it which is called Lettland, confifling of four of the nine
diftri@s or circles into which Livonia, or the prefent vice-
royalty of Riga, is divided; the remaining five circles being
inhabited by Efthonians. Befides, the Kures in Courland,
Semigallia, and the bifhopric of Pilten are true Lettes; by
whom, in part, the Lettifh language is fpoken in the
greateit purity ; and thefe people are moftly degenerated in
Polifn Livonia, where they are mixed with Poles and Ruf-
fians. The number of them at prefent cannot be properly
afcertained; but in the vice-royalty of Riga alone, there
were upwards of 226,coo Lettes, according to the laft cen-
fus. At prefent they are no longer known as a feparate
people; they were mingled by imperceptible degrees, and at
laft blended with the Lettes, the Efthes, and the Coures,
as they are ufually called, the Lettonians, the Efthonians,
and Courlanders. The Lettes, or Lettonians, are repre-
fented as a people always peaceable, induitrious, hofpitable,
frugal, and of a fomewhat better difpolition than the Ef-
thonians; and they inhabited the greater part of the Ven-
den diftri&, and extended themfelves even into Dorpat, and
hence it is that the chronicles mention the Lettes in Ungan-
nia. Their origin has been at one time fought for among
the Grecian, and at other times among the Sarmatian tribes.
By their language, however, it is perceived, that they bear
an affinity with the Courlanders, or Coures, and that they
are properly of Lithuanian, or in general of Slavonian ori-
gin. At prefent they occupy two diftri€ts, which both to-
gether are after them called Lettland. By the augmenta-
tion which they received from the Liefs, now reckoned with
the Lettes, the Vendes, the Lettgallians, and the Efthoni-
ans, they are more numerous than they were in the twelfth
century., The Lettes call themielves Latwertis.

Both Efthonians and Lettonians, admitting many excep-
tions, are addi¢ted to intemperance. Without beer and
brandy they have no conception of pleafure. he aged in
particular are hard drinkers, and continually {moke tobacco.
They derive alfoa great part of their pleafure from finging
and mufic. At their work in‘the field, as well as at ther
play, the girls are always finging. ‘The moit ufual inftru-
ment with both nations is the bag-pipe, made by themfelyes,
and founded in proper time, in two keys, with great dex-
terity. The miferable horizontal harp, and the fiddle,
4F ; which

ey

LET

which the Lettes are very fond of at all their feflivals, were
firft introduced among them by the Germans. They are
alfo very fond of dancing. Among their favourite fummer
pattimes is the fwing ; and this diverfion, for which there is
accommodation in every village at every houfe of entertain-
ment, is in high vogue in Eafter. In hot weather {wimming
is much praétifed by perfons of all ages and fexes ; and the
boors without exception are paffionately fond of fealding
hot-baths. Infidelity towards their matters, diftruft, a dif-
pofition to cheat and fteal, and fuch like, are the vices to
which they are addifted, and they certainly take their rife
from the flavery in which they are held. They rarely rob
one another ; but they are very ingenious in devifing means
to impofe upon their matters. Againft them they have fre-
quently rifen in rebellion. Lying, curfing, and {wearing
are very current among them. Of their religion we fhall
only fay, that when they were heathens, they were rauch
given to fuperttition. Their paganifm, it is faid, was very
fimilar to that of the Celts and ancient Germans. They
had no temples, and acknowledged only one God, whom
they adored under various names. They performed their
religious rites in the open fields, on the top of a mountain,
near a {pring, or under the fhade of a tree; and reckoned
thefe places facred. They believed in inferior deities, to
whofe care and government certain regions were allotted, and
whom they much feared to offend. ‘They had a god Thou,
to whofe influence they afcribed all aerial phenomena. Of the
places and groves, where the ancient Lieflanders, as well
Elthonians as Lettonians, were accuftomed to perform the
holy rites of paganifm, many, notwithftanding the ftric&
orders that have been iffued for their demolition, {till remain,
and they teftify towards them an awful reverence. Offer-
ings of wood, wax, yarn, bread, &c. are {till in ufe among
them, by laying them on the holy places, or cramming them
in the hollows of aged trees. Springs and rivers likewife
have their fhares of thefe unbloody facrifices. At their
fecret idolatrous affemblies, the keeping up of the fire, into
which they throw all forts of offerings, is ftill a principal ob-
fervance. In Liefland they had idols, but no proper idol
temples. The religious rites of the Celts and Lieflanders
feem very much to refemble one another. Among both the
Lettes and the Efthes many remains of heatheni{m are [till
obfervable ; although in the twelfth century the Liefs, and
afterwards the Lettes, were brought to the profeffion of
Chriftianity by the Germans; and a part of the Elthes by
the Danes. ooke’s View, &c. vol. i.

LETTING Farms, in Rural Economy, the pra€tice of
providing proper tenants for them, which is a bufinefs
effe&ted by different methods in different diftri€s, as by pri-
vate agreements, by propofals, and by public auétion, to
the higheft bidder ; all of which are liable to objections in
fome degree, but the. firlt of thefe modes probably the leaft
of any. See Farm.

LETTONIA, in Geography, a province of Ruffia, now
included in the government of Riga. See Lerres, Livo-
wia, and Rica.

LETTOWITZ, a town of Moravia, in the .circle of
Bronn; 20 miles N.N.W. of Brunn.

LETTUCE, in Botanyand Gardening. See Lactuca.

Lerruce, Hare’s. See Sow’s Thiffle.

Lettuce, Lamb. See VALERIANA.

Lerruce, Wild. See PRenanrues..

Lerruce; in Agriculture, the name of 2 plant of the efcu-
Jent kind, cultivated in the field in fome diftri&s for its ufe
in feeding fows and pigs in the fummer feafon. It is ftated
in the Calendar of Hafb
the fcwing of lettuces for hogs pra€tifed in a: pretty regu-

/

andry, that the writer firft obferved:

LEV

lar fyflem, on the farm of a very intelligent cultivator (not
at all a whimfical man) in Suffex. He had, every year, an
acre or two which afforded a great quantity of very valuable
food for his fows and pigs. He adds, that * it yields milk
amply, and all forts of {wine are very fond of it.”?. And he
fuggetts, that ‘* the economical farmer, who keeps many
hogs, fhould take care to have a fucceflion of crops for thefe
animals, that his carts may not be for ever on the road for
purchafed grains, or his granary opened for corn oftener
than is neceffary.”? To raife this fort of crop, ‘ the land:
fhould have been ploughed before the winter frofts, turning
in by that earth 20 loads of rich dung ger acre, and making
the lands of the right breadth, to fuit the drill-machine and
horfe-hoes, fo that in this month (March) nothing more
may be neceflary than to fearify the land, and to drill the
feed at one foot equi-diltant, at the rate of four pounds of
feed per acre. 1f half an acre or even a rood be tried near
the farm-yard, the advantage, it is f{uppofed, will not be in-
confiderable.”’

Where the ftock of {wine is large, it may be proper to:
drill half an acre or an acre of lettuce in April, the land
having been well manured and ploughed as dire&ed above,
being alfo fcuffled in February and March, and well har-
rowed, repeating it before drilling. And at this period
“ the crop which was drilled in March. (a fucceffion being
effentially neceflary) fhould be thinned in the rows by hand,.
to about nine or ten inches afunder. If this neceflary atten-
tion be negle¢ted, the plants draw themfeives up weak and:
poor, and will not recover it. Women do this bufinefs as
well as men. When about fix inches high, they fhovld be
horfe-hoed with a f{carifier or fcuffler,’? having the hoe about-
four inches, or at moft five inches, in width. With this fort
of green food fome kind of meal, or other dry meat, fhould.
be combined, as without it, it is apt to prove very laxative,.
and of courfe injurious to the animals. See Hoe and
SWINE.

LETZKAW, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, on the
Vittula ; 13 miles S.E. of Dantzic.

LETZNIG, a town of the duchy of Holftein; fix miles
S.S.W. of Segeberg.

LEVANDIS Militum Expenjis. See EXPEnsis.

LEVANGHE, in Geography, a fmall ifland near the E,
coait of Iftria. N. lat. 45° 1’. E. long. 15° 52’. ;

LEVANT fignifies any country fituate to the eaft of
us, or the ealtern fide of any continent or country, or that
on which the fun rifes.

Levant, or 7itaz, one of the Hieres iflands, on the
Mediterranean, near the coatt-of France. N. lat. 43° 4’.
E. long. 6° 34'.

Levant, in Matters of Commerce, &c. is generally ree.
ftrained to the Mediterranean feas ; or, rather, to the coun-
try on the ealtern part of it; or the coats of Afia,. and
efpecially Afiatic Turkey, from Alexandria in Egypt to
the Black fea, including the iflands of Cyprus, Rhodes, and.
the Archipelago.

IIence, our trade thither is catled.the Levent trade ; and
a wind that blows from thence, out of the Straits mouth,
is calied a Levant wind.

France was the firlt nation that. made treaties of commerce:
with the Porte. ‘Che fieur de la Foret figned them in 15355
in the name of Francis I. and thereby obtained many pri-
vileges in favour of that kingdom; which they alone ene
joyed, until the Venetians, the Englifh, the Hollanders, and.
at length the Genoefe, likewife obtained particular privi-
leges for themfelves.

Levant Meafures.

Levant, Bole of the.

See Measure.
See Boxe.
Levant

LEV

Levant and Couchant, in Law, is, when cattle have
been fo long in another man’s ground, that they have lain
down, and rifen again to feed, which, in general, is held to
be one night at lealt. See Distress.

LEVANTINE Vattey, or Valle Leventina, in Geo-
graphy, a valley of Helvetia, fubject to the canton of Uri,
and fituated S. of St. Gothard, watered by the Tefino, and
inhabited chiefly by Italians. It is fuppofed to retain by
its name, traces of the *¢ Lepontii,’”? the ancient inhabitants
of the furrounding regions. Its length, from the fummit
of the pafflage on the St. Gothard, is about eight leagues ;
the breadth is very inconfiderable. The lower part is ex-
tremely populous, rich in pafturage, and produces much
hemp and flax. In the vicinity of the lofty mountains ad-
jacent to it, the climate is various, and the country fubject
to much rain. To prevent the rain from damaging the
crops, the inhabitants fufpend and dry the corn and grafs,
on bars fupported by two high poles about 15 feet afunder.
The houfes are entirely of wood, and externally appear like
Swifs cottages ; but a negleét of cleanlinefs proves the vici-
nity and greater fimilarity to the Italians. The Tefino is
here joined by the Bromio, a torrent which takes its rife in
mount Uccello, or the Vogelfberg, near Splagen ; a bridge
over it is the boundary of the two bailliages of the vallies
Levantine and Polefe, and leads into that of Riviere. The
valley now*becomes perfeétly flat, and of courfe fubjeé to
violent inundations; the few villages are fcattered on the
fides of the fteep mountains ; all below is defolate. Offogne,
the refidence of the bailiff, confifts only of a few houfes.

LEVANTO, a town of the Ligurian republic, on the
coaft of the Mediterranean; eight miles W. of Spezza.

LEVANZO, a {mall ifland in the Mediterranean, near
the W. coaft of Sicily ; about nine miles W. of Trapani,
N. lat. 38° 5’. E. long. 12° 24'.

LEVARE, AnripHonum, in the Mufic of the Romifh
Church, is to begin or open the firft note of an anthem.

LEVARI Facias, in Law, a writ direéted to the
fheriff for levying a fum of money on a man’s lands and
tenements, who-has forfeited his recognizance ; in virtue of
which the fheriff may feize all his goods, and receive the
rents and profits of the lands, till fatisfaétion be made ¥o
the plaintiff: but this writ has now given way to the remedy
by clegit. There is alfo a evari facias damna diffeifitoribus,
for the levying of damages, wherein the diffeifor has been
formerly condemned to the diffeifee ; and alfo a evari facias
refiduum debiti, to levy the remainder of a debt upon lands
and tenements, or chattels of the debtor, where part has
been fatisfied before. And farther, a /evari facias quando
vicecomes returnavit quod non habuit emptores, commanding the
fheriff to fell the goods of the debtor which he has taken,
and returned that he could not fell.

LEVARLOW, in Geography, a town of Poland, in the
palatinate of Lublin; 40 miles 5.S.W. of Lublin.

LEVASCHEVA, a town of Ruffia, in the government
of Olonetz, on the W. coaft of the lake Latcha ; 16 miles
S.S.W. of Kargapol.

LEVATIO Arietum. See ARrETUM.

LEVATOR, in Anatomy, a name given to various muf-
cles, which have the effect of drawing parts upwards, or
elongating them.

LEVATOR ani, is a mufcle conneéted with the inferior
extremity of the inteftinal canal. See InTEsTINE.

Levator anguli oris, is a mufcle of the lips, defcribed
under DEGLUTZITION. °

Levatonr communis labiorum, isthe fame with the levator
anguli oris.

LEU

Levatores cofarum, are the commencements of the
external {trata of intercoftal mufcles. See InrERcosTAL.

Levator /abii fuperioris et ale nafi, a mufcle common
to the upper lip and the wing of the nofe. See Ductu-
TITION.

LevaTor /abii fuperioris proprius, is a portion of the
former, fometimes defcribed as a diftinét mutfcle.

Levator /abii inferioris, is the fame with the levator
menti.

Levaror menti, is a {mall mufcle fituated in the chin,
and defcribed with the mufcles of the lips in the article
DEGLUTITION.

Levaror oculi. a name fometimes given to the fuperior
ftraight mufcle of the eye. See Eye.

Levator palati mollis, a mufcle of the foft palate de-
{cribed in the article DeGLuririon.

Levator palpebre fuperioris, a mufcle of the orbit be-
longing to the upper eye-lid. See Eve.

Levartor /capule, a mufcle of the fcapula, called alfo
angularis, and, by Dumas, trachelo-feapulien.. It is fituated
in the upper part of the back, and on the lateral and pofte-
rior part of the neck ; it extends from the fuperior angle of
the fcapula to the tranfverfe proceffes of the four firlt cer-
vical vertebre. It is elongated, flattened, and broader
below than above. Its external furface is covered below by
the trapezius, above by the fterno-cleido-mattoideus, and in
the middle by the fkin. The internal furface covers the fer-
ratus fuperior pofticus, the facro-lumbalis, the tranfverfalis
colli, and the fplenius. The edges prefent nothing remark-
able ; the pofterior is longer than the anterior, and covers a
part of the upper edge of the rhomboideus.

The inferior extremity is attached to the fuperior angle
of the fcapula, to the upper part of its bafis, and to the
internal portion of its upper edge. From this point the
mufcle paffes upwards and forwards; it grows narrower,
and is foon divided into four portions, which are at firft
united together by cellular tiffue, but afterwards feparate
to be attached to the points of the tranfverfe procefles of
the four firft cervical vertebre. ‘Thefe portions are often
connected to the fplenius and fcalenus polterior. Some-
times the levator feapule has only three portions fixed to
the three firft vertebre of the neck ; that which is attached
to the atlas is larger and longer than the others, which di-
minifh fucceflively in fize and length downwards.

It is tendinous at its attachments, and flefhy in other
parts. The pofterior fibres are longer than the anterior ; a
fafciculus of fibres is fometimes added to its front edge from
the firit rib.

The name of this mufcle has led to a notion that it ele-
vates the fhoulder ; and it has been called mufculus patientiz,
from the fuppofition, that it aéted in fhrugging the fhoulders.
In truth it rather depreffes than elevates this part ; it draws
the fuperior angle of the {capula upwards and forwards, but
then the bone is rotated in fuch a way that its anterior angle,
forming the fhoulder joint, is depreffed. It is affifted by
the pettoralis minor. If the trapezius act in conjundtion
with it, the fhoulder will be elevated. Suppofing the
fhoulder to be fixed, it will incline the head and neck back-
wards, and towards its own fide.

LEVATUM. See Terris & Catalis tentis ultra
debitum. :

LEUBITZ, in Geography, a town of Hungary ; eight
miles S. of Podolicz. .

LEUBUS, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Wohlen, on the Oder, near which is a celebrated Ciftercian

| Ma abbey,

LEV

abbey, founded at the commencement of the rrth century ;
nine miles S.W. of Wohlen.

LEUCA, in Ancient Geography, a {mall town of Italy,
in the country of the Salenuns, and in the vicinity of the
Japygian promontory. Strabo.—Alfo, a town of Afia
Munor, on the confines of Ionia and /Zolia. Pomponius
Mela places it near-Phocwa, in the gulf of Smyrna; and
Pliny places it near Phocra, on a promontory which was
formerly an ifland. Diodorus Siculus fays, that Leuca
was fituated between Cumz and Clazomenu.

LEUCACANTHA, in Botany, a name ufed by Diof-
corides, and the other Greek writers, for the s-acia tree,
which produces the gum arabic, but it was alfo ufed for a
kind of prickly plant, called alfo amgaila by fome of the
Arabians ; as being a plant whofe roots were knotted and
jointed. Thefe joints were feparated and dried, and then
ufed in medicine as cardiacs and carminatives, under the
names of dunk or bunken. They were of a very agreeable
aromatic {mell, and very little tafte ; and the ancients always
preferred fuch of them as were yellow and light, rejecting
thofe which were heavy and white, and which wanted {mell.
It is not well known at this time what thefe roots were;
but it is neceflary, in order to the right underftanding the
works of the ancients, to know that there were fuch roots;
and that though called by the fame name with the gum
arabic tree, they were of a very different nature. ,

LEUCACHATES, in the Natural Hiflory of the An-
cients, the name of an agate, not a peculiar ipecies, but otily
a particular appearance of the lead-coloured agate, called
phaffachates.

LEUCADENDROW, in Botany, from Azv«0:, white,
“and dsdeor, a tree, expreffive of the hoary or filvery white-
neis for which the firft and finett of the {pecies is remarkable.
‘The name feems to have originated with Hermann, Who
contmunicated to Plukenet the Silver-tree of the Cape,
under the appellation of Leucadendros Africana, for which
Linneus, in his Clafés Plantarum, adopted it ; but he after-
wards, in his Genera, applied this name to another tribe of
the fame order, and fubfequently funk both in Protea.
Mr. Brown has reftored the original Leucadendron. Silver-
tree. Brown Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 10. 50. (Conocarpo-
dendra; Boerh. Lugd.-Bat. ed. 2. t. 195. 197+ 200.
202—4.)—Clafs and order, Divecta Tetrandria. Nat. Ord,
Aggregate, Linn. Protee, Jul. Proteacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Male, Ca/. Common Perianth imbricated, of
numerous, unequal, finsle-flowered feales. Cor. Petals
four, equal, linear, cohering in their lower part, revolute
at their extremities, downy externally. Stam. Filaments

-four, fhort, infested into the petals ; anthers linear, of two
cells, buriting lengthwife. Piff. imperfect, or none.

Female, Ca/. like the male; its feales permanent, dilated
and hardened. Cor. like the male ; bearing abortive ftamens.
Pif, Germen fuperior, feflile ; ftyle fimple, ftraight, rigid,
terminal; ftigma oblique, club-fhaped, emarginate, rather
hifpid. Peric. none, except the permanent woody calyx,
whofe fecales are fometimes confluent. JWVut folitary, con-
cealed by the fcales of one feed.

ff. Ch. Male, Calyx imbricated; its feales fingle-
flowered. Petals four, bearing the ftamens.

Female, Calyx imbricated, permanent. Petals four.
Stigma oblique, club-fhaped, emarginate, rather hifpid.
Nut of one feed, concealed by the hardened fcales of the
calyx,

Thirty-eight fpecies of this noble genus are defined by
Mr. Brown, all natives of fouthern Africa, near the Cape
of Good Hope, where they ufuilly grow in moiit fony ox

LEU

fandy places, about rivers, and, as far as we know, in no
other part of the world. A few of them have long beew
cultivated in the greenhoufes of Europe, but the greater
part are only known in the herbariums of the curious. One
of the fineft colleGtions of this whole natural order was pro-
cured from the Cape by Mr. Niven, for his patron G. Hib-
bert, efq. to whofe liberality we are indebted for fpecimens
of the whole.

The habit of Leucadendron is arboreous or fhrubby, but
fometimes tortuous and deprefied. Leaves flat, linear, Jan«
ceolate, or obovate. Heads of flowers often yellow, not
large, but frequently accompanied by very large, {preading,
dilated, palifh draéteas, which are highly ornamental. —
Examples are

L. argenteum. (Protea argentea; Linn. Sp. Pl. 137.
Gertn. t. 51. Lamarck Illuitr. t. 53. f. 1.. Conocarpon-
dendron; Boerh. t.195- Argyrodendros africana, foliis
fericeis et argenteis ; Commel. Hort. v, 2. 51. t. 26.) —Ar-
boreous. Leaves lanceolate, filvery ; their edges, as well
as the branches, hairy. Inner bra¢teas fhorter, downy.
Corolla of the male filky.—This fplendid tree, growing:
about the bafes and fides of mountains at the Cape, foon
attracted the notice of the firft European vilitors, and was
brought into the Dutch gardens, from whence probably it
came to England early in king Wilham’s reign. ‘Lhe
flowers are not ornamental, nor are they fcarcel ever feen
here, but the filvery {plendour of the aves 1s wirivalled ;
they are three or four inches long, feffile, lanceolate, acute,
entire, fpreading in every direction, clothing the branches
in great abundance. * Flowers folitary, terminal.—The
whole /?y/e is permanent in this and four other {pecies only.

L. Levifanus. Brown n. 9. Berg. Cap. 20. (Brunia
Levifanus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 259. B. foliis oblongis incanis,
&c.; Burm. Afric. 267. t. 100. f. 2, male plant. Protea
Levifanus ; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1. 526.)—Leaves obovate or
fpatulate, very blunt ; {mooth when full grown. Branches
hairy. Heads of male flowers feffile. Seeds pointlefs,
invefted with long hairs.—Grows in fandy heathy plains
near the Cape. ‘The /fem is abruptly branched. Leaves
numerous, upright, about half an inch long, entire. Flowers
in little round yellow heads, without any prominent bradeas.

L. corymbofum. Berg. Cap. 21, male plant. (Protea
corymboia; Thunb. Diff. de Protea, n. 28. t. 2, male
plant. Andr. Repof. t. 495, female.)— Leaves linear-awl-
fhaped, imbricated, {mooth. Scales when in fruit acute,
recurved at the points. Seeds fomewhat compreffed, in-
verfely. heart-fhaped, hairy at the edge. Found at feveral
places near the Cape. Much akin to the fail in its flowers,
but the /eaves are totally different, refembling the narrow
foliage of an Erica or Diofma. Vhe young branches are
purplifh, whence it ufed to be called by gardeners, before
it bloflomed, Protea purpurea. Mr. Brown obferves that
each fex has four glands, or neCtaries, at the bafe of the.
germen, which onr lait-defcribed wants.

L. concolor. Brown n. 15. (Protea globofa; Andr,
Repof. t. 307. Sims in Curt. Mag. t. 878, beth male
plants. P. itrobilina; Schrad. Sert. Hannov, t. 1, female.)
—Leaves fpatulate-oblong, with a callous point ; {mooth
when full grown; the floral ones of the fame colour,
Branches downy. Scales of the fruit obtufe, fringed, ;
woolly at the bafe.—Found near the Cape. Said to have
been firft raifed in England. by Meffrs. Lee and Kennedy.
This belongs to a handfome tribe of fpecies, whofe large
heads of yellow flowers are encompafled by large [preading
floral leaves or brafeas, which in molt are coloured, but in
this agree in hue with the foliage, and like that are about

4 two

LW.

two inches long, and nearly one broad, with red callous
tips.

; ia grandifiorum. Brown n.16. (Euryfpermum grandi-
florum; salif, Parad. t. 105.)—Leaves obovate-oblong,
with a callous point; fmooth when full grown ; the floral
ones coloured. Branches very minutely downy, Scales
of both fexes ovate, bluntifh, {mooth, coloured —Gathered
on mount Wynberg at the Cape, by Mr. Niven, who fent
it to Mr. Hibbert. It is larger and handfomer than the
laft, having fplendid whitith dra&eas, refembling the petals
of fome fine polyandrous flower.

L. frridum. Brown n. 21. (Euryfpermvm falicifolium ;
Salif. Parad. t. 75. Protea conifera; Andr. Repof. t. 541.)
— Leaves fmooth, linear, with an awl-fhaped point. Bracteas
ovate, acute, coloured, longer than the flowers. Scales of
the fruit dilated, rounded, fmooth. Seeds without wings,

. dotted.— Native of moift ftony places, about rivers, at the
Cape, according to Dr. Roxburgh. Mr, ‘iven feems to
have introduced this pretty fpecies to our gardens, which is
diltinguifhed by its narrow /eaves, copious and ornamental,
though final!, fowers, whofe bradeas are white and pointed
—This fpecies is nearly allied to Protea pallens and conifera
‘of Linnzus and other authors, the former of which appears
to be the male, and the latter the female, of Mr. Brown’s
L. adfeendens. rae

L. abietinum. Brown n. 31. (Protea teretifolia; Andr.
Repof. t. 461.)—Leaves ail thread-fhaped, channelled,
biuntifh, {mooth, fpreading, curved flightly inwards. Scales
of the fruit united by their lower part; diltin@ and two-
lobed above.—Frequent about the Cape. A humble /Zrub,
with nymerous {preading fir-like green aves, the uppermolt
of which, unchanged, encompafs the little yellow heads of
female flewers, inftead of bradeas. The heads of male

owers are {maller, and more elevated.

LEUCADIA, Sr. Maoreg, in Ancient Geography, an
ifland, or rather a peninfula which was attached to Epirus
by a ftraight ilthmus, about 100 paces long and 600 broad.
Upon it was fituated the town of Leucas, on the fummit of
a mountain towards the N.E. Homer places here three
towns, viz. Neriton, Crocylea, and Agylipa. On the fcite
of the firft of thefe towns the Corinthiaus built that already
mentioned ; Leucas is now an ifland, the ifthmus having
been feparated from the coatinent. Thus Ovid defcribes it 5

«¢ Leuvcada continuam veteres habuere coloni
Nunc freta circumeunt.””

Tt was a tradition that unfortunate lovers made choice of
this pro:nontory for precipitating them%:lves mto the fea.
On this promontory Apollo had a temple. See Sr.
Mavure.

.- LEUCANFHEMUM, in Botany, from azuxo-, whites
and ayS:~o, a flower, has been the appellation of feveral
plants of the compound radiated kind, whofe rays’ are
white ; and now remains as the {pecific name of the common
Englith Chryfanth:mam Leucanthemum, Great Ox-eye, or
Moon Daify. .

LEUCARUM, in Ancient Geography, a place of Great
Britain, on the roete from Caleva to Urioconium, according
to the Itinerary of Antonine. It is fuppofed to be the fame
with the Leucomagus of the anonym. of Ravenna. It lies be-
twee. Scadum Nuaniorum and Bomium, and is fuppofed to
be near G‘aftenbury. Camden, Gale, and Baxter, imagine

: that Leucarum was fitnated where the village of Locharnum
or Lechorftands, on the bark of the river Lochor ia Gla-
morganhhire. But this feem3 to be at much too great a dif-
tauce from the other ftations of Chifelborough and Axbridge.

LEUCAS, in Botany, fo named by Burmann and Brown,

LEU

in allufion to the downy whitenefs of its Aowers, a:vxx;
being an ancient Greck name “r fome herb, now unknown
to us, fo called on account of its whitenefs. Burm. Zeyl.
140. Brown. Prodr. Nov. Holl. v. 1. 504. Ait. Hort,
Kew. ed. 2. v. 3. 409.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gym-
nofpermia. Nat. Ord. Verticillate, Linn. Labiate, Jui.
Brown.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Perianth inferior, of one leaf, tubular,
oblong, with ten ribs, permanent; its orifice unequally
toothed. with from fix to ten teeth. Cor. of one petal,
ringent ; tube cylindrical ; upper lip vaulted, bearded, un-
divided ; lower longer, in three fegments, the middle one
largeft, often notched. Stam. Filaments four, concealed
by the upper lip, two of them longer than the refl, anthers
of two oblong divaricated lobes. Pift. Germen fuperior,
four-cleft ; ftyle the length and pofition of the filamens ;
ftigma cloven, acute, its upper fegment fhortelt. Peric,
none, except the permanent calyx. Sveds four, oblou,z,
triangular.

Ei. Ch. Calyx with ten ribs ; unequally toothed. Upper
lip of the corolla bearded, undivided ; lower longer, three- °
cleft ; the niddle fezment largeit. Lobes of the anthers.
divaricated. Upper fegment of the ftigma fhorteft.

1. I, zeylanica. Ceylon Leucas. (VPhlomis zeylanica ; :
Liun. Sp. Pl. 820. Jacq. Ic. Rar. t.111? Herba ad ira-
tionis; Rumph. Amboin. v. 6. 39. t. 16. f. 1.)—Leaves
lanceolate, {lightly ferrated. Whorls nearly terminal_
Braéteas frinjed. Calyx oblique, with ten nearly equal
teeth.—Native of the ifland ot Mauritius; as well as of
Java, and other parts of the Eait Indies. ‘The root is an-
nual. Stem {quare, downy, leafy, about a foot high,
branched from the bottom in a corymbofe bufhy manner.
Leaves oppofite, about an inch and half long, {carcely half
an inch broad, lanceolate, bluntifh, finely downy, veiny,.
wavy, or bluntly ferrated, tapering at the bafe into a fhort
footilalk. IWhorls denfe, axillary, one or two.at the top
of each {tem or branch, furmounted by leaves, and accom-
panied by feveral linear-lanceolate, acute, downy, ftrorgly
fringed braceas. Calyx downy, {welling upwards, its ori-
fice oblique, fringed with ten, nearly equal, {mall fpinous
teeth. Coralia twice as long as the calyx, white, hairy
externally, efpecially the upper lip.

2. Li. Javandulifolia. Lavender-leaved Leucas. (Leont-
rus indicus ; Linn. Sp. Pl. 817. Phlomis zeylanica 2; Sytt.
Veg. ed. 13. 459. Willd Sp. PL v. 3. 123.) —Leaves
linear-lanceolate, nearly entire. Braéteas linear, downy.
Calyx oblique, with feven teeth; the uppermoft iarseit.—
Native of the Eait Indies. Linnaeus had it from Burmann.
He firlt deferibed it as a Leonurus, but afterwards con--
founded it with his PA/omis zeylanica, of which lait he had
but a very imperfect fpecimen. The prefent-is diltinguifhed
by itsmach longer, and nearly, if not quite, entire aves ;
the whorls are more numerous; bradzas more linear, downy,
but not fringed; and the ¢alyx is effentially different, .
having but feven, and thofe very unequal, teeth. Corolla
much like the laft. It is hard to fay-whether Jacquin’s and

‘Rumphius’s fynonyms belong to this or the xeylanica, for

they neither of then teach any thing effen-ial, but Jacquin’s
leaves certainly moft refemble the prefeat. The three
fizures of Plukenet, cited doubtingly by Linneus, do not
well accord with either.

3- L. martinicenfis. Welt Indian Leucas. (Phlomis mar-

‘tinicenfis; Swartz. Prodr. 88. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 123.

Ph. caribea ; Jacq. Ic. Rar.t. 110. Swartz. Ind. Occ. v. >

1009.)—Leaves ovate-oblong, ferrated, downy. Bracteas .

briftle-fhaped, fringed. Whorls globofe. Calyx incurved,

with ten teeth; the uppermolt longelt—Native of aie 5
: an

LEU

and the Weft Indies, from whence Mr. Maffon fent feeds to
Kew in 1781. Root annual. Stem branched, two or three
feet high. Leaves ttalked, an inch and half long, oblong,
more or lefs ovate, hairy above, more downy and paler be-
neath, bluntifh, ftrongly ferrated; entire and tapering at
their bafe. Whorls numerous, axillary, denfe, many-
flowered, and nearly globofe, with narrow, ftrongly fringed
or briftly braéeas. Calyx curved forward, downy, with
-ftrong green ribs and white reticulated {paces between ; its
orifice bordered with ten fpinous, all rather unequal, teeth,
of which the upper one is twice or thrice as long as the reit.
‘ Corolla {mall, white, brown in decay.

4. L. urticifolia. Nettle-leaved Leucas. (Phlomis urti-
.cifolia; Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 76. Willden.)— Leaves ovate,
ferrated, hoary. Bracteas awl-fhaped. Calyx obliquely
truncate, membranous, with nine teeth.”,—Native of Ara-
bia Felix, and the Eait Indies.— Root annual. The plant
rrefembles PA. indica of Linneus (our Leucas indica), but
the fem, as well as /eaves, are not downy, but hoary with
-extremely minute hairs, The /eaves are of the fame colour
-on both fides, deeply ferrated, flat not rugged, downy
vunderneath. Ca/yx rather {mall.””—We know this merely
vfrom the above authority.

5. L. indica. Ealt Indian Leucas. (Phlomis indica ;
Linn. Sp. Pl. S20.)—Leaves ovate, ferrated, very downy
‘beneath. Bracteas linear, hairy, Whorls globofe. Calyx
oblique, with one three-toothed lip.—Native of the Eait
‘indies. The feeds were fent to England by M. Thouin in
1789. Root annual. Leaves ftalked, ovate, two inches
long and one broad, ferrated, downy above, but whiter
-and fofter beneath. Corolla very hairy. Calyx much en-
larged and elongated after fowering, its forepart extended
into an upright, oblong, ribbed and reticulated lip, with
three {pinous teeth at the extremity ; the oppofite or upper
fide of the orifice being fhort, with three or four very mi-
nute teeth.

6. L. decemdentata. Ten-toothed Leucas. (Stachys de-
cemdentata; Forlt. Prodr. g1. Phlomis decemdentata;
Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 124.)—‘ Leaves oblong, ferrated ;
-contracted at the bate. Whorls without braéteas. Calyx
with ten teeth.’’—Native of the Society Iflands. * Stem
‘herbaceous, downy. Leaves ftalked, an inch long, rather
acute, ferrated, downy. /ihorls fomewhat ftalked, defti-
tute of braGeas. Calyx bell-fhaped, with ten furrows, and
‘ten awl-fhaped teeth, alternately {maller. Tube of the
corolla rather longer than the calyx; upper lip ereét, un-
divided, very hairy; lower {mooth, in three deep fegments.”?
Willdenow.

7. L. biflora. Two-flowered Leucas. (L. foliis ro-
tundis ferratis, flore albo; Burm. Zeyl. 140. t. 63. f. 1.
Phiomis biflora; Vahl. Symb. v. 3. 77. Willd. Sp. Pl.
¥. 3. 124.)—Leaves ovate, ferrated. Flowers axillary,
folitary, oppofite. Calyx with ten regular teeth.—Native
of the Eait Indies. A flender downy or rather hairy plant,
with the habit of a Stachys or Siderifis. Leaves about half
an inch long, ftalked, ovate, bluntifh, with five or fix fer-
ratures at each fide. FYowers nearly feffile, without braéeas.
Calyx furmne!-fhaped, hairy, {trongly ribbed, with ten fharp
taper teeth, of which the five intermediate ones are rather
fhorier than the others. Corolla twice the length of the
calyx, white, downy.

8. L. chinenfis. Chinefe Leucas, (Phlomis chinenfis ;
Retz. Obf. tafe. 2. 19. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 125.)—
-S¢ Leaves ovate, ferrated, clothed with filky down. Flowers
whorled, ftalked. Calyx with ten teeth.??— Native of China.
“The /lem is thrubby, with fquare hifpid branches. Leaves

oppelite, ovate and fomewhat heart-thapéd, ‘ftalked, fer- *

CAS.

rated, clothed with filky down. Whorls axillary, of five or
fix flowers, on ftalks. Ca/yx funnel-fhaped, with ten fur-
rows and ten awned teeth. Corolla white, its upper lip ~
compreffed, hairy externally, efpecially the margin ; lower
three-lobed, nearly naked.'’—Retzius.—It is to be pre-
fumed the calyx-teeth are regular, probably five rather the
fhorteft as in the laft. We have never feen this f{pecies, and
it ftands here on Mr. Brown’s authority. Retzius’s ac-
count of the compreiled upper lip fhould, however, make
it a Phlomis. -

9. L. moluecoides. Wing-flowered Leucas. (Phlomis
moluccoides ; Vahl. Symb. v. 1.42. t. 14. Willd. Sp. Pl.
v. 3. 125. Clinopodinm fruticofum ; Forfk. AZgypt.-Arab.
107.)—Leaves ovate, ferrated, finely downy. Flowers
whorled, italked. Bra¢teas linear-lanceolate. Lower feg-
ment of the calyx dilated, rounded, membranous, ribbed,
obf{curely toothed.—Gathered by Forfkall in Arabia, on
the hills of Hadie. One of his {pecimens in ripe feed, and
Vahl’s figure in flower, furely authorife us in referring this
plant alfo to Leucas, though Mr. Brown has not mentioned
it. The flem is fhrubby, tive or fix feet high, with roundifh
downy branches. Leaves ftalked, ftrongly ferrated ; rough
and punctate above ; paler and very downy beneath; an
inch or more in length. Whorls many-flowered, flalked,
with downy éraéfeas, cut into many deep, linear, or fome-
what lanceolate, fegments. #/owers white, the fize of La-
mium album, hairy, their lower lip, according to Forfkall,
convex, three-lobed, the middle lobe broad, long, and heart-
fhaped, which agrees with the generic character, but is not
properly reprefented in Vahl’s plate, though indicated in
his defcription. The ca/yz is very peculiar, and really two-
lipped ; the upper lip imall, ovate and acute; the lower
very large, efpecially when in feed, {preading, rounded,
fcariofe, with feven or eight hairy ribs, and numerous reti-
culated veins ; the margin wavy, or flightly toothed, not
awned nor fpinous; the tube is hairy, and has ten ftrong
ribs. We can fee nothing of the lateral lobes mentioned
by Vahl, and indeed he feems, in his defcription and figure,
to have been bewildered between the lower lip of the calyx
and that of the corolla.

10. L. glabrata.. Smooth Leucas. (Phlomis glabrata;
Vahl. Symb. v. 1. 42. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 126.)—Leaves
ovate, ferrated, flightly hairy. Flowers whorled. Bratteas
minute, briftle-fhaped, fmooth. Lower fegment of the
calyx elongated, three-toothed. Hairs of the ftem de-
flexed.—Gathered in Arabia by Forfkall, amongft whofe
plants it was found without a name. Wahl defcribes it as
“‘ herbaceous, the /fem acutely angular, its angles and joints
rough with reverled hairs. Leaves ftalked, {preading,
ovate, bluntly ferrated, entire at the bafe, acute, flightly
hairy, about an inch long. Wd#orls remote, of fix or eight
flowers. Bradeas minute, in four deep, briftle-fhaped, rather
pungent, fmooth fegments, yellowifh at the extremity, but
one-fourth fo long as the calyx; which is bell-fhaped,
fmooth, with ten furrows, its orifice oblique, the lower lip
being elongated, with three equal briftle-fhaped teeth, the
upper with feven teeth. Corolla like the lait.”

11. L. flaccida. Flaccid Leucas. Brown. Prodr. Nov.
Holl. v. 1. 505.— Leaves ovate, membranous, nearly
{mooth, as well as the calyx, which has ten equal teeth.
Whorls many-flowered.’’— Gathered by fir Jofeph’ Banks
in the Tropical part of New Holland. ai

It will readily be perceived that the great diverfity and
irregularity of fhape in the calyx of the different fpecies,
directly militate againft the Linnzan divifion of Didynamia
Angiofpermia, into genera whofe calyx is more or iris
exactly five-cleft, and others in which it is two-lipped;, but

I Leucas

.

LEU

Jeueas is not on that account the lefs natural a genus, and
this very ms be sh is its ftriking character. How far it
might be poflible or eligible to feparate from it the fpecies
with a ftri€tly regular calyx, may be worthy of future con-
fideration. Mean while it had beft {tand in the firft of the
above fections, as not being regularly or properly two-
lipped, as well as on account of its affinities. —Ph/omis alba,
Vahl. Symb. v. 1. 43, fhould feem alfo to belong to Leucas,
though the calyx has but five teeth, but we have never had
an opportunity of examining it.

Leucas Delphinus. See Devpuinus.

LEUCASJA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland of the Tyrr-
henian fea, upon the weftern coaft of Italy, in the gulf of
Peflum, according to Strabo and Mela.

LEUCASPIS, a port of Africa, in the gulf of Libya.
Ptolemy.

LEUCATA, a promontory of Gaul, in the Mediterra-
nean; now called ‘“‘ Cap de la Franqui.”’

LEUCATE, or Leucaras, a promontory of Afia, in
Bithynia, and one of thofe which formed the gulf called
s¢ Affacenus Sinus,’’ according to Pliny.

Leucare, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Aude; fituated on the N. fide of a large lake
of the fame name; 17 miles S. of Narbonne. N. lat. 42°
54’. KE. long. 3° 7!.

LEUCE, or Acuituts Insuva, in Ancient Geography,
an ifland in the Euxine fea, at the mouth of the Boryithenes.
Strabo fays, that it was confecrated to Achilles. Sallutt,
in his Fragments, fays that it was of {mall extent and defert;
and that it was famous for a temple, and for the ftatue and
burying-place of Achilles. s

Leuce, a fmall ifland on the N. coaft of the ifle of Crete;
according to Diodorus Siculus.

Leuck, Acixn, in Medicine, a term nearly fynonymous
with the vitiligo of the Latins, fignifies a leprous affection of
the fkin, of a white colour, with a lofs of fenfibility in the
parts affected, the hair atthe fame time becoming white,
and falling off.

The lateft Greek phyficians confider the alphos and luc?
as the fame difeafes effentially, differing only in degree, and
not inkind. The alphas they defcribe as a fuperficial difeafe,
in which the furface of the fkin becomes white, but no
farther change takes place: whereas the /ewce penetrates
below the furface, affecting the flefh, and being much more
difficult to heal. They afcribe it to an error in the affimi-
latory powers, in confequence of which a phlegmy or
pituitous and vifcous blood is generated, which is incapable
of being converted into a proper red fiefh, but produces a
fort of flefh like that of locufts, and other cruftaceous ani-
mals: the hairs, at the fame time, turn white, and fall off,
and the fkin becomes fmooth and bright, and the parts lofe
their fenfibility ; fo that they may be pricked with needles,
without fuffering any uneafinefs. In a word, the difeafe,
thus deferibed, is a fpecies of clephantiafis, and appears to
have been the fame thing with the leprofy of the Jews. The
Arabians properly call it the white albaras: neverthelefs,
with the later Greeks, they confider it as differing only in
degree from the white albohak, (or morphea, as it has been

called by the Latin tranflators,) which is the alphos.of thes.

Greeks. Hippocrates, however, feems to diftinguifh the
leuce from the alphos: for he obferves that the latter fhould
be confidered as an-external blemifh, rather than as a difeafe ;
but he fpeaks of the leuce as a diftemper of the moft fatal
kind. (De Affeétion. feét. 5.) It would appear, there-
fore, that the word aiphos denotes a modification of the
fcaly difeafe, the Jepra Grecorum, and perhaps alfo an. in-
cipient leuce ; and that leuce js a variety, a precurfor, or a

LEU
ftage of the elephantiafis. In this light Dr. Willan, in his

able treatife on cutaneous difeafes, confiders them. (See
that work, p. 124—126.) Celfus has claffed the alphos
and leucé, together with the melas, (which differs from the
alphos only in the blackith colour of the fcaly fpots,) under
one generic term, vitiligo: at the fame time, he points out
the affinity of the alphos and melas, and the peculiar and
diftin&t features of the leuce. The two former, he fays,
are commonly a little rough, and not continuous, but dif-
perfed in drops, as it were, here and there: fometimes, in-
deed, it {preads more extenfively, but leaves interftices of
the fkin unaffeGted. They are the fame in all refpeés, with
the exception of colour. ‘ The leuce,”’? he adds, “ has
fome refemblance to the alphos; but it is whiter, penetrates
deeper, and the hairs are white and downy. They all three
{pread, but with different degrees of rapidity in different in-
dividuals. The alphos and the melas appear and difappear
in fome perfons at irregular periods ; but the leuce does not
readily quit a perfon whom it has once attacked. The two
firft are not very difficult of cure: but the laft is fcarcely
ever removed; and if it is at any time alleviated, yet fhe
natural colour of the fkin is never entirely reftored.””?_ (Cel-
fus, de Re Med. lib. v. cap. xxviii.) He then ftates the
obfervations in regard to the prognofis, which are repeated
by the Greek phyficians; namely, that if we would afcer-
tain whether the difeafe be curuble or not, we fhould prick
or fcratch the fkin witha needle. ‘* If blood iffues, which
generally happens in the two former, the cafe 1s remediable ;
but if a white humour appears, it will not admit of a cure,
and therefore we muft make no fuch attempt.”” (Loc. cit.
Compare alfo Aetius, Tetrabib. iv. ferm. i. cap. cxxxiii..
A@tuarius, Meth. Med. lib. ii. cap. xn Paul. /Egineta, .
de Re Med. lib. iv. cap. v.) The impaired fenfe of feeling :
in the parts is mentioned as an additional fymptom of the
irremediable ftate of leuce, by the lait named authors. See
alfo Foreftus Obf. Chirurg. lib. v. obf. 1i1.

The appellation of leucé is derived either from A:vzo:, .
leucos, white, or from aAzvxn, leuce; the white poplar tree, the
whitenefs of the bark and leaves of which has perhaps been
fuppofed to refemble the condition of the skin in the difeafe
above deferibed. See Gorter, Definit.. Med. See alfo
Leprosy.

LEUCELECTRUM, a name given by fome authors -
to th=t fort of amber which is white and opaque, and ufuatly
of a fatty look.

LEUCHARS, in Geography, a town of Scotland, in
Fifefhire, near the German ocean. It 1S01 the number of
inhabitants was 1687; 6 miles N. of St: Andrews.

LEUCHTENBERG, ‘a town of Bavaria, and capital +
of a landgraviate, to which it gives name; 36 miles E. of .
Nuremberg. N. lat..49° 35'> E. long. 12° 11".

LEUCHTERSHA USEN, a town of Germany, in the

.marggravate of Auifpach, on the Altmuhl; 7 miles W. of

Anfpach.

LEUCI, in Ancient Geography, a long chain of moun-
tains in the ifle}of Crete, fo called from their whitenefs,
béing covered for a great part. of the year-with fnow.
They are.naw known by the. names of Madura and
Specia.

LEUCISCUS, in Ichthyolggy.. See Dace.

LEUCITE, Leuzit, Wern. Amphigéne,Hatiy. Vefue -

_vian or white garnet, Kirw. Vulcanit, leucolite, granatine fborl

of fome mineralogitts.
Its colour is commonly greyith or yellowifh-white, feldom »
afh-grey, milk-white,-or greenifh and reddifh-white, pafling

into flefh and tile-red.
It.occurs in grains, but moft frequently in round cryftale
Or i

LEU

of twenty-four trapezoidal planes, (Amphigdne trapezoidal,
Haiiy, p. 147. f. 62.) or, as the form is defined by Wer-
ner, low double eight-fided pyramids, in which the lateral
planes of the one are fet on the lateral planes of the other,
while the fummits are flatly acuminated each by four planes
placed on the alternate edges. “They are more or lefs re-
gular; fometimes perfectly fo, at other times rather rounded
on the edges. They are cryftallized ail around, and im-
bedded. ‘Their fize varies from very {mall to middle-fized :
cryflals of more than one inch in diameter are, however,
feldom feen. No other modification than the trapezoidal
has been hitherto obferved.

The furface of the grains is rough, and dull or weakly
glimmering ; that cf the cryttals gliftening and {mooth, not
itriated, as in the garnets of the fame ferm: there are,
however, fometimes minuté rents feen to run parallel to the
fhort diagonal of the trapezoidal planes. Externally they
are gliftening, internally fhining, with vitreous luitre rather
inclining to refinous.

Fracture imperfectly and flat conchoidal, fometimes in-
clining to foliated ; fragments indeterminately angular, more
or lefs fharp-edged.

It occurs commonly flightly tranflucent, but alfo nearly
tranfparent, and rarely with perfec tranfparency.

The leucite is hard in a low degree, feratching olafs with
difficulty: it is brittle, and eafily frangible. Specilic gra-
vity, 2,461, Karlten; 2,464, Kirwan; 2,468, Briffon;
2,455 (from Vefuvius), and 2,490 (fromAlbano near Rome, )
Klaproth. ‘

It is infufible before the blowpipe without addition:
‘with borax it melts into a light brown, tranfparent glafs.

The leucite was firft analyfed by Klaproth, who dif-
covered in it a confiderable portion of vegetable alkali; a
iubftance till then unfufpe&ted to form a conttituent of
mineral fub{tances. Vauquelin’s fubfequent analyfis com-
pletely agrees with that given by Klaproth.

Mean of different Analyfes. Klaproth. Vauquelin.
Silica - - 54 56
Alumine - - 24 20
Potafh - - 21 20
Lime - - 2
Lofs - - I % 2

3 feje) 100

Leucite occurs particularly in Java, and alfo in rocks be-
longing to the fletz trapformation of Werner. It fhould
however be ebferved, that what has been defcribed by feveral
‘authors as leucite in bafalt, trapp, &c. is nothing but cubie
zeolite (analcime of Haiiy). Faujas, Efimark, and others
have fallen into this error.

Many places have been mentioned where leucite is found ;
but the beft authenticated locality is that of the neighbour-
hood of Naples, and of Rome. They are found in immenfe
quantities in the mountains of Albano, Tivoli, Caprarola,
Viterbo, Aquapendente, Civita Caftellana, ad Borghetto,
where they are feen enveloped in lava, often accompanied by
mica, vefuvian, and hornblende.

Von Buch, Salmon, Patrin, and others, are of opinion,
that the leucite cryftals were formed in the lava when {till in
a ‘fluid ftate; Dolomieu and Werner, on the other hand,
coulider them as having pre-exifted in the rocks that were
afterwards converted into lava. ‘The idea of other mine-
_ valogical writers, who leok upon thefe crylttals as being
‘ garnets altered by volcanic fire, is now defervedly ex-
ploded, :

Haily’s name of amphigeue is derived from the double origin

LEU

of the leucite, with regard to its primitive form, which
may be either the cube or the rhomboidal dodecahedron.

LEUCOCROTTA, in Natural Hiftory, the name given
by many authors to a bealt, fuppofed to be the {wiftelt of
all creatures in the world: others have called it leucrocotta,
but the true name is leocrocotta. ;

LEUCOG/A, a name by which fome authors hav
called the fubftance, more ufually known by the name of
morochthus, and called in Englifh, French chalk, or Bri-
anfon chalk, ‘

LEUCOGRAPHIS, the name ufed by fome of the
ancient writers, for the fubftance commonly called moroch-
thus, or French chalk.

LEUCOIUM, in Boiany, a name adopted from the an-
cient Greek authors, who neverthelefs differ about their
dsvxoiwv. That of Theophraftus appears to be the Linnzan
Galanthus, whillt that of Diofcorides is doubtlefs, from his
fhort account, the Cheiranthus, or Stock. The prefent
genus is nearly allied to Galanthus, and having been called
Narciffo-Leucotum by Tournefort, Linneus adopted the
above generic name. Snow-Flake.— Jinn. Gen. 16c.
Schreb. 215. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 30. Mart. Mill. Di&.
v. 3. Sm. Fl. Brit. 352. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2.:v. 2:
ait. Juff. 55. Lamarck. Mlaftr. t. 230. (Nareiffo-Leu-
coium; Tournef. t. 208.)—Clafs and order, Hevxandria
Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Spathacee, Linn. Narciffi, Jufl.

Gen. Ch. Cal. Spatha oblong, obtufe,. compreffed,
opening at the flat fide, withermg. , Cor. bell-thaped,
{preading ; petals fix, equal, ovate, flat, coalefcing at the
bafe ; their tips thickifh and ftraight. Stam. Filaments fix,
briftle-fhaped, very fhort; anthers oblong, obtufe, quad-
rangular, erect, diftant, burfting in the upper part. Pi.
Germen inferior, roundifh;. ftyle moftly club-fhaped, ob-
tufe; fligma fetaceous, ere€t, acute, longer than the {fla-
mens. eric. Capfule turbinate, of three cells and three
valves. Seeds‘numerous, roundifh.

Obf. Leucoium- autumnale and tricophyllum have a thread-
fhaped ftyle.

Eff. Ch. Corol!a fuperior, bell-fhaped, of fix equal pe-
tals, thickened at their fummit. Stigma fimple. Stamens
equal. :

a L. vernum. Spring Snow-flake. Linn. Sp. Pl. 414.
Curt. Mag. t. 46. Jacq. Fl. Auftr. t. 312 —Spatha
fingle-flowered. Style club-fhaped.— A native of moift
woods and fhady places in various parts of Italy, Switzer-
land, Germany, and the fouth of France. It flowers in the -
early {pring ; its {pecific name indeed is indicative of this
circumitance. Bu/b oblong, {fmaller than that of the Daf-
fodil. Leaves flat, darkifh-green, about four or five in
number, broader and longer than thofe of the Snow-drop.
Stalé radical, angular, hollow and channelled, furmifhed to-
wards the top with a whitifh fpatha, opening at the fide,
from whence the flower proceeds. Corolla rather large, its
petals white, tipped with green. The plant has an agree-
able fragrancy, fomething like Hawthorn.

2. L. efivum. Summer Snow-flake. J.inn. Sp. Pl. 414.
Engl. Bot. t. 621. . Curt. Lond. fafe. 5. t..23. Jacq.
Auitr. t. 203.—Spatha many-flowered. Style club-fhaped.
—Firlt determined to be a native of this ifland by Mr. Curtis,
who found it growing between Greenwich and Woolwich,
as well as in the Ifle of Dogs. It has fince been gathered
in many other parts of England, particularly Weltmoreland,
Suffolk, and Berkshire, flowering in May. Root a roundifh
bulb. Leaves numerons, ereGt, a foot and half in length,
obtufe, keeled, bright-green. S¥a/d radical, as long as the
leaves, compreffed. Spatha lanceolate, erect. Partial flalk

folitary and fingle-flowered. . Flowers pendulous, white;

petals

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petals tipped with green. Anthers obtufe, burfting by two
pores at the fummit. Cap/ule elliptical, three-celled. Seeds
globular, large. ;

~ The plant is entirely without {mell, but is extremely or-
namental, and may be often feen in ruttic gardens.

3- L. autumnale. Autumnal Snow-flake. Linn. Sp.
Pl. 414. Curt. Mag. t. 960. Redouté Liliac. t. 150.
f. 2.—Spatha many-flowered. Style thread-fhaped.— A
native of Spain and Portugal, flowering, as its name im-
ports, in the autumn. Bulb thickith, of many glutinous
coats, covered witha white membrane. Sva/d radical, about
fix inches in height, reddifh-brown, moftly bearing two or
three white, pendulous, inodorous fowers, red at their bafe.
Leaves capillary, fpringing up after the plant has flowered.
Curtis however fays that in fpecimens which were fent from
Gibraltar, the aves appeared at the fame time with the

flowers, though confiderably fhorter than they afterwards

rew.

‘ 4. L. trichophyllum. Briftle-leaved Snow-flake. Brot.
Lufit. p. 1. 552. Redouté Liliac. t. 150. f. 1.—Spatha
two-leaved, many-flowered. Style thread-fhaped.— Ga-
thered on the fandy plains of Barbary, flowering in the midit
of winter. Leaves thread-fhaped, membranaceous. Siéalé
radical, fheathed by the leaves at its bafe, thread-fhaped, five
or fix inches high. Flowers from two to four, pendulous,
white, occafionally tinted with red on the outfide.

Redouté regrets that he could not call this hyemale, as
the name of ¢richophyllum had previoufly been applied by
Renealmius to the lait fpecies, to which indeed this is clofely
allied. The fpecific name of Ayemale would have been par-
ticularly defirable on account of carrying on the analogy of
nomenclature with the three other {pecies. It is greatly to
be wifhed that botanifts who give new names to plants
would well confider fuch analogies.

For L. firumofum, Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 1. 407. t. 5, fee
STRUMARIA.

Leucorum, in Gardening, comprehends plants of the
bulbous-rooted flowery or perennial kind, of which the
fpecies cultivated are the great {pring fnow-drop (L. ver-
num) ; the f{ummer f{now-drop (L. eftivum) ; the autumnal
fnow-drop (L. autumnale) ; and the many-flowered Cape
leucoium (L. {trumofum). The firft has an oblong bulb,
fhaped like that of the daffodil, but {maller; the leaves are

~ flat, deep green, four or five in number, broader and longer
than thofe of the common fnow-drop; the fcape angular,
near a foot high, hollow, and channelled; towards the top
comes out a whitifh fheath, opening on the fide, out of
which come out two or three flowers, hanging on flender
peduncles ; the corolla is much Jarger than that of the com-
mon fnow-drop; and the ends of the petals are green.
They appear in March, and have an agreeable fcent, not
much unlike thofe of the hawthorn. \

The flowers, which at firft fight refemble thofe of the
common {now-drop, are eafily diltinguifhed by the abfence
of the three-leaved neétary. They do not come out fo foon
by a month. The firft is called by Mr. Curtis the fpring
fnow-flake.

In order to diftinguifh the fecond fort from the galanthus,
Mr. Curtis names it the fummer fnow-flake ; and in gardens
it is commonly known by the name of the great fummer
f{now-flake, and the late or tall fnow-drop.

Method of Culture. —Thefe plants are readily increafed by
off-fets from the roots, which fhould be feparated from the
old roots about every third year, in the fummer feafon, as
foon as their leaves begin to decay, in the fame manner as
other bulbous roots. See BuLzous Roots. ~

’ They are alfo capable of being increafed by feeds, which
me VoL. XX. :

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fhould be fown in the latter end of Auguft, in a border of
light bog-earth. The plants fhould remain in this fituation
til the fecond fummer, and be then taken up at the proper
period, and planted in beds, till they begin to flower, when
they fhould be removed into the borders. In this way they
are three or four years before they flower. But by much
the beft method is to procure the roots from the nurfery-
men, and plant them in the beginning of the autumn, in an
eaftern or northern border, where the foil is of a boggy
quality, in patches of three or four together, in the fronts,
putting them in to the depth of about three or four inches,

The off-fets fhould be planted out in beds a year or two
after being taken off, till fit to be fet out for flowering.

A {oft loamy foil, or a mixture of loam and bog-earth,
are the molt fuited to their healthy growth. The laft fort
requires protection in the houfe, with other Cape bulbs.

By planting them in the different afpeéts mentioned, a
longer fucceffion of flowers may be produced.

They are very ornamental in the fronts of the borders, or
the fides of the lawns, and other parts near the houfe, or
other public fituations.

Levcorum Jndicum et luteum. See Stock Gilly Flower.

Levucoium Bulbofam. See Leucorum, /upra.

LEUCOLIBANON, in the Materia Medica of the
Ancients, a name given to the white olibanum, or frankin-
cenfe, which they carefully diftinguifh from the reddifh or
yellowifh olibanum. This was alfo called argyolibanum, or
the filver-coloured olibanum; and the yellow one chalcoli-
banum. This latter word is ufed in the Apocalypfe of St.
John, and is mifunderftood fo far, as to be tranflated brafs, and
fuppofed to be a kind of brafs from Mount Lebanon. See
CHALCOLIBANON and FRANKINCENSE.

LEUCOLITHOS, in Natural Hiffory, a name given
by fome of the Greek writers to the pyrites argenteus, or
filvery pyrites. The ancients had a great opinion of thefe
foffils in difeafes of the eyes; they ufed all the kinds of py-
rites, or marcafite, after calcination, for this purpofe; but
as they diftinguifhed four kinds of them, they attributed
thefe virtues, in different ‘degrees, to the different kinds;
therefore they had recourfe to fo many peculiar names for
diftinguifhing them; and the white kind was called leu-
colithos, to diftinguifh it from the dufky one called the iron
pyrites, and the deeper and paler yellow kinds, called the
gold and brafly marcafites.

LEUCOMA, A:uxwue, among the Athenians, fignified
a public regifter of the whole city, in which were written
the names of all the citizens, as foon as they came to be of
age to enter upon their paternal inheritance.

Leucoma (derived from A:wxo;, white) fignifies, in Sur-
gery, a whitifh opacity of the cornea. Profeffor Scarpa,
of Pavia, has made fome interefting remarks on this cafe
in his «¢ Offervaz. fulle Principali Malatien degli Occhi.”’
He informs us, that the albugo and leucoma are very dif-
ferent from what has gone under the name of the nebula of
the cornea, fince they are not the confequence of a flow
chronic inflammation of the eyes, accompanied by a varicofe
ftate of the veins, and an extravafation of a thin milky
ferum into the texture of the delicate layer of the conjunc-
tiva fpread orer the cornea; but are either produced by a
violent acute sphthalmy, wherein a denfe coagulable lymph is
effufed fuperficially or deeply into the fubftance of the cor-
nea itfelf, or elfe are occafioned by wounds, or ulcers at-
tended with lofs of fubftance. Albugo itriétly denotes the firft
of thefe cafes; leucoma the laft, particularly when the fear,
or opaque fpot, occupies the whole or a confiderable por-
tion of the cornea.

A recent albugo, remaining after the fubfidence of a

4G violent

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violent acute ophthalmy, is of a clear milky colour; but
when inveterate, it puts on achalky or pearl colour, and in
this frequently appears to have no vafcular connetion with
the reft of the cornea, occafioning no uneafinefs, and being
incapable of being abforbed.

Provided the texture of the cornea be not diforganized
by the coagulable lymph extravafated in a cafe of recent
albugo, the opacity may often be difperfed by employing,
in the firft ftage, general and local bleeding, internal anti-
phlogiftic medicines, and emollient applications ; and in the
fecond ftage, mild aftringents and corroborants. ~ Thefe
laf, as foon as the inflammation is fubdued, excite the
action of the abforbents, by which veflels the opaque extrava-
fated lymph, forming the albugo, is to be removed.

But although a recent albugo may often be difperfed, this
obje& cannot be.fo eafily effeéted when the difeafe has ex-
ifted a long while, in which cafe the abforbents have fre-
quently loft their activity, and the ftructure of the cornea
become fo diforganized, that this membrane mutt for ever
reniain opaque at the part affefted. According to Scarpa,
the circumftances favourable to the cure area recent {tate
of the difeafe without diforganization of the cornea, .or of
the delicate layer of the conjunétiva {pread over it, and the
patient being young, as at this period of life the abforbents
are molt capable of action. Scarpa affures us, that he has
feen many examples in children, where the fpecks, left on
the eye after a violent ophthalmy, have fpontaneoutly difap-
peared in the courfe of a few months.

The following local remedies Scarpa has found moft fer-
viceable, both to recent and inveterate cafes of albugo. A
collyrium, compofed of two fcruples of fal ammon., four
grains of erugo, and eighe ounces of aqua calcis. Thefe
are to ftand for twenty-four hours, and the liquor then be
filtered for ufe. An ointment, confifting of the fubfequent

-iengredients. R Tutie f. p. 3) Aloes f. p. Calom.a 4

rij. Butyr. recent. 3. M. Janin’s ophthalmia ointment,
and the gall of ox, fheep, pike, and barbel, applied to the
cornea with a hair-pencil, are alfo favourably fpoken of.
When the eye was too irritable to bear the preceding appli-
cation, Scarpa fometimes ufed with advantage the oil of
walnuts, fomewhat rancid. ‘Two or three drops were in-
troduced into the eye every two hours, and the plan fol-
lowed up for feveral months. He has likewife found the
juice of the leffer centaury, mixed with honey, a good appli-
cation.

How unpromifing foever things may feem, the furgeon is
to perfift in the trial of remedies, at leaft three or four
months, before the cafe is to be fet*down as abfolutely
incurable.

Scraping and perforating the cornea, and forming an arti-
ficial ulcer upon it, are all unavailing expedients in cafes
where the albugo or leucoma is in a ftate that Scarpa terms
inveterate and coriaceous, fuch meafures being the invention
of perfons quite ignorant of the ftructure of the cornea,
and the principles upon which its tranfparency is to be re-
ftored. ay

LEUCOMZENAS; in Jchthyology, a name by which fome
have called the {maris, a fmall fith caught in great plenty
in the Mediterranean.

LEUCOPETALOS, in Natural Hiffory, the name of a
beautiful ftone deferibed by Pliny, as being of a fine gold

yellow, variegated with white.

LEUCOPETRIANS, in Ecchefaftical Hiftory, the name
of a fanatical feét which {prang up in the Greek and Eaftern
churches towards the clofe of the twelfth century: the fana-
tics of this denomination profeffed to believe in a double
Trinity, rejeéted wedlock, abitained from flefh, treated with

LEU

the utmoft contempt te facraments of baptifm and the
Lord's fupper, and all the various branches of external
worfhip, placed the effence of religion in internal prayer
alone, and maintained, as it is faid, that an evil being, or
genius, dwelt in the brealt of every mortal, and could be
expelled from thence by no other method than by perpetual
fupplication to the Supreme Being. The founder of this
enthufiattical fe€t is faid to have been a perfon called Leu-
copetrus, and his chief difciple Tychicus, who corrupted,
by fanatical interpretations, feveral books of {cripture, and
particularly St. Matthew's gofpel. Mofheim.

LEUCOPH/EA Anretors, in Zoolagy.
LoPE Leucophea.

LEUCOPHAGIUM, a name given by fome phyficians
to a fort of medical aliment good in confumptions, and
other general decays. It is compofed of {weet almonds ma-
cerated in rofe-water with the tender fleth of a capon, all
being finally boiled together to a pulp, capable of being
pailed through a fieve.

LEUCOPHLEGMATIA, in Medicine, from Azuxor,
white, and ¢r:yu«, pituita, phlegm, a term applied to the
dropfy of the fkin, or ana/arca, in confequence of the very
pallid hue of the fkin and complexion under fuch circum-
ftances.

Dr. Cullen remarks, that the terms anafarca and keuco-
phlegmatia have been commonly confidered as fynonymous ;
but fome authors have propofed to confider them as de-
noting diftin& difeafes. The authors who are of this laft
opinion, employ the name of ana/farca for that difeafe which
begins in the lower extremities, and thence gradually ex-
tends upwards ; while they term that /eucoph/egmatia, in which
the fame kind of {welling appears, even from the beginning,
very generally over the whole body, and in which there ap-
pears to be a greater deficiency of the blood ; fuch as occurs
after profufe hemorhagies, or other great evacuations.
The diftinction, however, is principally verbal. See Ana-
sarca, and Dropsy.

LEUCOPHRA, in Zoology, a genus of the clafs Vermes,
and order Infuforia: this worm is invifible to the naked
eye, and every where ciliate. There are eight fpecies, of
which four are found in the waters or marfhes of our own
country.

See ANTE-

Species.

Conrticror. Spherical, fub-opaque, with moveable in-
teftines; it is found in clear water; is of a yellowifh colour,
with dark edges, and filled with very minute molecules in
perpetually violent agitation. This animalcule is defcribed
and figured in Adams’ Effays on the Microfcope. _ It is
faid to be rather a heap of animalcules than a fingle indi-
vidual, is larger than mott {pecies of the vorticella, perfeGily
{pherical, and femi-tranfparent. It rolls at intervals from
right to left, but feldom removes from the fpot where it is
firft found. In proportion to the number of molecules
above-mentioned, which are accumulated on one fide or the
other, the whole mafs rolls either to the right or left; it is
then tranquil fora fhort time, but the confli€t becomes more
violent, and the {phere moves the contrary way in a {piral
line. It is a fine obje& for the microfcope, but requires-to
be obferved with much attention. When the water begins
to fail, the little creatures aflume an oblong, oval, and even
cylindrical figure ; the hind part of fome being comprefied
into a triangular fhape, and the tranfparent part efcaping as
it were from the inteftines, which continue to move with
the fame violence till the water wholly fails, when the mole-
cules are {pread inty a thapelefs mafs; which foon a

i. an

ee

eS

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and the whole fhoot into a form, having the appearance of
ceryftals of fal-ammoniac. See, Adams, p. 500.

VesICULIFERA is ovate with veficular inteftines, "This
animalcule is a fort of mean between the orbicular and oval,
very pellucid, with a defined dark edge, and infide contain-
ing fome very bright veficles or bladders. The middle fre-
quently appears blue, and the veficles feem as if fet in a
ground of that colour. The accounts given of this ani-
malcule by Spallanzani and Miiller differ in fome refpeéts ;

‘the latter, however, admits that he once faw an individual
like thofe defcribed by Spallanzani.

Acvuta. The oval leucophra, which is round, witha black
point at the edge.

. Fruxa. Sinuate, kidney-fhaped ; body oblong, yellow-
ifh, obtufe on one part, the other produced into a cone, and
generally filled with molecules.

Armitta. Round, annular ; body thickened above and
bent like a ring.

Corxura. Inverfely conic, green, opaque. This animal-
cule has a refemblance to certain {pecies of the vorticella,
and requires to be obferved fome time before its peculiar
charaGters can be afcertained : the body is compofed of mo-
lecular veficles, of a dark green colour, for the moft part it
is like an inverted cone, the fore-part being wide and trun-
cated, with a little prominent horn, or hook, on both fides ;
the hind-part is conical, ciliated, the hairs exceedingly mi-
nute; thofe in the fore-part are three times longer than the
others, and move in a circular dire€tion. The hinder part
is pellucid, and fometimes terminates in two or three obtufe
pellucid projeftions. The animalcule will at one moment
appear oval, at another reniform, and ciliated at the fore-
part; but at anather time the hairs are concealed. When
the water which contains it evaporates, it breaks and diffolves
into molecular veficles. It is found late in the year in
marfhy grounds. See Adams, Pl. 25.

Hererocuira. Cylindrical, obtufe on the fore-part, the
hind-part furnifaed witha double crefted organ, which it can
thruit out and draw in at pleafure. To the naked eye it
appears like a white point; inteftines vifible by a micro-
{cope, when it feems a cylindrical body ; the fore-part ob-
tufely round, the middle rather drawn in, the lower part
round, but much fmaller than the upper part. With a
lens of pretty high power the whole body is found to be
ciliated.

Noputata. Ovyate-oblong; depreffed, with a double
row of tubercles. This fpecies is found in the inteftines
of the Lumbricus terrefris, and Nais littoralis ; it is very
pellucid, fhining like filver, and is propagated by a tranfverfe
divifion ; it is of an oval fhape when young, and growing
more oblong with age ; it is truncate at the tip.

_ LEUCOPIPER, in the Materia Medica, a name by
which fome authors have diftinguifhed the white pepper.

LEUCOPOGON, in Botany, fo named by Mr. Brown,
from A:uxo:, white, and zwywy, a beard, onaccount of the white
ere& hairs on the upper fide of the fegments of the corolla,
very confpicuous even in dried fpecimens. Brown. Prodr.
Nov. Holl. v. 541. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 323.
(Perojoa; Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 29.)—Clafs and order, Pentan-
dria. Manogynia. Nat. Ord. Epacridee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Perianth interior, of feven leaves, ere@,
permanent; the five innermo{t equal, lanceolate, concave ;
two outer Ones ovate, oppofite, much fhorter. Cor. of one
petal, funnel-fhaped, limb in five {preading equal fegments,
longitudinally bearded on the upper fide, with dente, ere&
hairs. Nedtary glandular, furrounding the bafe of the ger-
men, Stam. Filaments five, thread-fhaped, equal, inferted
into the tube ; anthers incumbent, oblong, burtting length-

LEU

wife, rifing juft above the tube. Pi, Germen fuperior,
roundifh; ftyle fhort, columnar; fligma obtufe. Peric.
Drupa more or lefs fucculent, or fometimes dry when ripe,
fometimes cruftaceous. Nut of from two to five cells, with
one or two pendulous feeds in each.

Ef. Ch. Outer calyx of two leaves. Corolla funnel-
fhaped ; its limb fpreading, longitudinally bearded. Fila-
ments included in the tube. Drupa of from two to five cells.

In the Prodromus of Mr. Brown, fo rich in botanical
novelties, we find the definitions of forty-eight fpecies of
this new genus, which he has feparated from the Styphelia
of preceding writers ; retaining in the latter fuch plants
only as have four or more leaves to their external calyx ; a
more elongated and cylindrical corolla, with five internal
tufts of hair near the bottom, the limb revolute as well as
bearded ; filaments prominent; ard a rather dry drupa,
always of five cells.

Leucopogon is divided into five feGtions, of each of which
we {hall give fome examples.

1. Spikes axillary, many-flowered, Drupa juicy. Six {pe-
cies.

L. lanceolatus. Brown n, t. (Styphelia lanceolata; Smith
Bot. of New Holland, 49 ; excluding the fynonyms
from both authors.)—Spikes drooping, aggregate. Fruit
oval, of two cells. Leaves lanceolate, flat; many-ribbed
beneath ; with three furrows above. Branches fmooth.—
Sent dried from. Port Jackfon, New South Wales, by Dr.
White, in 1793. The living plant we believe has never
been brought to this country; L. Janceolatus of the new
edition of Hort. Kew. being certainly Styphelia parviflora
of Andr. Repof. t. 287; S. Gnidium, Venten. Malmaif.
t. 23, which appears to us a very different fpecies, rather
agreeing with the characters of LZ. apiculatus, Brown n. 7.—
The true Janceolatus is a larger fhrub, with copious, flender,
leafy, round branches, ufually quite fmooth, fometimes very
minutely downy ; the young ones reddifh, "becoming angular
and ftriated when dried. eaves f{eattered, flightly fpread-
ing, feffile, lanceolate, flat, fharp-pointed, entire, {mooth,
above an inch, but rarely approaching to two, in length,
a quarter of an inch broad ; of a full rather glaucous green
above, and marked with three fine, often obfolete, furrows,
from the bafe to the middle; the under fide paler, with
nuherous, branching, parallel ribs. Svipulas none. Spikes
clu{tered about the ends of the branches, {preading or
drooping, nearly the length of the leaves, flender, loofe,
many-flowered, the common ftalk flightly downy. Flowers
{mall, white, feffile. Braéeas folitary under each flower,
ovate, concave, ribbed, downy-edged, of the fize and exa&
appearance of the two outer calyx-leaves, placed contrary
to them, permanent. Inner calyx-/eaves twice as long as the
outer, and {moother, rather fhorter than the tube of the
corolla, whofe limb is reflexed, with a tolerably denfe,-but
not very white beard, at leaft in the dried {pecimen.
Drupa of two cells, oval, twice as long as the inner calyx-
leaves, crowned by the /fy/e, which is about a third’ of its
length. F

i verticillatus. Brown n. 6.—Spikes moftly terminal,
aggregate ; dreoping when in fruit. Drupa of five cells,
five-fided. | Leaves interruptedly cluttered, fomewhat
whorled, oblong-lanceolate, taper-pointed. Gathered by’
Mr. Brown on the fouthern coaft of New Halland, We
have what anfwers to his defcription from King George’s
found, on the weit coaft, communicated by Mr. Menzies,
It is much larger than the preceding. eaves from two te
three or four inches long, and three quarters or more broad,
fomewhat roughifh to the touch, marked on both fides. with
fiye ribs, befides innumerable oblique lateral ones beneath ;

4G2 four

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four or five growing together in a fort of whorls. The
lateral branches are alfo often whorled. Spikes much as in
the laft, but longer. Bradeas ribbed, fmooth, twice as large
as the outer calyx-leaves.

2. Spikes axillary, fometimes terminal, of three or more flowers.
Calyx and braéeas coloured. Drupa rather dry. Leaves not
heart-/haped. Fourteen {pecies.

L. apiculatus. Brown n. 7. (Styphelia parviflora; Andr.
Repof. t. 287? S. Gnidium; Venten. Malmaif. t. 23 ?)—
Spikes terminal, fomewhat aggregate, of five to feven
flowers. Braéteas lanceolate, rather larger than the outer
calyx-feales. Leaves lanceolate-oblong, ereét, flightly con-
cave, callous-tipped, {mooth at the edges. Drupa crutta-
ceous, turbinate, deprefled, fhorter than the calyx.—Ga-
thered by Mr. Brown on the fouth coaft of New Holland.
He obferved a fmooth variety and a downy one, which he
fufpe&ts may be diftin& fpecies.—The above characters
moit minutely anfwer to the above plant of Andrews, raifed
from New Holland feeds, and to be feen in feveral green-
houfes, flowering in May. It is a {mall /orud, with appa-
rently deciduous, rather glaucous /eaves, hardly an inch long,
fmooth, with little, denfe, upright, ufually folitary, terminal
fpikes, of pretty {now-white fowers.

L. revolutus. Brown n. 13.—Spikes moftly terminal,
aggregate, of four or five flowers. Calyx and bratteas
minutely downy, the latter half the fize of the outer calyx-
fcales. Leaves rather {preading, linear-oblong, obtufe, with
a blunt callous point; convex and rough above; fmooth
and furrowed beneath; the edges reflexed and naked.
Branches finely downy. Drupa dry, obovate, with five cells.
—Found by Mr. Brown on the fouth coaft of New Hol-
land, and by Mr. Menzies at King George’s found. It
is not very unlike the laft, but the /eaves are {maller, more
{preading, and rough on the upper fide with minute points.
The flowers are larger, and very confpicuous for the long
white hairinefs of their fegments.

L. ericoides. Brown n. 17. (Styphelia ericoides ; Smith
Bot. of New Holl. 48. Epacris fpuria; Cavan. Ic. v. 4.

27. t. 347. f. 1.)—Spikes copious, axillary, folitary, of,

three or four flowers. Leaves oblong-linear, {preading,
fharp-pointed ; recurved at the edges; roughifh above.
Bracteas pointlefs. Inner calyx-leaves membranous. Drupa
dry, angular.—Native of New South Wales, and of Van
Diemen’s land. A buthy /orub, with haves {carcely half an
inch long, almoft every one of which is accompanied by a
much fhorter axillary /pike of three or four flowers. The
fegments of the corolla are ftraight and fharp, looking red-
difh (as Cavanilles defcribes them) when dry, elegantly
bearded with white hairs, which, as the flowers open, feem to
form a denfé web in the mouth of each.

‘To this feGtion alfo belong, among others, the Styphelie,
tab. 64, 65, 66, 67, of Labillardiere.

3. Spikes axillary or terminal. Leaves heart-foaped. Calyx
and braéeas membranous or leafy. Five {pecies.

L. amplexicaulis. Brownn, 21. (Styphelia amplexicaulis ;
Rudge Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 292. t.8.)—Spikes axillary
and terminal, fpreading, ftalked, longer than the leaves,
which are heart-fhaped, pointlefs, clafping the ftem; mi-
nutely downy beneath ; recurved and fringed at the edge.
Branches hairy. Drupa lenticular, of two cells——Found
near Port Jackfon. The flems are feveral from one root,
mottly fimple, round, reddifh, clothed with fine horizontal
hairs. Leaves {preading, near an inch long, half an inch
wide, with many ribs. Calyw and braéeas {mooth, acute.
Segments of the corc/la recurved, very hairy. Drupa com-
preffed, oblique. p

L. diftans. Brown n. 23.—Spikes terminal, aggregate,

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zigzag. Flowers diftant. Leaves ovate, fomewhat heart-
fhaped, deflexed, pointlefs, minute ; convex above ; downy
beneath. Drupa cruftaceous, obovate, flat-topped, of five
cells. Gathered at King George’s found by Mr. Menzies,
to whom Mr. Brown, like ourfelves, was indebted for f{pe-
cimens. The branches are long, clothed with numerous
little reflexed convex /eaves. Spikes very peculiar, being
long, flender, with remarkably zigzag, downy ftalks.
Braéeas heart-fhaped, concave, ribbed, permanent. Calya-
leaves very broad. Segments of the corolla recurved, very
denfely bearded.

4. Spikes terminal. Calyx and braéeas rather leafy. Drupa
dry. Leaves not heart-fhaped. Eight {pecies.

L. microphyllus. Brown n. 26. (Perojoa microphylla;
Cavan. Ic. v. 4. 29. t. 349. f. 2.)—Spikes cluftered, of few
flowers. Leaves of the calyx pointed, half membranous.
Bra€teas leafy, ribbed. Leaves oval, flat, obtufe, point-
lefs ; of the fame colour on both fides. Drupa cruftaceous,
of one or two cells.—Native of the neighbourhood of Port
Jackfon. A pretty little /brub, with minute, rather imbri-
cated, {mooth, thickifh aves. The little /pikes of flowers,
cluftered about the ends of each branch, form round heads.
The inner leaves of the calyx are narrow, acute, fmooth, and
thin. Segments of the corolla thick, recurved, very denfely
covered with white hairs, as in L. di/fans, and indeed the
generality of the {pecies.

5. Stalks axillary, two-flowered ; here and there only fingle-
flowered ; in which cafe there.are feveral braéeas. Drupa
dry. Fifteen {pecies.

L. acuminatus. Brown n. 37.—Stalks very fhort, ered,
moftly two-flowered. Leaves nearly upright, linear-lanceo-
late, very fharp, flat, with a briftly point ; their margins
rough, finely toothed.—Found by Mr. Brown in the tro-
pical part of New Holland, as are fix others of this fection,
one of them, L. ru/cifolius, having been difcovered there by
fir Jofeph Banks. Moft of the reft are natives of Port
Jackfon, but none of them have come under our infpeétion.

This is, on the whole, a very elegant as well as natural
genus, and it is to be regretted that only one of the fpecies
has hitherto been made known to our cultivators of curious
plants. The plumy whitenefs of the flowers gives a flriking
and peculiar afpe& to the whole.

LEUCOPSIS, in Zoology, a genus of the Hymenoptera
order, of the clafs Infefta. The mouth is horny with fhort
jaws ; the mandible thick and three-toothed at the tip; the
lip, which is longer than the jaw, is membranaceous, and emar-
ginate at the tip ; it has four feelers, fhort, equal, and fili-
form ; antenne fhort and clavate; thorax with a long lan-
ceolate fcale beneath; wings folded; fting reflexed and
concealed in a groove of the abdomen. ‘There are four
fpecies, all foreign infe€ts; three found in the fouth of
Europe, and one in Tranquebar.

Species.

Gicas. Black ; thorax with two dorfal yellow dots ; ab-
domen feffile, with four yellow bands. It inhabits France ;
the wings are dufky ; hind-thighs with numerous teeth.

Dorsicera. Abdomen feffile, black, with two yellow
bands, and a dot between them. It is found in Italy, Swit-
zerland, France,and fome parts of Germany. Head is black ;
thorax gibbous, black with a double tranfverfe yellow line ;
abdomen comprefled and grooved on the back ; {ting double,
as long as the abdomen, and reflexed back into the abdo-
minal groove; legs yellow, fpotted with black; hind legs

‘toothed, with a black {pot. This beautiful infeét is figured in
Adams’ work on the microfcope; the drawing was taken
from a fpecimen in her prefent majefty’s cabinet of infects.

II There

LEU

There is one alfo in the cabinet of Linnzus, now in the
pofleffion of our very able coadjutor, Dr. Smith, P. L. S.
It appears at firft fight like a wafp, to which genus the
folded. wings would have reterred it, had not the remarkable
fting or tube on the back have prevented it. It is thought
to be a fpecies between, and uniting the {phex and wafp, in
fome degree partaking of the characters of both. The an-
tennz are black and cylindrical, increafing in thicknefs
towards the extrémity ; the joint neareft the head is yellow ;
the head-is black; fo alfo is the thorax, encompafled with a
round yellow line, and furnifhed with a crofs one of the fame
colour near the head. The fcutellum is yellow ; the abdo-
men black, with two yellow bands, and a {pot of the fame
colour on each fide between the bands. The anus and the
whole body, when viewed with a low magnificr, appear
punctuated, and the points, when examined carefully, feem
to be hexagonal, and in the centre of each hexagon a {mall
hair is feen.
Periorata. Black; abdomen petiolate ferruginous ;
the petiole with a yellow dot each fide. It is found in
Tranquebar. The thorax is elevated, with two yellow
ftreaks before ; under the {cutel isa yellow dot ; the fecond
fegment of the abdomen is edged with yellow, and the tail
is black ; legs black edged with yellow; wings black.

Catocaster. Abdomen feflile; fcale of the thorax
half as long as the abdomen. It is found in fome parts of
Germany. The thorax has a yellow band behind, and the
eyes are black.

LEUCORRHAA, in Medicine, rvx2Zgeinx, literally fig-
nifying fluor albus, or white flux, is a diforder of the uterus
or its paflages, from which a whitifh or pale coloured fluid
is difcharged, accompanied by pain in the loins, confiderable
lofs of itrength, and a wan fickly afpect. It is commonly
exprefled by the appellation of ** the whites’’ by the patients,
or is fimply called «a weaknefs.”’

Every ferous or puriform difcharge from the vagina has
been comprehended under this appellation: it is obvious,
however, that fuch difcharges may be various, and may
proceed from various fources. They may proceed more
efpecially from the veffels of the uterus itfelf, or from thofe
of the vagina only. In the latter cafe, which is probably
not a very common occurrence, the caufe of the excretion
mutt be purely local : it fometimes happens during the period
of pregnancy. In thefe inftances, there mutt be either a
local weaknefs and relaxation of the parts, or fome irritation
may exift or have been applied, fo as to excite the mucous
glands, the fecretion from which ferves to lubricate the
parts, to pour out their fluids in an unufual quantity. The
exiftence of little aphthous ulcerations within the labia fome-
times gives rife to fuch a difcharge, in which cafe there is
alfo.a confiderable degree of forenefs and tendernefs in the

‘parts; and the ufe of thofe inftruments, called peffaries,
has been faid to produce a fluor albus, from the pain and
irritation which they occafion.

In general, however, the difcharge of leucorrhza pro-
ceeds at the fame veffels of theuterus itfelf which pour
out the catamenia. This inference may be deduced from
the following circumftances. In the firft place, the leucor-
rhea ismoft common in thofe women who are fubje& to an
immoderate flow of the menfes. Secondly, it appears prin-

‘ cipally, and often exclufively, a little time preceding, aad
_again pofterior to the meaftrual difcharge ; the latter dimi-

nifhing in proportion as the leucorrhwa is increafed, or feem- ©

ing to be converted into the leucorrhea.

Thirdly, the

“leucorrhza often continues after the period when the cata-°

menia have altogether ceafed, and frequently fhews a confi-
derable tendency to a periodical recurrence.’ And laftly,

LEU

it is commonly accompanied with the fame local and con-
ftitutional fymptoms as an exceflive flow of the menfes ;
fuch as palent{s of the countenance, a feeble pulfe, an un-
ufual debility on taking exercife, a hurry of the breathin

from even moderate exertion ; and at the fame time the tame
becomes pained by any continuance in the ereét pofture, the
extremities are frequently cold, and fome cedema affeéts the
feet in the evening. The debility alfo manifefts itfelf by
affections of the ftomach ; fuch as lofs of appetite, flatu-
lence, and other fymptoms of indigeftion ; by palpitations of
the heart, with frequent fenfations of finking and fluttering
about the epigaftric region, and even a¢tual fyncope; and
by a depreflion of {pirits, and a weaknefs of mind liable to
{trong emotions from flight caufes, efpecially when ope-
rating fuddenly ; in a word, by all: the train of diftrefling
fymptoms which have been denominated nervous. The in-
ference, that the difcharge is uterine, is farther confirmed,
when it is obferved, that it had neither been preceded nor
accompanied by any fymptoms of a local affeGtion of the
vagina; and that it had not appeared foon after commu-
nication with a perfon who might be fufpected of giving
infeétion ; nor had, from the firft appearance, been ac-
companied with any iaflammatory affection of the pudenda

The laft obfervation applies particularly to the diagnofis
between the difcharge of leucorrhea and that arifing from
venereal infe€tion ; a point which is worthy of more par-
ticular confideration. It is very eafy to diitinguifh a fimple
leucorrhza from a recent gonorrhea ; for befides the general
debility, and the nervous fymptoms above-mentioned, which
frequently accompany the former, the colourlefs nature of
the difcharge, which only ftiffens, without ftaining the linen,
and the abfence of all heat and fcalding on pafling the urine,
together with the ceflation of the difcharge at the time of
menttruation, fufficiently charaéterize the leucorrhza ; whilft
in the gonorrhea there is itching, inflammation, and heat of
urine, the orifice of the urinary paflage is prominent and
painful, there is frequent irritation to make water, and the
difcharge ftains the linen of a yellow or greenifh colour.
But it muft be remembered, that the difcharges from the
vagina, which have been denominated leucorrhza, are fome-
times opaque and of a yellowifh colour, and fometimes
accompanied with a degree of ardor urine and inflammation
of the external labia. This may happen in women of bad
habit of body, or where there is ulceration in the vagina or
uterus ; but in both thefe cafes the difcharge is of a fanious
nature, and very offenfive ; and in the latter is commonly
accompanied with fevere pains in the region of the uterus,
and extending from the loins round the pelvis to the groins,
and even down the thighs. The difcharge is fometimes fo
acrimonious, in thefe inftances, as to inflame and excoriate
the paffages. In the herpetic or aphthous affetion of the
orifice of the pudendum, there is heat of urine with the
difcharge ; but the difcharge is very {canty, and the labia
extremely tender and fore, fo as fearcely to admit of fitting,
except upon a foft feat; which does not take place either
in proper leucorrhza, or in gonorrhea in general. . In many
cafes, the circumftances of the patient, which render it
either impoffible or in the higheft degree improbable that
any infectious conneGtion cam have taken place, will of
courfe admit of no hefitation in the decifion ; and it is often
upon thefe circumftances alone that the praCtitioner is obliged
to depend in forming his opinion.

The caufes of leucorrhea are chiefly to be fought for
among thofe agents and circumitances, which tend’ to pro-
duce a debility of the fyftem in general, or of the uterus
in particular. Of the former kind, are imperfect diet, fa-
tigue, anxiety, and much watching ; the practice of En

ng

LEV

Ving children too long ; damp, clofe, and uncleanly habi-
tatiens ; caufes which chiefly operate among women of the
lower clafs, ‘T’o thefe may be added, the almoft total want of
proper exercife, living too much in warm chambers, and drink-
ing much of avarm enervating liquors, fuch as tea and coffee,
which influence principally women of better ftations. The
fources of local debility to the uterine fyftem itfelf are
many; fuch as blows, bruifes, and falls ; frequent abortions,
or frequent child-bearing without nurfing, difficult and te-
dious labours, profufe difcharge of the catamenia, or of the
lochia after delivery ; venus immodica; &c.

On the other hand, the effet of leucorrhza, efpecially
when it has continued long, is, in many cafes, to prevent
‘conception and occafion barrennefs ; or, if conception take
place, to produce a fueceffion of mifcarriages ; not to men-
tion the conftitutional and nervous derangement already de-
fcribed. However, if the lewcorrhza be moderate, and be
not accompanied with any confiderable overflow of the cata-
menia, it may often continue long without inducing any
great degree of debility ; and it is only when the difcharge
has been very copious, as well as conftant, that its effects in
that way are very remarkable.

The means of cure will confit of thofe expedients which
contribute to ftrengthen the general habit, and the uterine
fyftem locally. The fyftem generally is to be fupported
by all thofe means which regimen, diet, and medicine con-
tribute ; namely, by light and nutritious diet ; by moderate
exercife, by fome means of geftation, as in a carriage, on
horfeback, or failing (the exercife of walking, both from
the conftant ere& pofture, and the aétion of the mufcles,
being liable to produce irritation, and to augment the
uterine difcharge); by the ufe of the tepid or cold bath,
according to the ftrength of the patient, and the feafon of
the year; by drinking the chalybeate mineral waters ; or
by taking fome of the preparations of iron in the way of
medicine, efpecially the muriated tin€ture, or the fulphate,
together with the cinchona, or other vegetable tonics. The
mineral acids are fometimes beneficial under the fame circum-
itances,

The uterus itfelf and its conneGtions may be ftrengthened
either by dircé& local applications, or by internal medicines,
which are commonly determined to the urinary paffages, and
from the vicinity of thefe are often communicated to the
uterus. Thefe laft mentioned medicines are cantharides,
turpentine, and balfams of a fimilar nature ; by which the
difeafe has often been relieved or even cured. The former
clafs includes a variety of aftringent lotions and inje€tions,
by which the difcharge may alfo be often diminifhed, and
in young women, when the complaint is recent, entirely
cured. Thus the parts may be wafhed twice or three times
a day with a weak folution of the acetite of lead, or of
alum, in rofe water; or an infufion of rofe leaves, or of
green tea, or the chalybeate mineral waters, make very pro-
per lotions: or thefe liquors may be thrown into the vagina
twice a day, through an ivory pipe, by means of the elaftic
gum. But in general inje¢tions are unwillingly ufed, unlefs
when the difeafe is inveterate. When the matter difcharged
is acrimonious, and inflames and excoriates the parts, or
excites very troublefome and painful itching, the greate{t
relief 1s obtained by keeping the parts clean and cool, re-
moving the acrimonious matter frequently by bathing with
cold water, or with any of the above-mentioned altringent
liquors.

Dr. Hamilton remarks, that women have, in many in-
flances, been cured of the moft obftinate habitual fluor
albus by giving fuck. See his Treatife on Midwifery, pt. i.

LEU
chap. 1. p. 68. See alfo Cullen, Firft Lines, § 985. Leake
on the Chron. Dif, of Women.

LEUCORODIUS, in Ornithology, a name by which fome
have called the platea, or {poonbill, a very remarkable kind
of ftork or heron.

LEUCORYX, Antimorr or Antelope leucoryx, in Zoo-
logy, the Gazella Indica, having fingular horns, of Noy,
Com. Petrop. xili. 470. 1.10. f.5.Oryx of Oppian, Cyneg. ii.
v. 445, leucoryx of Pennant, is afpecies of Antelope, which
has very long, flender, upright; taper, fharp-pointed horns,
very flightly bent backwards and annulated at the bale;
the body being of a milk-white colour. It inhabits the
ifland of Gow Babhreia, in the bottom of the Perfian gulf,
near Baffora. It is about the fize of a Welfh runt or {mall
cow; the head is large and broad, with a thick broad mofe,
like that of a cow, and fomewhat flouching ears ; the body is
thick and clumfy, and the whole is of a pure white except
the middle of the face, the fides of the cheeks, and the limbs,
which are tinged with red: the tail is longifh, and is tufted
at the end with a brufh of hairs; the horns are of a black
colour. Dr. Pallas mentions a horn, apparently belonging
to this animal, or fome fpecies nearly refembling it, which
was found in a foffile ftate, in Siberia. The female comes
into feafon in autumn, and brings forth in {pring.

LEUCOSCEPTRUM, in Botany, a new genus named~
by Dr. Smith, is derived from Acuxo:, white, and sxnmlen, a
Jfeeptre, on account of its elegant {ceptre-fhaped {pike of
white flowers. The author of this genus remarks that * it
has the habit of a Buddleia, but belongs to the fecond feétion
of Vitices in Juffieu, near Verbena ; and fhould, along with
Verbena, and near Mentha in the Linnean fyftem.””—Sm.
Exot. Bot. v. 2. 113.—Clafs and order, Didynamia Gym-
nofpermia. Nat. Ord. fee above. :

Eff. Ch. Corolla unequal, in four fegments ; the upper-
molt deeply cloven. Calyx five-cleft. Stamens declining,
much longer than the corolla, parallel. Seeds four.

1. L.canum. Hoary Leucofceptrum. Sm. Exot. Bot.
t. 116.—This is the only fpecies known, and was gathered
by Dr. Buchanan inthe woods of Upper Nepal, where it
flowers in December, and is called Mut/ola by the Nawars,
The branches are obtufely quadrangular, compreffed, clothed
with fine, denfe, whitifh pubefcence. Leaves on fhortifh,
downy footltalks, oppofite, elliptical, pointed and tapering
at both ends, bluntly ferrated, veiny ; green and naked
above; white and downy beneath. Spite terminal, folitary,
feMile, ereét, cylindrical, denfe, many-flowered. Braéeas
{mall, in four rows, oppofite, each common to many flowers.
Calyx tubular, downy ; its margin obtufe, unequally five-
clett. Corolla longer than the calyx, with a fhort tube; the
limb in four, very unequal, obtufe fegments, of which the
uppermoit is deeply divided; the lowermolt, or lip, large,
concave, and entire. Stamens declining, parallel, thread-
fhaped, fmooth ; the two longeft double the length of the
lip. Anthers roundifh, two-lobed, yellowith. Germen fu-
perior, four-lobed. Svy/e declining, as long as the longer
ftamens, withacloven, acute ftizma. Seeds four, truncated,
naked, in the bottom of the calyx.

This is one of the numerous fplendid plants fent by Dr.
Buchanan, from the mountains of Nepal, to Dr. Smith,
which fo greatly enrich the work whence the above defcrip-
tion is chiefly taken.

LEUCOSPERMUM, fo named by Mr. Brown, froma
Azuxo:, white, and onteux, the feed. Brown Tr, of Linn.
Soc. vy. 10. 95. Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. 2. v. 1. 195. (Leuca-
dendron ; Salif. Parad. t. 116. Protez, feét. 3, piltillis capi-
tatis; Linn. Mant. 2. 191.)—Clafs and order, Tetrandria

Monogynia.

L.-Es-¥
Wonogynia. Nat. Ord. Aggregate, Linn, Protez, Jufl, Pro-

teacee, Brown.

Gen. Ch. Ca/. Common Perianth of numerous fingle-
flowered fcales, collected into a head, either permanent and
hardened, or membranous and deciduous. Cor Petals four,
irregular, linear; three of them cohering by their lower
part ; the fourth feparate and narrower. Stam. Filaments
four, fhort, inferted into the petals; anthers linear, con-
cealed by the petals, of two cells, burfting Iengthwife.
Pijt. Germen fuperior, feflile, roundifh; ftigma cylin-
drical, rigid, deciduous; ftigma fwelling, fmooth, fome-
what oblique. Peric. Nut tumid, fmooth, fingle-feeded.

Eff. Ch. Petals four, unequal, three of them cohering
by their lower part. Anthers funk in the hollows of the
upper part of the petals. Style deciduous. Stigma {welling,
fmooth. Nut fuperior, feffile, tumid, [mooth.

Eighteen {pecies are defined by Mr. Brown, all natives of
fouthern Africa, about the Cape of Good Hope, growing
for the moft part in dry, fandy, rather elevated fituations.
Eight of them are cultivated in the Royal Garden at Kew.
The whole are divided into two feétions ; the firft having a
rounder head of flowers, whofe calyx-fcales are permanent,
becoming fomewhat hardened, of which defcription are
fourteen {pecies ; the remaining four have a flatter common
receptacle, with narrow deciduous feales, of which the
innermoft are very thin and chaffy. All are /brubs of
rather humble growth, rarely arborefcent ; many of them
downy or hairy. eaves either entire, or furnifhed with
callous teeth at the extremity. #/owers yellow, in terminal
heads.

An interefting fpecimen of this genus is

L. tomentofum. Brown. n. 13. Ait. Hort. Kew. n. 7.
(Protea tomentofa; Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 1.514. Linn. Suppl.
118. P. candicans; Andr. Repof. t. 294.)—Style nearly the
length of the corolla. Stemereét. Leaves linear or wedge-
fhaped, downy, three-toothed. Calyx-fcales lanceolate,
nearly equal to the tube of the corolla.—This is faid to be
very rare in England. Mr. Maffon fent it from the Cape to
Kew in 1789, and Mefirs. Lee and Kennedy raifed it from
feed the year following. The whole /brub is clothed with
fine fhort down of a glaucous hue, the /fem rather hairy.
Leaves two inches long, various in breadth, fpreading, co-
riaceous, dilated outwards, bluntly and unequally three-
toothed at the end. Heads of flowers produced in Auguit
and September, terminal, fojitary, feffile, about the fize of
a walnut, variegated with orange and yellow, their fcales
tipped with dark brown. Few of the Proteaceous tribe
are more difficult to increafe by cuttings.

LEUCOSTAPHYLOS, a name given by fome authors
to the water-elder, or opulus.

LEVE', Fr. in Mujfic, the up, an unaccented part
of a bar in beating time. See ARsis, and AccENT, in
Mufic.

LEVEL, a mathematical inftrument ufed for drawing a
line parallel to the horizon, and continuing it out at pleafure ;
and, by this means, for finding the true level, or the
difference of afcent or defcent between feveral places, for
conveying water, draining fens, placing the furfaces of floors,
&c. level, and for various other purpofes in agricalture, ar-
chiteéture, hydraulics, furveying, &c.

The word comes from the Latin /idel//a, the crofs beam
that forms the brachia of a balance, which, to be jult, muft
ftand horizontally.

There is a great variety of inftruments of this kind, diffe-
rently conitructed, and conftituted of different materials,
according to the particular purpefes to which they are ap-

LEV

plied, as the carpenters’ level, mafons’ level, balance level,
mercurial levels, furveying and fpiral levels. But, however
their conftruction may vary, they may be all referred to the
following three claffes: viz. 1. Thofe in which a vertical
line is determined by a fufpended plumb-line, or a balance
weight, and the horizontal pofition is fhewn by a line per-
pendicular to it. 2. Thofe which determine a level line by
the furface of a fluid. 3. Spirit-levels, which point out the
horizontal direGtion by a bubble of air floating in a fluid
contained ina glafs tube. For the purpofes of agriculture,
thofe of the improved water, air, fpirit, and foot kinds are
motft commonly ufed.

Thofe of the firft kind, depending upon the plumb-line,
are very common, but not very accurate: the fimple{t form
is that of two rulers, united together in the form of the letter
L; they mutt be exa&tly perpendicular to each other : then
if a plumb-line is fufpended from the top of the vertical
ruler, and the edge thereof be made to coincide with the
plumb-line, the other ruler muft be horizontal. This, when
applied to the top of a wall, abeam, or floor, will thew if
they arehorizontal. ‘This is the kind of level ufed by arti-
ficers: fometimes it is found like the letter A, of three rulers,
the plumb-line being fufpended from the vertex, and the two
legs fet on the furface to be levelled. The line hangs oppofite
toa mark, made on the middle of the crofs ruler, when the
feet are on the fame level. Befides thefe there are many
other forms. For an inftrument of this kind, fee Plate IV.
Surveying, fiz. 5.

Lever, Plumb, or Pendulum, that which fhews the hori-
zontal line by means of another line perpendicular to that
defcribed by its plummet, or pendulum.

It confifts of two legs, or branches, joined together at
right angles, whereof that which carries the thread or
plummet is about a foot anda half long. This thread is
hung towards the top of the branch, at the point 2, The
middle of the branch where the thread paffes is hollow, that
it may hang free every where but towards the bottom,,
where there is a little blade of filver, whereon: is drawn a
line perpendicular to the telefeope. The faid cavity is co-.
vered by two pieces of brafs, making, as it were, a kind of
cafe, leit the wind fhould agitate the thread ;. fer which rea-
fon the filver blade is covered with aglafs G, to the end
that it may be feen when the thread and plummet play. upon
the perpendicular. The telefcope r is faftened to the other
branch, or leg, of the inftrument, and is about two feet
long, having a hair placed horizontally acrofs the focus of
the object-glafs, which determines the point of level, when
the {tring and plummet hang againit the line on the filver
blade.

Allthe accuracy of this inftrument depends: on. the. te-
lefcope’s being fitted at right angles to the: perpendicu-
lar. It has a balland focket, by which. it is faftened to
its foot: and is faid to have been the invention of M..
Picard.

Here we may introduce an account of other levels con-
ftruGed on the fame general principle. For the foot-/evel ;
fee Foor-kvel. ;

Levet, drtillery-foot, is in form of a fquare, having its
two legs, or branches, of an equal length ;, at a junétura
of which isa little hole, whence hangs a thread and plummet,
playing ona perpendicular line in the middle of a quadrant ;
it is frequently divided into go degrees, or rather into twice-
45 degrees from the middle. See jig. 6.

This inftrument may be ufed on other cccafions, by plac-
ing the end of its two branches on a plane; for when the

5 thread.

LEVE &

thread plays perpendicularly over the middle divifion of the
quadrant, that plane is afluredly level.

To ufe it in gunnery, place the two ends on the piece of
artillery, which you may raife to any propofed height by
means of the plummet, whofe thread will give tke degree
above the level.

LeveL, Carpenters? and Paviors’, confitts of a long ruler,
in the middle whereof is fitted, at right angles, another
fomewhat bigger, at the top of which is faftened a line with a
plummet ; which, when it hangs over a fiducial line at right
angles with the bafe, fhews that the faid bafe is hori-
zontal.

This and the mafons’ level, though very common, are
efteemed the beit for the practice of building, though the
operations by them can only be fhort.

Lever, Gunners’, for levelling cannons and mortars, is an
inftrument reprefented in Plate lV. Surveying, fig. 7, con-
fifting of a triangular brafs plate, about four inches high :
at the bottom of which is a portion of acircle, divided into
45°, which number is fufficient for the higheft elevation of
cannons and mortars, and for giving fhot the greateft range.
On the centre of this fegment of a circle is ferewed a piece
of brafs, by means of which it may be fixed, or moved, at
pleafure. The end of this piece of brafs is made fo as to ferve
for a plummet and index, in order to fhew the different de-
grees of elevation of pieces of artillery. This inftrument
has alfo a brafs foot to fet upon cannon or mortars, fo as
when thofe pieces are horizontal, the whole inftrument will
be perpendicular,

The ufe of this level is obvious, and confifts in placing the
foot thereof on the piece to be elevated; in fuch manner as
that the point of the plummet may fall on the proper degree :
this is what they call /evelling the piece. :

The moft curious inftrument for the ufe of the artillerift,
was lately invented by the very ingenious colonel Congreve,
of the royalartillery ; having the following qualifications
viz. -1. It will find the inclination of any plane, whether
above or below the horizon. 2. By applying it either
tothe cylinder, or outfide of any piece of ordnance, angles
of elevation or depreffion may be given to the 6oth part
of a degree, with lefs trouble than the common gunners’
quadrant, which only gives to the 4th part of a degree.
3. It will give the line of direGtion for laying either guns or
mortars to an obje&t above or below the horizon. 4. It will
find the centre of metals of any piece of ordnance. 5. With
it, a point may be found in the rear of a mortar-bed, in the
vertical plane of the mortar’s axis; confequently a longer
line of fight is given for direCting them to the object than
the ufual way. 6. It anfwers all the purpofes of a pair of
callipers, with the advantage of knowing (to the roodth part
of an inch) diameters, whether concave or convex, without
the trouble of laying the claws upon a diagonal fcale.
7. On the fides of the inftrument are the following lines,
viz. equal parts, folids, planes, and polygons, logarithms,
tangents, verfed fines, fines and numbers, plotting {cales,
and diagonal feale of inches for cutting fuzes by. 8. In
the lid of the inftrument-cafe is a pendulum to vibrate half
feconds. Itis likewife of fingular ufe in furveying ; as, 1. It
takes horizontal angles to the 60th part of a degree.
2. Vertical angles. 3. Levels. 4. Solves right-angled
plane triangles. 5. Oblique-angled plane triangles. 6. An-
fwers all the purpofes of a protraétor, with the advantage of
laying down angles exaétly as taken in the field. N. B.
Captain Jordane’s ingenious inftrument anfwers nearly the
fame purpofes.

Levet, Maj/ons’, is compofed of three rules, fo joined as

to form an ifofceles triangle, fomewhat like a Roman A ; ac
the vertex whereof is faftened a thread, from which hangs a
plummet, which pafles over a fiducial line marked in the
middle of the bafe, when the thing to which the level is ap-
plied is horizontal ; but declines from the mark when the
thing is lower on one fide than the other.

Levet, Balance, for Surveying, confilts of a telefcope or
ruler with fights, and another ruler fixed perpendicularly to
the middle of it, inthe form of T,, witha weight at the lower
end. The whole is fufpended by a thread, or upon centres,
fimilar to a fcale beam, and the weight of the vertical leg
makes the fights or telefcope affume the horizontal pofition.
Its advantage is, that it adjutts itfelf to the level line, which can
be transferred to any diftant object, by obferving it through
the fights ortelefcope. It is neceffary to enclofe it in a box
or cafe to avoid ofcillation fromthe wind. This inftrument is
convenient, duf not very accurate.

Another balance level, called the ‘“ refleGting level,” is of
French invention, afcribed to M. Caffini. A telefcope or
ruler, with plain fights, is fufperded vertically ; a mirror is
fixed juft before the obje& glafs, being inclined at an angle
of 45° with the axis of thetelefcope. Now as the telefcope
hangs vertical, and the mirror bends the rays at a right angle,
they will of courfe be horizontal. The telefeope mutt be pro-
vided with a diagonal eye-piece, to bend the rays again hori-
zontal, for the convenience of obfervation. Other modifica-
tions of this principle by Meilrs. Grandjean and Geuffanes
may be found, in the volumes of the Machines approuvés
par Academie. They are to be confidered as more in-
genious in theory, than applicable to pra€tice.

A balance level, invented by Mr. Richard Drew, is de-
{cribed in the 25th volume of the Tranfaétions of the
Society of Arts. It confifls of a tube, provided with fights
at both ends, and fufpended from a point confiderably above
its centre of gravity. It has a fliding weight, adjuftable by a
fcrew, to place the tube truly horizontal. This is, perhaps,
the beft kind of balance level which has appeared.

To the fecond clafs of levels belongs the water level.
This fhews the horizontal line by means of a furface of water,
or other liquid : founded on this principle, that water always
naturally places itfelf /evel.

The moft fimple is made of along wooden trough, or canal,
whofe fides are parallel to its bafe; fo that being equall
filled with water, the furface thereof fhews the line of level.
This is the chorobates of the ancients, defcribed by Vitruvius,
lib. viii. cap. 6.

The mafons frequently employ this, where they would
make the top or courfes of a wall truly level: they form the
trough by aridge of mortar or clay ftuck round on all fides
on the top furface of the wall; and filling the trough, thus
formed, with water, they can meafure if it is equally. deep
in all parts.

This fort of level is alfo made with two cups fitted to the
two ends of a pipe three or four feet long, about an inch in
diameter ; by means of which the water communicates from
the one tothe other cup ; and this pipe being moveable on
its ftand, by means of a ball and focket, when the two cups
become equally full of water, their two furfaces mark the
line of level.

This inftrument, inftead of cups, may alfo be made with
two fhort cylinders of glafs, three or four inches long, faft-
ened to each extreme of the pipe with wax or maftic. Into
the pipe is filled fome common or coloured water, which fhews
itfelf through the cylinders, by means of which the line of
level is determined ; the height of the water, with refpeét to
the centre of the earth, being always the fame in peat

nders,

LEVEL

linders. This level, though very fimple, is yet very com-
modious for levelling {mall diftances,

Another water level is aglafs tube, bent into the form of
U, having a cup at the top ofeachleg. This being mounted
on a pedettal, and filled with water, or other fluid, it will,
from the principles of hydroftatics, ftand at the fame level
in both cups ; and by looking through the glafs, any diftant
objects which appear to coincide with the furface of the
water, in both cups, will be on the fame level with them.

A refleding level is, that made by means of a pretty long
furface of water, reprefenting the fame objeét inverted,
which we fee ereét by the eye; fo that the point where thofe
two objects appear to meet, is in a level with the place where
the furface of water is found. ‘This is the invention of M.
Mariotte.

Of a fimilar nature are the mercurial levels, but they are
furnifhed with two fmall fights, provided with crofs-hairs :
thefe float upon the furfaces of the fluid in the cups, the
crofs-hairs of each being equally diftant from the furface. A
line feen through the fights will be parallel thereto, and
confequently horizontal. One of thefe by Alexander Keith,
efq. is defcribed and illuftrated by drawings in the 2d vo-
lume of the Edinburgh Tranfaétions, p. 14, &c. from which
we fhall here fubjoin the following extra&t. Fig. 8. (Plate lV.
Surveying,) is a feGtion of the inftrument formed of maho-
gany or boxwood. A,A, are two oblong fquare cavities
connected together by a narrow clofe channel, running from
the bottom of the one tothe other. B, B, are two grooves
hollowed out of the wood, in order to contain the fights,
&c. They are fhut up by a lid, which turns upon a
f{crew-nail at the centre C, as may be feen more diftinétly
from fig. 11.

Fig.9- D,D, are the two fights, the one with a fmall
hole, the other with a crofs-hair. Thefe fights are erected
upon two pieces of ivory or hard wood, which are fhaped
nearly of the dimenfions of the cavities A, A, but fo much
{maller as to enter without touching or rubbing on the
fides. Mercury is poured into the two holes A, A, till they
are about half full; the two pieces of ivory which fupport
the fights are put into the cavities, and float on the furface
of the mercury.

Fig. to. is a perfpeftive view of the inflrument when
the fights are floating upon the mercury ; and jig. 11. is
another view of it, when the fights are taken out and
the lid is open. ;

As the two cavities communicate with each other, the
furface of the mercury in both is always upon the fame
line of level ; and coniequently, if the two fights are once
accurately adjufted, they will ever after point out the
true level, without requiring any after adju{tment.

When this inftrument is to be ufed, it may be laid on
any horizontal furface, and the fights will immediately
become an exaét level. It may alfo be fixed on a tri-
pod as the fpirit-level ; or it will anfwer equally well, if
it is affixed to the top of a fingle ftake, which is fharpened
at the point fo as to be pufhed into the ground. If it is to
be ufed as a pocket-inftrument, it may be made of feven
inches length, being about double the dimenfions of the
annexed draught. A common walking cane forms a very
convenient fupport. It is affixed to the cane by means of a
brafs pin E, which paffes through the hole G, and through
the eye or hole of the walking ftick ; and a brafs nut F,
ferewing to the male-fcrew of the brafs pin, keeps them
firm together. The two grooves B,B, contain the two
fights and brafs pin, when notin ufe. Two corks, covered

Vou. XK. '

with thin leather, fitted into the holes A, A, confine the mer
cury, when the inftrument is to be tranfported ; or, in cale
the mercury is found to efcape, it may be poured into a {mall
cafe, made of lignum vitz, like atooth-pick cafe; and this
may be {topped with a cork, and made to fit into one of the
grooves.

The advantages of this inftrument over the {pirit-level are :
rft, It requires no adjuftment, confequently two obfervers,
though otherwife not equally accurate, mult make the fame
obfervation. 2dly, With this, the level of twenty different
places may be taken during the time required to adjutt the
{pirit-level for one obfervation. 3dly, The nicety of the
{pirit-level depends upon the fmal! curve of the glafs-tube,
in the choice of which no rule can be laid down; neither is
any thing gained, in point of exa¢inefs, by lengthening tle
{pirit-tube above three or four inches. But every inftrument
of this kind is of one ftandard; and the further the two
fights are removed from one another, the more any error 18
diminifhed. 4thly, This inftrument can be made perfeétly
jutt, without taking any obfervation, or comparing it with
another level. In order to do this, let the floats on which
the fights reft, be of the fame dimenfion and weight,
and let the crofs-hair and eye-liole be of one height,
and without farther adjuftment, they will point out the
true level.

To the third clafs of levels belongs the /pirit level, called
alfo the * air /evel,’? which is more accurate than any other
kind, and is moft extenfively ufed. The invention of this in-
ftrument has been afcribed to M. ‘Vhevenot. Others have
attributed this application of a bubble of air to Dr. Hooke.
The inftrument confifts of a cylindrical glafs tube filled with
{pirits of wine, except leaving in it a {mall bubble of air: its
ends are hermetically fealed to keep in the fluid. This bubble,
being the lighteft of the contents of the tube, will, by the
laws of hydrottatics, always run towards that end of the tube
which is moft elevated ; but when the tube is perfedcily hori-
zontal, the bubble wil! have no tendency towards either end.
The tube is not itri€ily cylindrical withinfide, though it bears
that appearance ; it is flightly curved, the convex fide being
upwards, and by this means the bubble will reft in the middle
of the tube when it is horizontal, but approaches either
end which is elevated above the other. The fimpleft form of
a {pirit level for fixing any plane truly horizontal, confiils of
a glafs tube of the above defcription, calied a bubble tube,
fixed into a block of wood, as at AB, fig. 1. of Plate V.
Surveying. The lower furface DE of the block is made
flat ; and when’the bubble C ftands between two {cratches
marked on the glafs at a 4, the line D E ishorizontal. The
method of making it correé is this; the tube is firit fitted
into the block, the lower edge, D E, of which is placed on
a bench or table as nearly horizontal as can be determined,
fo that the bubble ftands between the feratches a, 6. ‘The level
is now reverfed, that is, the end D is put where E was at
firft. In this pofition, if the bubble ftands in the middie, jit
proves the level to be correét, and the table horizontal; but
if it runs to either end of the tube, it fhews that end to be
too much elevated: fuppofe it B, for intiance ; this end of
the tube muft therefore be let deeper into the wood, or the
furface DE re€tified to produce-the fame effect s, one-halt
the error muft be compenfated by this means, and the other
half by reétifying the table or fupport ; for D E, the levei,
mutt now be reverfed again to verify thefe corrections ; and
when they are fo made that the bubble fiands at a 4, cither
way, the level is correét.

To illuttrate this more plainly, fee fz. 2, wiuich reprefents
a fe&tion of a bubble tube; but, for elucidation, is thewn as

4H i

LEVEL

if curved much more than they are ever made. Suppofe the
convex or upper furface of the tube to be a fegment of a large
circle BCD, from the laws of hydrottatics it is plain, that
the bubble of air, being the lighteft body in the tube, will
certainly occupy the higheft point of the circle at C ; and the
two points B, D, being equally diftant therefrom, will be in
the fame horizontal line B ED. The larger the radius of the
circle D B, fo will the level be the more fenfible of any de-
viation from the horizontal, becaufe the bubble will have to
traverfe a greater diftance along the tube, in proportion to
any partial elevation of either end. The numerous {pirit levels
applied to the delicate aftronomical inftruments made by
Mr. Troughton, and defcribed in our articles CircLe,
Equatorial, Transit, &c. are, in general, forined by
grinding the infide of the tube to a circle of near 400 feet
radius. In alevelof this kind, the elevation of one minute of
a degree, of the line BED, will produce a motion of three
inches of the bubble ; therefore a fecond will be 1-20th of
an inch, and may be determined to the greatett precifion. For
common purpoles, the bubble tubes have a much more rapid
curvature, and are proportionably lefs fenfible, which is very
proper, becaufe the bubbles of fuch’ delicate levels can never,
m common ufe, be brought to ftand at all fteady, from the
bending of the floors, and tremors of the fupports they are
applied to. The application of the bubble tube has been
fhewn in numerous in{tances in the articles above-mentioned ;
but the inftrument denominated the fpirit-level, for fur-
veying, remains to be defcribed here. The moft fimple form
is a ruler of brafs, having a bubble tube fixed down upon
the middle of it ; at each end of the ruler a fight is ere¢ted,
through which the obferver views any diftant object, whofe
level is to be afcertained. This inflrument is fitted upon a
fupport with three legs, and has a ball and focket, by which
the ruler and fights can be turned about in all directions, un-
til the bubble fhews it to be hortzontal. The in{trument in
this form, which is the original, is fo extremely inconve-
nient for ufe, that it is totally unfit for the delicate ob-
fervations neceflary for fetting out canals, and other works,
where the conveyance of water is concerned, and is therefore
but very little ufed, except in levelling for roads, where an
error is of flight importance. After having defcribed
fome progreflive improvements in this inftrument, we fhall
proceed to the defcription of the level with telefcopic fights,
which is univerfally employed for the above purpofes.

The air-level, with fights, is an improvement of the fim-
ple air-level already defcribed; which, by the addition of
more apparatus, becomes more commodious and exatt.

It confifts of an air-level (Plate VI. Surveying, fig. 4.)
about eight inches long, and feven or eight inches in dia-
meter, fet in a brafs tube, with an aperture in the middle.
The tubes are carried ina ftrong, {traight ruler, a foot long, at
whofe ends are fixed two fights, exaétly perpendicular to
the tubes, and of an equal height, having a fquare hole,
formed by two fillets of brafs, crofling each other at right
angles; in the middle whereof is drilled a very little hole,
through which a point on a level with the inftrument is
defcribed. The: brafs. tube is faftened on the ruler by means
of two fcrews; one whereof, marked 4, ferves to raife or
deprefs the tube at pleafure, for bringing it towards the
level. The top of the ball, and focket is rivetted to a, little
ruler that {prings ; one end. whereof is. faftened with fcrews,
to the great ruler, and the other end has a ferew 5,
ferving to raife and deprefs the inftrument, when nearly
level.

This inftrument is yet lefs commodious than the follow-
ing one, becaufe, though the holes be ever fo {mall,, yet

they will {till take im too great a {pace to determine the
point of level precifely.

Leven, Air, with telefeopic fights. ‘This level, repre-
fented in Plate VI. Surveying, fig. 2, is like the lait; with.
this difference, that, inftead of plain fights, it carries a tele-
fcope, to determine exactly a point of level at a good ~
diftance.

The telefcope is in a little brafs tube, about fifteen inches
long, fattened on the fame rule asthe level, At the end of
the tube of the telefcope marked 1, enters the lictle tube 1,
carrying the eye-glafs and a hair horizontally placed in the
focus of the objeét-glafs 2; which little tube may be drawn,
out, or pufhed into the great one, for adjulting the telefcope
to different fights. At the other end of the tclefcope is
placed the object-glafs ; the ferew 3 is for railing or lowerin
the little fork carrying the hair, and making it agree wit
the bubble of air when the inftrument is level; and the
ferew 4 is for making the bubble of air agree with the tele-
fcope. The whole is fitted to a ball and focket.

M. Hnygens is faid to have been the inventor of this
level ; which has this advantage, that it may be inverted, by
turning the ruler and telefcope half round ; and if then, the-
hair cut the fame point that it did before the turn, it is a
proof the operation is jutt.

It may be obferved, that one may add a telefcope to any
kind of level, by applying it upon, or parallel to, the bafe, or
ruler, when there is occafion to take the level of remote ob-
jects.

: For the method of adapting a level to the meridian tele~
{cope, fee TeLrscore.

Mr. Hadley has contrived a fpirit-level to be fixed to a
quadrant for taking a meridional altitude at fea, when
the horizon is not vifible. See the defeription and figure-
of it in the Phil. Tranf, N® 430, p. 167, &c. er Mar-
tyn’s Abridg. vol. vii. p. 358, &c. See alfo the method
of preparing and ufing @ water level, ard a mercurial level,.
annexed to Davis's quadrant, for the fame purpofe, by Mr..
Leigh, in Phil. Franf. N° 451. p. 413.. or Abr. vol. viii. —
p- 360, &e.

Leven of M. Huygens’s Invention confitts of a telefcope,,
a, (Plaie V1. Surveying, fig. 3.) in form of a cylinder-;:
going through a ferril, in which it is faftened by the middle.
This ferril has two flat branches, & 4, one above and the
other below ; at the ends of which are faftened little moving
pieces, which carry two rings, by one of which the tele~
{cope is fufpended to.a hook at the end of the ferew 3 ;- and
by the other, a pretty heavy weight is fufpended in order to
keep the telefeope m equilibrio. This weight hangs in the-
box 5, which is almoft filed with linfeed oil, oit of walnuts,.
or other matter thac will not eafily coagulate, for more-
aptly fetting the balance of the weight and telefeope. The
inftrument carries. two telefcopes, clofe and very parallel to.
each other, the eye-glafs of the one being againi{t the ob.
jeGt-glafs of the other, that one may fee each way withont
turning the level. In the focus of the objeét-glafs of each,
telefcope, mutt a little hair be ftrained horizontally, to be
raifed or lowered as. occafion requires, by a little ferew.
If the tube of the telefcope be not found level when fuf-
pended, a ferril or ring, 4, is put on it, and isto be flid
along till it &xes to a level. ‘The hook on which the inftra-
ment is hung, is fixed’ to. a flat wooden erofs ; at the ends
of each arm of which there is a hook, ferving to keep the.
telefeope from too much agitation in ufing, or in carriage.
To the faid.flat crofs is applied another Kollow. crofs, that
ferves as a:cafe for the inftrument ; but the two ends are.
left open, that the telefcope may,be fecured from the wea~

, . other,

LEVEL.

ther, and siways in. a condition to ufe.. The foot of this
inftrument is a round brafs plate, to which are faltened three
brafs ferrils, moveable by means of joints, wherein are put
ftaves: and on this foot is placed the box.
_ In the portable /pirit-level, the tube is properly fet in
brafs, and fixed by means of {crews in a {mall brafs trough,
the bottom of which is ground very ftraight. The {crews
are ufeful to place the bubble in fuch a pofition that the
lower furface of the trough may be parallel to a tangent
fuppofed to be applied to the middle point of the curve of
the level. The adjuftment is effected without much diffi-
culty, by placing the level onan adjultable plane, and then
reverfing it. If the bubble ftand accurately in the fame
pofition between two marks made on the tube in both fitu-
ations of the level, it follows, that neither end of the plane
nor of the lower furface of the frame of the levels ele-
vated ; or, in other words, that every furface to which the
Jevel may be applied, and on which the bubble ttands in the
pofition here mentioned, is horizontal.

This eafy praxis may be effected in various ways, accord-
ing to the nature and figure of the inftrument of which the
polition is to be determined; but the accuracy of the refult
will depend upon the fenfibility of the level ; that is to fay,
the fpace paffed over by the bubble for every minute or
fecond of the quadrant, and the certainty with which, under
circumftances precifely fimilar, it fhall arrive at the fame
pofition. In the beft levels the curve mutt be circular ; for
in fuch the bubble will move with more activity, fettle itfelf
with more certainty, and defcribe equal {paces by equal
changes of inclination. An ordinary good f{pirit-level will
exhibit a movement of upwards of half an inch for each
minute of inclination, and alter the pofition of its bubble
by a change of five feconds, or lefs. In fuch a tube the
radius of the curve will be about 150 feet. But extra-
ordinary levels are much more delicate. De Lalande
{peaks of a level filled with ether, the bubble of which
pafled over fourteen inches 4y equal {paces of one-tenth of
‘an inch for every fecond. ‘he radius of this curve was
confequently 1719 feet; or near one-third of a mile.

The tubes of {pirit-levels are felected by trial. If a long
piece of tube be nearly filled with ardent {pirit, and corked
at the ends, the run of the bubble may be tried witha
fuitable inftrument called the level-trier, throughout the
whole length on all fides. By this means it may be known
whether, and in what parts, it may be defirable to. divide
the tube for the purpofes of filling and clofing. It is re-
markable that thefe tubes in general prove either good
thoughout, or good for nothing; for it feldom happens,
where one good level can be taken, that the remainder is
unferviceable. A refpeétable mathematical inltrument-
maker aflures us, that he finds it a good practice to go to
the glafs-houfe and caufe the tubes to be drawn without
fuffering them to be turned round.

But the moft regular and accurate levels are obtained by
grinding the infide of the tube. For this purpofe, a cylindri-
cal piece of wood 1s turned fo as to go eafily through the
portion of tube intended to be ground. It is then worked in
the tube with water and fineemery in the ulual way. As
foon as the polifh has by this means difappeared on one fide,
the tube is cleaned, filled, and tried ; and accordingly as its
figure proves to be more or lefs ftraight or curved, the
grinding is either repeated or difcontinued. Some opera-
tors polifh the infide again after grinding ; but this has not
been found to increafe their fenfibility.

From the great delicacy of the fpirit-level, compared
with the few obfervations here prefented oa the plumb-line,

the former inftrument may appear greatly to deferve the
preference. Atronomers are not however agreed on this
point. When,a fpirit-level is adjufted by reverfing, at a
certain temperature, and both ends of the bubble marked,
it may be allowed that the inftrument may be fucce{fully
applied to ufe. But if the temperature be raifed, the
fpirit will expand, and of courfe the bubble will become
fhorter. Whence it appears neceflary that a divifion and
adjufting piece fhould be applied, from experiment, to af-
certain the true {tation of the bubble at different tempera-
tures; and even this application feems fearcely adequate to
fupply the place of repeated adjullments. The variation
of the bubble will differ according to the quantity of
{pirit contained in the tube. In two good levels, of nearly
the fame magnitude and figure, we found it amount to one-
fifth of an inch for every ten degrees of Fahrenheit. The
bubbie therefore may be one inch longer in winter than in
fummer, which in thefe individual levels amounts to near
one-third of the fummer length. The curvature of a
{pirit-level will alfo vary from unequal temperature ; fuch,
for example, as may arife from one end of the tube
being touched or breathed upon, while the other end is left
at the original temperature. he error from each of thefe
caufes may amount to feveral minutes, as is eafily fhewn by
trial ; but we do not find that the prefence or abfence of fun-
fline caufes any perceptible difference. It is probable that
the rays may not fpeedily alter the temperature, on account
of the traniparency. And with regard to thefe three lait
fources of error, it muft be allowed that they are eafy tv
be avoided, and indeed not likely to be prefent in the ope-
rations of accurate obfervers.

We have, in Plate V. Surveying, given figures of two
levels by the moft celebrated makers, the late Mr. Jeffe
Ramfden, and another by Mr. Troughton: of the former,
AB, fig. 3, 1s the telefcope, having the {pirit-level C D fitted
in a brafs tube, fixed beneath it. The telefcope is fupported
at its ends by reiting on angular notches in two pieces of
brafs, Y 1, Y 2, called the qwyes, from their refemblance to
that letter. It is held in the angles of the wyes by a clip rr,
fhutting down over each and pinned fait. The wyes are fup-
ported on a brafs bar EE, the middle of which has a large’
circular aperture in it, to receive a compafs needle. A bottom
plate aa, being ferewed under this aperture in the bar,
and a glafs cover fitted over it, forms the compafs-box F,
in which the magnetic needle turns round. The bottom a a
of the compafs-box has a long axis faltened to it, which is
fitted into the dome of the circular plate G, and alfo pafies
through a {fpherical ball, fhewn by the dotted lines to be
{crewed faft to the underfide of the dome of the plate.
Upon this axis, the telefcope-level and compafs-box turn
round horizontally: the ball, juft mentioned, is received in
a correfponding cavity in the focket R, which is part of
the plate H. By this ball and focket the two plates G and
H are united, but not confined to be parallel, though they
are called the parallel plates. Four {crews (two of which are
feen at I K) pafs through the plate H, and their heads
fupport the plate G, which can, by means of them, be
placed horizontal, (and confequently the axis fixed in it
vertical,) though the lower plate is not horizontal, which
will depend upon accident, as it is fupported on three legs
fet on the ground, and may therefore partake of its inclina-
tion. The legs are not fhewn in fg. 1, but are the
fame as thofe feen in fg. 3, at L.MN: they are all
jointed into the fame piece of brafs O, which has a large
{crew on the top of it, entering a female {crew in the interior
of the projecting part R, fig. 3, of the plate H. When

qr Z fhut

LEVEL.

fhut up, the three legs form one round flaff, and are fecured
for carriage by rings put on them: when opened out, they
make a very firm ftand on the ground, though it be ever fo
uneven. Thefe being the chief parts of the inftrument, we
have «:ly to notice the contrivances for adjufting every part
to perform accurately. The mill-headed nut d, at the top of
the telefcope, being turned, thrufts forth a tube e, contained
within the external tube of the telefcope, and carrying the
obje& glafs, which is by this means adjufted to its focal
diltance, fo as to fee an obje@ diftinGly at any diftance.
The telefeope has two wires in the eye-end at fg crofling
each other perpendicularly : it is by interfeting thefe the
object is viewed. The eye-piece, L, of the telefcdpe flides in
its tube to adjult the focal diftance of the eye-glaffes. That
thefe wires may be feen diftin@ly, the level is fufpended
from the telefeope at one end by a ferew D, which adjutts
it parallel to the axis or line of fight of the telefcope. At
the oppofite end C is another ferew adjultment, to make it
parallel in the direG&iion fideways, that is, in the fame ver-
tical plane with the axis of the telefcope. The Y 2 is fup-
ported in a focket M, and can be raifed or lowered by the
ferew N, to make the level and telefcope truly perpendicular
to the vertical axis reprefented by the dotted lines. The
fcrew O is for turning the axis about to direé the tele-
feope to any object: it operates upon a ring or clump of
brafs P, which enclofes, and is fixed to, the axis when the
fcrew $ is turned, but when this {crew is flack, the clump
releafes the axis, that the telefeope may be turned round
readily, to bring the defired objeét into the field of view:
then by ferewing S the telefcope is made fait, but may fuill
be turned a {mall quantity by the ferew O to dire& it ex-
attly to the objet.

The compais contained in the bar E E is for taking
hearings of ary obje& ; but as its ufe is not conneéted with
the operations of levelling, and has been fully defcribed
under the article CrrcUMFERENTOR, we refer to that
article.

Previous to taking any levels by this inftrument, the ad-
juitments fhould all be verified by the obferver ; for though
they are ever fo accurately done by the maker, they are
not to be depended upon after the inftrument has been
carried about, or ufed; and for this reafon they are all fo
contrived, as to be done with care inthe openair. The
procefs is as follows: open the three legs, and fet them
firmly upon the ground, placing the parallel plates G and H
as nearly horizontal as can be gueffed.

tft. Adjuf? the level C D to be alien to the telefcope in the
following manner: Open the clips 7, r, which confine the
telefcope in the wyes, and turn the {crew N till the bubble
comes into the middle, as is fhewn by two feratches on the
glafs tube. Now lift the telefcope gently out of the wyes,
and reverfe or turn it end for end, and if the bubble ftands
where it did before, all is right; if it goes to either end,
obferve how much it is from the centre, and by turning the
ferew N deprefs the end towards which the bubble runs,
(or, what has the fame effect, elevate the other end,) until the
bubble returns one-half the quantity of its error. Now by
the ferew D alter the level the other half the error; if
thefe halves were correCtly eltimated, it will be right, as
is proved by the bubble Hani right on returning the tele-
{cope to its original pofition. If not right now, the adjuft-
ment mutt be repeated till the bubble ftands right either
way, which proves the level and the telefcope to be exaétly
parallel ; the two cylindrical parts of thetelefcope, where
the wyes receive it, being made precifely the fame dia-
meter.

adly. To make the crofs-wires in the telefcope interfe@ each
other in the axis or line of collimation gg Serge eye-piece
L being drawn out to fee the wires diftin@ly, direct the
telefcope to any diftant objet, and by the nut d adjuft the
focal diftance to fee it :clearly: fele& fome ftraight line in
the diftant etn as the fide of a window, &c. Then by
the ferews N or O, one elevating the telefcope, the other
moving it fideways, and by turning the telefcope in its
wyes, bring one of the crofs-wires to coincide with the
ftraight line of the diftant objeét, without regarding the
level. Now turn the telefcope half round on its own axis,
as it hes in the wyes; and if the crofs-wire is truly in the
axis it will not appear to have changed its pofition; but
if it has, the wire muft be moved, by turning an oppofite
hair of the four ferews at fg: by thefe move the wire acrofs
the field of view one-half of the error, and by the {crews
N or O turn the telefcope back the other half. ‘The other
wire is now done in the fame manner, by obferving its co-
incidence with a diftant obje&, and then turning the tele-
{cope half round on its own axis; and both wires may be
proved by obferving a {mall objet, asa circular chalk mark,
&c., to be in the interfe€tion of hoth wires; and turning
the tube round on its axis, it will, if right, appear in the
interfeGtion in all pofitions. The inftrument is now pre-
pared for taking levels in the manner explained under Le-
VELLING; and, if carefully ufed, need not be re-adjufted
for many days.

The level above defcribed, is that which is in the moft
general ufe, great numbers having been made by Mr. Ramf-
den, and fince his deceafe by his numerous pupils. It is
certainly an excellent inftrument in the hands of thofe who
are ready and expert in the manupilation of the adjuftments
juft defcribed, and who are careful to repeat them when
neceflary. —

The initrument delineated in fg. 4. has lately been brought
forwards by Mr. Edward Troughton. Its conitreGion is
fo compact, that the parts aré little liable to derangement,
and therefore do not need fo many provifions for adjufting,
by which the inftrument is fimplihed and rendered more
portable. AB is the telefcope, and DE the level; its
brafs tube being partly received into the telefcope, and
foldered fait thereto, fo as to be in no danger of altering its
pofition: the telefcope is ferewed to a itrong brafs bar F F,
which ferews faft to the top of a conical focket G, that
turns upon a vertical axis faftened to the plate H: this is
united to the lower plate I by a ball and focket, and the
four {crews ferewing through the upper plate, and refting
on the lower, give the means of always fetting the axis ver-
tical: the joints O for the three legs L, M, N, are fixed to
the lower fide of the plate H: the compafs-box P is fup-

ported over the level by four fmall pillars; by this means it

is more readily obferved than when beneath, and gives the
means of laying the telefcope fo clofe to the brafs bar F,
that it is much more firm than the former inftrument. The
bubble of the level is fo long, that its ends appear on both
fides of the compafs-box, and is fhewn to be in the middle
by fcratches on the glafs at ad, as ufual.

The {crews which hold the telefcope to the plate F are
covered by caps of brafs, which defend them from accidental
alteration, but admit their adjuftment when neceffary. To
make the tclefcope exactly perpendicular to the’ vertical
axis, the only adjuftment the infirument requires befides
this is the eye-piece. It has, in heu of crofs-wires, a:{mall
micrometer or divided fcale, of mother-of-pearl, fixed per-
pendicularly acrofs the field of view, the divided edge inter-
feting the line of collimation: the central divifion of the

73 {cale

a

LIE VEAL.

{cale has a {mall hole through it for diftinction. It is this by
which the levels of objeéts are obferved, and it therefore
croffes the axis of the telefcope. It can be adjufted exactly
to this by a {crew d at top, and another ¢ beneath the tube.
The manner of adjuiting this inftrument is as follows: the legs
being fet on firm ground, the vertical axis is adjufted, in the
fame manner as every other level is preparatory to making
obfervations, viz. by fetting the telefcope over any oppofite
two of the four {crews in the parallel plates, and turning
thefe fcrews, one in and the other out, till the bubble comes
Yight; then turn it half round, by applying the finger and
thumb to the large milled nut on the top of the focket G.
If it is level when thus reverfed, all is right; if not, it fhews
the level is not perpendicular to the axis, and one-half the
error muft be corrected by the fcrews under the ends of F,
and the other half by the ferews of the parallel plates, the
telefcope being turned over the other pair of ferews; and
they are adjufted in the fame manner. Now the axis .is
vertical, as is fhewn by the bubble itanding {till while the
telefcope is turned all round. The plate I, being once ad-
jutted in this manner, will not foon be deranged, and when it
1s will immediately difcover itfelf, and be as eafily re{tored.
The line of fight, or line of collimation of the telefcope, 1s
made parallel to the level, by an actual trial in the field,
which indeed is the molt accurate method, and is reforted
to for very delicate purpofes. in the inftrument before
defcribed, to verify the adjuftments after making them, the
method of trial is applicable to a level of any kind, and is
defcribed under Leveviine. . ‘The micrometer fcale in the
eye-piece is very ufeful in levelling ; it gives the means of
roughly eftimating equal diftances from the inftrument in
any direction. A man who attends the obferver holds up a
ftaff of fix feet, or any other length, perpendicular, and the
obferver, looking at it through the telefcope, notices how
many divifions of the micrometer fcale the ftaff appears to
fubtend; then, if the man recedes from the inftrument until
the fame ftaff reaches the fame number of divifions, he wiil
be at the fame diftance from the inftrument. This property
is extremely convenient in many inftances which occur in the
ufe of a level.

LeveL, American, is an inftrument which is formed of
two pieces of thin wood of equal length, joined together at
top, and conneéted below by a crofs bar; from the angle at
top a lead plummet is fufpended by a {mall cord, which,
when the inftrument itands level on beth legs, frikes upon
@ mark in the centre of the conne€ting bar, as reprefented
by u, fg. 4. in Plate V1. Surveying. ‘The manner of ufing it
is fimply this: At the place from which the level is to be
taken, drive a wooden peg in the ground, clofe in to: the
top, upon which one of the legs of the frame may reft;
then bringing round the other leg till it touch the ground,
there drive in a fecond peg, turning round the other leg as
before; and where it touches the ground again,. drive in
another peg, and fo on along the whole line to be levelled.
Thus, with very little trouble, and with as much accuracy
as with the fine!t f{pirit-level, will the courfe of the drain
be eafily afcertained. But asit is neceflary the drain fhould
have as much declivity as to allow the water to run freely,
it will’ be requifite, in taking the level, to rerulate the direc-
tién of the line accordingly. Half an inch fall in the length

_of the frame will be fufficient, and fometimes even lefs.
For this purpofe, it will be expedient to have, belides a
number of wooden pegs, one iron pin, with inches and halves
marked regularly upon the fides of it from the top down-
wards. After having drove in the firft wooden peg at the
point from whence you mean to conduct the drain, and

having refted the one leg of the frame upon it, turn.round
the other till it be level with the firft peg; there put in the
iron pin, fo that this leg of the frame may reft on the top of
it when level; then drive in a wooden peg fo far, as that
the top of it may be half an inch lower than that of the iron
pin. Place the leg of the frame again upon this fecond peg,
turn it round to a level, putting in the iron pin till the top
of it be equal with the foot of the frame; then drive in
another wooden peg ¢lofe by the fide of it, till the top of
the wooden one be half an inch lower than that of the iron
pin. Proceed in this manner fo far as you mean to carry
the drain, which will have the fame degree of declivity all
the way along. ‘A line thus fet off is marked from c¢ to d
inthe figure. When made on a {maller feale, it is ufeful in
afcertaining the proper defcent along the bottom of a drain,
while the workmen are laying it; but when made for this
purpofe, the crofs bar mutt be fixed to the bottom of the
legs, as marked with dotted lines in the plate.

There is a watering level which is much ufed in fome
places, which is formed of different pieces of wood, &c. ;
the ufual length given it being five feet and a half, and the
height from four feet to four feet and a hilf, according te
the height of the perfon who is to make ufe of it.

The objet ftaff, fig. 5, Plate V1. Surveying, fhould be made
exaCily of the fame height with the level. The crofs piece,
Jig. 6, thould be fufficiently large to be feen diftinétly at a
diftance, and muft be painted white for the purpofe.

This level, in the experience of Mr. Marfhall, has been
found ‘ preferable to any other level now in ufe, as being
equally accurate in afcertaining the relative heights of diftant
objects, as in minutely tracing itep by ftep the required line
of communication, fo as to give every part of it an equal
and uniform defcent.”” In its ufe in fetting out a level, fo:
as to fix the fall accurately at one inch, foot, or yard, ina
hundred of any of them, on the face of the level, which is-
found in general to be the moft proper ;. it is dire€ted to
meafure out one hundred feet on level ground, placing the
level at one end, the objeét-ftaff at the other, and then ad-
julting their tops to a dead level, by a dead level line exatly
drawn on the face of the implement (viz. a line drawn at
right angles with the upper edge of the top rail,) as fhewn
at a, in the fzure, then meafuring one foot downward on-
the ftaff, and there holding a rule or other ftraight edge
level acrofs the ftaff; bringing the top of the level, by:
railing its hinder foot, to range accurately with the upper
Ade of the rule, and while they remain at reft im this. pofi--
tion, a mark muft be made where the plummet-line refts
again{t the face of the level. After this meafure out a
hundred yards, and proceed in the fame manner, in order
to prove or reétify the firft mark, on which a permanent
line muft be funk. on the face of the level 4, in the figure,
which in water-work is better than the plumb-line. Where
the ground to which the water is to be conduéted can be
feen from the place whence it is to be taken, the ftaff fhould
be fet upon the higheft part to which it is defirable to raife
ze water, and the‘level.at the fource, and after having cor-
rely adjufted the top of the latter to that of the former
mark, where the plummet refts on the face of the level,.
where it refts between a and J, it is neceffary to confider the
cafe, as, where the extent of land is-{mall,. and that of the
water unlimited, little fall may be fufficient ; but in the con--
trary circumftances, it would be improper to let it wafte by
the way more than is neceflary ; of courfe where the plum--
met reits much within the water-line, the ftaff muft be moved
and fet lower down on the flope till the requifite fall is-
gained. But where the plummet is found to reft on os

Tiguite-

LEV

right-hand fide of the water-line, mark the plan and draw a
pencil line, (which will be fufficiently durable for a fingle
work, and may afterwards be eafily rubbed out on the face
of the level,) correfponding to the line of the plummet, as
the dotted line c, and thus fix the fall in this cafe, always
making due allowance, in tracing and ftaking out the line
with the level thus fet, for the crookednefs of the courfe ;
as from this lengthening the line, the declination of the
channel is proportionally leffened.

It is fuppofed further, that < many ingenious additions”
might be made to this level; but that ‘ they would be in-
jurious to its prefent fimplicity.”” Any country carpenter
may be eafily inftruSted to conftruét it im its prefent form,
and ** any common labourer be eafily taught to ufe it, either
in forming roads or water-courfes.’’ It is, however, beft
adapted to the latter ufe.

Dr: Defaguliers contrived an inflrument, by which the
difference of level of two places, which could not be taken
in lefs than four or five days with the bett telefcope levels,
may be taker in as few hours. The inflrument is as
follows :

To the ball C (Plate VI. Surveying, fig. 7.) is joined a
recurved tube B A, of a very fine bore, with a {mall bubble
at the top A, whofe upper part is open. From the con-
ftruétion of this in{trument, it is evident, that if it be in-
clined in carrying, no prejudice will be done to the hquer,
which will always be right both in the ball and the tube,
when the inftrument is fet upright. If the air at C be fo
expanded by heat, as to drive the liquor to the top of the
tube, the cavity A will receive the liquor, which will come
down again, and fettle at D, or near it, according to the
level of the place where the inftrument is, as foon as the air
at C returns to the fame temperament as to heat and cold.
For preferving the fame degree of heat, when the different
obfervations are made, the machine is fixed in a tin-veffel,
EF, filled with water up to ¢ 4, above the ball, and a very
fenfible thermometer has alfo its ball under water, that one
may obferve the liquor at D, in each experiment, when the
liquor in the thermometer ftands at the fame height as
before. ‘The water is poured out when the inftrument is
carried, which may be done conveniently by means of the
wooden frame (fig. 8.), which is fet upright by three fcrews,
S,5S,S, and a line and plummet PP (/fig.9.) At the
back part of the wooden frame (fig. 10.) from the piece
at top, K, hangs the plummet P, over the brafs point at N.
M, m, are brackets for keeping the upright board, KN, at
zight angles with the horizontal one at N. The machine
feen in front is reprefented f.11, fuppofing the fore-part
of the tin veffel tranfparent ; and here the brafs focket of
the recurved tube, into which the ball is ferewed, has two
wings at II, fixed to the bottom, that the ball may not
break the tube by its endeavour to emerge, when the water
is poured in as high as g A.

After Dr. Defaguliers had contrived this machine, he
contidered, that as the tube is of a very {mall bore, if the
liquor fhould rife into the ball at A (fg. 7.) in carrying
the in{trument from one place to another, fome of it would
adhere to the fides of the ball A, and upon its defcent in
making the experiment, fo much might be left behind, that
the liquor would not be high enough at D to fhew the dif-
ference of the level; therefore, to prevent that inconve-
niency, he contrived a blank ferew, to fhut up the hole at
A, as foon as one experiment is made, that in carrying the
machine, the air in A may balance that in C, fo that the
lignor fhall not run up and down the tube, whatever degree
of heat and cold may a@ upon the in{trument, in going

3

GE ¥: f
from one place to another. Now becaule one experiment
may be made in the morning, and the water may be fo cold,
that when a fecond experiment is made at noon, the water
cannot be brought to the fame degree of cold it had in the
morning ; therefore, in making the firit experiment, warm
water muft be mixed with the cold, and when the water has
{tood fome time before it comes to be as.cold as it is hkely

to be at the warmelt part of that day, obferve and fet down:

the degree of the thermometer at which the f{pirit ttands,
and likewife the degree of the water in the barometer at D;

then ferew on the cap at A, pour out the water, and carry’

the inftrument to the place whofe level you would know ;
then pour in your water, and when the thermometer is come
to the fame degree as before, open the {crew at top, and
obferve the liquor in the barometer.

The door’s fcale for the barometer is ten inches long,
and divided into tenths; fo that fuch an inttrument will

ferve for any heights not exceeding ten feet, each tenth of

an inch an{wering to a foot in height.

The do€tor made no allowance for the decreafe of denfity

in the air, becaufe he did not,propofe this machine for mea-
furing mountains (though with a proper allowance for the
decreafing denfity of the air, it will do very well,) but for
heights to be known in gardens, plantations, and the con-
veyance of water ; where an experiment that an{wers to two
or three feet in a diftance of twenty miles, will render this a
very ufeful inftrament. Defaguliers’s Exp. Phil. vol. iin
P- 372, &c. .

Levez is a term uled to denote a length or pound of a
canal, and alfo the adit or fough to a mine or engine-pit.

Levec-fegs, are fmall flakes ufed in levelling out an ins
tended canal ; and they are ufually placed at the level of the
top bank, asat d, Plate 1. Canals, fig. 7 and 8.

LEVELLING, the art or aét of finding aline parallel
to the horizon, at one or more itations, in order to deters
mine the height of one place with refpe& to another ; for the
laying grounds even, regulating defcents, draining morafles,
conducting waters, for the irrigation of land, &c.

The firit procefs, preparatory to taking any levels, is to
prove the correétnefs of the inftrument you employ for that
purpofe. Some initruments are contrived to prove themfelves,
as defcribed in LeveL; but others require an actual trial in
the field, which is a general method, and applicable to a level
ofany kind. If the levelis made with plain fights, the proof
is very fimple: firft fet it level, and obferve fome ‘diltant
object ; then turn the level, end for end, and obferve the fame
obje& through the other fight. If it is the fame both ways, all
is right; if not, the level muft be altered one-half of the error
thus difcovered, which is doubled by this method of trial. For
inftance, if the line of fight pointed down the frit time, it
will point as much upwards when ufed at the other end. A
level with a telefcope cannot be ufed at either end, and there
fore this method is inadmiffible, and the following may be
adopted.

Choofe a fpot of ground where it is tolerably level
for about twenty chains ; fet up the inftrument at the point
B, fig. 1. Plate VII. Surveying, -and, levelling the telefcope
by the parallel plates, that the bubble will ftaud while it is
turned all round, direct the telefcope to a target held up by
an affiftant, upon a itake driven in the ground at D, at 20
chains diftant. Your affiftant mutt, according to your fignals,
elevate or deprefs the vane of the target, till it appears in the
interfeétion of the crofs wires; now meafure and write
down the height B 4 of the centre of the telefcope above’a
{take driven into the ground at B, fuppofe it four feet ; and
alfo write down the height D d at which the vane of the tar-

get

a ee

LEVELLING.

fet flands, which fuppofe fix feet s*the difference between
‘them, two feet, fhews that Bis two feet higher than D;
‘but the line 4 d, being a tangent to the earth’s furface at the
point B, will be the apparent level ; and the true level will
be found, by deducting the allowance for 20 chains, {hewn
‘by the table of the earth's curvature tovbe .o41 of.a foot.
Making, therefore, the true difference of level between B and
D to be 1 959 feet, to prove this, level it the other way, re-
moving the inttrument to D, and the target to the ftake at
B. Obferve in the fame mamner as before, and if it gives the
fame difference of level as before, after deducting the allow-
ance, the inftrument is corre ; if, on the other hand, the
refilts by the two methods do not prove the fame, take
half the difference between the two, and elevate or deprefs
the target that quantity, according as the la{t obfervation was
greater or lefs than the fir(t, and adjuft the inftrument, ei-
ther by theferew under the level, or the {crews of the crofs
wires, until they appear to cut the vane of the target fo
correéted, when the bubble is in the middle. The inftrument
is now corrected, but the trial fhould be repeated to make
It certain.

The following method of adjufting a fpirit-level is rather
preferable, as it does not require the inftrument to be re-
moved ; but it is only applicable to thofe inftruments where
the telefcope lies in wyes, and can be removed. Set up the
level, as at A in fy. 2, fo that you can fee both ways for about
Loo yards ; fix up a ilaff in each direGtion at B and C, 100
yards diftant, fo that the two: itaves and the telefcope are in
a line. Now give your affiltant two circular pieces of card,
about twice the diameter of the telefcope where it lies in
the wyes, with a tiole through the centre cf each, large
enough to receive the tube of the eye-piece of the telefcope ;
now level the telefcope, and your affiftant applies one of the
cards againft one of the ftaves, B for inftance, and moves it
up and down, tillits centre appears to the obferver to inter-
feét the wires. The affiftant now faltens it to the ftaff at a,
by two pins, but fo that the centre hole can be feen clear
through by the fide of the ftaff. The telefeope is now turned
half round, and dire&te@to the othez ftaf C, which is fitted
with acard at 4, the fame as the former. This being done
without difturbing the inttrument, take the telefcepe out of
its wyes, and {ut down the clips again; carzy the telefcope
to one of the ftaves B, and applying its eye-piece to the hole
in the centre of the card at a, direé& the telefcope to the

wyes.of the-level, and, looking through them, if the:card %

on the diftant ftaff € appears to fit in the wyes, the level is
proved corre& ;- 1% it doesnot, mark the: place where the
card ais fixed to the ftaff B, unpin it, and flide it up or
down, till the diftant card appears-to fit in the wyes. Mark.
this pofition of the card, wiz. at 4, and pin it on.in its firtt
potion ; repeat this operation at the ftaff C, and the card
4, will be removed'to E. ‘Vhe figure explams the principle of
this procefs.: in the firit operation the telefcope fet out the
inclined line A a, inltead:of a horizontal line; thenext ope-
ration was obferving the inclined line A &; the third opera-
tion at the ftaff B formed a continuation of the inclined
line 2. A to d; and the fourth operation continued 2 A as far
as¢, Fn this {tate itis evident,if the-{paces a, d; B, cy each of
which are double the error of the inftrument, are divided into
two equal parts at the points /, g,,that the line f A g will be
truly horizontal, and the inftrument may be siulten by the
fcrews-under the level, fo.as to point to f org whentthe bul-
ble 1s in the middle.

Qne place is faid to.be higher than another,. or out of level
with it, when itis more remote from the centre of the
garth ; and a line equally diftant from the centre of it.in

all its points, is called the Zine of true level s whence, becaufe
the earth is round, that line mutt be a curve, and make a
part of the earth’s circumference, or an arc concentrical
with it, as the line BC FG, Plate VII. Surveying, fig 3»
all the points whereof are equally diftant from the cen-
tre of the earth A.

But the line of fight, which the operations of levels give,
isa tangent, or a right line perpendicular tothe femi-diame-
ter of the earth; one extreme of which tangent being the
point of contaét, the other will be that of a fecant drawn
from the centre of the earth ; and the point which determines
it, will be above the furface of the earth, and of the true
level, as much as that fecant exceeds the radius, or femi-
diameter of the earth.

This extremity of the tangent is faid to be in the apparent
level, as being that given by the fight ; but is eafily reduced
to the true level, becaufe we know~by trigonometry, how
much each fecant exceeds the radius ; and becaufe by mea-
furing, we have difcovered the precife lengthof that radius.
Or, fince the apparent level between the places B and C
is BD, and the true level: is the are B C ; it is plain that
the former rifes above the latter by the line C D.. But by a-
well known property of the circle2 AC + CD xCD=
BD’, and the diameter of the earth being fo great with re-
{peé to the line C D at all diltances to which the operation
of levelling commonly extends, that 2 AC may be fafely taken
for 2A C +CD without any fenfible error, we fhall have-

2ACx CD =BD*%adCD= ae i. pitied differ

ence between the true and apparent level is equal to the
{quare of the diltance between the places ‘divided. by. the
diameter of the earth, or the rife of the apparant above the
true level is proportional to the {quare of the diftance. It
was-for want of the knowledge of this, that. the ancients
were not able to reduce the apparent levelito the true one ;
and accordingly, to» prevent falling into an error, never le-
velled above twenty feet at once, where fuch reduétion was
not neceflary.

By the table fince made,. it appears, that at the diitance-
of 10a yards the apparent level is raifed above the true one
about one-third of a:line ; fo that the ancients, in this-refpe@y.
were moie ferupulous than needful. By means-of this re--
duétion, we are now able to: level diftances of one or two-
miles at a fingle operation, which the ancients could not.do-
in lefs than tiree hundred. __

The following table, for fhewing the height of the appa=
rent level above the true, was calculated by Mr. Fergufon,
to the extent of a whole degree of a-great circle on the
earth’s furface, and it agrees fo nearly with one of the fame.
fort it Dr. Long’s Aitronomy,, as not to differ quite two»
inches from it at the end of the whole degree, which. con--
tains 60 geographical miles, equal to 69: Englifh: miles.
The ufe of this table is as follows: Lf the quantity. of an»
arc of a great circle on the earth’s furface is given in minutes:
or feconds of a degree, its meafure may be found in feet and’
inches. ‘Thus, fippofe the arc contains-tem: feconds,, which
is the fixth part of a geographical mile, its meafure is-to15,
feet 8 inches. So an arc of one minute of a degree, which
is-one geographical mile, contains 6094 feet, or 2031 yards
% foot ; which is 271 yards » foot longer than:an Englifh.
mile. ‘To.find how far one can fee in a true horizon.(as at
fea) when the eye is raifed to any given height above the ho--
rizon :. fuppofe the eye of an obferver upon a fhip at feato,
be 23:feet two inches above the furface of the water, he. will:
then fee 30,470 feet all around him, or to the diftance:of 5-
geographical miles.

Suppofe;

LEVELLING.

Suppofe the top of a mountain in the fea to be feen at the
diftance of 60 geographical miles, or one degree, by an ob-
ferver, whofe eye is clofe at the ferface of the fea ; the height

‘of that mountain is 3191 feet 1 linch, nearly, above the furface
of the fea. An Englith mile is 5280 feet, a geographical
mile 6094+

Suppofe a fpring to be on one fide of a hill, and an houfe
on an oppofite hill, with a valley between them 3 and that
the {pring feen from the houfe appears, by a levelling inftru-
ment, to be on a level with the foundation of the houfe, and is
a mile from it; the apparent level of the {pring is 10,4 inches
above the true level of the houfe : and this difference would
be fufficient for the water to be bronght in pipes from the
fpring to the houfe; the pipes being laid all the way in the
ground. i

If the diftance of the obje@ be greater than 60 minutes,
or geographical miles, its height above the true level may be
found thus. Suppofe.an eye at the furface of the fea fees

the top of a mountain, which he knows to be go geographi-
cal miles, or a degree and a half diftant from him: take
half that number of miles, and multiply the height of the
apparent level above the true, anfwering to that half dif-
tance, by 4; and the produé& will give the perpendicular
height of that mountain. Thus, the half of 90 is 45,
again{t which (in the table) ftands 1794 feet 11,763 inches ;
which being multiplied by 4, gives 7179 feet 11 inches
for the perpendicular height of the mountain above the level
of the fea.

According to thefe meafures, the earth's circumference is
131,630,400 feet, or 24,930 Englifh miles.

At the diftance of 1 fecond of adegree (or <&th of a
geographical mile) the height of the apparent level above
the true is .002954.7 parts of an inch; at two feconds dif-
tance it is four times as much; at three feconds, nine times ;
at four feconds, 16 times as much; and fo on, always in-
crealing in proportion to the fquare of the diftance,

A Tasxx, thewing the Height of the apparent Level above the true, at any Diltance within a Degree of a great
Circle on the Earth’s Surface ; caleulated to the rocodth Part of an Inch.

Seconds. Feet. Inches. Inches.

0.003
0.012
0.027
0.047
01074
0.106
0.145
0.189
0:239
0.295
0-357
0.425
0-499
0.579
0.665
0.756
0.854

0.947
1.007

1.182
1.303
1.420
1.563
1.702
1.847
2.001%
2.154
2.310
2.485
2.659
2.839
3.026
3-218
9-416

ol

- _

ee
DWOKRR ADORE AWO NE ADO KHRAWDO KE AD

6

1

8

3.
)

4.
Is
6.
I.
8.
2s
9-
4

ie
6

°.
UE
2.
9.
4.
o.
5
oO.
mE
2.
8.

which meafured in a great circle upon the earth, amounts to
the height of the apparent level above the true will be

If the diftance of the objeét from the place of the fpectator be

Minutes. Feet. Inches. |

10.637
6.548
1I-732
2-191
1.923
10.929
5-209
8.763
S508
7.692
3.067
7.716
10.025
8.836
5ego7!
11.052
2.070
2.362
11.928
6.768
10.882
0.267
10.931
6.866
0.075
2.553
2.315
11.345"
5-649
9.228
10.080
8.206
3-606
8.280

m
OO ON AMABW DH

121880
127974
134068
140162
146256
152350
158444
164535,
170632
176726
182820
188914
195008
201102
207196

If the diftance of the obje& from the place of the {pectator be
which meafured in a great circle upon the earth, amounts to
the height of the apparent level above the true will be

LEVELLING.

TABLE continued.

_ Fergufon’s Tables and Traéts, p. 243, &c. See De-
Pression of the Horizon.

The operation of levelling is as follows: Suppofe the
height of the point A (Plate VII. Surveying, fig. 4.), on
the top of a mountain, above that of the point B, and at
the foot thereof, required: place the level abont the middle
diftance, between the two points, as in D, and ftaffs in A
and B ; and let there be perfons inftru&ted with fignals for
raifing and lowering, on the faid ftaffs, little marks of palte-
board, or other matter. The level being placed horizontally
by the bubble, &c. look towards the itaff A F, and caufe
the mark fo raifed to be lowered, till the middle, upper
edge, or other mott confpicuous part, appear in the vitual
ray. hen meafuring exactly the perpendicular height of
the point E, above the point A, which fuppofe 6 feet 4
inches, fet that down in your book: then turn the level
horizontally about, that the eye-glafs of the telefcope may
be {till next the eye when you look the other way (if you
have only plain fights, the inftrument need not be turned) ;
and caufe the perfon at the ftaff B to raife. or lower his
mark, till fome confpicuous part of it fall in the vifual ray,
as.at C; then meafure the perpendicular height of C above
B, which fuppofe 16 feet 8 inches; fet this alfo down in
the book above the other number of the firft obfervation ;
fubtra& the one from the other, the remainder will be 10
feet 4 inches, which is the difference of level between
A and B, or the height of the point A above the point B.

Note, If the point D, where the inftrument is fixed, be
in the middle between the two points A and B, there will
be no neceffity for reducing the apparent level to the true

Vor. XX.

Seconds. Feet. Inches. Inches, Minutes. Feet. Feet. Inches,
3554 10.0 3-619 Pree 213290 1085 10.227
= 36 o23050. 4.8 3.829 aU 2 219354 1148 9.448
aE yt 2 3757 11.6 B 4-045 2 37 2 225478 B 1213 5-943
a 38 E 3859 «6.4. Fs 4.267 S 38 3 231572 = 1278 11.712
aes o 39601 1.2 4-494 a. 39 Ho 237 z 134 2.755
< a E aoe 8.0 3 4.728 ‘3 40 ji 243760 2 1418 3.072
= . 6 2.8 La -96 cs} I 3 ee E1400. 0.66
= 41 4104 eo 4°997 4 = 49°54 be} 49 3
eee te ae G6 aia eas gg S 255948 | 2 1563 7.527
@ 43 & 4367 | 4-4 2 5-463 % 43 & 262042 > 1638 11.655
= 44 = 4468 11.2 bm ty Es) a 44 = 268136 5. 1716 1,077
5 45 = 4570 6.0 = 5-983 w 45 8 274230 1794 11.763
= 46 & 4672 08 $ 6.253 S 46 S 280324 1875 7.723
Piaeg tel er ieheed gle gem Beg '| s Bom cpeete ht vg: A, seca
2 4 "2 4875 294 hes A 6 a “4
pa 49 3) 8 A076 | 0.2 ze 7.094 ge 49 “ 298606 £ 2128 3.245
2 50 #% 5078. 4.0 = 7-387 50 & 304700 B+ 2216 0.300
ra ek = 5179 10.8 Seb Raw o 51 $0 310794 S 2305 6.629
2 52 5281 5.6 S 7.989 2 52 = 316888 2396 10.232
S 53 5383 0.4 % 8.300 ay MBs 3 322982 uw 2489 11.108
to oO °
ys "3 5484 7.2 = 8.616 oie le £ 329076 a 2584 9.259
S$ 55 5 5586 2.0 20 8.938 2 55 S 335170 > 2681 4.683
& 56 ‘S 5687 8.8 = 9-266 a 56 2 341264 "8. 2779 9.381
= 57 E 5789 3.6 2 9.660 S57 =: 347358 2 2879, 11.353
eo 58 3 58go 10.4 9-940 2 58 -3 353452 2981 10.598
= 59 = 5992 5.2 10.285 = * 5G B 359546 3085 4.119
ee Go 6094 9"0 10.637 19) 365640 319I 0.912

LL I |

level; the vifiual ray, in that cafe,
above the true level.

If it be farther required to know whether there be a
fufficient defcent for conveying water from the fpring A
to the point B, Plate VII. Surveying, fig. 5.—Here, in re-
gard the diftance from A to B is confiderable, it is re-
quired that feveral operations be made. Haying then chofen
a proper place for the firft ftation, as at I, fet up a ftaff in
the point A, near the {pring, with a proper mark to flide
up and down the ftaff, as L ;. and meafure the diftance from
A to I, which fuppofe 2000 yards. Then the level being
adjufted in the point I, let the mark L be raifed and lowered
till fuch time as you fpy fome confpicuous part of it through
the telefcope, or fights of the level, and meafure the height
A.L, which fuppoie 13 feet 5 inches. But in regard the
diftance ATI is 2000 yards, you mutt have recourfe to your
table for a reduction, fubtraéting ro inches 3 lines, which
will leave the height A L, 12 feet 6 inches 9 lines; and
this note down in your book. Now turn the level horizons
tally about, fo as the eye-glafs of the telefcope may be
towards the ftaff at A ; and fixing up another ftaff at H,
caufe the mark G to be moved up and down, till you {py
fome confpicuous part through the telefcope, or fights.
Meafure the height H G, which fuppofe 6 yards, 4 feet,
2inches. Meafure likewife the diftance of the points I, H,
which fuppofe 1300 yards; for which diftsnce, according
to the table, 4 inches 3 lines muft be fubtraGted from the
height H G, which, confequently, will but leave 6 yards,
3 feet, g inches, 9 lines, to be taken down in your book.

This done, remove the level forwards to fome other emi-

41 nencey

being raifed equally

LEVELLING.

pence, as E, whence the ftaff H may be viewed ; as alfo
another ftaff at D, near the place whither the water is to be
conveyed. The level being again adjufted in the point ¥,
Jook back to the ftaff H ; and managing the mark as before,
the vifual ray will give the point F. Meafure the height
HF, which fuppofe 11 feet 6 inches. Meafure, likewile,
the diftance HE, which fuppofe 1000 yards; for which
diftance the table gives 2 inches, 5 lines of abatement ;
which being taken from the height HF, there will remain
11 feet, 3 inches, 7 lines, which enter in your book. ; Lattly,
turning the level to look at the next ftaff D, the vifual ray
will give the point D. Meafure the height of D from the
ground, which fuppofe $ feet 3 inches. Meafure alfo the
diftance from the {tation E to B, which fuppofe goo yards ;
for which diftance the table gives 2 inches, 1 line of abate-
ment ; which being taken from the height B D, there will
remain 8 feet 11 lines, which enter as before,

For the manner of entering down obfervations in your
book, obferve, that when a proper place or {tation for the
level, between the two points, has been pitched upon, you
muft write down the two heights obferved at that ftation
in two different columns, wiz. under the firft column, thofe
obferved in looking through the telefcope when the eye
was from the f{pring, or towards the point, which we may
call Lack-fights ; and under the fecond column thofe ob-
ferved when the eye was next the fpring, which we call
fore-fights, in the manner following :

Back-fights. Fore-fights.

feet. inch. line.! feet. inch. line.

Firft height 62 gnesond height 2t : 09 : 9g
corrected Za * 9 Fourth height: 8 : 00 : I1
— 29): 10: 8

Third height 11: 3: 7|
|

AZwid= TOs 4

Having fummed up the heights of each column feparately,
fubtra& the leffer from the greater, the remainder will be
the difference of level between the points A and B; asin
this example ;

feet. inch, line.
29 : 10: 08
Zoys, TOS TOA)

6 : 00 : 04—The difference of height, or level,
between the points A and B.

If the diftance of the two points be required, add all the
diftances meafured together ; and dividing the difference
of height by the yards of the diftances ; for each 200 yards
you will have a defcent of about 2 inches g lines. This
problem may be otherwife folved in the following manner:
Jet the line fg, Plate VII. Surveying, fig. 6. reprefent the
line of fight of the telefcope drawn from f, the interfe@tion
of the crofs-hairs, through ¢ the centre of the object-glafs ;
and the points 4, 6, be the marks on the glafs tube, or
fpirit-level, abc. While thefe parts of the inftrument are
immutably fixed, with refpe& to each other, it is manifett,
that as often as the air-bubble is exaétly reduced to the
marks 4,4, the line of fight will be always reduced to the
fame polition, with refpeét to the horizon, or to a plumb-line.

Ner is it at all neceffary, in the bufinefs of levelling, that the:

line of fight and plumb-line fhould be exa@ly at’ right
angles; but only that the angles they make fhall be always
the fame. Let p and g, fic. 7, be two given points’ in-two

remote places, and let it be required to find which is the
lower, and how much. Let pa and qd reprefent two
ftraight ftaffs, or poles, fixed upright by means of a plumb-
line. Having placed the telefcope by the fide of the pole
p4 and direéted the line of fight to the pole gq 4, alter its
elevation by the ferew adapted to this purpofe, til the air-
bubble refts exaétly at the marks upon the tube. Then let
an affiftant mark the point 4, which appears to be covered
by the crofs-hairs ; and alfo the point a exaétly upon a
level with the crofs-hairs ; which is eafily done by a common
{quare applied to the fide of the pole pa. Then remove the
telefcope to the pole 4g, and here let the fame things be
repeated ; that is, let ¢ be the place upon a level with the
crofs-hairs, and e the point upon the other pole fa, that
appears to be covered by them while the air-bubble refts at
the fame mark as befcre. Bifect the interval ae in g, and
the interval dd in 4, and the points g, 4, will be upon a level ;
that is, if we fuppofe gf q/ to reprefent a long canal full of
flagnating water, the points g, 4, will both be in its*furface 3.
and, confequently, taking the leffer depth pg from the
greater g/, their difference gr fhews how much the point
q is below the point f or 7

If the places > q, cannot be feen from each other, or if’
the difference of their heights be greater than the length of
any common poles, then one or more intermediate {tations
mutt be chofen ;, and by repeating the fame practice between.
every two fucceffive ftations, we fhall find the level of the
extremes.

When the points g,.4, are once found upon two: poles:not
far afunder, it will be convenient, by moving the crofs-hairs,,
to retify the line of fight, fo as to be nearly coincident with
the line ¢ 4, or with a line parallel to it, for then in future
levellings, at greater diftances, the marks. 4, e, will, be lefs. ,
fubje& to fall above or below the poles.. :

This reciprocal. way of levelling feems tobe the moftexact
of any, efpecially if it be performed by. two. inftruments
made to agree together before-hand; which may be done
by placing them together, and by altering the a ae in
either of them, till the fame mark upon. a remote object is
covered by both the croffes, while both. the bubbles reft at
their marks upon the tubes. Then may two obfervers find
the marks upon the oppolite poles at the fame time ; and,
confequently, the refractions of the rays in the air, whatever
be their quantities, will be equal as near as poflible: and
then the refult of the praCtice will be as accurate as if there
had been no,refraGtions at all. For let the curve 474, fig. 8).
reprefent the courfe of the vifual ray from 2 to a; and let °
the lines af, 6/, touch it at @ and &. Then, becanfe the
points a,4, are very nearly upon a level, the denfity and
conftitutiom of the air and’ vapours at the fame inttant will.
be nearly the fame-in each place; and by confequence the
curve aid and its tangents at aand 4, will be equally in-
clined to the chord ad. For the fame reafons the curve
emd will be fimilar and equal to the curve a74, being
fituated fo very near to it. Therefore, the angle eda,
under the chord ed and tangent dz, will be equal to the
angle a /, or bak ; and, confequently, fince the angles q dn,
pa, are made equal in the two obfervations, by taking
away the equal angles ed, bak, caufed by the equal re-.
fractions, the remaining angles gde, pay, will be equal to
each other, as if there were no refractions at all...

Tf the reciprocal obfervations be made about the middle
of the fame day, when the air is the purett, there will fearcely
be any occalion for two inflruments: but if they be made
near the morning or evening, even on the fame day, an
equality of refractions cannot be-depended upon, unlefs they

a Wiarbitartiyny ACS

LEVELLING.

are made atthe fame inftant. The members of the Royal
Academy of Sciences at Paris tell us, in their Account of
the Meafure of the Earth, they often found that an object,
which at break of day appeared in the level, and fometimes
alittle above it, did afterwards, when the fun was up, appear
below it. And, on the contrary, after the fetting of the
fun, objets far diftant appeared to be raifed fo fenfibly, that
in lefs than half an hour their apparent height was augmented
more than three minutes. As to the caufe of thefe ap-
pearances, they add, that the coolnefs of the night condenfes
the vapours, which defcend to a lower place, leaving the air
in the higher {tations more pure than in the day time. And
on the contrary, when the heat of the fun has made a part of
the vapours to mount to more elevated ftations, there mult
he lefs difference of the mediums, and confequently a lefs
refraction. :

Setting afide the curvity of a ray, which Mr. Picard
tells us is fearcely fenfible about noon, when the diftance of
the objec does not exceed 1000 toifes, the line of fight
through the telefcope may be fet perpendicular to a plumb-
line, or parallel to the horizon, in this manner. Having
found two points g, A, fig. 9, upon a level as before, let
gi be perpendicular to gc, and cut ch in i, and having
computed the line 47 (as follows), and made a mark at i,

place the level at g, and alter the place of the crofs-hairs in
the focus, , till they appear to cover the point 4 when the
air-bubble is at its marks, and the bufinefs is done. Now
the line 4i is equal to the fquare of g / applied to 2 gc,
and, confequently, may be found by meafuring the diftance
gh, and dividing its {quare by the diameter of the earth,
which may be {uppofed equal to 2 ge, though it is not ex-
actly fo, the earth being not exaétly {pherical. For bifect-
ing ghin &, draw cé cutting giin/; and fince the triangles
kgl, ke gare fimilar, we havek/:kg:: hg: &c, and by
doubling them all, we have kv: gh::gh:2kc. Mr.Pi-
card computes that when the diltance g / is 300 toifes, or
1800 Paris feet, the line 42 is one inch: and hence any
other 4i may be found for any other known diftance ; it
being as the {quare of the diftance g A.

Hence, when the inftrument is thus reétified, the point
4 upon the level with g, may be found by one obfervation ;
that is, by marking the point 7 covered by the crofs-hairs,
and by computing i} by the rule above. As the intervals
between the {tations mutt be but {mall in this method, be-
caufe of refractions, as was faid above, the readielt way is
to make them all equal ; which may be known exact enough
for this purpofe, by obferving whether the pole be removed
to fuch a diftance, that its image (or the image of any given
part of it) in the focus of the telefcope fhall be always
of the fame length, being meafured by the diftance be-
tweea two parallel hairs in the focus: and then the fame
allowance mult always be made for the depth of the point 4
below i.

Laitly, by means of thefe parallel hairs, it is eafy to find
when the telefeope is placed in the middle between two
flations ; and then the points upon a level at each pole are
prefently found, by direéting the telefcope firft to one pole
and then to the other, and by marking the points covered
by the crofs-hairs. And thefe points will be upon a level,
notwithitanding any refractions of the vifual rays, becaufe
the refrattion of each ray will be equal. Smith’s Optics,
book iit. chap. 14.

Dr. Halley fuggefts a new method of levelling, which
has been put in practice by fome of the French academy :
this is performed wholly by means of the barometer, in
which the mercury is found to be fufpended to fo much
the lefs height as the place is farther remote fram the

centre of the earth. Hence it follows, that the different
heights of the mercury, in two places, give the difference
of level.

Mr. Derliam, from fome obfervations he made at the top
and bottom of the Monument, found that the mercury
fell one-tenth of an inch at every 82 feet of perpendicular
afcent, when the mercury was at 30 inches. Dr. Halley
allows of one-tenth of an inch for every 30 yards ; which,
confidering how accurately the barometers are now made,
an inch, in fome of them, being divided into an hundred,
or more parts, all very fenfible, he thinks this method fuffi-
ciently exact to take the levels for the conveyance of water,
and lefs liable to errors than the common levels.

The fame author found a difference of three inches eight-
tenths, between the height of the mercury at the top and
bottom of Snowdon-hill, in Wales.

Mr. Fengufon has calculated the following table, for fhew-
ing how much the mercury would fink-in a barometer at
given heights above the earth’s plane furface ; and confe-
quently, how the perpendicular height of any hill may be
found thereby.

Mere. Mere. Mere. Mere.

At the | finks. J At the} finks. | At the | finks. | At the | finks.
height | —— {height height |- height |————
roy ae a ae fs of Aus of te of neat
Ze a2 1 RAG | RR BE 2
Feet. |5 3 Feet. E 3 Feet. = 3 Feet 5 8

—-——_- J — |

T00/0 1113900|4 02] 7700] 7 38111500) 10 30
200|0 22]4000}4 12] 7800) 7 46]11600) 10 37
300/0 33/4100)4 21] 7900) 7 SS]11700\ 10 44
400/0 44]4200]4 30] 8000] 7 63 ]11800/10 52
5-0}0 5414300/4 39] 8100} 7 71 11900] to 59
600}0 65] 4400/4 49] 8200] 7 79]|12000! 10 66
700\0 76 4500) 4 58] 8300) 7 $7 | 12100/ 10 72
800}0 87} 4600]4 67] 8400] 7 95 }12200/10 80
goo}o 95}4700\4 77] 8500) 8 03]12300/10 87
1000/1 09]4800!4 86} S600) 8 11 ]12400!10 94
1I00}1 19]4900]4 95} 8700} 8 19} 22500! 11 of
1200/1 30]5000|5 04] 8800) 8 27] 12600/11 o8
1300/1 40]5100/5 13] 8900) 8 3g] 12700/11 15
1400/1 §1]5200|5 22] gooo| 8 43]12800|11 22
T500\1 61}5300/5 31] 9100} 8 sr] 12900) 11 39
1600}1 72]5400]5 40] 9200] 8 58]13000 11 40
1700|1 82}5500/5 49} 9300] 8 66]13100!11 43
1800] 1 93]5600|5 58] 9400] 8 74]13200/11 50
1900|2 03]5700/5 67] 9500) 8 82/13300 11 5
2000}2 14}5800|5 76] 9600! 8 89] 13400 11 63
2100}2 2415900/5 85] 9700] 8 97]13500\11 70
2200/2 344©000]5 g4} 9800} 9 05} 13600)11 77
2300|2 44]6100/6 02] 9900] 9 12]13700 11 84
2400|2 5416200/6 11] 10000] g 20]13800\11 go
2300}2 64]6300/6 20] 10100] g 27]13900\11 97
2600|2 75]6400/6 28}10200] 9g 34]14000/12 o4
2700/2 85}6500/6 37] 10300] 9 42] 14100/12 11
2800|2 95}6600/6 45|10400] 9 50]14200 12 17
2900}3 0519700|6 54} 10500! g 57]14300,12 24
3000/3 1546800/6 63] 10b00| 9 64}14400/12 30
3100/3 25|6900/6 71} 10700) g 72|14500,12 37
3200}3 3447900|6 80] 10800) g 79] 14600) 12 44
339013 44]7100/6 88} 10900] g 87} 14700|12 50
340013 54 72089 97} 11000} 9 94}14800/12 57
3590}3 6347300)7 O5}11100|/10 ol} 149Q00\ 12 63
3600/3 73} 7400/7 13}11200]10 08} 15000|.12 70
3700]3 82}7500|7 22)11300|10 16]15100| 12 76
3800/3 9247600] 7 30111400|10 23 |15200| 12 83

4la

LEVELLING.

Mere,
At the | finks.
height |-———

Merc.
At the finks.

height

of

At the
height
of

Feet.

——

"Feet.

Teet.

100 parts.
100 parts.

21900
22000
22100
22200
22300
22400
22500
22600
22700
22800
22900
23000
23100
34|23200
23300
23400
23500
23600
23700
23800
23900
24000

17500
17600
17700
17800

17900)
18000
18100
18200
18300
18400
18500
18600
18700
18800
18900
19000
TgIoo
19200
19300
19400
19500
19600

19700
19800
999°
20000
20100
20200

3) 20300
20400
20500
20600
7420700
20800
420900
21000
#21100
21200
21300
21400
21500
21600
21700
15 53{21800

By this table, and a common barometer tube, the perpen-
dicular height of any hill may be found in the following
manner.

The lower end of the tube being immerfed in quickfilver
in the common way, and the tube fixed to a board, let a
{cale, eighteen inches in length, be divided into inches, and
each inch into a hundred equal parts, by diagonal lines, the
divifions to be numbered downward from the top. This
f{cale mutt be made to flide in a groove on the board, and
have a crofs index to flide upon it to any divifion.

Then, at the bottom or foot of the hill, place the fcale
fo as the beginning of the divifions at its top may be jult
even with the top or furface of the mercury in the tube.
This done, carry the machine up to the top of the hill; then
fet the index to the furface of the mercury, and it will fhew
how much the mercury has funk in the tube, at the top of
the hill, from the point where it ftood when at the bottom ;
and the number of feet exprefied in the table, again{t the
like finking of the mercury, will be the perpendicular height
of the hill.

Thus, fuppofing the mercury had funk eight inches and
three hundredth parts of an inch, the height of the hill muit
be 8500 feet, or a mile, and foméwhat more than a quarter.
Proportionable allowance is eafily made for intermediate
heights in the table, which are only to whole hundredths of
feet. ;

As Mr. Derham found the difference of height of the
mercury at the bottom and top of Snowdon-hill, in Wales, to
be three inches eight-tenths (the fame as three inches eighty
hundredths) it fhews, that the height of that hill is 3700
feet, or almoft three quarters of a mile.

N. B. 660 feet make an eighth part of a maile, 1320 feet
a quarter of a mile, 2640 feet half a mile, 3965 feet three
quarters of a mile, and 5280 feet make a whole mile. See
Baromerer and ATMOSPHERE.

Fo; the commen occafion of levelling to be performed,
without mueh apparatus of inftruments, time, or trouble,

the following method may ferve: fet a pole upright in a
{pring, pond, river, or other place, whence water is to be
brought, and mark how many feet and inches are above
water. Then fet up another pole, of equal length with the
other, in the place to which the water is to come. Place
the centre of a quadrant on the top of this laft pole, the
plummet hanging freely ; {py through the fights the top of
the pole that is in the water, and if the thread cuts any de-
gree of the quadrant, the water may be conveyed by a pipe
laid in the earth. If you cannot fee from one extreme to
the other, the operation may be repeated in the manner al-
ready direéted.

LeveLiinc Sfaves, are inftruments ufed in levelling’;
ferving to carry the marks to be obferved, and at the fame
time to meafure the heights of thofe marks from the ground.
They ufually confift each of two long fquare wooden rulers,
made to flide over one another, and divided into feet,
inches, &c. '

The levelling ftaff is reprefented in Plate VII. Surveying,
jig. 10. It is compofed of two pieces which flide on each
other, as aa and 44: they are each of about five feet in
length, fo as to form, when fully extended; a rod of ten
feet. They have a graduated line of feet into hundredth
parts. The index, c, flides firmly on them; and is moved
up or down (by fignal) by the attendant who carries the
ftaff, till the obferver finds it coincide with the interfeting
wires of his telefcope. Its height on the ftaff, of courfe,
marks the difference of the level; and it has two horizontal
and parallel black ftripes, which, at confiderable diftances,
are of ufe to direct the eye more readily to the fiducial edge
at 2.

With regard to the manner of dire€ting its application in
the bufinefs of draining, it has been obferyed, that after it
has been properly adjufted, and the ftaff about ten feet in
length, with the moveable vane or fizht, has been affixed
to it, the inftrument fhould be fet up in a fituation between
the obje€&t from whence the level is to be taken, ‘and that to
which it is to be directed, provided the diltance from the in-
ftrument to each of them is not too.great. The fituation of
it fhould alfo be no higher than the length of the ftaff will
anfwer, and fo as it may be feen from it both ways; then
the man with the ftaff fhould be direfted to hold it at the
main {pring, or place from whence you mean to carry the
drain; and after direéting the telefcope to the ftaff, and ad-
jutting it to a level, make a fign to him to move the fight up
or down, till it be exaGly oppofite the crofs-hair in the
telefcope. This done, without fhifting the inftrument from
its firft pofition, asd cautioning the man to fix the fight to
the ftaff at the point direéted, he may proceed forty or fifty
yards farther ; and after having again adjufted the level, make
a fign to him to move to higher or lower ground, till the
fight on the ftaff coincide exaétly with the crofs-hair or wire
on the telefcope. He may then leave a peg at the place
where he held the ftaff, and proceed in like manner to other
ftations, till the whole line is finifhed; leaving pegs, or
making pits, at the places where the ftaif is held during the
operation.

But if the length of the line to ‘be levelled requires the
inftrument to be fhifted from its firlt pofition, the level muft
again be taken from the latt ftation where the ltaff was held,
and the fight on it fixed in the proper place, as before di-
rected ; proceeding in the fame manner at every forty or
fifty yards in length, till the whole is accomplifhed. After
the line is thus levelled, and afcertained by marks left at
every {tation where the {taff was fixed, it may again be ex-
amined, and other pegs put in between the fir(t, the better
to direct the workmen in cutting the drain; giving the line

I fuch

LEV

fuch turnings, and even {mall deviations from the courfe of
the level, as may fhorten or ftraighten it, and humour the
fituation of the ground. And for the fake of accuracy,
where the work requires it, efpecially if the water is to be
conveyed to any conliderable diftance, or wanted to, fupply
‘a houfe, or for the purpofe of irrigation, the levels may be
proved by reverfing the former line of dire&tion. The fpirit
level is alfo neceflary for afcertaining how fuch fall can be
‘obtained from the drain to the neareit outlet where. the wa-
ter can be difcharged; the fhorter that diftance the better,
provided fall enough can be gotten. It is often neceflary to
jevel'a much longer diftance than the length of the drain
may require to be cut, in order to come at the true level.

Levevxiine of Land, in Agriculture, the method of filling
‘up the holes, hollows, or other depreffions and inequalities
that are met with in lands, whether they are in the ttate of
{ward, or in that of tillage. It fhould always be performed
in fuch a manner, as the parts thus filled up may at firlt be
fomewhat higher than the common furface round them, in
order to allow for the fettling, which neceffarily takes place ;
‘and fhould be done with fuch materials as can be moft con-
veniently procured, and which are proper for the purpofe,

_ being filled in an even and regular manner, and well trodden
‘down at the time. The ridges of fuch lands as have been
long under the plough alfo fometimes require to be levelled
down, the proper methods of doing which, under different
circumftances, will be taken notice of under that head.
Care is, however, conftantly to be taken in the execution of
this fort of bufinefs. See RipcGe.

Levetirc Poles, long wooden rulers, divided inco feet
and inches, made to flide over each other, ferving to carry
the marks to be obferved in levelling, as well as to meafure
ithe heights from the farface of the ground. They are
Jikewife termed ftaves occafionally. See LevE.iine Staves,

upra.

fire VEN, in Natural Hiflory, a term ufed by Boccone
for the milky juice contained in the globules placed at the
tops of the ftalks of red coral. Thefe round buttons are
the only part of the coral which are foft while under water,
and from thefe the milky juice is eafily exprefled by a gentle
Squeezing between the fingers. The globules are each made
up of five or fix little cells, not communicating with one
sanother, and each containing its own feparate quantity of
this white and thick fluid. When the coral is newly taken
up out of the fea, this juice is of a fharp, acrimonious, and
aflringent tafte; but when it has been fome time expofed to
tthe air, it lofes the acrimony, and the aftringency of the
tafte only remains. This change in the tafte is made in fix
-or eight hours, in hot weather, and the juice, in the fame
time, lofes its colour and contiftence, growing hard and
brown. Philof. Tranf. N~ roo.

LEUENFIORDE, in Geography, a town of Wel-
phalia, in the principality of Calenberg, on the Weler;
25 miles W.N.W. of Gottingen.

LEVENHOOKIA, in Botany, named in memory of
the celebrated microfcopic philofopher Anthony Van Leeu-
wenhoek, whofe works, as Mr. Brown obferves, abound
with excellent obfervations on the itruéture of vegetables.
‘Brown. Prodr. Noy. Holl. v..1. 572—Clafs and order,

_ Gynandria Diandria. Nat. Ord. Stylidea, Brown.

Eff, Ch, Calyx fuperior, two-lipped, in five deep feg-
ments. Corolla tubular; limb irregular, in five deep feg-
ments; the fifth (or lip) unlike the reft, vaulted, longer
than the column, articulated with the tube, and moveable.
Column ere&, attached below, like the lip, to the fide of
the tube. Lobes of the anthers’ one above the other, di-
waricated. Stigmas two, capillary. Capfule of one cell.

LEV

‘LL. pufilla, the only known fpecies, found on the fouthern
coaft of New Holland by Mr. Brown. A little {mooth
herb, with nearly the afpeét and ftature of Radiola. Leaves
alternate, {talked ; thofe about the tops of the branches
crowded, intermixed with cluftered fowers. The moveable
joint of the lip is analogous to the irritability in the column
of Stylidium, and anfwers the fame end, which is the pre-
fervation of the organs of impregnation ; for this lip, which
is deflexed in the expanded flower, when affected by any ir-
ritating caufe, is turned upwards with violence, fo as to
cover the upright and immoyeable column with its concave

art. Brown.

LEVENS, Leva, or Levenez, a town of Hungary,
near the river Gran, where the Turks were defeated, after
a defperate engagement, in the year 1664, with the lofs of
12,000 men killed, and 1500 taken prifoners, with their
artillery, &c.; 24 miles N.N.E. of Gran.

LEVENTAN, a lake of Pruffia; 56 miles S.E. of
Konigtberg. ~

LEVENTI. See Lawenp.

LEVER, Sir Asuton, in Biography, was the fon of fir
D'Arcy Lever of Alkington, near Manchefter. He
finithed his education at Corpus Chrifti college, Oxford;
and on leaving the univerfity he went to refide with his
mother, and afterwards fettled at his family-feat, which he
rendered famous by the beft aviary in the kingdom. He
next extended his views to all branches of natural hiftory,
and became at length poffeffed of one of the fineft mufzums
in the world, {paring no expence in procuring {pecimens
from the moit diitant regions. This mufeum was difpofed
of by lottery in 1785, but to the great lofs of the proprietor.
It was, for fome years after this, exhibited to the public at
a {mall charge, but is now difperfed, the articles. having
been fold feparately by auétion. Sir Athton died in 178).
Europ. Mag.

Lever, or Leaver, in Mechanics, an inflexible ftraight
bar, fupported, in a fingle point, on a fulcrum; or prop,
and ufed for the raifing of weights.

The word is formed of the French fvier, which fignifies
the fame ; formed of the verb ever, or Latin ware, to raife.

The lever is the firft of thofe called mechanical powers,
or fimple machines, as being, of all fuch, the moft fimple-;
and is chiefly applied for railing weights to {mall heights.

In a lever there are three things confidered : the weight
to be raifed, or fuftained, as O, Plate XXX. Mechanics,
Jig. 4.5 the power by; which it is to be raifed, or fuftained,
as B; and the fulcrum, or prop, D, on which the lever js
fultained, or rather on which it moves round, the fulcrum
remaining fixed.

Levers are of three kinds: fometimes the fulcrum, or
centre of motion, is placed between the weight and the
power, asin fig. 4. This we calla /ever of the firft kind, or
wetlis heterodromus 3 to which may be reduced (ciflars, pin-
cers, {nuifers, &c. Sometimes the weight is between the
fulcrum and the power, which is called a lever of the fecond
kind, asin fig. 5. Of this kind are the oars and rudder of a
boat, the mats of fhips, cutting knives fixed at one end,
and doors whofe hinges are as the fixed point. And fome-
times the power ats between the weight and the fulcrum,
which is the lever of the third kind. Such is a ladder iifted
by the middle to rear it up againft a wall: thefe two are
called veées homodromi.

In this lait, the power muft exceed the weight in pro-
portion as its diftance from the centre of motion 1s. lefs than
the diftance of the centre from the weight. And as the firft
two kinds of leyer ferve for producing a flow motion by a-
{wift one, fo the laft feryes for producing a fwift motion of

the

LEV

the weight by a flow motion of the power, It is by this
‘Kind of levers that the mufcular motions of animals are per-
formed, the mufeles being inferted much nearer to the centre
of motion than the point where the centre of gravity of the
weight to be raifed is applied; fo that the power of the
mufele is maty times greater than the weight which it is able
to fuftain. Though this may appear at firlt a difadvantage
to animals, becaufe it makes their ftrength lefs : it is, how-
ever, the effe&t of excellent contrivance ; for if the power
was, in this cafe, applied at a greater diftance than the
weight, the figure of animals would be not only awkward
and ugly, but altogether unfit for motion; as Borelli has
fhewn in his treatife ** De Motu Animalium.”? The power
of the lever is founded on the following theorem; viz.
«¢ That the fpace, or arc, defcribed by each point of a lever,
and confequently the velocity of each point of a lever, is as
its diftance from the fulcrum, or prop.”

From hence it follows, that the action of a power, and
the refiftance of the weight, increafe in proportion to their
diftance from the fulcrum.

And hence alfo it follows, that a power will be able to
Sultain a weight, if the diftance of the point in the lever, to
which it is applied, be to the diftance of the weight, as the
weight to the intenfity of the power ; which, if it be ever fo
little increafed, muft raife the weight. See this doctrine
ddemonftrated under the word Merciranic Powers ; and
farther illuftrated under the word BALANCE; between
which and the lever there is a great analogy ; a lever of the
firft kind being a fort of fteelyard to raife weights.

The power and action of the lever will be fully illuftrated
by the following propofitions :

1. If the power applied to a lever of any kind fuftain a
weight, the power is to the weight in a reciprocal ratio of
their diftances from the fulerum.

2. The weight of a lever of the firft or fecond kind, AB,

fg. 4, the diftance of the centre of gravity from the fulerum

CV, and the diftances of the weight, and the power AC
and CB, being all given, to find the power that will fuftain
it. Suppofe the lever void of gravity, but in lieu thereof a
weight hung at V: if then AC be made to CV, as the
gravity of the lever to a fourth number, we fhall have the
weight which the lever is able to fuftain ; and this fubtracted
from the given weight, the remainder will be the weight to
‘be fuftained by the power. Let CB then be to CA, as
the remaining weight to a fourth weight, and we fhall have
the power to be applied in B, in order to fuftain the given
weight with the given lever.

3. The gravity of a lever of the firft or fecond kind, A B,
the diftance of the centre of gravity from the fulcrum C V,
the diftances of the power, and the weight BC and CA,
being all given, to find the weight to be fuflained. Find
the part of the weight fuftained by the lever‘alone, as in the
former problem: in the fame manner find the other part of
the weight, which the power applied in B is able to fuftain ;
add the two numbers together, and the fum is the weight
required.

4. The gravity, and centre of gravity F, of a lever of
the fecond kind C B, fig. 5, with the weight G, its diftance
from the fulcrum CA, and from the power CB, being
given, to find the power capable of fuftaining the weight.
Suppofe the lever void of gravity, but in lieu thereof a
weight equal thereto hung in F, the power required to fuf-
tain the lever alone; then find the power requifite to fuftain
the given weight G ; add the powers together, and the fum
will be the power required.

5. Ifa power applied to alever of any kind lift a weight,
the {pace of the firit is to that of the laft, as is this laft toa

LEV

power able to futain the fame weight; whence it follows,
that the gain of force is always attended with the lofs of
time, and vice ver/a.

When the two arms of a lever are not in aright line, but
contain any invariable angle at C, fg. 6, the lever is called
a bended lever; and is evidently of the firft kind, and the
law of the equilibrium is the fame ; i. ¢. if the power P be
applied at B to the arm C B, and the weight W atts by
means of a pulley M, in the direction A M, perpendicular
to the arm A, the power and weight will fuftain each other,
if Pbe to W; as CA to. CB, or Px CB=W x CA.
If feveral powers a& upon the arm C A, find their centre of
gravity, A, on the arm C A, and fuppofe all the powers to
be united there; and if the power P be to theirfum as CA
to CB, it will fuftain them. «The fum of the powers being
given, it is manifeft that the farther their centre of gravity
A is.removed from the centre of motion C, the greater re-
filtance they will oppofe againft the power P, and it will
require the greater force in the power to overcome then,
Hence Galileo juftly concludes, that the bones of animals
are the ttronger for their being hollow, their weight being
given; or if the arm CBF reprefents their length, the
circle CHD a feétion perpendicular to the length P, any
power applied along their length, tending to break them ;
then the itrength or force of all their longitudinal fibres, by
which the adhefion of the parts is preferved, may be con-
ceived to be united in A, the centre of the circle CH D,
which is the common centre of gravity of thofe forces,
whether the fection be a circle or annulus. But it is plain
that when the area of the fe&tion, or the number of fuch
fibres is given, the diltance C A is greater when the feGtion
is an annulus than when it is a circle without any cavity :
confequently the power with which the parts adhere, and
which refifts againlt P, that endeavours to feparate them, is
greater in the fame proportion. For the fame reafon, the
italks of corn, the feathers of fowls, and hollow fpears, are
lefs liable to accidents that tend to break them, than if they
were of the fame weight and length, but folid, without any
cavity. In this inftance, fays Mr. Maclaurin, (View of
Sir. 1. Newton’s Phil. Difc. book ii. chap. 3. § 13.) art
only imitates: the wifdom of nature. See Mecuanicay
Powers. '

Lever, or Veélis, in Midwifery, an inftrument ufed to
facilitate the birth of the head of the child, when it remains
long fixed in the brim of the pelvis of the mother. It is
ufually called the lever of Roonhuyfen, the name of a fur-
geon of Amfterdam, who has the credit of having invented,
or firft made ufe of it. Roonhuyfen is faid to have been in-
ftruéted by Dr. Hugh Chamberlen in the method ef ufing
the forceps, (fee that article,) for which he paid him a con-
fiderable {um of money: but finding, in many cafes, great
difficulty in introducing the fecond blade of the forceps, he
confined himfelf to the ufe of a fingle blade ; and procuring
an inftrument to be made upon that principle, he called it
his lever. Ruyfch was alfo faid to participate with him in
the ufe of this new contrivance. It was for a long time ap-
plied with great caution, and only fhewn to fuch of their
pupils as paid them a fpecific fum for the purpofe. At
length De Vifcher and Van de Poll, two phyficians of
Amifterdam, purchafed the fecret of a defcendant of Roon-
huyfen,and publifhed a defcription of the inftrument, and
of the manner ‘of ufing it, in the Dutch language. This
account was, many years after, tranflated into* French by
M. Preville, and affixed to his tranflation of Smellie’s
Treatife of Midwifery, to which he added an engraving of
the inftrument.

The lever is a flat piece of iron, twelve inches in length,

one

DEV

WETV.

one inch in breadth, and a quarter of an inch in thicknefs, partment of ‘the Cher, and chief place of a canton, in the

“It is ftraight in the middle for four inches, and moderately
curved at each end. (See,Plate Surgery.) In ufing it,
one or two fingers of the right hand (the woman lying
on her left fide, as in a natural labour) muft be introduced
under the pubes, and fo far, if praéticable, as to reach an
ear of the child, when the lever is to be flowly and gra-
dually infinuated between the fingers and the head of the
child. The fingers are now to be withdrawn, and the
handle of the lever to be raifed towards the belly of the wo-
man, and gently moyed about, until the head of the child is
lodged in its curve. The more completely the curve touches
and embraces the head of the child, the more fpeedily and
ealily the delivery will be effeéted. During every pain, the
handle of the lever mutt be raifed with.the right hand, and
its middle preffed down with the left hand. » This will pre-
vent the foft parts of the woman covering the os pubis from
being injured. When by this means the head of the child
has been made to defcend into the vagina, the left hand muft
be removed from the middle of the nftrument, and applied
over the anus and the perineum, to guard thofe parts,
a be found to be much diftended,) and to prevent
eir being lacerated ; for which purpofe, alfo, the whole

of the operation: (which will ufually be completed within
between ten aud twenty minutes) mult be performed flowly
and cautioufly, imitating as much as poffible a natural
labour.

_ For further information on this fubject, fee Dr. Bland’s
Account of the Invention and Ufe of the Lever, publifhed
in the fecond volame of Medical Communications, 1790.

_ LEVERANO, in Geography, a town of Naples, in.the
_province of Otranto; 7 miles'N. of Nardo.

_ LEVERET, amongit Sport/men; a young hare, in the
firft year of its age. ;

‘LEVERETT, im Geography, a townfhip of America,
in Hampfhire county, Maflachufetts, near Connecticut
river ; 94) miles W. from Bolton; incorporated in 1774,
and containing 711:mhabitants. A. copper-mine has been
lately difcovered in this townfhip.

» LEVERIDGE,, Ricuarn, in Biography, was a finger
of Purcell’s fongs, in the time of Charles []. andin that of
William and Mary. During the reign of queen Anne, he
performed in 1706 the part of fir Trufty, in Addifon’s
Rofamond; and in the firft attempts at operaon the Italian
model, he fung his part in Enghifh, in Camila and Thomy-
ris; while Nicolini, Valentini, and the Margarita, ver-
formed their parts in Italian. ;

« He had a deep-and powerful bafe voice; was a ufeful
performer on the Englifh ftage on many occafions, parti-
cularly at Covent Garden, where he attached himfelf to
Rich,:and his pantomime.entertainments, to the end of his
life... He was not, however, without genius for poetry and
compofition, as far as a ballad went. We remember his
finging one written and fet by himfelf, «* Gholts of every
Occupation,”? and feveral of Purcell’s bafe fongs occa-
fionally, which, fifty years ago, feemed antediluvian ;, but
as he generally was the reprefentative of Pluto, Neptune, or
fome ancient divinity, it corre{ponded perfectly wath his
figure and character.
finger of convivial fongs, but the writer of many that were:
in great favour with fingers and hearers of a certain clafsy
who more pioufly performed the rites of Comus and Bacchus
than thofe of Minerva and, Apollo, he had always a crowded
houfe at his benefit; nor did he leave this fublunary world,
or the ftage, till 1758,.at 88 years of age. :

. LEVET, in. Geography, a: town of France; in the de«

os

As he was not only a celebrated: ’

diftri& of Bourges; 6 miles S. of Bourges. The place
contains 645, and the canton 5263 inhabitants, on a terri-
tory of 2324 kiliometres, in 16 communes,

LEVI, Bex-Gersuom, in Biography, a, learned: rabbi,
who flourifhed in the fourteenth century, was born’ in Pro-
vence about the year 1290. His celebrity is founded chiefly
on his philofophical and theological writings. He was: a
difciple of Ariftotle, and philofophizes in the fpirit of his
matter, when difcufling fubjectsof facred literature. _ Her
died: in. 1370, when he was So years of age. He wasi
author of ** Commentaries’? on all the books of the Old
Teitament, of which fome are inferted in the great bibles of;
Venice and Bafil; and others were feparately printed :at
Pefaro, Venice,’ and Paris: He was author of a_philo-
fophical work, entitled ‘*Millemot Hafchem,” or « The
Battles of the Lord,’’ divided into treatifes on the immor-
tality of the foul, the knowledge-of future events, . pro~
phecy, the interpretation of dreams, the omnifcience of
God, &c.3; and of. various other treatifes, which ‘were:
formerly preferved in MS. in the Vatican library, and in
that belonging to the congregation of the fathers of the
oratory at Paris.

Levi, L/le du Fort, in Geography, an ifland in: the river-
St. Lawrence, Upper Canada, in tront of the townfhip of:
Edwardiburg. On this ifland are the ruins of a French for=
tification.

. LEVIEION, a town of Perfia, in the province of Irak s
36 miles W.S.W. of I{pahan.

LEVIER, a town of France, in the department of the
Doubs, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri¢t of Pon-
tarlier; 1o miles W. of Pontarlier. The place contains
1065; and the canton 7727 inhabitants, on a territory of

to kiliometres, in 15 communes.

LEVIGATION, the reduétion of hard and ponderous
bodies, as coral, tutty, precious ftones, &c. into a fine
fubtil powder, by grinding them with water upon porphyry,
or the like, as painters do their colours.

Levigation is much ufed in pharmacy and chemiftry ; but
unlefs the grinding inftruments be extremely hard, they walk
wear away, fo as fometimes to double the weiglit of thé
medicine thus managed,

LEVIRATE, in the Jewifh Cuffoms, a term ufed by
authors who have written on the law and cuftoms of the
Jews, to denote particularly that law of Mofes, which
obliges one brother to marry the. widow of another,, who
died without children, to raife up feed to him),

The word is derived from /evir, which fignifies, in Latin,
the hufband’s brother, or the brother-in-law ; and the word.
levirate has been hence formed,. to exprefs the law whereof
we have been {peaking.. |

This law, which 1s an exception to that which condemns:
marriages between brothers and fifters, and between bro--
thers-in-law and filters-in-law, feems to have been in’ ufe
among the Hebrews and Canaanites before the time of
Mofes; fince Judah gave: his firft-born Er, and Onan his:
fecond fon, ‘fucceflively to, Tamar, and obliges himfelf
to.give herlikewife to Selah his:third fon. Calm. Dié: Bibl.

LEVISANUS, in Botany; a name’ given by Petiver,
who wrote it Lezwi/unus, in honour of the Rey. Dr. Lewis,
who fent him feveral, plants :as: well as fhells from Madras.
The Cape’ fhrub to which this appellation was given, having
beenreferred by Linneus at one:time to Brugia, at another
to.Protea, is now Leucadendron Levifanus, Brown Tr. of
Linn. Soc. vy. 10. 55. (See Luxvcaprypron.) Schreber in
his’ Gen. Pl. 149, ‘eftablifhed another Levifanys out of

i Brunia;

LEV.

Brunia; ‘but this is now Staavia of Willdenow, Sp. Pl.
ve I. 1144, a name which we prefume will remain. p

LEVITA, in regio an ifland in the Grecian Archi-
pelago, about cight miles in circumference. N. lat. 37°.
E. long. 26° 14'.

LEVITE, an inferior kind of minifter in the Jewifh ta-
bernacle and temple, who had the care and management of
the facred utenfils.

The word comes from the Greek Aairns, the root of
which is the name Levi ; which was given to that patriarch
by his mother Leah, from the Hebrew yy"), /avah, to be
tied, or united; lueah hoping, by the birth of this fon, to be
more clofely linked to her hufband Jacob ; and, therefore,
ina Jarge fenfe, the Levites were the pofterity of this pa-
triarch, and conftituted one of the twelve tribes of Ifrael.
$n a more feftrained and peculiar fenfe, they were a lower
order of eccletiaftical perfons, inferior to the priefts, and
their affiftants in the facred fervice. The fons of Levi were
appointed to this office, in confequence of the extraordinary
zeal they difcovered againft idolatry, in the cafe of the
golden calf. Exod. xxxii. 26. 28.

When God miraculoufly deftroyed all the firft born of the
Egyptians (Exod. xii. 29.), he {pared the firft born of the
Hraelites ; arid in order to preferve the remembrance of the
-miracle, and of that great deliverance from their bondage in.
Egypt, which that miracle occafioned, he was pleafed to
appoint that for the future all the firft-born males ‘ fhould

“be fet apart unto himfelf."’ (Exod. xii. 12. 16. Numb.
viii. 17.) But afterwards, on the occafion above men-~
tioned, the whole tribe of Levi had the honour affigned
-them, inftead of the firft-born of Ifrael. “And that it might
appear there was a jut fubftitution of the Levites for the
firit-born, number for number, he ordered an eftimate to be
made of both; and when, on cafting up the poll, the firlt-
born were found to exceed the Levites by 273, the furplus
was redeemed at the price of five fhekels a head, which was
paid to the priefts for the ufe of the fanétuary. (Numb. iii.
14, ad fin.) We may here obferve, as a circumitance
worthy of notice, that the pofterity of Mofes were no more
than common Levites, while the defcendants of his brother
Aaron were advanced, by the appointment of his law, to
the dignity of the priefthood. ( Chron. -xxiii. 13, 14.)
This is a plain evidence that Mofes was not influenced by
any worldly or ambitious views, or rather that he was not
the contriver and author of the law which he gave to Ifrael,
but received it from God: for if he had framed it, it is na-
tural to fuppofe that he would have made fome better pro-
vifion than ‘he did for his fons, and for the grandeur of his
houfe, and not have advanced his brother’s above his own.

The Levites were originally divided into three claffes, or
families, from the three fons of Levi, Kohath, Gerfhon,
and Merari; but afterwards by David into twenty-four
courfes. 1 Chron. xxiii. 6. ch. xxvill. 11—13.

The Levites, in the Jewifh church, were an order in-
ferior to the priefts; and anfwered, iu fome meaiure, to
deacons, in the Chriftian church. On their firft inftitution,
a great part of the fervice that was affigned them was pe-
culiar to the ftate of the Ifaaelites at that time; and it was
fervile and laborious. But when they were fettled in the
land of Canaan, and the tabernacle was no longer carried
about as before, the fervice of the Levites was, of courfe,
changed, and became-much more eafy. On which account,
ir the time of David, they were thought fit to enter on their
office at the age of 20 years; whereas, by the original ap-
pointment of Mofes, they were not admitted till they were

25 or 30 years of.age, and were difcharged at 50. (Numb.

DEV

iv. 3- 13. 43. ch. viii, 24, 25.) Itis an opinion among ther
Jews, that the Levites pafled through four different degrees.
From one month old to their twentieth year they were ins
ftructed in the law of God; from twenty to twenty-five,’ in»
the funétions 6f their miniftry ; from that period to thirty,»
they ferved a kind of apprenticefhip, beginning to exercife
themfelves in fome of the lower branches of the facred fer~)
vice; and laftly; when they attained their thirtieth year,
they were fully inftituted in their office. A fimilar grada~
tion, probably borrowed from that of the Jewifh Levites,
has been obferved among the vettal virgins ; and fome have
fuppofed that this gradation is referred to by the apoftle,
when he tells Timothy, that they who perform the office of
a deacon well purchafe to themfelves a good degree, xaAov
BxSpwv. 1 Tim. ii. 13.

We have already obferved, that the Levites were ori«
ginally diftributed into three families; and in David’s time,
they were diftinguifhed into three claffes, to each of which
a different fervice was affigned; and probably each was di-
vided into twenty-four courfes. The firft clafs was ap-
pointed to affift the priefts in the exercife of their miniftry »
the fecond clafs formed the temple choir ; the third clafs had
the charge of the feveral gates of the courts of the fanétuary
affigned them by lot. (1 Chron. xxvi. 1. 15. 19." 2 Chron.
XXXV. I5. vill, 14.) The Levites exercifed the office of
magiftrates, which office belonged to them, not as Levites,
but as perfons who generally addi@ted themfelves more to the
ftudy of the law, and had more leifure to attend on the.
duties of the magiftracy, than others who were employed in
fecular bufinefs. The magiftrates of different ranks, both:
the “ fhophetim?? and ‘ fhoterim,’? were very generally,
though not always, chofen out of the tribe of Levi. Thus,
the prophetic curfe, denounced by Jacob againft Levi,
(Gen. xlix. 7.) was remarkably accomplifhed, (though in
effeét converted into a bleffing,) not only in refpeé to the
appointment of their habitation, but likewife of their offices
and employments; more of them, than perhaps of all the
tribes taken colletively, being officers and judges through-
out the whole country ; and probably, as the rabbies tell
us, fome of them were generally direCtors of their feminaries
of learning. Of the confecration of the Levites, and of the
ceremonies attending it, we have an account in Numb. viil.
10, II.

As to the refidence and fubfiftence of the Levites, we
may obferve that they had no fettled lands allotted them for
their maintenance, as the other tribes had, but lived chiefly
on the offerings made to God. (Deut. xxiii. 1, 2.) They
were diftributed through all the tribes, each of which gave
fome of their cities to the Levites, amounting in all to the
number of thirty-five, with grounds in their neighbourhood
for the fubfiftence of their flocks. (Numb. xxxv. 4, 5.)
In the weeks of their attendance at the fanétuary, they were
maintained by the dues arifing from the facrifices; befides
thefe dues, the firft fruits, which were brought to the
temple, and the money paid for the redemption of the firft-
born, contributed to their fubfiftence. But, when they
were out of waiting, their maintenance partly arofe from
the glebes belonging to their cities, and chiefly from the
tithes of the produce of the whole country, which the law
allotted to the tribe of Levi, (Numb: xviii. 21.) a tenth of
which they paid to the prielts. See Tirne.

According to the numeration made by Solomon, from
the age of twenty there were thirty-eight thoufand Levites
capable of ferving: twenty-four thoufand of thefe he ap-
pointed for the daily miniftry under the priefts; fix thoufand
to be inferior judges in the cities, and to decide matters re-

lating

«
7

LEV

lating to religion, and of no great confequence to the fate ;
four thoufand to be door-keepers, and to take care of the
riches of the temple; and the relt to do the office of cliautors,
or fingers.

LEVITICAL Decrees, in Law. See MARRIAGE.

LEVITICI, in Church Hiffory, a fe&t of heretics, who

{pring from the Gnoftics and Nicolaitans.
*" LEVITICUS, a canonical book of the Old Teftament,
fo called from its containing the laws and regulations relating
to the priefts, Levites, and facrifices. Sce Canon and
PesraTeucn.

LEVIT'Y, the privation or want of weight in any body,
when compared with another that is heavier.
~ In which fenfe, levity ftands oppofed to gravity.

The fchools maintain, that there is fuch a thing as pofitive
and ab/olute levity, and impute to this the rife or emergency
of bodies lighter in fpecie than the bodies wherein they
rife.

But we find by experience, that all bodies tend towards
the earth, fome flower, and fome falter, in all fluids, or
“mediums, whether water, air, &c. Thus, cork is only
faid to be lighter than gold, becaufe, under equal di-
‘menfions, the gold will fink in, and the cork fwim upon
water.

Archimedes has demonftrated, that a folid body will float
any where in a fluid of the fame {pecific gravity ; and that a
lighter body will keep above aheavier. The reafon is, that
‘of bodies falling towards the earth, thofe which have a like
number of equal parts, have equal gravity} fince the gravity
of the whole is the fum of the gravity of all its parts. Now
two bodies have an equal number of equal parts, if under
the fame dimenfions there be no intervals deftitute of matter ;
whence it follows, that as no portion of matter is fo fmall,
but that the body wherein it is contained may be wholly
divided into parts equally {mall, there can be no reafon for
the defcent of thefe, which will not equally hold for the de-
fcent of that?

’ Hence it may be concluded, that thofe bodies which do |

not equally gravitate under the fame dimenfions, do not con-
tain equal portions of matter; and, therefore, when we fee,
that a cube of gold fubfides in water, at the fame time that
an equal bulk of cork fwims upon it, it is evident, that the
goid muft have a greater number of equal parts of matter,
under the fame bulk, than the cork; or the cork muft have
@ greater number of vacuities than the gold; and that there
is alfo in the water a greater number of vacuities than in gold:
See Frurps, and Specific Gravity.

Hence we have a clear idea both of denfity or gravity,
and of levity ; and know, that the latter cannot, in a ftri&
fenfe, be accounted any thing pofitive, but only a mere ne-
gatiom-or abfence of body ; which determines that body to
be lighter than another which contains more matter.

Dr: Hook, it is true, feems to maintain fomething like a
pofitive levity ; which, if we miftake not, is what he means
by the term /evifation; viz. a property of bodies direétly
contrary to that of gravitation towards the fun.

This, he thinks, he has difcovered in the flreams of fe-
veral comets; which, though they had a defcent from the
nucleus of the comet towards the fun, yet they quickly re-
turned, and went oppofite to the fun, and that to a pro-
‘digious extent. In efle&t, where the power of gravitation
ceafes, it fhould feem fome fuch contrary force does begin ;
whereof we have inftances in the phenomena of attra¢tion.
This is what fir Ifaac Newton calls the wis repellens, and
appears to be one of the laws of nature; without which it
would be hard to account for rarefaétion, and fome other
appearances. :

#~ You. XX. °

Ley

LEVIZANO, in Geography, a town of Italy, in the de-
partment of the Panaro ; fix miles $.5.E. of Modena.

LEUK, a {mall town of Switzerland, built upon aa
eminence about a mile from the Rhine, and the principal
place of one of the dixains of the Vallais; containing two
churches and a large palace of the bifhops of Sion. Atthe
diftance of fix om N. are celebrated baths, faid to h-
beneficial in rheumatifms, difeafes of the fkin, &c. and to
refemble thofe of Bath. Here are feveral fprings of different
warmth and of different qualities. According to accurate
experiments, the mercury in ’ahrenheit’s thermometer, wher
plunged into the principal fource, ftood at 115, and at 120
in the {pring which flows near the bridge over the Dola.
Leuk is diftant 20 miles E. from S‘on.

LEVKOPOL, a town of, Ruffia, in the province of
Tauris; 80 miles S. of Perekop. N. lat. 45°6'. E. long.

O val

LEUNCLAVIUS, Jomx, in Biography, an eminent
man of letters in the feventeenth century, fon of a gentle-
man of Weltphalia, was brought up to the profeffion of the
law, with which fcience he was intimately acquainted, as
well as with literature in general, He was a great traveller,
and refided a confiderable time in Turkey. He died at
Vienna in 1693, about the 6oth year of hisage. “ From his
knowledge of the Turkifh language he was enabled to col-
le& fome valuable materials for the hiftory of chat nation,
which he publifhed’ under the title of “ Hiltorie Muflima-
nice Turcarum,” and his ** Annales Tuzcici cum Supple-
mento et Pandeétis Hift. Turcice.” His intimate knowledge
of the Greek language was difplayed in feveral Latin
tranflations of Greek authors, viz. Kenophon, Zozimus,
the annals of Conitantine Manaffes, and of Michael Glycas ;
the Greek abridgment of the fixty books of Roman law ;
various works of St. Gregory of Nazianzen, &c. Bayle.

LEVONOVK, iu Geography, a town of Ruffia, in the
government of Irkutfk, on the Lena; 52 miles S. S.W. of
Kirenfk.

LEUPOLD, James, in Biography, a very celebrated
mechanician, and noted for his conitruction of mathematical
inftruments, and ether machines for the elucidation of faéts in
philofophy, was commiffary of mines to the king of Poland,
and amembesrof the Royal Society of Berlin, and other fci-
entific bodies. He died at Leipfic in 1727, after having ac-
quired celebrity by the publication of a work, which is ftill
highly etteemed, entitled « ‘Theatrum Machinarum,” in three
vols. folio.

LEVRET, Anprew, an eminent French furgeon and ac-
coucheur, was admitted a member of the Royal Academy of
Surgery at Paris'in February, 1742. He obtained a high and
extenfive reputation in his department of the art, by the
improvements which he made in fome of the inftruments ne-
ceflary to be employed in certain difficult cafes, (efpecially
the forceps, ) and by the prodigious number of pupils whom
he inftruéted. He was employed and honoured with official
appointments by all the female branches of the royal! family.
He publithed feveral works, which underwent various edi-
tions and tranflations. ‘* Obfervations fur les caufes et les
accidens de plufieurs'accouchemens laborieux,”? Paris, 1747.
To the fourth edition, in 1770, were added, * Ob-
fervations. on the lever of Roonhuyfen.” « Obdfervations
fur la cure radicale de plufieurs polypes de-la matrice,
de la gorge, et du nez, operée par de nouveaux moyens,”’
ibid. 1749, &c. ‘ Suite des obfervations fur les caufes .
et les accidens de plufieurs accouchemens laborieux,’’ ibid.
1751. Explication de plufieurs figures fur le méchae
niime, de la groffefle et de l’accouchement,”’ ibid. 1752.
«L’Art des accouchemens démontré par des principes de

4K pliyfigue

, eo
patine wen mechanique,"’ ibid. 1753, &e. “ Effai fur

abus des regles generales, et contre les préjugés qui s’op-

pofent aux progres de l’art des accouchemens,’’ ibid. 1766.
Eloy Dic&. Hitt. S

LEVROUX, in Geography, a town of France, in the de-
partment of the Indre, and chief place of a canton, in the
dittri& of Chateauroux; 10 miles N. of Chateauroux. The
place contains 2800, and the canton 8904 inhabitants, on a
territory of 3524 kiliometres, in 15 communes. _N. lat. 46
5g’. E.long. 1° 41’. i ;

LEUSDEN, Jouy, in Biography, an eminent philolo-
gift, was bora at Utrecht in 1624. He laid the foundation
of a learned education in his native city, and then went to
Amtterdam to improve himfelf in the Hebrew language,
and in the knowledge of the Jewifh ritual from converiation
with the learned rabbis. He obtained, in the year 1649, the
profefforfhip of Hebrew and Jewith antiquities at Utrecht,
which he held, with great reputation, til his’ death in 1699.
He was a capital critic, and was highly celebrated as a
teacher. He gave correct editions of the works of Bochart
and Lighfoot, and of Poole’s Synopfis. His own writings
are numerous and very valuable, of which: the principal are
« Clavis Hebraica et Philologica Vet. Tett.’’ 4to. « Clavis
Greca Novi Teft. cum Axnot.” Compendium Grecum
Novi Telt.’’ “ Philological Notes upon Jonas, Joel, and
Hofea,’” two vols. 8vo. Moreri.

LEUTENBERG, in Geography, a town of Germany,
in the county of Schwartzburg- Rudolitadt, on the Sorbitz ;

near which are mines’of filver and copper ; eight miles S.E.,

!

of Saalfeld. N. lat. 50° 28’, E.long. 11°35"

LEUTHEN, a town of Silefia, in the principality of
Breflau ; 1o miles W. of Breflau.

LEUTKIRCH, a town of Bavaria, near the Efchach,
ona heath to which it gives name. ‘This town was free
and ‘imperial till the year 1802, when it was conveyed,
among other indemnities, to the elector of Bavaria. It has
a Lutheran and a Roman Catholic church, together witha
nunnery of Francifeans. The magiftrates are mottly Luthe-
ran; 28 miles S.of Ulm. N. lat. 47°53’. E.long. 10°.

LEUTMISCHL, or Liromyst, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Chrudim ; 22 miles E. of Chrudim. N, lat.

9° 47'. «EB. -long: 16? 5! :
Ouro, Teal. in Mfc. See Lure, and THEORBO.

LEUTSCH, in Geography, a town of the duchy of
Carniola; eight miles S.S.E. of Hydria.—Alfo, a town of
Hungary, which has frequently fuffered from fire ; 14 miles
W. of Szeben.

LEUTZBURG, atown of Switzerland, in the canton
of Berne; fix miles S. of Brugg.

LEVY, Levare, in Law, lignifies to gather or colle& ;
as, to levy money, to levy troops, &c.

Levy fometimes alfo denotes to ere&t, or fet up; as,
to levy a mill. Levy alfo fignifies to raife or cait up 5
as, to levy a ditch. To levy a tine of lands, is to pafs a fine.

LEVYING Money without Confent of Parliament. No
fabje& of England can be conftrained to pay any aids or
taxes, even for the defence of the realm or the fupport of
government, but fuch as are impofed by his own confent, or
that of his reprefentatives in parliament. See ftats. 25 Edw. I.
c.5. & 6. 34 Edw. L. ftat.4.c. 1. 14 Edw. UL. itat, 2.
cap. t. the petition of right, 3 Car. I.c. 1. flat. 1 W. & M.
flat. 2c. 2.

Levyine War againf} the King. See TREASON.

LEUZE, in Geography, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the Jemappe, and chief place of a canton, in the
diftrié& of Tournay, feated on a brook near the Dender ;
eight miles E, of Tournay. ‘The place contains 3528, and

LEW

the canton 14,448 inhabitants, on a territory of 1224 kilios
metres, In 15 communes. ;

LEWALDE, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland ; 12 miles N.N.W. of Soldau.

LEWARDEN, acity of Holland, and capital of Frief-
land, fituated in a quarter called «* Ooftergoo.””_ From being
afmall town in 1190, when it was furrounded with a wall,
it has become large, rich, and populous, fortified with ram-
parts, and defended by a large ditch, baftions, and other
works; the ilreets are regular and fpacious, and feparated
by eanals which interfe& each other, facilitate communica-
tion with the feaand with the internal parts cf the province,
and contribute to an extenfive trade with Holland, Bremen,
Hamburgh, and other places. The town houfe, erected
in 1715, is a handfome building. The magiltracy con-
fits of three burgo-matters and nine echevins ; 28 miles W.
of Groningen. N.lat. 53° 12’. E. long. 5° 43’.

LEWCKOCE, atown of Poland, in Podolia ; 44 miles
N.N.E. of Kaminiec.

LEWDNESS is punifhable by our law by fine, imprifon«
ment, and fuch corporal infamous punifhment, as the court
may think meet, according to the heinoulnefs of the crime,
(x Hawk. 7.) And Mich. 15 Car. II. a perfon was indiéted for
open lewdnefs, in fhewing his naked-body in a baleony, and
other mifdemeanors, and was fined two thoufand marks,
imprifoned for a week, and bound to his good behaviour for
three years. (1 Sid. 168.) In times palt, when any man
granted a leafe of his houfe, it was ufual to infert an exprefs
covenant, that the tenant fhould not entertain any lewd wo-
men, &c,
Incest, &c.

LEWEHAGEN, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in
the circle of Natangen; eight miles E.S.E. of Konigfberg.

LEWEN, a town of Bohemia in the circle of Leitmeritz ;
eight miles N.E. of Leitmeritz.

LEWES, aconfiderable borough and market town in the
hundred of Barcombe, rape of Lewes, and county of Suffex,
England, is fituated on the eaftern extremity of one of thofe
bold and fertile eminences called the South.downs, and fo
juttly celebrated in the topography of that county. Lewes,
being anciently a demefne of the crown, appears to have ap-
pertained to the South-Saxon kings, then to the Weit-Saxony
and afterwards to the Saxon and Danifh monarchs of all Eng-
land; and, though each of thofe revolutions by which it
changed its royal lord, removed the court till farther from
this town, its natural advantages fecured it a refpeétability
not inferior to that of the firft boroughs in the kingdom.
During the Danifh rayages from the clofe of theeighth century
to the beginning of the eleventh, Lewes was rendered, both
by art and nature, the molt eligible place of refuge for the
inhabitants of the adjacent country, anda firm barrier,againft
the invaders. In the reign of Athelitan, Lewes was a very
confiderable place; for it was then the chief town and mart of
more than half the fhire. And in that king’s ordinance for
prohibiting the coinage of money, except in towns of efpecial
note, Lewes was allowed two mints, and Chicheiter but one ;
a proof of the early refpectability of the former, On the death
of Edward the Confeffor, this town, with the other appa-
nages of the crown, devolved to Harold, and on his defeat was
given by the Conqueror to his fon-in-law William, lord of
Warren, who made it his chief refidence, and built here agrand+
manfion and fortifications ; the gate and two towers of his
cattle itill remain. In the time of Edward the Confefior
here were 127 burgefles. Lewes con.inued in the poffeffion
of the lords Warren for nearly three centuries, when the
male line being exting, it defcended to Richard Fitz-Allen,
earl of Arundel; fon of Alice, filter of the late earl of War-

8 rens

See ApuLrery, Basrarp, Bawpy-HousE, —

Pe ee ee eee

——

LEW

ren. In his heirs the barony of Lewes has continued to the
prefent time. A memorable battle was fought in the vicinity
of this town in the year 1264, between Henry III. and the
confederate barons under Simon de Montfort. A particu-
lar account of this is printed in Lees Hiltory, &c. of Lewes,
8vo.1795.

Lewes is a well built town, and one of the largeft and molt
populous in the county.. It had formerly twelve parith
churches, which are now reduced to fix, including St.
Thomas at Cliffe, fo called from its ftanding under the high
chalky cliffs at the out-fkirts of the town. The other
churches are All-Saints, St. John’s under the Caltle, St.
Michael’s, St. Peter’s and St. Mary’s Weitout, now cailed
St. Anne’s, and St. John’s, Southover. The diffenters,
who have been ref{pectable and numerous in this town, have
alfo their places of worthip.

Lewes.1s a borough by prefcription, but not incorporated ;
the civil government is velted in two conftables, who are an-
nually chofen by the burgefles. Two members have been re-
turned to parliament ever fince the 26th year of Edw. I. The
right of election is in the inhabitants paying {cot and lot, in
number about 310. In the year 1504 an act of parliament
was obtained for holding the fhire or county-court alternately
at Lewes and Chichetter. From the town-book, fince that
time, a few items may be extracted, calculated to difplay the
local and general cuftoms of the ages in which they occurred.
In 1542 the duke of Norfolk’s officers were treated with
two couple of rabbits,"’ price 6d. ; a pottle of fack, 6d. ;
a quart of fack and a quart of red-wine, 6d. In 1544, the
“year’s wages’’ of John Payne, one of the burgefles in
parliament for this borough, was 63 fhillings. The two
burgefles were paid 6/. 10s. in the year 1555. The fol-
lowing year was diltinguifhed by the burning of four men,
in this town, for ‘‘herefy.’? Here are a free grammar-fchool,
a charity-{chool, and feveral private charities. On the banks
of the river Oufe, which is navigable for barges, are feve-
ral iron-works, where cannon of {mall fizes, and feveral
other articles, are calt.

» Lewes is 40 miles diftant from Chichefter, and 49 from
London. Four fairs are held annually; and a weekly
market on Saturdays. The population, in the year 1801,
was [tated in the parliamentary return to be 3309, occupying
512 houfes. The fummer aflizes are alternately held here and
at Horfham.

A priory of Cluniac monks, the firft and chief houfe of
that order in England, was founded at Lewes, in 1078, by
William lord Warren and Gundreda his wife. Here was
alfo a priory of Grey Friars ; and two hofpitals dedicated to
St. Jamesand St. Nicholas.

Lewes. See Lovuistown. ;

LEWESTEIN, a town of Pruffia; 16 miles N.W. 0

Raitenbarg.

LEWIN, atown of Silefia, inthe principality of Glatz ;
15 miles W. of Glatz. N.lat. 50° 14!. E.long. 16° 4’.

LEWING, in Metallurgy, the fifting of the ores of metals
in water. This is done in fine fieves moved backward and
forward under water; and is the method of feparating

the finer part of the ores which had fubfided among the larger:

lumps, under that part of it feparated for ufe in the various
wathings. The coarfer matter, left in the fieve, is powdered

* again with the larger maffes, and all thus fifted together for
the blowing-houfe.

LEWIS L. in Biography, emperor and king of France,
furnamed Lz Debonnaire, the fon of Charlemagne, by a
fecond wife, was born in 778, and while a child he was
crowned king of Aquitaine, to which ftate he was fent to
refide. Here he was carefully educated in the dead lan-

LE W

guages, and in the other branches of learning that were cul-
tivated at that period. During his admimiftration in Aqui-
taine, on account of the fuavity of his manners, he obtained
the furname already mentioned ; and at his father’s death in
814, he fucceeded to the imperial throne, without oppofition.
At this period he had three fons, Lothaire, Pepin, and Lewis,
among whom he divided his dominions : the firft he raifed to
the dignity of emperor by aflociating him with himfelf; the
fecond he created king of Aquitaine ; and to the other he
gave the title and power of king of Bavaria.
fyitem could not have been adopted, which Lewis found to
his coft, as each of his fons, feeling themfelves independent
of the father, violated every tie of filial and fraternal duty:
Bernard, king of Italy, natural fon of Pepin, the eldeft fon
of Charlemagne, took up arms with the hope of depofing
Lewis, but his army, in the critical momest, deferted him,
and he was obliged to throw himfelf at the emperor’s feet,
to implore that clemency, which his mifdeeds were ill calcu-
lated to infpire. The emperor referred him to the aflembly
of the ftates of Aix-la-Chapelle; by whom his condu& was
inveltigated, and himfelf and- affociates were condemned to
death. This fentence was commuted for that of depriving
the guilty of their eyes ; the extreme torture of the operation
was the caufe of Bernard’s death, which happened almott im-
mediately after the cruel deed had been performed. The
reco}lection of the fufferings of his nephew fo affi@ed the
mind of Lewis, that he performed a public penance on ac-
count of it, a circumftance that rendered him contemptible
in the eyes of his fubjects. The fierce nations of the north,
{earcely to be controlled by the genius of Charlemagne, dif-
dained the weak arm of his fucceffor, and it was with the ut-
mott difficulty that their rude aflaults were repelled, and them-
felves confined within their proper circle. The molt difaftrous
events of this period were the death of the emprefs, and the
fubfequent marriage of Lewis with Judith, daughter of
Guelf of Bavaria, whofe {plezdid accomplifhments concealed
an ambitious mind, the fource of equal calamities to her
confort and the empire. For atime Lewis was obliged to
refign his power, but the jealoufy of his three fons again{t
each other caufed a change in his favour, and he was again
reftored to power. The three brothers, in 832, joined
in a new league againft their father ; they were {upported
by the pope, Gregory IV., and the emperor, deferted by his
troops, furrendered himfelf a prifoner to his undutiful
children. He was now folemnly depofed, the imperial dig-
nity was conferred upon Lothaire, and Judith was fent into a
nunnery. The misfortunes and diftreffes of the great ever
affe& the minds of the multitude, and the compafiion of
his people foon began to operate in favour of the fallen fo-
vereign. Pepin and Lewis took up arms againft their elder
brother, who was obliged to throw himfelf at the feet of his
father, and afk his pardon. Lewis was again reconciled to
the church, and replaced on the throne by the bifhops. He
now recalled his emprefs Judith, whofe mind, unbroken by
adverfity, engaged in new plots againtt the government, with
the hope of advancing her fon Charles, to the prejudice of the
other branches of the family. She had the addrefs to caufe
kim to be declared king of Neuftria, and afterwards, on the
death of Pepin, king. of Aquitaine, in oppofitica to the
claims of the fons of Pepin. This circumftance induced
Lewis of Bavaria to aflemble an army, with the intention of
feizing for himfelf as much of the territory borderiny on his
dominions as he could occupy. He accordingly made him-
felf maiter of the beft part of Germany: the unwelcome
news was received by the emperor at a moment when his mind
was broken down with age, and with terror occafioned by a
total eclipfe of the fun: he withdrew from the feat of govert +

4K2 Sat menty

i cr.
fA worle

LEWIS.

ment; to anifland in the Rhine, where he refufed almoft all
fuftenance, excepting the elements adminiftered at the facra-
ment, and died at the age of fixty-two, in the year 840.
He appointed Lothaire his fucceffor in the empire, but his
lait moments were embiitered with the molt lively refentment
againft the king of Bavaria: he was reminded by the bifhop
of Mentz that it was his duty to forgive; he replied, ** I
pardon him, but tell him from me, that he muft feek pardon
of God, for having brovg'xt my grey hairs with forrow to the
grave.” The placid virtues and the urbanity of temper,
which diftinguifaed the charaéter of this emperor, very ill
compenfated for the miferies which were engendered by his
feeble adminiltration ; and a prince, to whofe name has been
added the epithet of gentle, lived without the regard, and ex-
pired without the regret of his fubjects.

Lewis lI., emperor and king of Ltaly, the eldeft fon of
the emperor Lothaire I., was created by his father king of
Italy m 844, and was fent to Rome, where he was crowned
by pope Sergius II. In about two years he returned to
Germany, and was affoctated with his father in the empire.
An irruption of the Saracens gave him employment ; he
haftily went into Italy, and defeated them in feveral engage-
ments. He afterwards called a council, to be held at
Teflino, for the reformation of ecclefiaftical abufes. In
855, by the death of Lothaire, he fucceeded to the title
of emperor, in addition to his kingdom of Italy. The re-
peated incurfions of the Saracens called forth his military
talents and ardour, and the faétions of his own nobility
were a fource of much uneafinefs and great diforders. He
lived, in general, on good terms with the holy fee, and in
871, was crowned king ef Lorraine by pope Adrian II.
Fle died in 875, greatly refpeéted by his fubjeéts, to whom
he adminiftered juitice with impartiality.

Lewis ILI. emperor, called alfo Lewis IV. was fon of
the emperor Arnulf, whom he fucceeded when he was only
feven years old, in the year 889. During the courfe of his
reign, Germany was defolated by the Hungarians, and torn
afunder by civil difeord. He died in gr2, and his death is
regarded as an era in the Germanic hittory, as he was the
lait king or emperor of the race of Charlemagne.

Lewis IV. or V. emperor, fon of Lewis, duke of Ba-
varia, and Matilda, daughter of Rodolph I., was born in
1284. By the death of his father, when he was only 12
years of age, his education devolved chiefly on his mother,
and he diflinguifhed himfelf beyond all the princes of his
age. In 1314, he was chofen emperor at Frankfort by a
part of the eletors, while another part of them adhered to
Frederic, fon of Albert, emperor and duke of Autltria.
Lewis was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle by the archbifhop
of Mentz, while Frederic received a fimilar honour from
the elector of Cologne. A civil war enfued, and in 1316
an indecifive battle was fought between them, at Efslinguen
on the Neckar. In Italy, the Ghibelline faction efpoufed
the caufe of Lewis, while the Guelphs fupported that of
Frederic, and the flames of war f{pread over Lombardy, till
at length he gave his rival a fignal defeat and took him pri-
foner. From this period thofe contetts commenced between
Lewis and the holy fee, which difquieted all the latter part
of his reign. The pope, John XXII., iffued a bull, affum-
ing the right of deciding between the competitors of the
empire, and commanding Lewis to defiit from exercifing
the imperial functions, till he fhould obtain his exprefs per-
miffion. The emperor protetted againit the bull, and was
excommunicated. T conciliate the minds of the German
princes, he made a peace with the Auftrian family, and fet
at liberty duke Frederic, whom he had hitherto kept im pri-
fon. In 1327, he marched into Italy, and was crowned

king of that country; and in the following year he pro.
ceeded to Rome, and was crowned at St. Peter’s by the
bifhops attached to his party. The pope renewing his bulls
of excommunication and depofition again{t him, he retaliated
by publicly pronouncing his holinets a heretic, and a de-
ferter of his flock ; and he even pronounced upon him fen-
tence of death. By a change of circumftances he was
obliged to quit Rome in hafte, and from this moment his
caule declined in Italy, and he found it neceffary to return
into Germany. He now fought a reconciliation with the
pope, and was treated with contempt. ‘The death of John,
in 1336, was of no advantage to the emperor, as the fuc-
ceeding pope, Benedi&t XII., perfevered in the hoftility ma-
nifefted’ by his predeceffor. About the year 1336, the
princes of the empire, as well ecclefiaitical as fecular, af-
fembling at Spire, declared the empire independent of the
fee of Rome, and pronounced Lewis the lawful emperor :
after this a diet was convoked at Frankfort, in which a con-
ititution was pafled into a law, for ever eftablifhing the in-
dependence of the empire. ‘Thefe decrees did not put an
end to the difputes between Lewis and the holy fee: the
breach was widened by the fecret initigations of Philip of
Valois ; neverthelefs, the emperor retained the allegiance of
the greatch part of the empire. He died, as he was in the
act of hunting, in OGober 1347, at the age of fixty-three.
This prince 1s faid to have furpaffed all his contemporaries,
both in perfonal and mental qualities, and accomplifhments.
His manners were gay and highly polifhed for the times in
which he flourifhed ; and although he was capable of con-
certing his meafures without afliftanee, he willingly fought
the aid of good counfel. He appears to have been famed
for piety; for, notwithftanding the papal anathema, he
received the appellation of “ Mott Chriftian,”? and the
monks of Germany, as fervile, as fuperftitions, preferved
his knives, napkins, &c. with religious veneration. Modern
Univer, Hilt.

Lewis I. king of France, has already been noticed under
the firft emperor of that name, having reigned as chief of
the Germanic empire, and monarch of France. We there-
fore proceed to

Lewis II. king of France, furnamed the Stammerer, fon
of Charles the Bald, who was born in 843, created king of
Aquitaine in 867, and fucceeded his father in the throne of
France in 877. This prince expofed his kingdom to the
fatal confequences of a weak and divided adminiftration.
To obtain the fupport of the principal people, he profufely
lavifhed the honours and eitates of the crown upon thofe
who made the earlieft application, fo that having exhaufted
his bounties, thofe who were the laft to prefent their claims
were difappointed in their hopes and expeétations. Neg-
le€ted themfelves, they murmured, and denied the right
which he had affumed of difpofing of thefe poffeffions, with-
out the confent of the general affemblies. His party pre-
vailed by the force of numbers; and at his coronation he
took a folemn oath to maintain the privileges of the gran-
dees, and to refpect the donations which he had conferred)
on them. The vaflals of Lewis foon became his equals, and
contended for the fuperiority. A rebellion caufed him to
take the field in his own defence, but on his arrival at Autun.
he was attacked with a dangerous difeafe, fufpe&ted to have
been occafioned by poifon, which carried him off, after a
reign of about eighteen menths. At the time of his death
the queen was pregnant, and was afterwards delivered of a
fon, who in due time fucceeded to the kingdom, under the
title of Charles the Simple. Previoufly to. his death, and
fenfible of his approaclring end, he defired that his. fword
and crown might be delivered to his fon,

Lewis

* into his hands.

e

LEWIS.

Lewis ITL. king of France, who was at that time about
Yeventeen years of age. ‘The great lords were defirous, in
oppolition to the Fithes of the late fovereign, to eftablith
his other fon Carloman on the throne, To prevent, how-
ever, the evils of a civil war, they agreed that the crown
fhould be worn by both. The divifion of territory was
made in 880, when Lewis had for his fhare France Proper,
and Neuftria; and to Carloman were affigned Burgundy
and Aquitaine. The two brothers lived and reigned toge-
ther in the molt perfect harmony, and they difplayed fome
of the qualities of their anceftor Pepin.. They, in fome
meature, put a ftop to the ravages of the northern brigands,
fifty thoufand of whom had entered by the river Somme,
and had taken feveral ftrong places, among which was
Amiens. Lewis defeated them in an engigement near
Courtray, but having neglected to follow up his viétory,
they rallied, and made incurfions into Picardy; here he
again encountered, and gave them a moit fignal defeat,
leaving on the field of battle gooo of the enemy, with their
leader Guaramond. This victory had difplayed much wif-
dom and valour; and the demife of Lewis of Germany pro-
claimed the moderation of the young king of France, who
rejected with firmnefs the crown offered him by the inha-
bitants of Lorraine, and yielded to the fuperior pretenfions
of the emperor, Charles the Fat. The French were, how-
ever, permitted to contemplate the rifing virtues of their
prince only a fhort time. While he was indulging the
hope of ereGting frefh trophies over the Normans, a mortal
difeafe compelled him to renounce the enterprife. He
returned to St. Denys, where he expired in the twenty-
fecond year of his age. His premature death was marked
with the fufpicion of poifon, a fufpicion countenanced by
the turbulent temper of the nobles, jealous of his a¢tive and
glorious reign.

Lewis IV. king of France, furnamed D?Outre-mer, be-
yond the fea, on account of his having been educated in
England, was the only fon of Charles the Simple, by Egira,
daughter of Edward the Elder. He was born in 917, and
upon the depofition of his father, was taken by his mother
to the court of Athelilan,in England. Here he remained (till
the year 936, when he was invited to return and afcend the
throne of his anceftors. He landed at Boulogne, proceeded
to Laon, and was crowned in that city by Artaud, arch-
bifhop of Rheims. His return was chiefly owing to the in-
fluence of the powerful Hugh the Great, duke of France.
The firft meafures of Lewis promifed to maintain the inter-
nal tranquillity of his kingdom. To difcharge his obligation
to Hugh, and to fecure the fidelity of that nobleman, he ap-
pointed him minilter, and committed the reins of government
The fervant foon raifed himfelf above the
matter ; and the attempts which Lewis made to free himfelf
from this ftate of dependence, gave rife toa civil war, which
for feveral years threw the kingdom into confufion, By
the mediation of Otho, his brother-in-law, emperor of Ger-
many, and that of William, duke of Normandy, a peace

- was concluded in 942, between Lewis and his rebellious fub-

jects. On the death of the duke of Normandy, Lewis
attempted to add that duchy to the kingdom: for this pur-
pofe he united with Hugh the Great, in an open invafion of
the country. Lewis was entirely defeated and carried pri-
foner to Rouen, whence he was not releafed till he had
entered into a treaty to fecure the independence of Nor-
mandy ; even after this he was detained in captivity till he
had procured for himfelf a grant of the city and territory
of Laon. Lewis feized upon the firft opportunity to avow
his refentment again{t his powerful vaffal, and the provinces
of France were alternately afflicted by the arms of Lewis,
6

of Otho, and of Hugh.’ During five years the flames
of civil war raged without intermiffion, and the precarious,
peace which was concluded in a perfonal interview, may be
confidered as a fufpenfion of holtilities rather chan a refto-
ration of tranquillity. The latent embers of difcord were
ftill kept alive: they broke out with renewed violence, and
were finally extinguifhed by the two filters, conforts of the
king and Hugh. A permanent peace was eftablithed, and
Lewis prepared to affert his authority over the revolted lords
of Aquitaine, when his plans were broken by a fudden and
accidental death. As he was purfuing a wolf, roufed by
chance, with inconfiderate ardour, his horfe {tumbled and
threw him: the injury proved fatal, and in a few days he
clofed his life at Rheims, after a ftormy reign, having been.
eighteen years on the throne.

Lewis V. was aflociated with his father Lothaire in the
government, whom-he fucceeded in the year 986, being in the
nineteenth year of his age. He manifefted a violent and
turbulent charaéter ; he quarrelled with the queen-dowager ;.
expelled the bifhop of Laon from the kingdom ; and upon.
a difpute with the archbifhop of Rheims, forcibly entered
that city with a confiderable flaughter. At the time that
he was preparing to march againft the Saracens, he was taken.
off by poifon, adminiftered, it was imagined, by his own
wife Conftance. With him ended the race of kings of the
houfe of Charlemagne, which had {wayed the {ceptre nearly
240 years.

Lewis VI., furnamed Le Gros, fon of Philip I., was
born in 1081. He was affociated with his father in the
government in the year 1100, having already acquired a
high reputation for valour, prudence, moderation, and a
freedom from thofe vices incident to hisageand rank. By
the vigour of his conduét he held in awe the difcontented
nobles, repreffed the rebellious, demolifhed their caftles, and
compelled them to reftore the eftates which they had ufurped
from the clergy.. His mother-in-law, Bertrade, jealous of
the reputation of the young prince, and confidering him as
the only obftacle to the elevation of her own fons, attempted,
by every means in her power, to deftroy him. He happily
efcaped her machinations, and Philip, difcovering her real
character, forced her to make fuch fubmifiions as difarmed
the refentment of his fon. In 1108, Lewis, by the death
of his father, fucceeded to the throne, and ina fhort time he
became engaged in a quarrel with Henry I., which may be
regarded as the commencement of the long conteils between.
the kings of France and England. Lewis, in the firit in-
ftance, wifhing to avoid the effufion of blood, fent a chal-
lenge to Henry to decide the point at iffue in fingle com-
bat, which Henry declined. A battle enfued, Lewis was.
victorious, and in a treaty concluded not long after, it was
agreed that William, the fon of Henry, fhould do homage
to the fovereign of France, for the duchy of Normandy,
which Henry himfelf had refufed to do. War was again
renewed, and in an ation at Brenneville, an Englifh warrior
feized his horfe’s bridle, crying, ‘‘ the king is taken ;’’ to
which Lewis replied, ‘at chefs, the king 1s never taken,””
and inftantly laid his antagonift dead with his fword.
Lewis endeavoured to deprive Henry of the dukedom of
Normandy, but was unfuccefsful. In 1119, at a council
at Rheims, in which the emperor Henry V. was excom-
municated by pope Calixtus II. Lewis lodged his com-
plaints again{t the king of England, but was unable to draw
down the cenfures of the church upon him. After this the
emperor, excited by Henry I., who was his father-in-law,
invaded France, but the common danger induced the French
to rally round the ftandard of their king, and he fhortly

found himfelf at the head of 200,000 men. It was at this
crifis.

LEWIS.

erifis that the famous oriflamme, or banner of the abbey of
St. Denis, was difplayed as the king’s ftandard. Lewis
next had a difpute with fome of his prelates, which brought
upon him a fentence of excommunication from the bifhops
of Paris and Sens, but it was taken off by the pope. He
now attempted to put an end to the fchifm in the popedom
between Innocent Il. and Anaclet, the former of whom he
fupported as lawful pontiff. The grofs habit of his body,
from which he derived his furname, forewarned him of his
approaching end, for which he prepared by. fettling the
affairs of his kingdom. He caufed his fon Lewis to be
folemnly crowned, and when he found himfelf almoft in the
lat tage of exiftence, he drew the fignet from his fiager,
and fixed it upon that of his fon, charging him at the fame
time to remember, that the fovereign authority, of which
this was the fymbol, was a public truft, for which a ftrict
account would be required in a future world. He died in
1137, greatly lamented by his people, whom he had never
burthened with taxes, and whom, in many refpeéts, he had
freed from the oppreffions of the great. Lewis VI. was
unquellionably one of the moft irreproachable monarchs of
France. His reign is reckoned the era of the commence-
ment in France of that balance to the power of the feudal
lords which arofe from the order of citizens. He conferred
new privileges on the towns within his domains, by what
were entitled charters of cominunity, and formed them into
corporations or bodies politic, with the right of adminiter-
ing jultice, levying taxes, and embodying a militia within
their own diftricts.

Lewis VII., fon of the preceding, was born in 1120,
and fucceeded to the throne in 1137, having by his marriage
with Eleanora, the heirefs of the duke of Guienne and count
ef Poitou, united to the crown of ‘France an extenfive
country from the Loire to the Pyrenées. He began his
reign by reprefling fome outrages of his nobles, and a revolt
of the commons. The election of an archbithop of Bourges,
without his confent, involved him in a quarrel with the
clergy, and with pope Innocent II. who fupported them.
In the courfe of this difpute, Lewis made an inroad into
Champagne, facked the town of Vitri, and fet fire to a
church, in which more than 1300 people miferably perifhed.
Struck with remorfe for this favage a¢t, he refolved to
expiate the foul crime by an expedition to the Holy Land.
In 1146, Lewis took the crofs, and his example was fol-
lowed by the queen, and all the principal nobility. In the
following year he fet out at the head of 80,000 men, on his
march by land to Conttantinople : from this city the French
army marched through Afia Minor, to Antioch, and at
length undertook the fiege of Damafcus. The enterprize
entirely failed, and Lewis returned difpirited and difgraced.
To public calamity fucceeded the pang of domettic mifery,
and it could not be concealed from the eye of a hufband that
the fidelity of his queen, who had accompanied him in this
expedition, had been facrificed to her own uncle, Raymond.
On his return he determined to divorce himfelf from the
queen, which he carried into effect in 1152. By this event
the provinces of Aquitaine were detached from the crown
of France, andin fix weeks they were transferred to that of
England by Eleanora’s marriage to Henry Plantagenet, then
duke of Normandy, and foon after king of England, under
the name of Henry II. The facility with which he parted
from thefe wealthy provinces has for ever annexed to him,
by way of reproach, the furname of Young. Lewis mar-
ried for a fecond wife Conftantia, daughter of Alphonfo,
king of Cattile, and foon after difplayed his piety in a pil-
grimage to the fhrine of St. James, at Compoftella. This
queen dying without any male iffue, he married Adelaide,

daughter of his old enemy, Thibauld, count of Champagne,
by whom he had a fon, named Philip. . While a mere child,
the royal youth, engaged in the pleafures of the chace, was
loft in the thicknefles. of a gloomy forelt, and the heir of
France was condemned to pafs a tedious night, opprefled
by folitude and deipair. His feeble mind was incapable of
fuftaining the horror of his fituation, and when found in the
morning, a dangerous fit of illnefs was the effect of the
fright. The fuperttitious monarch vifited the tomb of
Becket, to folicit the interpofition of a faint, who had expe-
rienced his earthly protection. Having been kindly received
at Canterbury by Henry, and haviny prefented his offer-
ings at the fhrine of ‘Thomas, he embarked again for France,
and on his arrival his heart was gladdened with the intel-
ligence of his fon’s complete recovery. The mind of the
king had, however, received a blow, from the effects of which
he never recovered, and in 1180, he experienced a paralytic
feizure. Senfible of the great danger which hung over
him, he determined to haften the coronation of his fon, and
having languifhed about a year under his malady, he expired,
after a reign of forty-three years. ‘¢ If,’’ fays the hiltorian,
“«the prudence and judgment of the king, in reftoring the
dowry of Eleanor have been arraigned, his humanity has
been feldom, and his piety has never been innpeached, A
tender hufband and an affectionate father, the errors of the
monarch, were loft in the virtues of the man.” |.

Lewis VIII., grandfon of the preceding, was born in
1187, and difplayed, at a very early age, a martial difpo-
fition under his father at the war in Flanders, and again{t
king John of England in Poitou. In 1216, he was invited
by the barons of England to afcend the throne, of which
their own fovereign had proved himfelf unworthy. He landed
in Kent, and marched to London, where he was at firft
received with refpect and gratitude: in a very fhort time
the tide of public favour completely turned, and he was
glad to obtain permiffion to return unmolefted. He fuc-
ceeded to the crown of France in 1223, and fcarcely had
afcended the throne of his anceftor, when he was urged by
Henry III. of England, to make reftitution of the pro-
vinces taken by his father from king John ; he refufed, and
war was declared. Lewis «as every where victorious, and
the power of the Englifh in France was greatly curtailed, fo
that nothing was left in their, poffeffion but the town of
Bourdeaux, and the country beyond the Garonne. To pre-
ferve thefe, Henry conferred on his brother Richard the
title of count of Poitou, and furmfhed him with ample
means to fupport his new dignity. The inhabitants of
Poitou crowded to his ftandard, and the {pirit of oppofition
being revived, the career of Lewis was checked, and he
was glad to make a truce for three years. The court of
Rome ftronzly folicited the king of France to refume the
crofs, and to march again{t the Albigenfes. From Lyons
he direéted his march along the banks of the Rhone, and
invelted Avignon with 50,000 men. ‘The inhabitants, ami-
mated by defpair, defended themfelves with the moft obtti-
nate valour; and the king, after the lofs of the bravelt of
his troops, was forced to grant that capitulation at laft,
which he had refufed at firft. On his return home, he
was feized with an illnefs which put an end to his life, in
November, 1226, after a reign of about three years.

Lewis IX., king of France, named Saint, fon of the
preceding, was born in 1215, and fucceeded to the crown
in 1226: being only in the-twelfth year of his age he was
placed under the guardianfhip of his mother, Blanche of
Cattile,» who was nominated regent of the kingdom, ' Her
firft efforts with regard to the young king was to infpire
him with a love of religion, and an attachment to the prin-

ciples

mor:

LEWIS.

ciples of pure morality. When he attained the age fit for
taking upon himfelf the rule of the kingdom, fuch was the
refpect which he bore for his mother, that her authority
remained unimpaired, and for feveral years they may be faid
to have reigned jointly. Though the piety of this prince
obtained for him the title of faint, yet he knew the limits
between fecular and eccletiaftical juri{ditions, and was jealous
of ufurpations in the latter. ‘He refufed to join in the
crufade recommended by pope Gregory IX., though en-
couraged to the undertaking by the moft flattering propofals.
Lewis fhewed himfelf a good warrior by his exertions in
fupprefling a revolt fupported by Henry III. of England:
he gained two victories in perfon, and conttrained his rival to
fubmit to humiliating conditions of peace. Two regula-
tions proclaim the prudence and policy of this prince. The
firft, under pretence of preventing ftrangers from inheriting
lands in France to the prejudice of the natives, precluded
the nobles from marrying their daughters to foreigners, and
reftrained them from increafing their influence by conneétions
and alliances with the neighbeuring powers. The fecond
compelled the vaffals of the crowns of France and Eng-
land to make a public avowal, as to which fovereign they
would do homage; and, finally, abolifhed the dangerous
cuftom of adhering to either, as their caprice or in-
tereft fuggelted. Yet, even in this edi&, the humanity of
Lewis was confpicuous, and his juftice indemnified thofe
who adhered to him for the land they forfeited, by feceding
from the king of England. A dangerous indifpofition,
which menaced the life of Lewis, was produétive of a fatal
vow to march in perfon againft the infidels, whofe fucceflive
victories had overwhelmed the Chriftians of the Eaft: no
remontftrances from his counfellors, his nobles, and even his
prelates, could divert him from the refolution of fulfilling
his vow. The blind zeal, however, which induced him to
defcend from his throne to feek the adventures of a fpiritual
knight-errant, did not prevent him from concerting his mea-
fures with the utmoft prudence and forefight, as well with
refpe& to the enterprize itfelf, as the government of the
realm during the king’s abfence. Having entrufted the
kingdom to his mother, Blanche, he prepared for his depar-
ture. ‘To furnifh,” fays the hiltorian, “‘ an armament
equal to the arduous enterprize, France was exhaufted of
troops and treafures; the fea was whitened with eighteen
hundred fails ; and nine thoufand five hundred horfe, and one
hundred and thirty thoufand foot, have been computed as
the number of the martial pilgrims. The fleef, with fa-
vourable winds, reached the coaft of Cyprus; the troops
were difembarked on the friendly fhore, and during the
feverity of winter, their ftrength was recruited and their
health reftored by the plenty of that ifland.’? Here it was
determined to make war firlt upon the fultan of Egypt, for
the purpofe of facilitating the recovery of Palettine. In
1249, he arrived at the mouth of the Nile, and leaping
into the fea, fword in hand, gained the beach, and drove
away the Saracens drawn up to defend it. Damietta in-
ftantly yielded to the aggreflor, but it was now found the
expedition was ill-timed: the rifing of the Nile prevented
his farther advance, and the delay introduced difeafe into
his army, and all the diforders naturally attendant upon idle-
nefs and the want of fubordination. From this period he was
no longer fuccefsful: every new attempt at conqueft ended
in difaiter, till at length himfelf, his brothers who had ac-
companied him in the expedition, and his whole army, were
under the neceffity of furrendering themfelves prifoners.
The enemy fcarcely knew any bounds to their revenge:
they mafiacred the captives without mercy, and even treated
the fallen monarch with a great degree of infolence and ri-

gour, to which it is faid he fubmitted with firmnefs and
dignity. The king was at length liberated, having firlt
agreed to pay a high ranfom, and to agree to a truce of ten
years between the Chriltians and Mahometans in Egrypt and
Syria. his treaty was punétually executed, and fo high
was the honour of Lewis, that upon difcovering a contider-
able miftake made by the Saracens in the value of the money
to their own lofs, he caufed it to be reétified. He left the
country with his queen and brothers, and carried with him
about 6000 men, the fole remains of the vaft army which he
had colleéted in the outfet of the bufinefs. He embarked
for Paleftine ; and though it might have been expected,
that, after his late misfortunes, he would readily have relin-
quifhed the vain hope of eaftern laurels, and returned to the
government of his own kingdom, yet he feemed unwilling to
revifit his dominions without glory, trufting for tranquillity
at home, in the vigilance and fidelity of his mother Blanche.
His ambition now was to fecure Jerufalem from the holti-
lities of the Saracens ; with this view he repaired the forti-
fications of the places {till pofleffed by the Chriitians, made
pilgrimages of devotion, attempted converfions, and funk
the character of a mighty monarch into that of a fuperttitious
crufader. News was brought him of the death of his mother,
who had undergone much difquiet from various circum-
ftances during the abfence of her fon, and whofe grey hairs
were brought with overwhelming forrow to the grave. ‘The
king was now obliged to return, and in his paflage the veflel
which carried him and his family {truck upon a rock, and
was in the moft imminent danger ; neverthelefs, the fortitude
of the monarch was fo great, that he refufed to avail himfelf
of another fhip, determining-to fhare the fate of all who
were expofed to fimilar rifks with-thofe that threatened
his own life. On his return, he was received by the acclama-
tions of the people; his drefs was plain; and his features
were impreffed with melancholy ; the former {till bore the
fign of the crofs, the latter evidently difplayed the marks
of defeat. ‘The magnificence of the monarch was, however,
beheld with admiration in his reception of Henry III. of
England, who embraced the opportunity of an expedition
into Gafcony, to vifit Paris. ‘The {plendour of his enter-
tainment was enhanced by the courteous manners of Lewis ;
and the interview between the two kings was followed by a
renewal of a formertruce for two years longer. He began
to apply himfelf with all diligence to the government of his
kingdom, by his ftri& and impartial adminittration of juttice.
In the fimplicity of ancient manners, he was accuftomed to -
feat himfelf under a {preading oak at his cafile of Vincennes,
and there, in perfon, to decide the caufes that were brought
before him. He proteéted the lower orders from the op-
preffions of the great, and would not fuffer his own brothers
to pafs over the limits of law and equity.. He was ex-
tremely fevere in every thing that regarded religion ; and
the ediéts which he iffued againit blafphemous and impious
perfons, as thofe were called who doubted the truths of an:
eftablifhed faith, might have been worthy of a bigotted in-
quifitor. So great was his character among foreign nations
for equity, that he was often applied to for a fettlement of
difputes between kings and their nobles. The barons of
England and Henry II1, in their difputes, agreed to make
Lewis the arbiter! his decifion was favourable to the recal :
authority, but with a large refervation of the rights and
privileges of the fuhje€@t, fo that, in faét,. it determined
nothing. He enlarged his own kingdom by the acquifition
of various places on the borders of the Low Countries, and
he acquiefced in the pope’s donation of Naples and Sicily to
Charles of Anjou, brother to Lewis. At length the zeal :
for propagating his religion: feized again upon the mind of
Lewis.

LEWIS,

Lewis; the latent flame of enthufiafin which had been
damped by his defeat in Egypt was not extinguifhed ; and
an opportunity was only wanting to revive the dormant
embers. ‘The wifdom of his regulations had reftored the
tranquillity of his dominions: his coffers were recruited, his
finances augmented, and his hopes of fuccefs were expanded,
and very fanguine. His filent preparations had heen incef-
fantly directed towards the fingle objeét of his devout am-
bition; the lofs of Antioch provoked the more immediate
execution of his defigns. His example was followed by his
three fons, by his nephew the count d’Artois, and by a
multitude of the moft gallant {pirits of the court of France.
He entru(ted the reins of government, during his abfence,

o the vigilance and fuperintendance of Matthew, abbot of

t. Denys, who derived his noble lineage from the counts
of Vendome ; and to Simon de Clermont, count of Nefle.
A. fea-port of Languedoc, near the mouth of the Rhone,
was rendered a fecond time remarkable by the embarkation
of Lewis, and the fleet of France fteered immediately for
the coaft of Africa, An obfcure king of Tunis had pro-
feffed an inclination to abjure the tenets of Mahomet for
thofe of Chrift ; and the vain report of an immenfe treafure
reconciled the more interefted pilgrims to the wild and
vifionary enterprife. But caprice or policy had already
united the fickle or crafty barbarian to the precepts of the
Koran; and inftead of a zealous profelyte, Lewis encountered
an active and formidable enemy. The walls of Carthage were,
indeed, ftormed by the impetuous valour of the French; but
their flrength was exhaufted before the gates of Tunis; and
the warriors of the weft panted beneath the fultry heats, and
expired on the burning fands of Africa. The king himfelf
was infected by the peftilential blaft, and ke breathed
his lait on the iwhofpitable fhore, in the 44th year of his
reign. In his fingular chara&er were united the virtues
of the fait and the hero: his piety and equity in peace
were not more conf{picuous than his fortitude and valour in
war. The father of his people, his heart fympathized with
their miferies, and his hand was ever ftretched out to relieve
their diltrefs. His excellent underftanding was clouded b
the fumes of enthufiafm; and the flaughter of his fubjets,
his own captivity, and at length his death, were the fatal
confequences of a blind fuperttition. Pope Boniface VIII.
canonized him in 1297 ; and his defcendant, Lewis XIII.,
procured the day, dedicated to his honour, to be declared
a general feaft ef the church.

Lewis X., furnamed the Boiftersus, from the rude pro-
mile of his infant years, fon of Philip, was born in 1291, and
fucceeded his father in 1314. He, ina fhort time after his
coronation, caufed his firlt wife to be ftrangled in the prifon
of Chateau Gaillard, where fhe was confined, and endea-
voured to forget the vices of a licentious woman in his nup-
tials with Clemence, the daughter of the king of Hungary.
An empty treafury delayed, for fome time, the ceremonies
of the coronation, and the king diligently applied himfelf to
conciliate the jealoufies and appeafe the difcontents of his
new fubjeéts. Lewis, notwithitanding the furname which
he had acquired, was of a quiet difpofition, and furrendered
the chief authority in the ftate to his uncle, Charles of
Valois. The fizances of the kingdom having fallen into dif-
erder, the fuperintendant, Enguerand de Marigni, was made
a Yacrifice to the revengeful paffions of the new minilter.
Marigni vindicated his charaéter with vehemence ; but his
eloquence was of no avail, he was configned to an ignomi-
nious death on the gibbet, and his fortunes were confifcated
to the ufe of the fovereign, and were applied to defray the
expences of the coronation, which was celebrated at Rheims ;
and as much as they fell thort of public expectation, fo much

did the deficiency contribute to eftablith the innocence of the
unfortunate fuperintendant. Far different fupplies were
neceflary for the fupport of a war with Flanders, whith
Lewis was defirous of engaging in, and he accordingly pro-
pofed to raife the neceflary fupplies by a general enfran-
chifement throughout the kingdom. The inhabitants of
the towns were already free, but thofe of the country were
not fo, and few were found willing to pay for that freedom
which was forced upon them. 'The decree was, however,
gone forth, and they were compelled to accept of their
liberties upon the terms~propofed by the fovereipn, who
prefaced his ediét with thefe words: Since, according to
natural right, every perfon ought to be free, &c.’? a maxim
not very confiftent with the compulfory purchafe of liberty.
The money being proyided, Lewis made a campaign againit
de Bethune, count of Flanders, who, feeling himfelf unable
to withftand the army brought againft him, determined to
bend againft the florm. By the fpecious language of fub-
miffion, he involved the king in a feries of fruitlefs negocia-
tions, till the feafon of aGion was paffed, and the French
army was obliged to retreat, without obtaining any advan-
tage. While the king, indignant at the arts of his adver-
fary, was meditating new projeéts for revenging himfelf
upon his adverfary, his defigns were interrupted by death.
A fudden diforder, imputed by fome to poifon, by others
to drinking a glafs of cold water when he was heated, proved
fatal to him in June, 1316, after a reign of about a year
and a half. ‘
Lewis XI. fon of Charles VII. was born in 1423, and
at an early age difplayed confiderable talents, united to a
turbulent -difpofition. At the age of feventeen he headed
a party of difcontented nobles, who engaged in a petty war,
which was foon fuppreffed, and the prince was glad to fub-
mit. After this he reinftated himfelf in the royal favour’
by his {kill and valour in relieving Harfleur, invefted by
the Englifh. He was foon fent with a body of troops to
affift the duke of Autftria again{ft the Swifs, and obtained
fome advantages over them, which were fucceded by anego-
ciation with the Cantons, in which he concluded the frft
treaty between them and the crown of France, In 1446,
difgufted with the afcendancy of Agnes Sorel, his father’s
miftrefs, he left the court, and retired into Dauphiné, in
which province he exercifed the fovereign authority. He
eltablifhed the parliament of Grenoble, made laws, and
even coined money. At length his conduc created fo much
unealinefs in the brealt of his father, that he was determined
to get poffeffion of his perfon ; but the prince, being made
acquainted with his intention, efcaped, and took refuge in
the court of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy. Here
he was treated in a manner confittent with his rank ; but
Philip would not encourage any of his feditious projects.
In the mean time the king brought back the government of
Dauphine to its ancient form, and kept a watchful eye
over his fon's motions ; fo jealous was he of his intentions,
that the dread of being poifoned by his contrivance was the
caufe of his death. In the year 1461, Lewis received the
news of his acceffion to the crown of France; he did not
affect to conceal the joy which the intelligence excited in
his breaft. ‘The competition of his younger brother, the
duke of Berri, vanifhed at his appearance, and his own
coronation was celebrated with vait magnificence at Rheims,
and honoured with the prefence of Philip, his noble hoft,
and that of his fon, the count of Charolois, The firit
emotions of the king's gratitude for the proteétion he had
met with, was difplayed in his declaring the count his lieve
tenant-general in Normandy, with a very munilicent falary ;
but thefe marks of efleem and confidence foon vanifhed, and
were

LiE W'15S.

were fucceeded by an enmity between thefe rival princes,
which only expired with life. The new king immediately

‘difmiffed the minifters of his father with difgrace, and at the
fame moment releafed from imprifonment the duke of

Alengon, who had been confined for treafonable practices.

With regard to foreign potentates, his conduct feemed
‘to be deflitute of every principle of juftice, and dictated
-merely by what appeared to be the intereft of the
moment. In pope Pius II. he met with a politician
more refined than himfelf, for in the hope that this
pontiff would affift in replacing the houfe of Anjou on
the throne of Naples, Lewis cancelled the pragmatic

fanGion of his father, which eftablifhed the liberties of the
Gallican church : afterwards, finding himfelf deceived in his

expectations, he permitted its execution in certain points.
Being conftituted mediator in a difpute between the kings of
Caftile and Arragon, he had an interview with the former,
in which he difplayed the fingularity of his difpofition: for
while the Spanifh monarch with his attendants difplayed the
greateft magnificence in their apparel, he appeared in a drefs
of coarfe cloth, with an old hat upon his head, upon which
was ftuck a leaden image of the Virgin. This contraft in-
fpired them with mutual averfion, and the two kings, after
afruitlefs conference, returned with a thorough contempt
of the fordidnefs of the one and the incapacity of the
other. It wasa great object of his policy to reduce the for-
midable power of the houfe of Burgundy ; and, in the exe-
cution of his plans, he was fufpeéted of a plot for the
feizure of the perfons of the duke and his fon. In return,
the count of Charolois joined the duke of Brittany in ca-
balling with his difcontented nobles, and formed a confede-
racy, called ‘ the league for the public good,” into which
the king’s brother, the duke of Berri, entered. The re-
volters took up arms, and the count attempting to furprife
Paris, an engagement took place at Montlheri, in which the
victory remained undecided. Paris was, however, befieged, and
the king, to avert the danger, followed the advice of Sforza,
-duke - Milan, which was to break the league by liberal
promifes, and tru(t to events for eluding the execution of
them. He accordingly ‘agreed toa diigraceful treaty in
1465, by which he ceded the duchy of Normandy to his

brother, and granted lands out of the royal domains to
others of the leaders. Some difputes between the dukes of
Brittany and Normandy gave him an opportunity of recover-
ing his power, and of divetting his brother of the dukedom of
Normandy, and of that which he before poflefled. The
acceffion of the count of Charolois to the dukedom of Bur-
gundy on the death of his father Philip, gave Lewis much
uneafinefs, The fiery temper of that prince, and his de-
clared enmity to the king, involved them in perpetual hofti-
lities. In the courfe of thefe, the king’s brother, whom
he had been obliged to make duke of Guienne, died, not
without fufpicion of poifon, and the duke of Burgundy,
openly accufing Lewis of fratricide, refumed his arms. An
inyafion of France by the duke’s ally, Edward IV. of Eng-
land, threatened great danger ; but Lewis, adhering to his
favourite principle of diverting rather than confronting a
ftorm, lavifhed his treafures upon Englifh minifters and ge-

_nerals, and allured Edward himfelf by a promifed penfion of
50,000 crowns for life, by which means a treaty between

them was concluded in 1475. The duke of Burgundy

made a feparate peace afterwards. Having thus extricated

himfelf from foreign foes, Lewis indulged his fevere difpofi-

tion in taking vengeance on domelttic traitors. The confta-

ble St. Pol, who had ferved under and betrayed both him

and the duke of Burgundy, was brought to the f{eaffold, as

was likewife the duke of Nemours. The cruelty of making

Vou. XX. ;

,

the innocent children of the latter nobleman ftand under th
{caffold, at his execution, that they might literally be
{prinkled with their father's blood, infpired univerfal horror
and general deteftation of the tyrant who could devife fuch a
deed. In 1476, Lewis was delivered from his moft danger-
ous enemy Charles, who. fell before Nanci ; and he felt no
{cruple in making all-poffible advantage of this event, to the
prejudice of the heirefs, Charles’s only daughter, Mary of
Burgundy : but his attempts againft her were unfuccefsful,
and Flanders and Artois declared for the duchefs. An-
other {cheme which Lewis meditated, was to oblige Mary
to marry the young dauphin, but his hoftile procedure had
the effect of throwing her into the arms of Maximilian,
archduke of Auftria, an event which proved the fertile
fource of war for centuries. A war was the immediate
confequence of this alliance, but mutual convenience foon
brought about afufpenfion of arms. Lewis then turned his
attention to the neighbouring ftates, and managed feveral ne-
gociations with his wonted dexterity. He provided for the
fecurity of the family and dominions of his deceafed fitter,
the duchefs of Savoy ; he fupported the houfe of Medici
againft pope Sixtus IV., made an alliance with Ferdinand
and Ifabella, and renewed his treaty with Edward [V. One
of the laft public events of this reign was the union of Pro-
vence to the crown of France, by the bequeft of Charles,
count of Maine, the laft prince of the houfe of Anjou.
Lewis had now attained to a ftate of great external profpe-
rity, was regarded throughout Europe for his power and
dextrous policy, and feared by thofe who did not efteem him.
The decline of his health, and the dread of death, filled him
with jealoufies and fufpicions relative to his temporal autho-

tity. he nearer he approached his end, the more he clung

to life; and he endeavoured, by fuperftitious praétices, to
quiet the upbraidings of a guilty confcience. He hada
{trong guard round his palace, who kept at a diftance all
vilitors, except a very few, whom he permitted into his pre-
fence fingly. He changed his domeltics every day, facrificed
many to his fufpicions, and felt more dread than he infpired.
<The walls of the caftle,”’ fays the hiftorian, “ were cover-
ed with iron fpikes, a guard of crofs bow-men watched the
gates and ramparts night and day, and the guilty tyrant
heard his enemies in every paffing wind.’” Earth was in vain
ranfacked to revive ‘his jaded appetites ; heaven was invoked
with prayers and proceffions to avert his impending doom ;
all hope was fled, and his favourite, Oliver le Dain, pro-

nounced to him the fentence of certain and approachivg dif-

folution; the king heard him without betraying any emo-
tions of terror : he fent for his fon Charles, and employed his
laft moments in advifing him to cherifh the princes of the
blood; to govern by the counfels of his nobles ; to maintain the
eftablithed. laws of the kingdom ; and to diminifh the extraor-
dinary impotts with which he had burdened his fubjeG&s. This
laft effort exhautfted the ftrength of the fainting monarch, .
and he died, after a reign of twenty-three years, in Auguft
1483. Dreaded by his fubje&s, whom he had continually
opprefled, and detefted by his neighbours, whom he had
affiduoufly deceived, he yet obtained from the obfequious
temper of the reprefentative of St. Peter, the title of Chrif-
tian King, a title that was ever after held by his fucceflors.
He inftituted the order of St. Michael. He was author of
feveral ufeful eftablifhments, and the admin#tration of juttice

was generally pure where he himfelf was not concerned.
Lewis XII1., fon of Charles, duke of Orleans, defcend-
ed from Charles V., was born in 1462: he married Joan,
daughter of Lewis XI., and at the death of that monarch,
in 1483, and the acceflion of Charles VIII. he ftood as pre-
fumptiye heir of the crown, with the title of duke of Or-
4L leans.

LEWIS.

leans. Qa the death of Charles, in 1498, he fucceeded to the
crown without oppofition. aa the very earlieft efforts
of his reign were his attempts to diminifh the taxes levied
upon the people. He is alfo celebrated at this period for the
well known fentiment with which he quieted the appre-
henfions of his enemies. * It is,” faid he, * not for the
king of France to revenge the injuries done to the duke of
Orleans.” Turning his attention-to the duties of his new
ftation, he introduced various reforms into the civil admi-
niftration and military difcipline, exhibiting at’ the fame
time a fteady mindin every thing which he undertook. He
was anxious to obtain a divorce from his wife, the daughter
of Lewis XI., becaufe, being deformed, fhe was not likely
to bring him any children, and alfo, becaufe he wifhed to
efpoufe Anne of Brittany, widow of the late king, who had
refumed her duchy. The pope, Alexander VI., was ready
to favour him on this occafion, in order that, in return, he
might obtain an eftablithment for his natural fon, Czfar
Borgia. On the oath of the king of France, that he had
never confummated the marriage, the holy pontiff declared the
union void and illegal. Jane fubmitted with decent refigna-
tion to a fentence which deprived her of a crown, retiring
to a nunnery, in which fhe took the veil, and clofed a life of
humble virtue; and, in January 1499, he was married to Anne
of Brittany. The queen, though willing to afcend the
throne of France, was anxious to fecure the independence
of her native duchy, and ftipulated, that if their union
fhould be produétive of two fons, the younger fhould inhe-
rit Brittany, with all the prerogatives of its former princes.
‘This agreement proved ineffeGtual, by her having no fon,
and by the marriage of her eldeft daughter Claude to Fran-
cis, count D’Angoulefme, who afterwards afcended the
throne. The claims of Lewis upon the Milanefe, and the
kingdom of Naples, new began to excite in his breaft the
ambition of conqueft ; he accordingly made an alliance with
the Venetians, and, in conjuntion with them, invaded the
dominions of Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan. The
French generals, in the fhort {pace of three weeks, made
themfelves mafters of Milan, Genoa, and all the ttrong
places in the country: Lewis entered Milan in triumph,
while Sforza retired with his family and treafures to In-
fpruck. A fudden revolution caufed the expulfion of the
French, and the return of the duke, but the troops of Lewis
fhortly entered the Milanefe, and got poffeflion of the per-
fon of the duke, who was fent into France, where he died.
Lewis now madea treaty with Ferdinand of Arragon, for
the partition of the kingdom of Naples betweenthem. In
rsor this plan was fuccefsfully executed, and Frederic, king
of Naples, expelled from his dominions, put himfelf into
the hands of Lewis, as the moit generous of his two ene-
mies. Ferdinand was not ‘content with a part of the con-
queft, but took every method to fecure to himfelf the whole
fpoils; and by means of his famous captain, Gonfalvo de
Cordova, obtained poffeffion, in 1503, of the whole kingdom
of Naples, after defeating the French at Seminara and Ce-
rignole. It wason this occafion that Gonfalvo got poflef-
fion of the young prince, whom he conveyed to the king of
Arragon, and though treated with lenity, he was for fifty
years the captive of the court of Spain, till Death, that lait
friend to captives, extinguifhed in him the Arragonefe line
‘of Neapolitan kings. In the year 1507, a revolt of Genoa
called Lewis, in perfon, into Italy with a powerful army ;
he entered it as a conqueror, feemingly bent on vengeance,
but his natural clemency was difplayed in a moderate chaf-
tifement which he infli€ted upon it. In the following year
he joined the famous league of Cambray againit the
Venetians, formed by the temporary union of powers

mutually jealous of each other, and oppofite in inte-
refts. Lewis became a party in the league throngh
the influence of cardinal d’Amboife. He even marched
at the head of his army, and, in May 1509, gained a
complete victory at Aignadel, which reduced the re-
public of Venice almoft to ruin. Its fafety arofe from
that difunion which might be expected in a league formed of
fuch difcordant materials. Pope Julius If. who had chiefly
contributed to its formation, refolved, after the purpofes of
his own ambition were anfwered, to employ all his efforts
to expel the foreign powers from Italy. With this view he
made peace with the Venetians, and openly declared war
againft the French. A new league was now formed, of
which Julius was the chief mover: he attacked in perfon
the duke of Ferrara, its ally, and excommunicated the
council of Pifa, which had been affembled under the auf-
pices of Lewis and the emperor. The military reputation
of the French was ably fupported by the duke of Ne-
mours, who, in 1512, gained the battle of Ravenna, but
fellin a rafh purfuit of the enemy. The king, his uncle,
was deeply affected by the lofs of him, and of many other
brave men; and deprecated a victory purchafed fo dearly.
Ina fhort time after this, the Swifs overran the Milanefe,
and the French were expelled. It was again recovered, and
again loft. At this period Henry VIII. of England joined
the papal league, invaded Picardy, and routed the French
in an action, fince denominated the battle of the Spurs.
Henry purfued his career of fuccefs, which was inter-
rupted by the retreat of the Swifs and the defertion’ of his
allies ; he determined, therefore, to repafs the feas with the
greater part of his army, ill compenfated for the expence
with which it had been attended. In 1914 the queen
died, and he propofed marriage to Mary, fifter of Henry
VIII. : his offers were accepted, and a league offenfive and
defenfive was formed between the two kings. Lewis, how-
ever, was obliged to purchafe this alliance with a great fum
of money, inftead of receiving a portion with his wife.
It was agreed that Henry fhould receive the’ payment of
a million of crowns, being the arrears due by treaty to his
father and himfelf ; and that the princefs Mary fhould bring
four hundred thoufand crowns as her portion, and enjoy as
large ajointure as any queen of France. Lewis alfo agreed
that Tournay fhould remain in the hands of the Englifh;
and that Richard de la Pole, an exile in France, who affected
to revive the pretenfions of the houfe of York, fhould be
banifhed.

The new queen, being young and beautiful, was wel-
comed with univerfal acclamations by the people; who
rejoiced in an alliance that converted a formidable enemy
into an important friend. In the midft of feftivities given
on account «f the marriage, formidable preparations were
made for renewing the war in Italy ; but his deligns were
broken. He had often repeated the adage, that “ love’ is
the king of youth, but the tyrant of old age,” and he was
riow condemned to experience its truth. His conftitution,
already fhaken, was exhaufted by his affetion for Mary,
with whofe beauty, grace, and numerous accomplifhments
he was enchanted. te died within three months of his
marriage by a diforder of debility, in the feventeenth year
of his reign, and the fifty-fourth of his age. ‘The cha-
raéter of this prince was diftinguifhed by a fuperior inte-
grity, feldom to be difcerned in princes; and though
ometimes the dupe of his goodnefs of heart, and often of
the treachery of his neighbours, yet he well deferved the
appellation of “the father of his people.” In him ex-
pired the elder branch of the houfe of Orleans, and the
{ceptre of France was transferred to that of Angoulefme.

4 Hiftory,’?

LEWIS.

“ Hiftory,"’ fays the biographer, “ has taken pleafure in
recording, that when, according to the ufual cuftom, the
eriers announced his death, it was done in thefe words, ‘ the
good king Lewis, the father of his people, is dead.’’ He
was naturally inclined to economy; this was once made a
topic of ridicule in his prefence, to which he replied, I
had rather fee my courtiers laugh at my avarice, than my
people weep at my extravagance.'’ In his manners and
converfation, Lewis was affable, mild, and cheerful, prone
to fallies of innocent pleafantry, and fond of literature.
He affembled men of learning at his court, and employed
them in public affairs. Greek was firft taught at the French
univerfities in his reign.

Lewis XIIL., fon of Henry IV., by Mary de Medicis,
fucceeded to the throne in 1610, under the regency of his
mother, being only in the thirteenth year of his age. He
was declared in his majority in the year 1614, and foon after
the ftates-general were convoked. At the meetings of this
aflembly many abufes were difcuffed, and fome few were
remedied. During the minority of the king, France had been,
on account of the mal-adminiftration of the queen, a {cene of
faétion and civil commotions : thefe troubles continued, and
were greatly aggravated by a religious war. Lewis’s cha-
racter, as it opened, difplayed that propentity to be go-
verned, which indicates weaknefs of mind, together with
much coldnefs and indifference. The great duke of Sully,
inflexible in his plans, confiding in the integrity of his own
heart, and difdaining the arts of courts, found that fincerity,
which had been efteemed by Henry, no longer acceptable ;
he indignantly retired to the eitates which he had purchafed
through the bounty of the late king, and refigned his offices.
Every day now revealed the afcendency of Concini, who
endeavoured to remove from the eyes of the people the
unpopular circumftance of foreign birth, by afluming the
title of marquisd’Ancre. During the adminiltration of this
favourite, the annals of France, as they ref{peét the internal
affairs of the country, prefent a dreary profpect of unin-
terefting anarchy and barren difcord. ‘The princes of the
blood, infatiate of power, and the nobles turbulent and dif-
contented, repeatedly erected the ftandard of revolt againft
the regal authority ; as frequently, with contemptible levity,
they courted the returning friendfhip of the crown, whofe
timid counfels were content to foothe, without prefuming to
reprefs, their capricious arrogance. Aidit thefe hottilities
at home the king concluded his marriage, and received at
Bourdeaux the hand of Anne, the infanta of Spain. Im-
mediately after the celebration of that ceremony, Lewis
marched at the head of his army with the view of reducing
the prince of Conde, in order that he might imprefs his
fubjeGts with favourable fentiments of his courage and atti-
vity. The approach of winter fufpended the operations of
the contending parties, who, while they rejeéted all terms
of accommodation, feemed ftudious, in every enterprize, to
avoid the effufion of blood. With the return of fpring the
royal forces were again affembled, and were again led on by
the prefence of their fovereign ; but much was the furprize
of his fubjects to learn the intelligence that the king had
fubfcribed a peace, and fubmitted to the demands of thofe
princes whom he had fo lately declared traitors to his throne.
In 1617, Concini was murdered in the Louvre, at the intti-
gation of Luynes, whom he had introduced to the king,
and whe now fuperfeded him in the royal fayour. The
principal events which occurred in this reign during the
adminiftration of Luynes, were quarrels with the queen-
mother, and a renewed war with the Calvinifts, who were
headed by the duke de Rohan. During this war Luynes
died, and the Calvinifts obtained an advantageous peace.

In 1624, cardinal Richelieu, who, while bifhop of Lucgon,
had been gradually rifing to political reputation, acquired
the chief management of affain, which he held with uncon-
trouled fway fo long ashe lived. This great minifter found
a very difficult tafk before him, owing to the weaknefs of
the king, the felfifh ambition of the nobles, and the preva-
lence of different factions, War broke out again with the
Calvinifts, who complained that the conditions of a former
treaty had not been obferved, The fovereign appeared in
arms, but the chief honour was due to Richelieu, who, after
along fiege, took Rochelle, by means of a vaft dyke throwa
acrofs the harbour to cut off fupplies by fea. This im-
portant conqueit was the means of reducing the party to
civil obedience, and, to the honour of the victor, they were
{till allowed a good fhare of religious liberty. In addition
to the civil contentions, a war with Spain broke out in 1635,
which was at firft unfuccefsful on the part of France; but
at length the Spaniards were reduced to fue for peace. In
the mean time the f{pirit of Richelieu’s domeitic adminitira-
tion was highly arbitrary, and the king difplayed great
harfhnefs in his addreffes to the parliament. The laft of his
favourites was Cingmars, who was recommended to the
monarch by his minitter, but who was led by his ambition
to cabal againit his friend and patron. His ruin was the
confequence, and Lewis gave him up to execution with the
mott perfect indifference. (See Crsqmars.) On the morn-
ing of the execution of this man, intelligence was brought
of the furrender of Perpignan, and the total difcomfiture
of the enemy, of which facts the minilter apprifed the king
ina fingle and very fhort fentence, * Your troops are in
Perpignan, and your enemies in their graves.” Immedi-
ately after thefe events, Mary de Medicis clofed a wretched
life, reduced to the utmoft indigence, at Cologne. The
filial affe€tion which Lewis denied to her while living, was re-
vived on the news of her death ; but the attention of France
was now completely engrofled by the approaching diflo-
Intion of him, whofe daring counfels had driven her into
banifhment. The glories and life of Richelieu drew near
their end; after the reduétion of Perpignan, exhautted in
body, but itill vigorous in mind, he had approached the
capital by flow and triumphant journies; his laft moments
attelted his afcendancy over the fovereign. On his death-
bed he protefted to Lewis, that lis counfels had ever been
directed to the honour of the crown and the welfare of the
kingdom. (See Ricuetiev.} From the death of this
minifter, Lewis afpired to hold the reins of government
for himfelf: the war was profecuted with diligence, vigour,
and fuccefs, and the fpirit of Richelieu feemed {till to im-
pel the machine which his genius had fet in motion, But
victory could not check the progrefs of difeafe, and Lewis
was fenfible that the inevitable moment was rapidly ap-
proaching when his life and reign mutt terminate together,
A flow fever had already worm him toa ikeleton, and he
prepared to meet with firmnefs and compoiure the laft fcene
of human greatnefs. “* When,” fays the hiltorian, * his
phyfician, at his earneft defire, numbered the fleeting minutes
that remained, and pronounced that his life could not exceed
two or three hours ; he received the intelligence with relig-
natica, and even fatisfaétion ; and looking fervently up to
heaven, added, * Well! I confent with all my heart.??-
The prediction was ftrictly verified by the event, and he ex-
pired in the forty-fecond year of his age, and in the
thirty-third of his reign. In eftimating his charaGer ; he
was devout, but his devotion thewed itfelf in minute ob-
fervances and f{ubmiffion to his confeflors. He was not
greatly addicted to pleafure, and the miilrefles on whom he
beilowed his favours, were rather the objects of his jealouty
AAs 2 than

LEWIS.

than of his love. He had a fhare of judgment and folid
fenfe, and did not want decifion. In the adminiftration of
juitice, he was inclined to rigour, and thence acquired the
epithet of “ The Juft;'’ though it muft be admitted that
his adminiftration of juftice was frequently impeached by his
feverity, and fometimes by his cruelty.

Lewis XIV., fon of the preceding, was born in 1638,
and fucceeded to the crown, under the regency of his mo-
ther, Anne of Auttria, on the death of his father in 1643.
She foon refigned herfelf to the influence of cardinal Maza-
rin, who had fucceeded Richelieu in the laft reign. In the
early part of this reign, the kingdom was involved in a
bloody and extenfive war with the houfe of Auftria. The
peace of Munfter, in 1648, relieved France from the greater
of her foreign foes ; but it was foon fucceeded by the civil
war of the Fronde, during which the royal family was
obliged to leave the capital, and wander as fugitives from
province to province. The education of the young king
was much negleéted, and he was left ignorant of the points
of knowledge moft ufeful and reputable to a prince. The
more valuable part of his reading was the tragedies of
Corneille, which improved his tafte, and gave him ideas of
true grandeur ; but the want of folid inflruGtior§ moral and
literary, marked his character through life. The leffon moft
ftrongly impreffed on his mind in his very childhood, was the
fentiment of his own importance, which, though it led him
to adopt a dignifi¢d propriety of conduct, nourifhed in him
that pride and vanity, and that impatience of controul,
which were the leading features of his reign. Taught by
flatterers that he himfelf was every thing, and that his fub-
je&ts were nothing in the comparifon ; he was habituated to
think no facrifice of their’s too great for the promotion of
his glory and the gratification of his defires. The convul-
fions of ‘the ftate had not ceafed when Lewis XIV. had
attained the age fixed for his afluming the reins of govern-
ment, and his majority was folemnly declared in parliament ;
but he was ftill in leading-ftrings, influenced wholly by the
counfels of his mother, and he feemed to inherit her fond
partiality for Mazarin, though he was fhortly after, by the
in{tigation of his parliament, obliged to give him up, and
fuffer him to retire into exile. No fooner was it known
that Mazarin had left the city of Paris, than the king was
welcomed by the inhabitants with the loudeft acclamations,
and he found himfelf freed from the clamorous importu-
nities of a difcontented parliament, and firmly fixed on his
throne. Scarcely, however, was he expelled by the general
voice of the nation, and by the royal declaration, than he
was recalled by the king, and, to his own infinite furprize,
entered Paris once more in full power, and without the leait
difturbance. The king received him as a father, and the
people as a mafter ; but the cardinal, amidft the fatisfa€tion
ef this change, could not reprefs.his contempt of the na-
tional levity. The minifter applied himfelf with vigour to
extinguifh the {parks of revolt ; and, in 1653, the war of
the Fronde was terminated with his complete triumph.
Condé, who had joined the Spaniards, continued to main-
taina kind of civil war on the frontiers, where he was held
in check by his rival in glory, the great marfhal Turenne.
In 1659, the peace of the Pyrenées advantageoufly con-
cluded the long quarrel with Spain. One of its condi-
tions was the marriage of the king with the infanta Maria
Therefa, which took place in 1660. The king, during the
life of Mazarin, interfered very little in public affairs ; but
after his death, in 1661, Lewis began to govern for him-
felf, and from that moment the poft of prime-miniiter be-
came vacant: he had, however, able men about him ; among
thefe was Colbert, who had been recommended to him by

12

Mazarin, as a moft able financier. To his genius was owing
the revival of commerce and the marine, and all the fplen~
did eftablifhments of arts and manufaétures which adorned
the early part of this reign. It was he who, though not
learned himfelf, was capable of appretiating the true va-
lue of literature, and fuggefted to the king, his matter, that
plan of penfioning all the eminent men of letters throughout
Europe, which, at a comparatively fmall expence, fecured
to him more adulation from perfons of real learning, than
any prince of modern times. His leading obje& was per-
fonal grandeur. In whatever point any other prince had
attained to greatnefs, he was refolved to emulate him. He
employed all the refources of a rich and flourifhing country
to furpafs every competitor, in whatever could conduce to
his glory. This fpirit led him to attempt many great and
ufeful projeéts, but for want of limit and moderation, it de-
feated its own purpofes, and exhaufted its means before it
had attained its end. ‘The age of Lewis XIV. was that in
which the reputation of France for arms, arts, literature, and
magnificence, ftood at its higheft pitch; at the fame time,
it was that which demonftrated its wretchednefs and humilia-
tion, and the impartial hiftorian has held up the king rather
as the {quanderer of his country’s profperity, than as the
author of it. Of the wars of this monarch we cannot pre-
tend to give a detailed account; the moft that this article
will allow will be a fketch of the principal events of the reign,
as conneéted with the perfonal character of the king. A
quarrel concerning the precedence between the French and
Spanifh ambafladors at London, gave occafiorn to Lewis to
affert in fuch high terms the fuperiority of his crown, that
the point was never after contefted. Shortly after, the in-
folence of the French ambaflador’s fervants at Rome, having
brought upon them an attack from the pope’s Corfican
guard, in which fome were killed, and the French quarters
violated, the king feized upon Avignon, and obliged the
pope’s nephew, a cardinal, to come to Paris and afk pardon ;
the Corfican guard was broke, anda column was ereéted in
Rome as a memorial of the event. War with Spain was re-
newed in 1667; the king in perfon took the field, though
the meafures of the campaign were probably direéted entirely
by the great Turenne. The whole of Flanders was reduced
in this campaign, and at the clofe of it Franche Compte was
conquered. A triple alliance between England, Holland,
and Sweden, checked the progrefs of the French arms, and
produced the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668. In 1672
Lewis, with a vaft army, commanded by the ableft generals,
burft upon the provinces of Holland ; and Amfterdam, the

,capital, was refcued from his grafp only by laying the fur-

rounding country under water. At this junéture, William,
prince of Orange, raifed to the office of itadtholder, revived
the drooping fpirits of his countrymen ; and the principal po-
tentates of Europe, alarmed at the fuccefs and ambition of
France, leagued againft her. Holland was now evacuated
as fait as ithad been over-run. ‘The French arms were again
turned upon Franche Compte; it was conquered afecondtime,
and became infeparably annexed to the crown of France.
War with Spain, the empire, and other powers, continued
fome years longer, but it was terminated, in 1678, by the
peace of Nimeguen. Lewis, attended by all the pomp and
luxury of a court, formed feveral fieges in perfon; he
carried with him hiftoriographers to record his exploits, and
every art was employed to exalt him in his own eftimation,
and in the eyes of Europe. He received from his fubjeéts
the title of «Le Grand,’? which for a confiderable time
feemed durably attached to his name ; but he lived to lofe it
in the eftimation of foreigners, and it has, by the events of
the laft twenty years, finally become obfolete among his own

; countrymen.

LEWIS.

countrymen. ‘The peace of Nimeguen did not terminate the
projects of Lewis XIV. ; he antiebed; and brought to fub-
miffion, the piratical ftates of Algiers, Tripoly, and Tunis ;
and next, upon very trifling grounds of offence, made war
upon Genoa, and forced the doge to come in perfon and
afk pardon of the king. With pope Innocent XI. he
quarrelled refpeéting the fuppofed rizhts of the Roman
church, and becaufe he inlifted upon retaining the franchifes of
embaffadors from Rome, which other powers had agreed to
renounce, as inconfiitent with a fafe and regular police. On
this occafion Lewis declared to the nuncio, ‘*that he would
never take the example of others as the rule of his condué,
but that it was for him to give the example.” He was now
ambitious of the fame that would attach to the extirpation of
herefy from his kingdom. Calvinifm, in France, fince the
victory over it by Richelieu, had become a peaceful fepara-
tion from the national church, and its fetaries were ufeful
citizens chiefly attached to manufactures and commerce.
Lewis, animated by a fpirit of intolerance and bigotry, under-
took to put anend to it. The privileges of the Proteftants
were openly violated: miffionaries were fent for their con-
verfion, fupported by dragoons ; and feverities were exer-
cifed, which excited the horror and indignation of all the
reformed ftates of Europe. In 1685 the revocation of the
edi& of Nantes, firft cranted by Henry IV. and confirmed
by Lewis XIII. deprived the Proteftants of all exercife of
their religion, and tore from them their children to be edu-
cated Catholics. The tyrant at the fame time iffued his de-
crees againft emigration, asd placed guards on his coalt ;
neverthelefs vaft numbers efcaped from his machinations, and
carried their arts and induftry to foreign and hoftile nations.
Lewis, though a pretended votary to religion, and a zealous
fon of the church, was not free from that licentioufnefs
which is regarded as highly culpable by perfons of real and
unaffeéted piety. Several miftreffes, in fucceffion, enjoyed
his favours; with one of whom, madame de Montefpan, a
married woman, he lived a long time, in the moft open man-
ner, and indulging her haughty and capricious humour.
Her influence declined with her perfonal charms, and the
King’s advancing years; and fhe was fuperfeded by the
widow Scarron, elevated from that low cendition to the
title of madame de Maintenon, a perfon who, by the powers
of her underftanding, and confummate fkill in the art of
pleafing, obtained a complete afcendency over the king’s
mind. On the death of the queen he privately married her,
but fhe was never acknowledged as queen. ‘The league of
Auxbourg, formed in 1687, between the emperor and moft
- of the German princes, the king of Spain, the United Pro-
vinces, the duke of Savoy, and other Italian potentates, had
for its objeét the reduction of the power of France. The
great leader in this league was William, prince of Orange, who,
when he afcended the throne of England, contrived to add
that kingdom to the confederacy. The forces of France
had proved vitorious in many quarters; marfhal Luxem-
bourg, and other eminent generals, renewed the fucceffes of
the former war, and the king in perfon took Namur. The
defeat at La Hogue was, however, a fatal blow to the
French marine ; the finances of the country began to be de-
prefled, a circum{tance that led to much domettic diftrefs,
and Lewis XIV. was obliged, in the midft of vitory, to
fign the general peace of Ryfwick in 1697. The declining
health of Charles II. king of Spain, who was without
heirs, became a fubject of Saiveetal intereft with refpe& to
the difpofal of his vaft inheritance ; and Lewis, fearing left
it fhould fall into the hands of the houfe of Auftria, joined
England and Holland in a fcheme for the partition of the
Spanifh dominions, At length, however, the dying king

made his will, appointing, as his general heir, Philip, duke
of Anjou, fecond grandfon of Lewis. The wary monarch
forefaw the danger of accepting the legacy, but was de-
cided by a regard for the glory of his houfe, and the with
of uniting the interefts of two great monarchies, which had
generally been at variance. The hopes of the king have
been completely difappointed, and every attempt to form an
union of intere{t and afte€tion between two nations radically
oppofite in charaéter and circumflances, has been baffled.
Neither the intrigues nor the power of the prefent emperor
of France have, at prefent, been able to effeét that which
was unqueftionably an obje& near the heart of Lewis XIV.
The jealoufy excited in England and Holland by this ac-
ceffion to the influence of France, was converted into open
hoftility by the imprudence of Lewis in declaring the fon
of James II., king of England, at the deceafe of his father
in 1701. This ftep, contrary to the unanimous advice of
his council, and his own judgment, was taken in confequence
of a generous emotion of pity for the family of his royal
friend, enforced by the folicitations of madame de Main-
tenon; it was not only impolitic, but, in faét, it amounted
to a declaration of war, becaufe an article in the peace of
Ryfwick, explicitly acknowledges William's title to the
crown of England. A new league was immediately formed
between the maritime powers and the emperor of France ;
and the death of king William, during the preparations for
war, did not prevent its being carried into execution under
his fucceffor queen Anne. From this period to the year
1711, the reign of Lewis was one continued feries of defeats
and calamities ; and he had the mortification of feeing thofe
places taken from him, which, in the tormer part of his reign,
had been acquired at the expence of many thoufand lives.
The domettic mifery of Lewis had kept pace with the pub-
lic calamities; the court, the fplendour and magnificent en-
tertainments of which had excited the admiration and envy
of Europe, had long been impreffed with a deep and fettled
gloom. The art of furgery, in Europe, was yet feeble and
crude; a fiftula, with which the king was attacked, {pread
a general alarm; and though the operation was fuccefsfully
performed, yet he never recovered his accuftomed {fpirits,
but led a more ferious and retired life, and chiefly devoted
his hours to the converfation of madame de Maintenon,
whofe influence increafed with his years. ‘To his own pri-
vate affliGtions were added many family loffes. The death
of the king’s only fon, which happened in 1712; the duke
of Burgundy, the duchefs his wife, and their eldeft fon, all
{wept away within a few months, and laid in the fame tomb ;
the only furviving child at the point of death; thefe private
woes, added to thofe of the public, mark the clofe of the
reign of Lewis, as an era of calamity ; and a wretched peo-
ple, who conceived that their own happinefs was concerned
in the glory of the king, awaited in filence to behold the
former greatnef$ of their monarch extinguifhed by the dark
cloud of mifery which obfcured his fetting fun. Another
mortification remained for the king; he had enlarged the
canal of Mardyke, and formed an harbour there, equal, it
was thought, to that of Dunkirk. The embaffador for
England remonftrated againit this evafion of the treaty of
Utrecht, and Lewis was under the neceflity of difcontinuing
the works. At theage of feventy-feven, that vanity and
ambition which had agitated the years of manhood were
nearly extinguifhed. He coolly liftened to the folicitations
of the unfortunate James, who afpired to afcend the throne
of his late fitter, queen Anne, already filled by the eleGtor
of Hanover, under the title of George I. To the importu-
nities of the prince he granted a {mall f{upply of money, and
a veflel fitted out in the name of an individual; but a
at

LEWIS.

that enterprize hung in fufpence, Lewis was feized with a
mortal difeafe which foon brought him to the grave. In his
lat hours he difplayed a greatnefs of mind worthy of his
exalted fituation. Why do you weep,”’ faid he to one of
his domettics, “did you think me immortal ?”’ His fortitude
was tempered with humility ; be recollected his own weak-
nefles, and had fufficient magnanimity to confefs them ;
his advice to the infant that was to fuceced him was to avoid
that glory which he had hoped to attain by war, and to con-
{ider the happinefs of the people as the principal object of
his government. ‘T’omadame de Maintenon he left no fixed
ftipend, but contented himfelf with recommending her to
the care of the duke of Orleans. She retired to St. Cyr,
which had been founded, at her perfuafion, for the education of
young ladies, and demanded but little more than 3000/. per
annum during her life ; this was regularly paid till her death,
which happened in about four years. Lewis XIV. had the
misfortune of outliving his popularity, and an indecent joy
was manifefted by the people at his funeral. As a monarch
he had none of the commanding qualities which create a na-
tion or an era, and would fearcely have been diftinguifhed
from common princes under common circumftances. The
mafculine beauty of his perfon was embellifhed with a noble
air; the dignity of his behaviour was tempered with the
highett affability and politenefs ; elegant without effeminacy ;
addiGed to pleafure without negle&ing bufinefs ; decent in
his vices, and beloved though invefted with arbitrary power.
Neverthelefs his qualities feemed thofe that rather attract a
momentary regard, than command a permanent efteem.
The talents, the fire of the ftatefman, and the hero were
itill wanting ; vanity rather prompted him to infult, than
ambition to enflave his neighbours. Though he frequently
took the field, and reduced countries and the ftrongeft towns,
yet in all his campaigns he never expofed his life to the
hazard of @ battle. The age of Lewis XIV. will always
be a memorable period in his country and of Europe.
His own intelleétual acquifitions were very limited, but
che was the patron of learning and {fecience.

Lewis XV., fon of the duke of Burgundy, (grandfon
of Lewis XIV.) was born at Verfailles in 1710, and fuc-
ceeded to the crown on the death of his great grandfather,
when he was but five years of age. By the laft will of
Lewis XIV., a council of regency was appointed during
the minority of the young king, at the head of which was
the duke of Orleans. That nobleman, however, difgufted
with an appointment which gave him only a cafting vote,
appealed to the parliament of ‘Paris, who fet afide the will
of the late king, and declared the duke fole regent. His
firft aéts were extremely popular, and gave the moft favour-
able idees of his government and character. He reftored to
the parliament the right which had been taken from them,
of remonitrating againft the edits of the crown; and com-
pelled thofe, who had enriched themfelves during the cala-
mities of the former reign, to reftore their wealth. The
young king was placed under the tutelage of Fleury, bifhop
of Frejus, afterwards cardinal, who, by his infinuating and
very gentle manners, acquired his affection and eftéem. His
minority ended in 1722, and he was folemnly crowned; but
the regent retained his chief power during another year. - He
now refigned his high office as prime minifter to the duke of
Bourbon, who negociated a marriage between the king and
Maria Leczin{ki, daughter of Staniflaus, king of Poland,
which took place in 1725. Shortly after this, Fleury be-
came prime miniiter ; which poit, notwithftanding his great
age, he held till his death in 1743. ‘The {pirit of his go-
vernment was economical and pacific; aud a war with the
empire, in 1733, was the principal foreign occurrence.

This terminated in the annexation of Lorraine and Bar te
the crown of France. Lewis lived for fome years in con-
jugal affection and fidelity with his queen, by whom he had
one fon and feyeral daughters. At length, however, he
was captivated by the allurements of fome ladies of the
court, and received, it is faid, the favours of three fifters at
the fame period: and from this time he indulged his pro-
penfities for the female fex without moderation and delicacy.
On the death of the emperor Charles VI. in 1740, a new
continental war was excited. France joined with Pruffia
and Poland, in raifing to the empire the elector of Bavaria,
in oppofition to the interefts of the houfe of Auftria, whofe
caufe was maintained by England, Holland, and Sardinia.
In 1744 Lewis took the ficld in perfon, and was at the
reduétion of feveral ftrong places; but at Metz he was at-
tacked with a dangerous illnefs, which occaficned a general
coniternation through France. His recovery was celebrated
with all thofe traniperts of joy which could proceed from
the awakened fenfibility of a nation, then remarkable for
an enthufiaftic attachment to its fovereigns. The furname
of * Well-beloyed’”’ was given to the king on this occafion ;
and, in return for the affeétion of his people, he difplayed
the feelings of a good heart, and exclaimed very fincerely,
as well as very naturally, “ How {weet is it to be thus
loved! What have I done to deferve it??? Soon after his
recovery, he beheld at a diftance the bloody battle of Fon
tenoy, gained by marfhal Saxe. The French were gene-
rally fuccefsful in Auttria and the Dutch Netherlands, but
were defeated in Italy ; and their marine was totally ruined
by the Englifh. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1748,
reftored peace to Europe: and, as far as the exhaufted
finances of France would allow, ufeful plans of domeftic ims
provement were executed ; and the moft fplendid eftablifh-
ment of the reign, the royal military {chool, was inftituted
in the year 1751. About this time, fome warmly contefted
difputes between the magiftracy and clergy occafioned the
interference of the king, who, inftead of making a firm de-
cifion between the contending parties, upon principles of
juftice and true policy, aéted the part of a defpot, by al-
ternately banifhing both. It was in confequence of the fer
ment produced by thefe quarrels, that a fanatic, named
Damien, was induced, in 1757, to attempt the life of the
king at Verfailles, in the midit of his guard, He received
a flight ftab between his ribs. Damien was evidently in-
fane: he was inftantly feized by the foldiery, and put to the
rack, in which he endured the molt exquisite tortures that
the wit of the moft favage hearts could invent. In the
mid{t of thefe he perfifted in an obflinate manner to declare,
that he had no intention to take away the life of the king :
his only obje&t was to wound him, that Almighty God
might by that means affect his heart, and thereby incline
him to reftore peace to his dominions. Thefe expreffions
had no weight with his mercilefs tormentors, who configned
him to the moft terrible death which they conld devife.
This circumitance had probably fome effect on the king
himfelf ; for he foon after banifhed the archbifhop of Paris,
and accommodated matters with his parliament. The war
of 1755 had brought the nation to the brink of ruin, when
Lewis implored the afliftance of Spain; and on this occa-
fion the celebrated “ Family Compact’’ was figned, by
which, with the fingle exception of the American trade, the
fubje&ts of France and Spain were naturalized in both
countries, and the enemy of one fovereign was, to be in-
variably regarded as the enemy of the other. At that time,
the acceffion of Spain to her caufe only added new laurels
and acquifitions to Great Britain. Lewis’s attachment to
a felfith and imperious miftrefs, madame de Pompadour, whe

was

LEWIS.

was allowed to appoint and difmifs minifters and commanders
ather pleafure, and facrificed every thing to her avarice and
ambition, was greatly inftrumental in producing the dif.
alters which followed one another at this period in rapid fuc-
ceffion. The conclufion of the feven years’ war, in 1763,
gave the nation repofe, but not without a confiderable di-
minution of territory ; and in the following year, the fociety
of Jefuits, as celebrated for their great learning as famous
for their unbounded intrigues, was abolifhed in France.
‘The death of madame de Pompadour did not free the king
from female influence, who by this time had incurred all the
habits of a confirmed debauchee. He fell under the do-
minion of madame de Barre, who, by her diffolute arts, pro-
voked his languifhing defires ; and his latter years, as might
have been anticipated by the conduct of the former part of
his life, was difgraced by the groffeit fenfuality. At the
fame time, the government became more fevere and arbi-
trary. Though the arms of Lewis had extinguifhed the
flame of freedom in Corfica, in France it was revived by the
breath ef the parliaments, and cherifhed with a fond regard
that threatened the moft important confequences. An edi
iffued by the king, which transferred fome new and extra-
ordinary powers to the grand council, was ftrenuoufly op-
pofed by the parliament of Paris. Sixty-four members of
that aflembly voted for utterly abolifhing that council ; and
the queftion was loft by a majority of two, though all the
princes of the blood attended to fupport the court ; and the
duke de Choifeul endeavoured to overawe the independent
fpirit of the patriotic party, by continuing in the affembly
throughout the debate. The minifter, finding his exertions
in the fupport of defpotifm of no avail, attempted to con-
ciliate thofe whom. he had vainly endeavoured to intimidate.
Hitherto the fovereign had refifted the folicitation of the
people to reftore the parliament of Brittany: he now afpired
to popularity, by doing of his own accord that which he
had been frequently importuned to grant; and the duke de
Duras was fent into that province to re-eftablifh the parlia-
ment, and to recal the members from exile. But conceffion,
which a fhort time before would have been afcribed to the
benignity of the monarch, was now attributed to his fears ;
and the parliament had fearcely affembled before they con-
vinced their countrymen, that oppreffion had confirmed, and
not extinguifhed their zeal for the public welfare. ‘[he
province of Brittany had long groaned under the iran rule
of the duke d’Aiguillon ; who for four years had perfe-
cuted with unremitting vengeance M. de Chalotais, the attor-
ney-general to the parliament. ‘That unfortunate gentleman
had oppofed, with the indignation of a virtuous magittrate,
the oppreffive meafures of the duke ; he was therefore driven
into exile, and purfued from dungeon to dungeon, till at
length a fentence was procured againft him that would have
involved his life, and which his cruel perfecutor was haften-
‘ing privately to carry into execution. The parliament of
Brittany interfered, and prevented the perpetration of fo
foul a deed. The refcue of M. de Chalotais laid open a
fcene of the blackeft iniquity ; and the parliament of the
province, poffeffed of new proofs, commenced a procefs
againit the duke d’Aiguillon, whofe trial was conduéted in
the prefence of the king, the princes of the blood, the peers,
and the parliament of Paris. Before fo high a court thus
{pecially affembled, the written proceedings carried on
againft M. de Chalotais were produced, and difclofed fuch
a complicated fyftem of guilt and cruelty as exceeded every
thing that could have been imagined. Amid{t thefe do-
metic difquietudes, the dauphin, afterwards Lewis XVI.,
received the hand of Maria Antoniette, filter to the emperor
‘of Germany. The crowd that eagerly prefled forward

to be fpectators of the fire-works, difplayed on this occa-
fion, was fo great, and the confufion that prevailed was fo
completely overwhelming, that feveral hundred perfons
perifhed, by being literally trampled to death. This lofs,
however, which was felt in one way or other by almoft all
the families of Paris, did not divert the public attention from
the profecution of the duke d’Aiguillon. But at the mo-
Tent that the nation was expe@ting, with the moft earneft
folicitude, the decifion of this moft important caufe, Lewis
thought proper, by a violent exertion of his power, to put
a ftop to the whole courfe of juftice, and to all farther in-
quiries into the conduét of the duke. All the parliaments
of the kingdom made a common caufe: the ordinary courfe
of juftice was fufpended; and, in conclufion, the king, in
1771, overthrew the whole fyftem of judicial adminiftration,
and eftablifhed a new one. This was not effe@ted but with
force. The language of the parliament of Paris was worthy
the indignant feelings of free men : «* Your ediét, fire,” fay
they, “is deftructive of all law: your parliament is fworn to
maintain the law ; and the law perifhing, they fhould perifh
with it: thefe, fire, are the laft words of your parliament.”
Lewis, unaccuftomed to fuch language, prepared to fup-
port his authority by the moft violent meafures. In the
dead of the night, the members were roufed from their
flumbers by parties of the guards fent into each houfe, who
prefented to every individual a lettre de cachet, which en-
Joined them to declare whether they would refume the ad-
miniftration of juftice. In the moment of confufion, feveral
of them were furprifed into acquiefcence ; yet they foon re-
tracted, and, in the end, the whole body of parliament was
banifhed the capital. Here then was the foundation of that
revolution, which muft be touched upon in the’next reign,
and which has introduced fuch feenes into the political
world which the wildeft imagination could not have con-
ceived. The exhaufted ftate of the finances fuggefted new
and burdenfome impoits on the great body of the people,
which augmented the public difcontents. In the midft of
thefe, Lewis found no folace even in the company of his
miftrefs madame de Barre: her beauty proved infufficient
to excite defire; and he became difcontented with himfelf,
and with all about him. A fucceffion of miftreffes became
neceflary to roufe the languid appetites of the king. One
of thefe, who was infeéted with the {mall-pox, communi-
cated the difeafe to the king, who in a fhort time died of it,
unpitied and unlamented, May 1774, in the fixtieth year of
his reign, He had lott his only fon in 1765, and his crown
devolved upon his grandfon.

Such was the fate of Lewis XV., who at length fell
aviGim to thofe fenfual appetites, in the gratification of
which he had facrificed his own fame, and the welfare of
his fubjects. he enviable appellation of cwell-bcloved, which
he was confcious, as we have feen, he had not merited, but
which had been conferred in the moment of danger by a
loyal and affeGtionate people, was completely obliterated
from memory, by 3o years of lafcivious excels, profufion,
and rapacity: his example had loofened the bands of mo-
rality ; his prodigality had exhaufted the credit and re-

- fources of his country ; and his wanton pride had trampled

upon every form that had been held facred in the conttitu-
tion. His affe€tions feemed to have been confined within
the narrow limits of his perfonal pleafures and fecurity. Tt
was by the perpetual fuggeftions of the countefs de Barre,
that his fafety was at ttake, which ftimulated him to de-
cifive meafures in fupprefling the parliaments of France.
Though concealed from the public eye, the embers of free-
dom were ftill carefully cherifhed, and, as will be feen in
due time, burft forth with accumulated force, and over-

whelmed

LEWIS.

whelmed the throne of defpotifm. During this reign the
arts and fciences made a rapid progrefs in France, which
was aided by the munificence of the court, as long as other
demands did not anticipate the funds for this purpofe. The
voyages of the French mathematicians to the equatorial and
polar regions, iu order to meafure a degree of the meridian,
were equally honourable to the government and the perfons
employed. The king- was deeply read in hiftory and geo-
graphy. As a gentleman he was polite, affable, and na-
turally mild and humane ; but fondnefs for fenfual indulgence
degraded him as a king and a man,

Lewis XVI. grandfon of the preceding, and fon of the
dauphin, Lewis, and of Maria Jofepha of Saxony, was born
in Auguit, 1754. His father carefully fuperintended the
education of his three fons, and placed them under the di-
re€tion of preceptors, who were particularly attentive to
their morals, and who inftilled iato their minds found prin-
ciples. With refpe& to the fubjeé& of the prefent article
‘their cares perfeGtly fucceeded: he, whofe title at that time
was the duke of Berry, was naturally modeit, timid, and
docile, and repaid, by his virtues, the attention beftowed
upon him. In his earlieft years, though he did not manifett
any brilliancy of parts, he fhewed a difpofition capable of
attaining ufeful knowledge, and manifefted a memory reten-
tive of the minutelt fats. He had a found judgment, great
patience and application. He afcended the throne in 1774,
being then in the.2oth year of his age, and, to fecure him-
felf againft the dire effects of that difeafe, which had proved
fatal to his predeceflor, fubmitted to inoculation, with
feveral others of the royal family. Their quick and eafy
recovery contributed much to extend the practice through-
out the kingdom. The king, as foon as he had gained his
health, applied himfelf diligently to extinguifh the differ-
ences which had taken place betwixt his predeceffor and the
people. He removed thofe from their employments, who
had given caufe of complaint by their oppreflions; and he
conciliated the affeCtions of his fubjeéts, by difmifling the
new parliaments and recalling the old ones. Though the
prudence of Lewis had’ fuggefted thefe compliances, he
was anxious to preferve the royal authority pure and entire:
he avowed in one of his earlieft {peeches, in the great cham-
ber of parliament, that the fteps he had taken were defigned to
enfure the tranquillity and happinefs of his fubje€ts ; and he
hoped, from the zeal and attachment of the prefent aflembly,
for an example of fubmiffion to the reft of his fubje&s ;
he farther faid, he was defirous of burying in oblivion all
paft grievances, and that he fhould ever behold with ex-
treme difapprobation, whatever might tend to create divifions
and difturb the general tranquillity. It was, however, the
misfortune of this monarch, as it was that of Charles I., to
come to the crown at a period when a great change in public
opinion had long been preparing, and was now arrived at a
point, which announced a {peedy crifis in the political fyf-
tem. The defpotifm of the laft two reigns had exafperated
men’s minds, and rendered them alive to the evils of arbitrary
power, while the weaknefs and debauchery of Lewis XV.
had | accuftomed the nation to regard the crown with con-
tempt. ‘ The profligacy of the nobles, the rapacity of the
courtiers, the difputes and vices of the clergy, had fapped
the foundations of focial order; and, in the mean time, a
fet of able and eloquent writers had arifen, who,: by the
united powers of argument and ridicule, aggravated all the
faults of ancient eftablifhments, and endeavoured to fubvert
‘public opinion.” ‘The finances were ina ftate of derange-
ment, and though the king himfelf was extremely moderate
in his expences, his economical plans were thwarted by the
gueen and the princes of the blood.

The final conqueft of the Corficans, who, provoked by
the oppreffions of their governors, hadsonce more attempted
to regain their former liberty, was the firft event of import-
ance which took place after the reftoration of public tran-
quillity ; but the kingdom was a prey to diforder from
other caufes. A fcarcity of corn happening to take place
juft at the time that fome new regulations had been made
by M. Turgot the new financier, the populace rofe in great
bodies, and committed fuch enormous outrages, that a_mili-
tary force became abfolutely neceflary to quell them. The
humanity of Lewis was fhewn in an edi&, which he caufed
to be regiftered in parliament, fentencing the deferters from
the army, in future, to work as flaves on the public roads,
inftead of punifhing them, as formerly, with death; and
with equal attention to the general welfare of his fubjeéts,
he feized the moment of peace to fulfil thofe meee of
economy, which on his acceffion he had given to the people.
Particular attention was paid to the ftate of the marine; and
the appointment of M. de Sartine, in 1776, to that depart-
ment, did honour to the penetration of the fovereign.
Shortly after this, notwithftanding the danger of the ex-
ample, France took a decided part in the quarrel between
England and her American colonies, permitting fome of

‘her fubjeéts, men of high rank and ftation in the country,

to crofs the Atlantic, and ferve in the republican armies,
The confequence of thefe meafures was a declaration of
war on the part of England. After a variety of fortune,

France and her allies fucceeded in detaching America from .

the Britifh crown ; yet the expence of fuch widely extended
operations left the French finances ina ftate of aggravated
diforder, while the event could not fail to operate in behalf
of antimonarchical principles. In the mean time fucceffive
miniftries had adopted various and contradi&tory fyftems
with regard to external and internal policy; and feveral
projects of reform had been propofed and difcuffed, with
no other advantage than that of accuftoming the nation to
debate with freedom all public topics, and open its eyes to
exifting abufes. Without pretending to enumerate the
events of the prefent reign as they occurred, the record of
which would fill a volume much larger than that of which
we can only occupy a very few pages, in the defcription of
an era more important to France and the world than can
be found in hiftory ; we hall only refer to fome of the more
prominent events, which led to the fatal, unjuft, and cruel
termination of the reign and life of Lewis KVI.

Of the miniftries employal by Lewis, feveral were dif-
tinguifhed for ‘enlarged and philofophical views, though,
as it afterwards proved, they were very little accommodated

to circumftances and the ancient conftitution of the country. -

Among the more remarkable occurrences of the period of
which we are fpeaking, was the appointment of M. Neckar
to the adminiftration of the finarices of the country. Hi-
therto France had carefully excluded aliens from the coun-
try and eftablifhed faith from the controul of her revenue ;
nor was it lefs hoftile to the feelings of the court, that a

perfon without rank fhould be elevated to fo high an office —

in the ftate: neverthelefs M. Neckar was a Swils by birth;
a Proteftant in religion ; and a banker by profeflion. Inthe
year 1780, the king fixed on the anniverfary of his birth
to render the day memorable in the annals of his country
by a new initance of humanity, and abolifhed for ever the
favage cuftom of “ putting the queffion,’’ as it was denomi-
nated, that is, of extorting confeflion from perfons accufed,
by the in{trumentality of the rack and other engines of tor-
ture ;—a cuftom which had been fo long. eftablifhed by the
practice of ages, that it feemed to be an infeparable part
of the conftitution of the courts of juftice in France, At

the

,

LEWIS.

the fame time, he rendered himfelf worthy of public efteem,
by diminifhing his own expenditure, and by facrificing the
magnificence of his court to the eafe of his fubj-cts, Un-
fortunately, however, the popular difcontents were excited
in the following year, by the difmiffion of the then popular
minifter M. Neckar. He had conceived the arduous pro-
je@ of fupporting the war by loans without taxes; and
the rigid economy which he had introduced into all the de-
partments of the houfhold, and the various refources that
_ prefented themfelves to his fertile genius, had fupported him
amidft the difficulties that attended his fyitem. The auf-
terity of his manners, increafed probably by the difficulties
with which he was furrounded and interrupted, rendered
him exceedingly obnoxious to the queen and perfons about
the court, who took every opportunity of reprefenting the
reforms, which he had introduced, as inconfiftent with the
dignity of the crown: he was therefore difmiffed from the
high office, which he had held with great repucation. The
efeet of his difmiffal was a vaft abatement of public con-
fidence in the permanency of the ftate; three different per-
fons fucceeded one another in rapid fucceflion, as finance
minifters; thefe, however, whatever might be their inten-
tions, ferved only to increafe the jealoufy of the people, and
the failure of the celebrated ‘‘ Caiffe d’Efcompte’’ com-
pleted the univerfal confternation. The ftoppage of this
national bank was imputed to a {carcity of {pecie, but the
real caufe was probably owing to an immenfe loan advanced
fecretly to the government. Some fuccefsful expedients re-
vived the credit of the bank, and its ftock rofe to above
double the original fubfcription; by thefe means public
credit was rettored throughout the kingdom. In 1783
M. de Calonne, who had already fucceffively filled with ac-
knowledged reputation the office of intendant of Mentz,
and afterwards of the provinces of Flanders and Artois,
was nominated to the poft of comptroller-general. This
. gentleman, whofe name was accidentally omitted in the
alphabetical arrangement of the Cyclopedia, was born at
Douay, in 1734, educated at Paris, and became an advocate
of confiderable reputation. After fome attendance at the
bar, he obtained, as we have feen, various important trutts,
till he became prime minifter. When he fucceeded to this
office, it was faid, he did not find a fingle crown in the
treafury. In this important office he continued about four
years, and by fome {pecious operations he reftored an ap-
parent profperity to the affairs of the ftate, and maintained
the public credit by a punctuality, till then almoft unknown,
inthe payments from the royal treafury. He laboured with
unwearied affiduity to reftore the equipoife between the an-
nual income and expenditure, and to provide a fupply for
the emergencies of the ftate, without vaftly increaling the
burdens of the people, which, even before his adminiftration,
they were fcarcely able to fuftain. For this purpofe,
he advifed the king, to revive the ancient ufage of convening
national affemblies of the Notables, to whom he propofed
the bold projet of fuppreffing the pecuniary privileges and
exemptions of the nobility, clergy, and magiltracy. This
meafure was too daring even for him to carry; it excited
indeed fo much ill-will and determined hatred from thefe
powerful bodies, that M. de Calonne found it neceffary to
retire to England, where he wrote two defences in juttifica-
tion of himfelf and his meafures. At the end of. the war
he returned to Paris, where he died in 1802. He was au-
thor of feveral other works, on the fituation of his country,
and on the ftate of its finances.

The ftates-general of the kingdom, as a body. formidable
to monarchical authority, had never been convoked fince the
year 1614, aud it was therefore determined firft to have re-

Vou. XX.

courfe to an inferior kind of affembly, denominated the No-
tables, becaufe thefe were to be felected by the king from
the different orders of the ftate, and therefore it was expected
they would the more readily fubmit to the guidance of the
court. ‘This aflembly had been convened by Henry IV. and
again by Lewis XIII. and was now to be fummoned by the
authority of Lewis XVI. The writs for calling them to-
gether were dated the z9th of December 1786; and they
were addreffed to feven princes of the blood, nine dukes and
peers of France, eight field marfhals, twenty-two nobles,
eight counfellors of {late, four matters of requefts, eleven
archbifhops, thirty-feven perfons high in the profeffion of
the law, twelve deputies of the pays d’états, and twenty-five
maziftrates of the different towns in the kingdom. The
firft meeting of this aflembly, in the month ofs February
1787, difclofed an enormous deficit which had hitherto been
concealed. Great taxes were propofed to make good the de-
ficiency, which the parliament of Paris refufed to regilter,
and thus refufing, that body was immediately banifhed the
capital. The duke of Orleans, a man who difguifed the
wort principles, and the molt criminal ambition under the
mafk of patriotifm, and who probably, from this moment,
was perpetually engaged in intrigues to ruin the king and
fubvert the conftitution, having entered a proteft in favour
of the parliament, partook of its punifhment. Various
meafures, fome harfh, fome conciliatory, fucceeded, all
difplaying the embarraflment of the government, and the
progrefs of the public difcontents. M. de Calonne was now
difmiffed ; Neckar was recalled; and at length, after a third
convocation of the notables to no good effect, it was refolved
to adopt the alarming expedient of calling together an affem-
bly of the ftates-general, a circumftance that was looked on
with anxious dread by the partifans of the court, and which
was anticipated with pleafure and delight by thofe who were
hoping for fome radical change in the affairs of the ftate.
On the difmiffion of the notables, they were addreffed in a
moderate and very conciliatory fpeech from the throne.
During thedelay, the popular caufe had ftill been gaining
ground in the public mind, by meetings held in the capital
and provinces, at which the utmoft freedom, and no fmall
portion of violence, in difcuffing political points, were
indulged, and men of the inferior clafles were habituated
to act in concert, and become familiar with their own
ftrength.

The time appointed for the convention of the ftates-general
was now approaching, and the means of affembling them
formed a matter of difficult deliberation in the cabinet. The
laft meeting, in 1614, had been convened by application to
the bailiwicks. This mode was liable to {trong objeétions ;
the bailiwicks had been increafed in number and jurifdiétion,
feveral provinces having, fince that period, been united to
France; and the numbers and quality of the members were
no lefs an obje& of ferious attention : it was not, therefore,
till the clofe of the year, that the propofal of M. Neckar was
adopted, which fixed the number of deputies at 1000 and up-
wards, and decreed that the reprefentatives of the third eftate
or commons fhould equal in number thofe of the nobility and
clergy united. It remained now, as a matter of vaft import-
ance, for the popular party to carry the meafure of the
votes being taken, not by orders in three diftin& houfes, but
by numbersin one houfe. As this would infallibly throw the
whole power into the hands of the third eftate, it was long and
vigoroufly oppofed by the royalift and ariftocratical parties.
At length the commons, thinking themfelves fufficiently fup-
ported by the voice of the people, declared themfelves «¢ The
National Affembly,’’ and aflumed the whole legiflative au- -
thority. (For an agcount of the great operating and immediate

4M caufes

LEWIS.

caufes of the French revolution, we fhall refer to the article
Revo.urion, and in the prefent article confine ourfelves to
thofe events which were clofely conne&ted with the condué&
of the king.) During the violent and momentous conten-
tions whieh were excitedin every part of the kingdom, and
particularly at Paris, the king, never fteady to his purpofe,
fluCtuat ed between oppofite councils. His chief defire was,
evidently, to preferve tranquillity, and prevent the effufion
of blood, and he was prepared on his own part to fubmit to
any facrifices for this purpofe that might be required of him,
The ftates had been f{ummoned to meet at Verfailles on the
ath of April, and moft of the deputies arrived at that time ;
but the elections for the city of Paris not being concluded,
the king deferred the commencement of their feffions till the
4thof May. During this period, the members affembled,
having little to do, fpent their time in forming an intimacy
with each other. Some of them united themfelves into a club,
into which none were admitted but thofe who were deemed
zealous advocates for the popular caufe. This fociety, ori-
ginally formed at Verfailles, was, hereafter, found fufficiently
powerful to give laws to France, under the appellation of
the Jacobin club, and to excite an almoft univerfal terror and
alarm through Europe. The ftates-general commenced their
bufinefs by xoing in folemn proceffion, preceded by the
clergy, and followed by the king himfelf, aceording to ancient
cuitom, to church, to perform an aé& of devotion. The
nobles and fuperior clergy were f{plendidly arrayed: the
commons appeared in black. Theaffembly was now opened
by a fhort {peech from the throne, in which the king con-
gratulated himfelf on thus meeting the people affembled ;
and having alluded to the difficult circumftances in which
they were placed, he concluded with the following prayer,
‘© May an happy union reign in this affembly, and may this
epocha become ever memorable for the glory and profperity
of the country. It is the wifh of my heart ; it is the mott
earneit defire of my prayers; itis the price which I expeét
from the fincerity of my intentions and my love for my peo-
ple.’ Several weeks were {pent in difcufling mere matters
of form; in the mean time the people from without were vexed
that no important ftep was taken to remedy the evils under
which they laboured. They imputed this delay to the nobles
and clergy, who became exceedingly unpopular. The
leaders of the commons, called at that period the tiers etaf,
took advantage of the change which was taking place in the
minds of their countrymen, and formed the project of feizing
the legiflative authority of France : ‘they almoftinftantly de-
clared that the reprefentatives of the nobles and clergy
were only the deputies of particular incorporations, whom
they would permit to fit and vote among themfelves, but who
had no title in a colleGive capacity to aé& as legiflators of
France. Some of the clergy had joined them; and they
then proceeded to announce themfelves, by a folemn decree,
the fovereign legiflators of their country, under the name of
the « National Affembly.”” M. Bailly, the celebrated aftro-
nomer, was the firft prefident: its earliefl acts were deci-
fively expreffive of its own fovereignty. This was in the
middle of June, and by the 19th a majority of the clergy
voted for the verification of their powers in common with
the national affembly, and they refolved to unite with them
onthe following day. At this important crifis the nobles
perceived, that unlefs they could make a decifive ftand all
would be lolt: they accordingly addreffed the king, intreat-
ing him to diffolve the ftates-general ; and on the next day,
the 20th, when the prefident and members were about to
enter as ufual into their hall, they found it furrounded by a
detachment of the guards, who refufed them admiffion,
‘while the heralds at the fame time proclaimed * A royal

feffion.”? Alarmed and irritated by this unexpeéted event,
they inftantly retired to a neighbouring tennis-court, where,
in the vehemence of enthufiafm, they took a folemn oath,
“never to feparate till the conftitution of their country
fhould be completed.’? The royal feffion was held in the
mott fplendid form, but altogether in the ftyle of the ancient
defpotifm: the fuperior orders were feated while the com-
mons were kept an hour in the open air, while it rained, be-
fore they were admitted. ‘The king now affumed a high
tone, delivered his {peech, ordered the deputies to retire, and
then left the aflembly. He was followed by the nobles and part
of the clergy, but the commons and thofe attached to them
remained in gloomy filence, which being interrupted by an
officer of the crown, who was left to fee the intentions of his
majefty carried into effect, the count de Mirabeau, ftarting
from his feat, indignantly exclaimed, ‘‘’The commons of
France have determined to debate ; you, fir, who have neither
feat nor voice, nor aright to open your lips here, are not to
remind us of the king’s intentions. Go tell your matter, that
we are here by the power of the people, and that nothing
fhall expel us but the point of the bayonet.”? The king gave
way, and at firft, anxious to {pare the blood of his people,
recommended the higher orders to join the deputies of the
commons ; but, ina few days, he faw, or was perfuaded by
the queen and her party, that the obvious tendency of the
popular meafures was the entire fubverfion of all monarchical
power; he therefore gave orders for the aflembling of troops
round the capital, and ventured upon the ftep of difmifling
Neckar, and commanding him inftantly to quit the kingdom.
Paris burft into a flame upon this unexpe€ted event ; com-
motions took place ; the foldiers were commanded to fup-
prefs the feditious affemblies; but they without hefitation
grounded their arms inftead of firing on the people ; a valt
body of national militia was organized, who fupplied them-
felves with arms from the arfenal of the invalids, and on the
memorable 14th of July, 1789, hoftilities againft the royal
authority openly commenced by the ftorming of the Baltille,
Refiftance to the popular torrent was now in vain ; the king
recalled Neckar, who returned amid{t the acclamations of
the whole nation, and refumed the reins of government.
Schemes for a new conttitution and new meafures of finance
were difcuffed with calmnefs and compofure, till a fearcity
of provifions, joining with other caufes of public agitation,
infpired the populace with uncontroulable fury. In the
beginning of October a dreadful infurreCtion took place, in
which an immenfe armed mob marched to Verfailles, broke
into the palace, malfacred {ome of the guards, and compelled
the king, with the queen and his fhily to accompany them
to Paris. The triumph of the popular party was followed
by theemigration of fome of the moft zealous friends to
royalty, who carried into foreign countries a defire of excit-
ing thofe hoftile interferences on the part of the neighbour-
ing powers in the affairs of France, which in the end proved
deftruGtive to the king and his family. On the roth of
Oober the national aff-mbly, which had followed the king to
Paris, opened its firft feffion ; and a conflitution was {peedily
formed on the bafis of a limited monarchy; a decree
was paffed, which put an end to all diftin@ion of orders and
immunities, fo far as privileges were concerned, and the whole
of the lands belonging to the church were ccnfifcated for the »
purpofe of fupplying the exigencies of the ftate, This.
meafure was propofed by M. Talleyrand, the bifhop of Au-
tun, who afterwards took alead inthe revolution. A provi-
fion was, at the fame. time, made for the national clergy,
who were in future to be paid by the flate On the day
following that, on which this important meafure was adopted,
a decree was paffed, fufpending the parliament of the king-
dom.

LEWHIS.

dom from the exercife of their funétions. During the
winter the king had been ftri@ly watched by numerous
guards placed round his palace, fo that he was regarded as
ina ftate of captivity. To obliterate this impreffion, if
poflible, he appeared in the affembly, and in the prefence of
the deputies of the nation made a folemn declaration of his
refolution to adhere to and defend the new conititution to
the laft moment of his life. Onthe 14th of July it was deter-
mined to commemorate the deftruétion of the Baftille, that
fortrefs of defpotifm: never was a more fplendid f{peétacle.
The national affembly and the court joined in the proceffion
that was made on the occafion, and when every thing was pro-
perly arranged to create effet, the king, after a ferious in-
vocation to God, approached the altar, and amidft the moft
folemn and awe-infpiring filence, took the following oath:
«J the king of the French do {wear to the nation, that I will
employ the whole power delegated to me by the conttitu-
tional law of the ftate, to maintain the conftitution, and en-
force the execution of the law.’”? The national affembly
then took oaths of fidelity to the nation: as did La Fayette
and others in the name of the national guards. After this a
Te Deum” was fung, the performance of which was fub-
lime beyond the power of defcription. “* Never,’’ fays the
hiftorian, “ was there before fuch an orcheftra, or fuch an
audience ; their numbers baffled the eye to reckon, and their
fhouts in full chorus rent the fkies. It is impoffible to
enumerate all the means which were employed to add {plen-
dour to this day. It ended with a general illumination,
ny no accident occurred to difturb the public tranquil-
it ”

‘gegen new efforts were now making by the difaffeGted
among the nobles and clergy to excite difturbances in various
parts of the kingdom. Emigration became more frequent,
and comprehended the king’s aunts, and moft of the princes
of the blood, while troops were collected and openly tormed
into an army on the frontiers. The public fufpicions were
naturally kept awake by thefe circumftances, and papular
ferments occafionally broke out in the capital and provinces.
In April, 1791, the king and his family preparing to go to

_St. Cloud, to fpend the Eafter holidays, were forcibly
ftopped by the populace, who were fufpicious that he
meant to quit the capital. La Fayette drew out the na-
tional guard, but they, with one confent, refufed to a&
againft the citizens: ‘ We know,” fay they, ‘that we
are violating the laws, but the fafety of our country 1s the
firft law.” The king went to the aflembly and complained
of the infult: he was anfwered refpe&tfully by the prefident,
and continued his journey. He now endeavoured to con-
vince foreign courts that he was no longer in a flate of
thraldom, declaring his cordial affent to the new order of
things.

Alea this period, M. de Bouille, to whom the protec-
tion of the frontiers was entrufted, was employing every
means in his power to render the country defencelefs. The
garrifons were left unprovided ; difunion was {pread among
the national troops, who were removed from the frontiers,
and their place was occupied by foreigners, wherever it
could be done. The emigrants abroad, and their friends
at home, were lying in wait for an opportunity of revolt ;
when fuddenly, on the 21ft of June, it was announced from
the Thuilleries, that the king, the queen, their children, to-
gether with the king’s eldeft brother and his wife, had
quitted the palace and the capital. The national aflembly
took upon themfelves the government, and decreed their
fittings to be permanent: they fent at the fame time mef-
fengers in all direétions to attempt to lay hold of the fugi-
tives. At Varennes they were topped, arrefted, and brought

back to Paris in triumph. The alleged reafon for this de
parture was the danger and infult to which the king, and
more efpecially the queen, were expofed, from the licentious
violence of the Parifian mob ; but there is no doubt that it
was conneéted with the plans of the emperor Leopold and
the emigrants, who were prepared, by force of arms, to
make a grand effort in behalf of a counter-revolution. The
king’s brother, with his confort, who took a different road,
made their efcape. The national aflembly proceeded with
their labours, which they brought to a conclufion on the
following September. ‘he conttitution, as fixed on at that
time, was prefented to the king, who folemnly accepted it,
and {wore to maintain. it inviolate. On the zoth of Sep-
tember, the national aflembly, which has been known fince
by the name of the ‘* Conftituent Afflembly,” diffolved
itfelf, and gave place to the fucceeding ‘* Legiflative Na-
tional Affembly,’”? which had been eleéted according to the
rules prefcribed by the new conititution. It was foon evi-
dent that France would have a foreign war to fuftain with
the powers coalefced for the reftoration of the ancient mo-
narchy, and for the further purpofe of making conqueits
upon the French territories. In proportion to the national
danger, the fufpicions of the people increafed, and their
loft confidence in the king could never be recalled. New
jealoufies were excited by the interpofition of the royal ne-
gative, allowed by the new conttitution, again{t two decrees
of the affembly, one levelled at the emigrants, the other at
the non-juring priefts. War was declared by the affembiy
againft the emperor in April, and armies marched to the
frontiers. A decree pafled the aflembly for forming a camp
of 20,000 men near Paris, which Lewis, conceiving it a plan
defigned to overawe the more moderate party, and itrengthen
that of the Jacobins, refufed to fanétion, as he did likewile a
fevere decree againit the refractory clergy. He alfo dif-
miffed fome of the popular minifters who had been forced
upon him. The difcontents which thefe meafures excited
burft out into a furious infurreGtion on the 20th of June,
in which an armed mob made their way into the Thuuileries,
and treated the royal family and their attendants with the
groffeft perfonal infults. The king difplayed on this, as on
all other occafions, great fortitude ; and in reply to threats
againft his life, repeated in the loweft and coarifeit language,
he exclaimed, “* Alas! would that my life could fecure the
happinefs of the country, how readily would J offer it asa
facrifice.”? A calm now fucceeded, in which the king and
the national affembly appeared to unite in plans for the de-
fence of the country: in the mean time dangers were ac-
cumulating, and the approach of the duke of Brunfwick,
with the Pruffian army, preceded by a moft menacing mani-
fefto, in which the king’s acceflion to the new conititution
was reprefented as a mere involuntary compliance, itimulated
the people almoft to madnefs. The republican party deter-
mined to take advantage of this circumitance, with a view of
depofing the king, and inftituting a republic. At length,
Petion, the mayor of Paris, appeared at the head of the
feétions, at the bar of the national aflembly, to demand the
depotition of the king. This was on the gth of Auguit ;
and at fix on the following morning the king was feen re-
viewing his troops. He was received at firft with fhouts of
Vive le roi, which were fhortly overwhelmed with thofe of
Vive la nation. The king returned to the palace, and the
multitude continued to colleét. . The national guard feemed
undetermined what to do as they affembled in divifions near
the palace, and, had a fteady refiftance been made from
within, it has been thought they would have joined the royal
arty. The king was advifed to feek protection in the
all of the national affembly : he was willing to comply ;
4M2 but

LE WIS8.

put the queen oppofed, with vehemence, the bamiligting
propofal, till a€tual danger furrounded her perfon and chil-
dren; fhe then confented, and the king, queen, the princefs
Elizabeth, the king’s filter, with the dauphin and princefs
royal, went on’ foot to the hall of the aflembly. “I am
come hither,’”’ faid his majefty, as he entered the doors, * to
prevent a great crime. Among you, gentlemen, I believe
myfelf in fafety.”? By an article of the conftitution, the
aflembly could not deliberate in prefence of the king. The
royal family were, therefore, placed in a box feparated from
the hall, where they remained 14 hours, without refrefhment,
obliged to hear difcuffions in which the royal charaéer and
office were treated with every mark of infult. At length
the fatal decree was pafled that the royal authority fhould
be fufpended, and the nation was invited to elect a Conven-
tion, to determine on the nature of its future government.
On that fatal day a numerous body of infurgents attacked
the palace of the Thuilleries, which was defended by Swifs
guards: a bloody engagement enfued, which terminated in
the maffacre of the greateft part of the Swifs, and feveral
other regiments. As foon as the royal authority was fuf-
pended, the king and his family were fent to the ‘Temple as
a ftate prifon. Maffacre fucceeded now upon maflacre, till
at length, on the fecond and third days of September, the
molt cruel And favage fcenes were exhibited that were ever
witneffed in a civilized country. More than a thoufand
ftate-prifoners were bafely and infamoufly murdered by the
ruffians of the capital, among whom was the beautiful prin-
cefs of Lamballe, whofe bleeding head was carried on a
pike through the ftreets of the city, and under the windows
of the room in which the queen was confined, whofe inti-
mate favourite fhe had been. Thefe ats, to which the royal
family could not be ftrangers, they might well regard but
as preludes to their own death: there was no party left in
the country to efpoufe their caufe ; and no individual durft
lift up his voice in their defence. The new convention was
affembled on the 2oth, and their firft decree was the eternal
abolition of royalty, which was carried by acclamation: this
object being attained the houfe adjourned, and copies of the
decree was fent into every village and commune of France.
The moft violent meafures were adopted; nor could the
moderate party in the convention reftrain the madnefs of the
Jacobins, who were bent on levelling all diftinGtions ; to
bring into contempt every thing in letters and in fcience
that was in the leaft raifed above the comprchenfion of the
loweft of the people. The intention was foon avowed of
bringing the king to trial. It was in vain that thofe, who
were anxious to fave his life, appealed to the inviolability of
his perfon, declared by the conftitution he had accepted :
principles, however facred, were made to yield, and a com-
mittee was appointed to give in a report upon his conduét.
The refult of this was, that various accufations were brought
again{t him, and the convention refolved'to take upon them-
felves the part of accufers and judges. On the rith of
December, the fallen monarch was brought to the bar to
anfwer to the heads of accufation drawn up againft him for
the crime of tyranny and treafon towards the nation. He
defended himfelf with judgment and prefence of mind,
and received the advice and affiftance of three eminent
advocates, who generoufly and. nobly undertook his
caufe, though with great hazard to themfelves. The
proceedings were carried on till the 26th of December,
when M. Defeze, one of his advocates, read a defence of
his client, which being finifhed, the king rofe, and holding
a paper in his hand, pronounced, in a calm and dignified
manner, and with an impreffive tone of voice, ‘ Citizens,
you have heard my defence; I now fpeak to you, perhaps

for the laft time, and folemnly declare that my countel have
afferted nothing to you but the truth; my confcience re-
proaches me with nothing.” ‘The difcuffion was finally
clofed on the 16th of January ; and-after a fitting of 34
hours, the punifhment of death was awarded by a very
{mall majority of the convention. M. Defeze then invoked
the affembly, in the name of his colleagues, to confider by
what a trifling majority the punifhment was pronounced
againfl the dethroned monarch; ‘* Do not affliét France,’”
faid he, ‘* by a judgment that will appear terrible to her,
when five voices only were prefumed fufficient to carry it.’’
He appealed to the eternal juftice and facred humanity, to
induce the convention to refer their fentence to the tribunal
of the people. ‘* You have either forgotten or deftroyed,”’
faid M. Tronchet, another of the king’s advocates, ‘¢ the
lenity which the law allows to criminals, of requiring at
leaft two-thirds of the voices to conftitute a definite judg-
ment.’ The fentence was ordered to be carried into exe-
cution without delay, The king and his family had been
kept feparate from each other ; but he was now permitted
tofeethem. The fhort interval allowed him he employed in
the preparations for death enjoined by his religion, to which
he was fincerely attached. ‘The final meeting and fepara-
tion of the king from his family was affeéting in the extreme.
On the morning of the 21ft of January, at eight in the morn-
ing, he was fummoned to his fate. He afcended the feaf-
fold with a firm and dignified ftep ; and his behaviour there
partook of the calm fortitude which had diftinguifhed him
through all his fcenes of fuffering. Raifing his voice,
he exclaimed, “‘ Frenchmen, I die innocent; I forgive my
enemies.’’ He would have proceeded, but was prevented
by the beating of the drums, placed on the fpot purpofely to
drown his voice. The executioners came forward to per-
form the bloody deed, which being perpetrated, the bleed-
ing head was held up to the view oF the furrounding crowd,
of whom fome few exclaimed “ Vive la Republique ;?? but
the great mafs of {peGtators was too deeply abforbed in
thought to join in the fhout which the leaders attempted to
excite. The body of the deceafed vitim was thrown into a
pit filled with quicklime, and a guard placed around it till
it fhould be confumed. The unhappy monarch was in the
thirty-ninth year of his age, and the nineteenth of his reign.
He left two children, a fon anda daughter, of whom the

fon died very miferably in 1795¢ eeeishie fier fp the Folie:
ing=year. The queen was brought to the fcaffold in 1793,
and his fifterin 1794. Such were the misfortunes to which
this royal houfe was fubject. Lewis KVI. poffeffed from
nature a good underftanding, which, however, was blunted
by the early indulgences of acourt. He had a ftrong fenfe
of juftice, and his humanity was much fuperior to what could
have been expected from a perfon in his high {tation in life,
By polterity he will be regarded as one of the beft and moit
virtuous of the French kings. He had acquired a large
portion of general knowledge, and on fome literary fubjects
he entered rather deeply. He wrote well, and excelled in
clearnefs of expreffion and methodical arrangement. In
vigour of mind he was unquetlionably deficient ; but in re-
viewing the hiftory of the period, we cannot conceive how
he could have aéted fo as to have fuccefsfully oppofed the
voice of the people. It was his misfortune to have fallen
on difficult times ; he could not {tem the torrent of public
opinion ; and it is probable that few princes, if any, would
have been capable of extricating themfelves from fuch diffi-
culties as furrounded Lewis XVI. during a great part of
his calamitous reign. For farther particulars relating to
Lewis’s of France, the reader is referred to the Modern Uni-
verfal Hiftory ; to the Hiftory of France, London, 1790 ;

- and

LE WwW

and to the Hiitory of the French Revolution, by Rabaut
St. Etienne.

Lewis, Joun, a learned Englith divine, was born at
Briftol in 1675. He was educated in grammar learning at
the free-{chool of Winbourn, in Dorfetfhire, and received his
academical education at Exeter college,Oxford, where he took
his degrees. Having been ordained, he officiated fome time
as curate of St. John’s, Wapping. In 1699 he obtained the
reGtory of Acris,in Kent, which he refigned in 1706, when
he was prefented by archbifhop Tennifon with the reGory
of Saltwood in Kent, with the chapelry of Hythe annexed.
He was afterwards collated to the vicarage of Miniter, in
the ifle of Thanet, and in 1719 archbifhop Wake conttituted
hint’ matter of Eaftbridge hofpital, in the city of Canter-
bury. He died at Margate in 1746. He was author
ofa great number of publications, which refleéted credit
on his induftry and learning ; among thefe were “* The Life
of Wickliffe :’? ** Wickliffe’s Tranflation of the New Telta-
ment :’’ “¢ The Hiltory and Antiquities of the Ifle of Tha-
net :’’ “© The Hiftory of the Abbey and Church of Feverf-
ham :”’ “ The, Life of William Caxton: “The Hiftory
of the Tranflations of the Holy Bible and New Teftament
into Englifh.”’

Lewis, in Geography, is the molt northern, and the largeft
of the Hebrides, or Weftern Iflands, of Scotland. It is
conneéted with the ifland of Harris by a narrow ifthmus,
which at low water is left entirely dry, and even at high
water is not completely covered ; whence the whole may be
eonfidered as one ifland. (See Harris.) The ifle of Lewis
is of very irregular form and boundary ; and extends about
50 miles in length from north to fouth, by about twenty, on
an average, in a tran{verfe direCtion. ‘Towards the centre,
the land is mountainous and boggy 5 but near the fhore it is
rather flat, and is interfeéted by numerous inlets or bays of
the fea. The ifland is almoft deftitute of wood; a few
birches, hazles, anda little heath, being the only f{pecies of
fhrubs feen here: but itis faid that Lewis was formerly
covered with plantations ; the decay and deftruGion of which
contributed to form the peat-earth, with which the ifland
abounds. Springs, lakes, and rivulets, {cattered through
the ifland, furnifh in all parts abundance of frefh water.
With refpe& to the climate, the {pring is uncommonly cold
and backward, the fummer warm, the autumn accompanied
by profufe rains, the winter without long or fevere frotts,
or very weighty falls of fnow, but with conftant winds, and
thefe {tormy and fharply cold. Among the wild animals,
the ifle ftill produces deer or roes. Great numbers of wild
fowls of many different {pecies frequent the fhores, the lakes,
and the cliffs of the mountains ; among others, is the eider
goofe, the down of which is held in high eftimation. Im-
menfe fhoals of fifh, of an innumerable diverfity of kinds,
haunt the coafts.

The iffand is interfeCted by arms of the fea, called lochs,
which run to a confiderable diftance inland, both from the
eaftern and weftern fides. One of the chief is loch-Roag,
on the welt, which is two leagues in breadth at the entry,
and runs up, in a fouth-eaftern dire€tion, about twelve
miles into the ifland. This loch contains feveral iflands,
fome of which are inhabited ; one, called Large Bernera, is
eight miles in length’ The whole of this curious loch
abounds with fafe places of anchorage, fufficient to hold the
whole Britifh navy, or even that of all Europe. About
140 tons of kelp, of a fuperior quality, are annually made
from loch Roag. On the ealtern coaft, loch Seaforth runs
into the country toa great diftance; loch Keofe and loch
Leurbuft advance alfo far inland from the eaft; but loch
Stornaway is moft important, on account of the town which

9

LEW

ftands near it, and which is the capital of the iland. On
the coaft, in this parifh, is a large cave, into which the fea
enters at high tide ; this cavern is only acceffible from the fea.
When it was firft noticed, a great number of feals were killed
annually in it ; and the practice is ftill continued. Theen-
trance of the cave is very fteep and narrow, and does not ad+
mit more than the breadth of a fix-oared boat. The inte-
rior is divided by aiarge pillar into two arches. Its whole
length is about an Englifh furlong.

The ifland of Lewis is divided into four parifhes; named
Barvas, Lochs, Stornaway, and Uig. It has various {mall
iflets attached to it. In the parifh of Barvas is the ifland
of Rona, which is a mile in length, and half a mile in
breadth; it is fituated in the Northern ocean, and is fup-
pofed to be the fartheft to the north-weft of any land in Eu-
rope. The parifh of Lochs derives its name from the great
number of-lakes which are interf{perfed over its furface. It is
about nineteen miles in length and nine in breadth : along the
coaft it has a bold and rocky appearance ; in the interior it
is barren andinhofpitable. About 50 tons of kelp are ma-
nufaétured here annually ; and the greater number of the in-
habitants are employed in the fifheries on the coaft. The
parifh of Stornaway 1s of very great extent ; but the inha-
bited part is of atriangular form, of which two of the fides
are about ten miles, the other feven. The ton of Storna-
way, from a very {mall origin, has of late, by the exertions
of lord Seaforth, arrived at a confiderable extent. The
harbour is excellent, and well frequented; the principal
fource of employment is the profecution of the white and
herring-fifheries in the bays, in which about 35 or 40 {mall
veffels are annually fitted out. It is a port of the cuftom
houfe, and has a poft-office, and a regular weekly packet.
The houfes of the town are, in general, well built : here are
a convenient cuftom-houfe, a town-houfe, a commodious
church, an affembly-room, and two {chool-houfes. On anele-
vated fituation, near the town, ftands Seaforth lodge, the feat
of lord Seaforth, who is the proprietor of the ifland. The
parith of Uigis fifteen miles in length, and thirteen in breadth:
the interior is hilly, covered with heath, and interfperfed with
{mall lakes; the coafts are moitly level and cultivated. The
fifheries and the manufa€ture of kelp are here alfo the chief
fources of fubfiftence to the inhabitants. Near the hamlet
of Calarnifh, at a fhort diftance from loch Roag, is a Druid-
ical temple, formed by a circle of twelve ftones or obelifks,
each about feven feet high, and fix feet diftant from each
other: in the centre is one of a larger fize, thirteen feet
from the ground: dire&ly fouth from the circle are three
obelifks, ftanding in a line; another fuch to the welt, and
one to the eaft; each ftone being nearly equal in fize, and
arranged at equal diftances. Towards the north are two
ftraight ranges of obelifks, forming an avenue to an opening
between two of the ftones which form the circle. Each of
thefe ranges confilts of fix ftones, regularly placed, one op-
pofite to afiother. All the ftones are in a rough natural
ftate, as taken from the fhore. At Melifta are the re-
mains of anunnery, ftill calledin the Gaelic Teagh nan caili-
chan dou, “ the houfe of the old black women.’ At Caila-
way is a Danifh fort, quite circular, with a double wall of
ftone, thirty feetin height. This is broad at the bafe, and
narrower at the top, like the fruftum of a cone. In the
year 1794, there was living in this parifh a /ufus nature, of »
which Mr. Monro, the minifter, gives the following account
in his ftatiftical report to fir John Sinclair.—‘ Very near
the manfe there lives a woman, who has four diftin@ breatts
or mamme. She has had feveral ftout, healthy children, and
fuckled them, and likewife one of the minifter’s children.
She has nipples and milk in each of the four breaits; the

twe

LEW

two upper are fituated under the arm-pits, and by being dif-
tended with milk, are very troublefome to her for the firft
two or three months after delivery.”

The population of Lewis, in the year 1796, was 8311 ;
which was an increafe of 1925 from an enumeration which
was made in the year 1755. ‘The inhabitants of the whole
ifland are feattered, for the moft part, in fingle families, or
cluiters of two or three families, around the coatt, or through
the interior parts. Some large tracts are without inhabit-
ants ; while upon others the population is more clofely af-
fembled. There is fcarcelv any regular road: the moor,
which reaches acrofs the ifland from Stornaway to Uig, is
fo extenfive and foft, that it would require,the labour of
many ages to form a regular road through it. Martin’s De-
{cription of the Weftern Iflands of Scotland, 8vo. 1716.
Buchanan’s Travels in the Weftern Hebrides, from. 1782
to 1790,’ 8vo. 1793.

Lewis, atown of America, in Effex county, S.W. of
Lemington adjoining, in Vermont; about § miles S. of
the Canada line.

Lewis Crees, a fmall ftream in Vermont, which falls into
lake Champlain at Ferrifberg, a little N. of Little Otter
creek.

Lewis and Rehoboth, a town in Suffex county, Delaware,
containing 1514 inhabitants.

LEWISBURG. See Loutszource.

LewiszurG, a county in Orangeburgh diftri&, South Ca-
rolina.—Alfo, a poft-town of North Carolina, and capital of
Franklin county, which lies on Tar river, and contains be-
tween twenty and thirty houfes, a court-houfe, and gaol ;
go miles N. of Raleigh.—Alfo, a poft-town and chief
town of Greenbriar county, Virginia, on the north fide
of Greenbriar river, containing about fixty houfes, a court-
houfe, and gaol; 250 miles W. by N. of Richmond.
N. lat. 38° 8'—Alfo, a poft-town of Northumberland
county, Pennfylvania, called alfo *«* Taritown,’’ on the
W. fide of the Sufquehanna, 7 miles above Northumberland ;
containing about 60 houfes, and well fituated for a good
trade with the N.W: part of the ftate; 30 miles E. by N.
from Aaronfburs~

LEWISHAM, a populous village, in the upper half-
hundred of Blackheath, lathe of Sutton at Hone, and
county of Kent, England, is fituated 54 miles from London,
and extends nearly a mile in length on the road to Bromley.
Here was anciently a Benedictine priory, fubordinate to the
abbey of St. Peter in Ghent, and moft probably founded in
the Saxon times; this manor having been given to that
abbey by Elthruda, niece to king Alired. After the fup-
preffion of the alien priories, Henry V. made this a part of
the endowment of his newly ereéted Carthufian priory at
Shene. Lewifham is now the property of the earl of Dart-
mouth, whofe feat on Blackheath is within the bounds of
this parifh. The prefent church was erected in the year
1774: its form is that of an oblong {quare, with a femi-
circular recefs at the eait end for the altar. It contains two
handfome monuments: one to the memory of Anne, wife
of John Petrie, efq., was executed in Italy; it includes a
fine bas-relief in marble, reprefenting the deceafed on her
death-bed, with her hufband and children lamenting round
her. The other commemorates Margaret, reliét of the
Rev. Robert Petrie, and was fculptured by Banks: it re-
prefents Mrs. Petrie dying in the arms of Religion, fup-
ported by Faith and Hope. Many old monuments were
thrown carelefsly into the vault, when the church was re-
built. An excellent free grammar {chool was founded b
the Rev. Abraham Colfe, who was reétor of this parith from
the year 1610 to 1657. His will contains the regulat‘ons

LEX

of the {chool, and direéts that it fhall be for the education
of thirty-one boys of the feveral parifhes thezein named one
{cholar yearly to be fent to either of the univerfities. He
alfo founded an Englifh {chool here for thirty-one boys,
and an alms-houfe for five “ poor godly houfehelders.”*
The population of Lewifham, as returned under the act of
1800, amounted to 4007; the number of honfés to 722.
In this enumeration was included the chapelry of Sydenham,
noted for its medicinal {prings. Brayley’s Beauties of Eng-
land, vol. vii.

LEWISTOWN, a poft-town in Lincoln county, Maine,
on the eaft fide of Androfcoggin river, and bounded fouth-
welt by Bowdoin; containing 948 inhabitants; 36 miles
N.E. of Portland—Alfo, a poft-town, called * Lewes,’
in Suffex county, Delaware, pleafantly fituated on Lewes
creek, three miles above its mouth in Delaware bay; con-
taining a Prefbyterian and Methodilt church, and about 89
houfes, in a flreet more than three miles in length, extend-
ing along a creek which feparates the town from the pitch
of the cape. Its fituation is high. Thé court-houfe and
gaol are commodious buildings; the entrance of the bay is
crowded with veffels from all parts of the world, but during
part of the winter is clofed with ice. The circumjacent
country is beautifully diverfified with hi'ls, woods, dtreams,
and lakes, but much infefted with mofquitoes and fand-flies.
This town carries on a {mall trade with Philadelphia in the
produ¢tions of the country. A manufacture of marine and
Glauber falts, and magnefia, has been eitablifhed here; 113
miles S. of Philadelphia. N. lat. 35° 6’. W. long. 75° 18!.
—Alfo, the chief and poft-town of Mifflin county, Penn-
fylvania, fituated on the north fide of Juniatta river, on the
welt fide of, and at the mouth of, Cifhicoquilis creek ;
about 23 miles N.E. of Huntingdon; regularly laid out,
incorporated in 1795, and containing about 120 dwelling.
houfes, 523 inhabitants, a court-houfe, and gaol; 150
miles W.N.W fof Philadelphia. N. lat. 40° 33’. W.-long.
77. 23'.

LEWUNAKBANNEK, a town on the Ohio, in which
is a fettlement of Chriftian Indians, formed by Moravian

_miffionaries.

LEX, Law. See Law.

Lex Amiffa, or legem amittere, in Law, is underftood of
an infamous, perjured perfon, who is faid to /o/e his law;
or, as Bracton has it, non eff ulterius dignus lege. See Ix-
FAMOUS.

Lex Judicialis, is properly purgatio, per judicium ferris
fometimes called fimply judicium.

Lex Sacramentalis, purgatio per facramentum.
and PurGATION.

Lex Talionis. See Tario. :

Lex Terre, the law and cuftom of the land; by which
name it is diltinguifhed from the civil Jaw. See Common
Law.

Lex, Legem terre amittere. See AMITTERE.

LEXAWASCEIN, in Geography, a {mall river of
Pennfylvania, which rifes by feveral branches in Northamp-
ton county, Pennfylvania, on the eait fide of mount Ararat,
which unite about 10 miles from its mouth in Delaware
river. It joins the Delaware, after a fouth-eaft and ealt
courfe, about 174 miles above Philadelphia. ;

LEXEN, a town of Moravia, in the circle of Olmutz;
18 miles N.W. of Olmutz,

LEXIARCHI, Acdizpyoy at Athens, fix officers, af-
fifted by thirty inferior ones, whofe bufinefs it was to lay
fines upon fuch as came not to the public affemblies, and
alfo to make {crutiny among fuch as were prefent.

The lexiarchi kept a regifler of the age, manners, and

7 abilities

See OaTH .

LEY

abilities of all the citizens, who were always enrolled at the
age of twenty.

LEXICON, Ackixov, the fame with dictionary.

The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of Greek dic-
tionaries: it is derived from the Greek Attics, word, didion ;
of Asia, J peak. : .

LEXINGTON, in Geography, a county of America,
in Orangeburg diftri&, South Carolina.—Alfo, a poft-town
of Virginia, and capital of Rockbridge county ; fituated on
the pott-road from Philadelphia to Kentucky, by way of
the Wildernefs, and about a mile fouth of the north branch
of James’s river ; containing a court-houfe, gaol, and about
roo houfes. Its fituation is agreeable and healthy, and the
adjacent country highly cultivated. Near it is “ Liberty-
hall Academy,’ now ‘ Wathington College," built of
ftone, and capable of containing forty or fifty fudents, and
harfifomely endowed by the diftinguifhed perfonage whofe
name it bears. The town is 159 miles W. by N. of Rich-
mond,—A Ifo, a poft-town of Kentucky, formerly the metro-
polis of that ftate; fituated on a rich extenlive plain, in
Fayette county, on the north fide of Town fork, a {mall
flream, that falls into the fouth branch of Elkhorn river.
‘The town is built on a regular plan, and contains about 350
houfes, five places of public worfhip, a court-houfe, and
gaol, and alfo an univerfity, with feveral manufaétories and
florehoufes. It is an agreeable flourifhing town, on the
head waters of Elkhorn river; 24 miles E. of Frankfort.
The number of inhabitants is 1795. Near the town was
found, upon digging five or fix feet deep, a large flat ftone,
covering a well, artificially {toned; and in its vicinity are
alfo the remains of two ancient fortifications, furnifhed with
ditches and baitions, overgrown with large trees. —Alfo, a
poft-town in Rowan county, North Carolina, 399 miles
from Wathington.—Alfo, a {mall poit-town of Georgia,
formerly called the “‘ Great Falls,’ fituated on the fouth
fide of Ogeechee river, on a beautiful eminence which over-
looks the falls of the river; 2 miles from George town.—
Alfo, a town in Middlefex county, Maffachufetts, 11 miles
N.W. of Bolton, having a neat congregational church, and
a number of compaét houfes. This town has been rendered
famous by being the fcene of a battle, fought April 19,
1775, which may be confidered as the commencement of the
American revolution. On the ground where this battle was
fought is a ftone monument, to feet high, with the following
infcription: ‘* Sacred to Liberty, and the Rights of Man--
kindi! The freedom and independence of America fealed
and defended with the blood of her fons, &c. &c.’? Con-
eluding, ‘* The die was caft!!!| The blood of thefe mar-
tyrs, in the caufe of God and their country, . was the cement
. of the union of thefe ftates, then colonies, and gave the
fpring to the fj pirits, firmnefs, and refolution of their fellow-
eitizens!’’ Morfe.

LEY, in Agriculture, a termufed to fignify land in. the
ftate of {ward or grafs.

Lex, Sir James, in Biography, a learned Englith judge,
who flourifhed in the feyenteenth century, the fon of Henry
Ley, efq. of Jeffont, in Wiltfhire, was, on account of his
great merit, made lord chief juttice, firft in Ireland, and
afterwards in England. He was likewife created baron
Ley, lord high treafurer, and earl of Marlborough. His.
reports were printed in the year 1659.

Ley. See Luxivium.

LEYBA, in Geography, a:town of South America, im
New Granada; $0 miles N.N.E. of Santa Fé da Bogota.

LEYBOURNE, Wixt1am, in Biography, a mathema-
tician, was originally a printer in London.. He publifhed a
courfe of mathematics, which was held in confiderable efti-

LE Y

mation. He was author ofa treatife on Surveying, a work
on Dialling, and another work, entitled « The Trader’s
Guide.”” He died about the year 1690. 5

LEYDECKER, Metcuior, a Durch divine, was born
at Middleburg in 1652. Having received a good education,
he officiated as paftor of a church in his native place; and
in 1678 was appointed profeflor of divinity at Utrecht, and.
foon after took his degree of doétor in divinity. He died,in
1721. He was deeply read in theology, ecclefiaftical hif-
tory, and rabbinical learning ; but he had no tafte for polite
literature, and was exceedingly bigotted to his own notions, -
Still he was defirous of uniting the Lutherans and Cal-.
vinifts, and made fome ineffectual efforts for the purpofe.
He was a voluminous writer, and his works are ali written.
in Latin: of thefe the chief are, “A Treatife on the Re-
public of the Hebrews,’ in 2 vols.; “An Analyfis of
Scripture, with Rules for Preaching ;? « A Hiftory of.
Janfenifm ;”? «* A Continuation of the Ecclefiaftical Hittor
of Hornius, with Notes ;’’ and « A Hiftory of the Church
of Africa.”?

LEYDEN, Lucas Van. See Jacons, Lucas.

Leypen, in Geography, a city of Holland, the « Lug-
dunum Batavorum’’ of Ptolemy, and the « Caput Ger-
manorum"’ of Antonine’s Itinerary, is the capital of a {mall
diftri&, called « Rhynland,” comprehending 49.towns or
villages, and, next to Amfterdam, the largett and moft po-
pulous city of Holland; the number of inhabitants: heing
eftimated at about 50,000. It is fituated on the ancient bed.
of the Rhine, which, by means of various ftreams, di-
vides it into a number of iflands,. that communicate with one
another by bridges, which are reckoned to be not fewer
than 100. This city likewife carries on a daily intercourfe
by boats with Amfterdam, Haerlem, Utrecht, Delft, the
Hague, &c. It has eight gates; and its ramparts are
formed of earth, partly covered with turf, and partly faced
with brick, and confifting of feveral baftions. The cloth
manufactured at Leyden has been much celebrated, and ‘it’
contains a itaple-hall erected for the ufe of the manufaéturers
and merchants. ‘he chief ftreet of the town is conftru@ed
in the form of a crefceut ; and the principal public building
is the town-houfe, which has many {pires, and isa handfome
ftru€ture, with a ftone front. In the burgomaiter’s chamber
is a very capital painting of the Lait Judgment by Lucas of
Leyden, ‘for which the emperor Rodolphus is faid to have.
offered as many gold ducats as. would cover it; together
with feveral other capital paintings, and a reprefentation of
the famous fiege of 1574, wrought.in tapeftry. The great
church is one of the handiomet in Holland.. The common
council of the city, called ‘¢ Vroedfchap,” is compofed of
40 perfons, who are required to be natives of Holland,
28 years of age, and Proteitants. Here are likewife four
burgomatters, and eight echev ns, and a grand bailiff, who.
adminiiters jultice in civil and criminal cafes, jointly with the
echevins.. The fair of Leyden is an ancient eftablifhment, .
and {till much. frequented: it occupies by its booths, ar-
ranged under trees, and along the borders of canals, about
a fourth part of the.town. In yroof of the antiquity of .
this city, fome allege an. ancient round tower, called the -
“ Burght,’? about 600 feet in circumference, faid to have.
been erected either by the.Romans or Saxons; but Jofeph.
Scaliger contends that it was built five or fix centuries ago -
by the comtes of Holland. This city was confiderably en-
larged towards the fouth in the year 1389; but.it has fuf-
fered much from fieges and the plague. In the year 1574).
the Spaniards laid fiege to it; but it was obftinately de-
fended by the inhabitants, and even by the women, who
lined the ramparts, and performed the duties. of foldiers.

During

LE ¥

During this refiftance, the mifery of the inhabitants was
extreme: 6000 perfons died of famine, and the diftrefs at-
tending it; fo that for 14,000 who furvived, there remained
no more than ro7 muids of wheat. The general of the
Spaniards, apprized of their fituation, fummoned them to
furrender ; but they replied, that they could not want fub-
fiftence, as long as their left arms remained, on which they
were determined to feed, whilft with the right they defended
the city. The conftancy and courage of Adrian de Werf,
burgomatter of the city, deferve to be recorded ; when he
was folicited by fome of the inhabitants to furrender, he
told them, “ My friends, fince I mutt die, it is of little im-
portance whether I fall by you or by the enemy ; cut me to
pieces, and divide them amongft you; I fhall die fatisfied,
if by my death I can be the leaft ufeful.” Juft as they
were preparing to furrender, they received notice by fome

igeons, that relief was at hand; and the dykes of the
Meufe and the Iffel having been opened, Louis Boiffot, ad-
miral of Zealand, advanced with a number of troops in flat-
‘bottomed boats to their fuccour. The Spaniards, terrified
by the inundation, abandoned the fiege. In memory of this
event the inhabitants have been accuftomed every feven years
to exhibit a f{peétacle of the fiege. William Prince of
Orange, jutt recovering from a dangerous illnefs, was car-
ried to Leyden, that he might in perfon thank the citizens
for their brave defence; he alfo tiberally rewarded Boiffot and
Janus Douza, lord of Noortwyck, who commanded in the
city, not forgetting the officers and foldiers ; and befides
granting feveral privileges to the city, he founded an univer-
fity, and appointed Janus Douza the firft curator. ‘This
univerfity, fays Mrs. Radcliffe, in her ‘¢ Journey through
Holland, &c.”? would fearcely be known to exift, if it had
no more confpicuous objects than its buildings. The Dutch
univerfities have no endowed foundations; fo that the pro-
feffors, who have their falaries from the ftates, live in private
houfes, and the ftudents in lodgings. The library, to which
Jofeph Scaliger was a benefactor, is open only once ina
week, and then for no more than two hours. To this, and
other meafures of Dutch policy, it is owing that the univer-
fity has been of late years declining. There are ftudents,
however, of many nations and different religious profeflion,
no oaths being impofed, except upon the profeflors. Phyfic
and botany are cultivated with much fuccefs; and there is a
garden to which not only individuals, but the Eaft India
company, contribute foreign plants. Te falaries of the
profeffors, exclufively of fees from the ftudents, are nearly
aool. a-year. The government of the univerfity is in the
reGtor, who is chofen out of three perfons, returned by
the fenate to the ftates; the fenate confifts of the pro-
feffors; and, on extraordinary occafions, the fenate and rector
are direéted by curators, who are agents for the ftates. The
land adjoining to Leyden is very fertile and produétive, and
is much cultivated by gardeners, who fupply Amfterdam
with vegetables ; and the rich meadows aud paftures in the
environs furnifh excellent butter and cheefe. Leyden is
diftant 14 miles N. of Rotterdam, and 19 S.W. of Am-
fterdam. N. lat. 52° 9'. E. long. 4° 20!.

The plays and players of the theatre of Leyden are not of
the moft refined fort ; farce has not yet quitted tragedy, nor
has Punch quitted farce; however, thele exhibitions amufe
perfons, whofe tafte has not been formed upon refined models,
and perhaps come more home to their bufinefs and bofoms,
than the tragedies of Sophocles, or comedies of Menander,

would do, if they were now to be reprefented in the original .

Athenian manner.
As to mufic, mechanical chimes, every quarter of an
hour ; carillons at noon, two or three times a week; and

LEY

huge organs, coarfely played, to more coarfe plaf{mody,
conftitute all that Apollo and the Nine Mufes have given
to this place, in the way of harmony and melody, as Fr as
we could difcover. Burney.

Leypen, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian ocean, near
the coaft of Java, within view from Batavia.—Alfo, a {mall
ifland in the gulf of Manar, near the W. coaft of Ceylon ;
12 miles W. of Jaffnapatam.—Alfo, a {mall ifland in a bay
of the Pacific ocean, on the N. coaft of New Guinea. §S.
lat. 3° 58’. E. long. 135° 39'—Alfo, a town of Pruffia,
27 miles S.S.E. of Konigfberg.—Alfo, a poft-town of
America, in Oneida county, New York; 330 miles N.E.
from Wafhington.Alfo, a townfhip in Hamphhire county,
Maffachufetts, between Colerain and Bernard{ton; 29 miles
from Northampton, incorporated in 1784, and containing
1095 inhabitants.

Leypen Phial, in Elearicity, is a’ glafs phial or jar, costed
both on the infide and outfide with fome conduéting fub-
{tance, for the purpofe of being charged, and employed
in a variety of entertaining and ufeful experiments. See
Coatine and CHARGE.

It was thus called becaufe Mr. Cunzus, a native of Ley-
den, was fuppofed to have firft contrived, about the clofe
of the year 1745, to accumulate the electrical power in
glafs by this method ; and hence the operation of charging
and difcharging coated glafs, in general, has been denomi-
nated the Leyden experiment ; and a vacuum produced in a
jar of this kind has been called-the Leyden vacuum. But
Dr. Prieftley, the hiftorian of ele¢tricity, informs us, that
the perfon who firft made this great difcovery was Mr. Von
Kleift, dean of the cathedral in Camin; who, on the 4th —
of November, 1745, fent an account of it to Dr. Leiber-
kuhn at Berlin: however, thofe, to whom Mr. Kleift’s ac-
count was communicated, could not fucceed in performing
his experiments. The views which led to this difcovery in
Holland are ftated by Dr. Prieftley in the following manner:
profeffor Mufchenbroeck and his friends, obferving, that
ele&trified bodies, expofed to the common atmofphere,
which is always replete with conducting particles of various
kinds, foon loft their electricity, and were capable of re-
taining but a {mall quantity of it, imagined, that if the
eleGtrified bodies were terminated on all fides by original
electrics, they might be capable of receiving a ftronger
power, and retaining it a longer time. Glafs being the
moft convenient ele¢tric for this purpofe, and water the moft
convenient non-electric, they firft made thefe experiments
with water in glafs bottles; but no confiderable difcovery
was made, till Mr. Cunzus, happening to hold his glafs
veffel in one hand, containing water, which had a communi-
cation with the prime conductor by means of a wire; and
with the other hand difengaging it from the conduétor,
when he imagined the water had received as much eleétri-’
city as the machine could give it, was furprifed by a fudden
fhock in his arms and breaft, which he had not in the leaft’
expeted from the experiment. This experiment was re-
peated, and the firft account of it publifhed in.-Holland by
Mr. Allamand and Mr. Mufchenbroeck ; by the able Nol-
let, and M. Monnier, in France; and by Meffrs. Gralath
and Rugger, in Germany. Mr. Gralath contrived to in-
creafe the ftrength of the fhock, by altering the fhape and
fize of the phial, and alfo by charging feveral phials at the’
fame time, fo as to form what 1s now called the ek@rical
battery. He likewife made the fhock to pafs through a
number of perfons conneéted ina circuit from the outfide-
to the infide of the phial. He obferved that a cracked
phial would not admit of being charged; and he difcovered
what is now called the refiduum of a charge. Dr. Watfon,

about

LEYDEN PHIAL.

about this time, obferved a circumftanc2 attending the ope-
ration of charging the phial, which, purfued, would have
led- him to the aicovry which was afterwards made by
Dr. Franklin. He fays, that when the phial is well eleétri-
fied, and you apply your hand to it, you fee the fire flah
from the outfide of the glafs, wherever you touch it, and it
crackles in your hand. He alfo obferved, that when a
fingle wire only was faftened round a phial, properly filled
with warm water, and charged; upon the initant of its ex-
plofion, the ele&rical corrufcations were feen to dart from
the wire, and to illuminate the water contained in the phial.
He likewife found, that the ftroke, in the difcharge of the
phial, was, ceteris paribus, as the points of conta& of the
non-eleétrics of the outfide of the glafs, which led to the
method of coating glafs: in confequence of which he made
experiments, that led him to conclude, that the effect of
the Leyden bottle was greatly increafed, if it was not prin-
cipally owing to, not fo much the quantity of non-electric
matter contained in the glafs, as the number of points of
non-eleGtric contac within the glafs, and the denfity of the
matter of which thefe points confifted ; provided the matter
was, in its own nature, a ready conductor of eleétricity.
He farther obferved, that the explofion was greater from
hot water inclofed in glaffes, than from cold, and from his
coated jars, warmed, than cold. For kis manner of ex-
plaining the fhock of the Leyden phial, fee Arriux.

~ Mr. Wilfon, in 1746, difcovered a method of giving the
fhock to any particular part of the body, without affecting
the reft: he alfo increafed the ftrength of the fhock by
plunging the phial in water, thereby giving it a coating of
water on the outfide as high as it was filled on the infide ;
he likewife found, that the law of accumulation of the elec-
tric matter ia the Leyden bottle was always in proportion
to the thinnefs of the glafs, the furface of the glafs, and
that of the non-ele&trics in contaét with the infide and out-
fide thereof. Mr. Wilfon made a variety of other experi-
ments with the Leyden phial, which our limits will not al-
low us to recite.

Mr. Canton found, that if a charged. phial was placed
upon electrics, the wire and the coating would give a {park
or two alternately ; and that, by continuing this operation,
the phial would be difcharged ; though he did not obferve
that thefe alternate {parks proceeded from the two contrary
eletricities difcovered by Dr. Franklin.

The abbé Nollet made feveral experiments with this
phial. He received a fhock from a bottle, out of which
the air had been exhaufted, and into which the end of his
condu@tor had been inferted. He afcribed the force of the
glafs in giving a fhock, to that property of it, whereby it
retained it more ftrongly than conducters do, and was not
fo eafily divelted ef it as they are. He alfo firlt tried the
effect of the eleétric fhock on brute animals, and enlarged
the circuit of its conveyance. See Crrevuir.

M. Monnier is faid to have been the firft who difcovered
that the Leyden phial would retain its electricity for a con-
fiderable time after it was charged, and to have found it to
do fo for thirty-fix hours, in time of froft; and it is re-
markable that the French as well as the Englifh philofo-
phers made feveral experiments, which, with a little greater
degree of ‘attention, would have led them to the difcovery
of the different quality of eleGtricity on different fides of
the glafs. But this was referved for the ingenious doctor
Franklin, who, in explaining the method of charging the
Leyden phial, obferves, that when one tide of the glafs is
eletirified pofitively, or plus, the other fide is eleétrified ne-
atively, or minus ; fo that whatever quantity of fire is
thrown upon one fide of the glafs, the fame is theewn out

Vou. XK.

of the other; and in a phial not: charged, none can be
thrown into the ivfide, when none can be got out from the
outfide ;' and there is really no more eleétric fire in the phial
after it is charged than before; all that can be done by
charging being to take from one fide and convey to the
other. Dr. Franklin alfo obferved, that glafs was imper-
vious to eleétricity, and that therefore, fince tlie equifi-
brium could not be reftored to the charged phial by an in-
ternal communication, it muft be done by conduéiors ex-
ternally joining the infide and the outfide. Thefe capital
difcoveries he made by obferving that, when a phial was
charged, a cork-ball, {ufpended on filk, would be attraéted
by the outfide coating, when it was repelled by a wire com-
municating with the infide, and vice verfa. But the truth
of this maxim appeared more evident, when he brought the
knob of the wire communicating with the outlide coating
within a few inches of the wire communicating with the in-
fide coating, and {ufpended a cork-ball between them ; for,
in that cafe, the ball was attraéted by them alternately, till
the phial was difcharged.

Dr. Franklin alfo fhewed, that when the phial was
charged, one fide loft exactly as much as the other gained,
in reftoring the equilibrium. Hanging a fmall linen thread
near the coating of an eleétrical phial, he obferved that
whenever he brought his finger near the wire, the thread
was attra€ted by the coating ; for as the fire was taken from
the infide, by touching the wire, the out!ide drew in an
equal quantity by the thread. He likewife proved, that
the coating on one fide of a phial received juit as much elec-
tricity as was emitted from the difcharge of the other, in
the following manner: he infulated his rubber, and then,
hanging a phial to the conduttor, he found it could not be
charged, even though his hand was held conftantly to it;
becaufe, though the ele€tric fire might leave the outiide of
the phial, there was none colleéted by the rubber to be con-
veyed tothe infide. He then took away his hand from the
phial, and forming a communication by a wire from the
outfide coating to the infulated rubber, he found that it was
charged with eafe. In this cafe it was plain, that the very
fame fire which left the outfide coating, was conveyed by
the way of the rubber, the globe and the condudtor, and
the wire of the fire into the infide. This new theory of
charging the Leyden phial led Dr. Franklin to obferve a
greater variety of facts, relating both to charging and dif-
charging it, than other philofophers had attended to. This
maxim, that whatever the phial takes in at one furface it
dofes at the other, led Dr. Franklin to think of charging
feveral phials together with the fame trouble,, by conne¢t-
ing the outfide of one with the infide of another ; whereby
the fluid that was driven out of the firft would be received
by the fecond, &c. By this means he found, that a great
number of bottles might be charged with the fame labour
as one only ; and that they might be charged equally high,
were it not that every bottle receives the new fire, and lofes
its old with fome reluGiance, or rather gives fome {mall re-
fiftance to the charging. On this principle he conitruéted
an eleétrical battery.

When Dr. Frawklin firft began his experiments upor the
Leyden phial, he imagined that the eleGtric fire was ail
crowded into the fubftance of the non-eleGric, in conta&
with the glafs; but he afterwards found that its power of
giving a {hock lay in the glafs itfelf, and not in the coating,
by the following ingenious analyfis of the bottle. In order
to find where the itrength of the charged bottle lay, he
placed it upon glafs; then firft took out the cork and the
wire, and finding the virtue was not in them, he touched
the outiide coating with one hand, and put the finger of the

aN other

IL Bay

other into the mouth of the bottle ; when the fhock was
felt quite as ftrong as if the cork and wire had been in it.
He then charged the phial again, and pouring out the water
into an empty bottle, infulated, expeéted that, if the force
refided in the water, it would give the fhock, but he found
it gave none. He then judged that the electric fire mult
either have been loft in decanting, or muft remain in the
bottle; and the latter he found to be true; for, filling the
charged bottle with frefh water, he found the fhock, and
was Tatistied that the power of giving it refided in the glafs
itfelf. The fame experiment was made with panes of glafs,
laying the coating on lightly, and changing it as the wattr
had been before changed in the bottle, and the refult was
precifely the fame. He proved in other ways that the
electric fire refided in the glafs. Franklin’s Letters and
Obfervations, &c. Prieftley’s Hift. of Eleétricity, vol. i.
p- 191, &e.

From the above account of Dr. Franklin’s method of
analyfing the Leyden phial; the manner of charging and dif-
charging it, and the reafon of the procefs, are eafily under-
ftood. Thus, if a coated phial be placed near the prime
condudtor, fo that the knob of its wire may be in contact
with it; and the winch of the machine be turned, the index
of the electrometer, fixed to the conductor, will gradually
rife as far as go nearly, and then reft; which fhews that
the. phial has received its full charge; then if the difcharger
be held by ‘its glafs handle, and one of its knobs be ap-
plied to the outfide coating of the phial, and the other be
brought near the knob of the wire, or near the prime con-
ductor that communicates with it, a report will be heard,
and luminous fparks will be difcovered between the dif-
charger and the conducting fubftances communicating with
the fides of the phial, aud by this operation the phial will
be difcharged. If, initead of ufing the difcharger, a perfon
touches the outfide of the phial with one hand, and brings
the other hand near the wire of the phial, the fame {park
and report will be obferved, and a fhock will be felt, that
affects the wrilts and elbows ; and, when the fhock is ftrong,
the breaft likewife ; and a fhock may be given to any fingle
part of the body, if that part alone be brought into the
circuit. If a number of perfons join hands, and the firft
of them touches the outfide of the phial, and the laf
touches the wire communicating with the infide, they will
all feel the fhock at the fame time. If the coated phial be
held by the wire, and the outfide coating be prefented to
the prime conductor, it will be charged as readily, only with
this difference, that in this cafe the outfide will be pofitive,
and: the infide negative; and if the prime conductor, by
being conneéted with the rubber of the machine, be elec-
trified negatively, the phial would be charged in the fame
manner; but the fide that touches the conduétor would be
electrified negatively, and the oppofite fide would be ele@tri-
fied pofitively. But if the phial be infulatéd, and the fame
procefs repeated, the index of the eletrometer will foon rife
to go’, yet the phial will remain uncharged; becaufe the
outfide, having no communication with the earth, &c. can-
not part with its own eleéricity, and, therefore, the infide
ean acquire no additional quantity; but when a chain, or
any other condutor, connects the outlide of the phial with
the table, the phial may be charged as before. Moreover,
if a phial be infulated, and one fide of it, inftead of being
connected with the earth, be connected with the infulated
rubber, whilff the other fide communicates with the prime
conductor, the phial will be expeditioufly charged ; be-
caufe, whilft the rubber exhaufts one fide, the other fide
is {upplied by the prime conduétor; and in this way the
phial is charged with its own electricity; or the natural

platter.

L5¥

ele&tric matter of one of its fides is thus thrown on its
other fide. This lait experiment may be diverlified, by
infulating the phial, and placing it, with its wire, at the
diftance of about half an inch from the prime conductor,
and holding the knob of another wire at the fame dif-
tance from its outfide coating ; then turning the winch
of the machine, and a {park will be obferved to proceed’
from the prime conduftor to the wire of the phial, and
another fpark will'pafs at the fame time from the outfide
coating to the knob of the wire prefented towards it ; and
thus it is feen, that as a quantity of the eleétric matter is
entering the infide of the phial, an equal quantity of it is
leaving the outfide. If the wire prefented to the outfide of
the phial be pointed, it will appear illuminated with a flar 5
but if the pointed wire be connected with the coating of the
phial, it wall appear illuminated with a dru/h of rays. See

Cuarce, Execrricat Experiments, &c. ELECTRICITY,

ELECTROMETER, &c. :
Mr. Cavallo has: deferibed the conftru&tion of a phial,

which, when charged by an eleétrical kite, in examining,

the ftate of the clouds, or in any other way, may be put
into the pocket, and which will retain its charge for a con-
fiderable time. Befides the coating on the infide and outfide,.
which this phial has like others of the fame kind, a glafs
tube open at both ends is cemented into its neck, and pafles,
within the phial, having a fmall wire faltened to its lower
extremity, which touches the infide non-electric coating.
Thé wire, with the knob of this phial, is cemented into
another glafs tube, which is nearly twice as long, and
{maller than the tube cemented into the neck of the phial.
The wire is cemented in fuch a manner, that only its knob:
projects out of one end, and a {mall length of it out of the
other end of the tube. If this piece, with the wire, be
held by the middle of the glafs tube, it may be put in or
out of the tube, which is in the neck of the phial, fo as to
touch the {mall wire at the lower extremity of it; and this
may be done without difcharging the’ phial, if it be charged.
A phial of this kind has been kept in a charged ftate for
fix weeks. Cavallo’s Elect. p. 340. See ConpucTor.
We {hall clofe this article with an account of the method
by which Mr. Cavallo repairs coated phials, that have been
cracked or perforated, either by a fpontaneous difcharge,
or other accident. He removes the outfide coating from
the fractured part, and then makes it moderately hot by
holding it to the flame of a candle ;\ and whilft it remains
hot, he applies burning fealing-wax to the part, fo as to
cover the fraGture entirely ; taking care that the thickuefs
of this wax coating may be greater than that of the glafs.
Laftly, he covers all the fealing-wax, and alfo part of the

furface of the glafs beyond it, with a compolition made

with four parts of bees’ wax, one of refin, one of turpen-
tine, and a very little oil of olives. This he fpreads upon a
piece of oiled filk, which he applies in the manner of a
In this way feveral phials-have been fo effectually
repaired, that, after being frequently charged, they were
at laft broken by a fpontaneous difcharge, but in a dif-
ferent part of the glais, Phil, Tranf. vol. Ixviii. part ii,,
pore:

LEYGAGER is ufed for wager of law. .

LEYMEN, or Letnen, in Geography, a town of Ger-
many, in the palatinate of the Rhine; eight miles S. of
Heidelberg.

LEYPA, or Lerpra, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Leitmevitz ; 20 miles N.E. of Leitmeritz. N. lat. 50°
39’. _E. long. 14° 43'.

LEYRE, a town of Spain, in Navarre ; cight miles N.E,

of Sanguefa.
_ LEYRIA,

—.,

et

LEY

LEYRIA, a city of Portugal, in the province of Eftre-
tmadura, the fee of a bifhop, ereéted in 1545 ; containing a
glafs-houfe eftablifhed by Englifhmen, and about 3500 inha-
bitants. Near it, on an eminence, is an ancient caftle built
by the Moors; 57 miles N.N.E. of Lifbon. N. lat. 39°
39'. E. long. 8° 347.

LEYSE, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland ; 18 miles N.E.
of Heilfberg. :

LEYSERA, in Botany, fo denominated by Linnzus, in
honour of Frederick William Von Léyfer, author of the
Flora Halenfis, publithed in 1761, in one volume oétavo.
This is a fynopfis of the plants found about Hall in Saxony,
difpofed according to the Linnean fyftem, with fcarcely
any fynonyms. The number of fpecies is only 1122, em-
_ bracing few novelties or rarities, and bearing a great ana-
logy to the lowland Flora of Britain. Haller, however, in
his Bibl. Bot. v. 2. 510, terms it ‘a rich Flora, with ori-
ginal remarks, as well as new plants.”? The mof original
part feems, in our opinion, a chronological and local diftri-
bution of the plants, inferted by way of appendix. A fe-
cond edition appeared in 1783.—Linn. Gen. 431. Schreb.
at Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3. 2132. Mart. Mill. Did. v. 3. Ait.

ort. Kew. v. 3: 229. Thunb. Prodr. 160. Jufi. 179.
Lamarck. Illuftr. t. 658. Gertn. t. 173. (Afteropterus ;
Vaill. Mem. de l'Acad. des Sc: 1720. Gertn. 460. t. 173.)
Clafs and order, Syngenefia Polygamia-/uperflua. Nat. Ord.
Compofte Difcoidee, Linn. Corymbifera, Suit.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx ovate, imbricated; f{cales ob-

tufe, concave, feariofe. Cor. compound, radiated; florets
of the diflc feveral, perfe&, tubular, funnel-fhaped, five-cleft,
nearly ere&t ; thofe of the radius feveral, ligulate, lanceolate,
entire. Stam. (in the perfect florets) Filaments five, ca-
-pillary, very fhort ; anthers united into’ a cylindrical tube.
Piff. (in the fame) Germen fmall; ftyle thread-fhaped ;
itigma notched. In the female ones the ftyle is fhorter, and
the ftigma more divided. Peric. none, except the unchanged
calyx. Seed, in both kinds of florets, folitary oblong ; down,
in thofe of the diflk, long, of five feathery brillles, f{urround-
ing a very fhort chaffy crown; in thole of the radius the
feathery briftles are wanting. Recept. naked in the difk,
the florets of the circumference only being feparated by nar-
row chaffy fcales.
* Obi. In Leyfera paleacea the feathery briftles of the ra-
dius are wanting. Gzertner reftrains the genus of Ley/era
to fuch fpecies, keeping Vaillant’s name fferopterus for
thofe which have the two kinds of feed-down as above de-
feribed ; but fuch a diftin€tion appears to us, as it did to
Linnzus, merely to feparate a very natural genus, and it
ferves, among many other inftances, difplayed in this part
of Gertner’s admirable work, to prove that technical cha-
raéters muit never be followed, without taking natural ones
asa clue.

Eff. Ch. Receptacle chaffy inthe circumference. Seed-
down chaffy ; in the florets of the difk moftly feathery alfo.
Calyx {cariofe.

* Linneus has three fpecies of this genus.

1. L. gnaphalodes. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1249. Leyf. Hall. ed. 2;
frontifpiece, infcribed “ unicum premium, fed immortale.”’
(After zthiopicus, ftoechadis foliis, flore aureo; Herm.
. Lugd. Bat. 68. t. 71.)—Leaves linear-awlfhaped, downy
and glandular. * Calyx-fcales lanceolate.—Native of the
Cape of Good Hope, as are all the known fpecies hitherto
difcovered. The //em is fhrubby, determinately branched,
leafy, downy. Leaves copious, {preading every way, fcat-
tered, briftle-fhaped, hardly an inch long, downy, as well as
befprinkled with little prominent glandular briftles. Floqwers
moitly terminal, folitary, on long flender ftalks, with yellow

LHO

rays, anda fhining membranous ealyx. The feathery down
of the feeds is very confpicuous among the numerous florets
of the difk.

2. L. Callicornia. Linn. Mant. 286. (Calicorni gnapha-
loides ; Burm. Prodr. 24. Hieracii peculiare genus, coridis
folio, zthiopicum, feminum pappis denfius radiatis ; Pluk.
Mant. 103. Phyt. t. 35c. f. 4.)—Leaves linear-threadfhaped,
rough. Scales of the calyx acute. Flowers nearly feffile.
This differs at firft fight from the former in its feffile
flowers, folitary at the fummit of each branch, and the fcales
of the calyx are more pointed.

3. L. paleacea. Linn. Syft. Veg. ed. 13. 641. ed. 14. 771.
(L. ericoides ; Berg.Cap. 294. Relhania paleacea ; L? Herit.
Sert. Angl. 24. Thunb. Prodr. 146, Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 3.
2137-)—Leaves linear, channelled, downy. Calyx feffile,
turbinate ; its inner fcales thin ard pointed. Feathery down
wanting. Marginal fcales of the receptacle furmounting the
florets.— The Leaves of this are not fo flender as either of the
former, being triangular, furrowed above, very cottony, but
not glandular. Flowers feflile at the end of each branch,

folitary. Outer fcales of the calyx lefs fcariofe than in the
former. On account of the want of the feathery feed-down,

M. l’Heritier referred this {pecies to his genns Re/hania,
which is rather a heterogeneous aflemblage. In this, how-
ever, he is followed by Thunberg and Willidenow, who alfo
agree in removing the Linnzan Stehelina gnaphaloides to
Leyfera, a meafure which feems to us rather unnatural.

‘Thunberg adds feven more fpecies to this genus, the
{pecific chara€ters of which are given in his Prodromus, but
nothing more is known concerning them, ‘They are named
ciliata, incana, ardotoides, Pilofella, ovata, pi@a, and polt-

olia. :
4 LEYTA, in Geography, one of the Philippine iflands,
about 250 miles in circumference ; the foil is fo fertile as
to yield two hundred fold; the mountains abound in deer,
cows, wild hogs, and fowls; cocoas grow fpontaneoully 5
the air is pure and healthy, and more temperate than at
Lucon. The inhabitants are mild and peaceable in their
difpofition, and hofpitable to ftrangers. Their number is
eftimated to be about gooe, who pay tribute in wax, rice,
orcloth. N.lat. 10°50’. E.long. 124° 4o'.

LEZAISKO, a town of Auttrian Poland, in Galicia ;
56 miles W.N.W. of Lemberg.

LEZANDRIEUX, a town of France, in the depart-
ment of the North Coatfts, and chief place of a canton, in
the diftri& of Lannion, four miles E. of Treguier. ‘The
place contains 1763, and the canton 12,289 inhabitants, on
a territory of 1424 kiliometres, in fix communes.

LEZERS, an Indian nation, which inhabits between the
mouth of the Ohio and Wabafh rivers. They can furnifh

oo warriors.

LEZIGNAN, a town of France, in the department of
the Aude, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrit of
Narbonne. The place contains 1505, and the canton 6827
inhabitants, on a territory of 270 kiliometres, in 17 com-
munes.

LEZOUX, a town of France, in the department of the
Puy-de-Dome, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrié
of Thiers; feven miles W.S.W. of Thiers. The place
contains 3307, and the canton 10,581 inhabitants, on a ter-
ritory of 1974 kiliometres, in 12 communes. ~

LGOV, a town of Ruffia, in the government of Kurik.
N. lat. 48°. E. long. 35° 54'. ?

LHOTA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-

ratz; fix miles S.E. of Trautenau. ;

LHOT KA, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konigin-
gratz ; 14 miles W. of Konigingratz.

4N 2 LIADOVA,

LIA

LIADOVA, a town of Moldavia, on the Dniefter; 56
miles E.N.E. of Choczim.

LIAISON, Fr. in Mufic, conne&ion, relation, combi-
nation. See RELATIVE.

LIALSKOI, in Geography, a\tcwn of Ruffia, in the
province of Ulting, onthe Vim; 48 miles E. of Yarenfk.

LIAM, a town of Lower Siam, on the E. fide of the

wif. N. lat. 12°35’. E. long. 102° 18'. :

LIAMONE. a river of Corfica, which runs into the fea ;
ro miles N, of Ajaccio. It gives name to one of the two
departments into’ which Corfica is divided ; the other being
Golo, It is formed by the fouthern part of the ifland, in
N. lat. 41° 30', containing 149 fquare leagues, and 63.347
inhabitants. It is divided into three circles, viz. Vico,
containing 10,049 inhabitants ; Ajaccio, 26,918 ; and-Sar-
tene, including 26,380 inhabitan.s. In the vallies and ac-
clivities of the hil’s, the feil is fertile, yielding grain, fruits,
pattures, and, in fome diitricts, delicious wines.

LIAM-PO. Sce Nina-po.

LIAMSA, a town of Roffia, ia the goverment of Arch-
angel, on the coaft of the White fea; 36 miles N.N.W. of
Oneg.

LIANCOURT, a town of France, in the department
of the Oife, and chief place of a canton, in the diltri@ of
Clermont ; four miles S. of Clermont. The place contains
962, and the canton 10,365 inhabitants, on a territory of
125 kilometres, m 22 communes. .

LIANGA, atown on the E. coaft of Mindanao. N.
lat. 8° 21’. IE. long. 126° 10’.

LIANG-CHAN, a town of Corea; 40 miles S.S.E.
of Kang-tcheou.

LIANGDAL, a river of Sweden, which rifes in the
province of Harjedalen, and runs into the gulf of Bothnia,

-near Sundfwal. :

LIAN-TCHUEN, a town of Corea 3.25 miles E.N.E.
of Haimen.

LIAR-DSAKE, a lake of Thibet, about 30 miles in
circumference. N. lat. 34° 34'. FE. long. go” 44’.

LIATRIS, in Botany, a name of whofe meaning or
origin we are not able to difcover any thing fatisfactory.
Gertn. t. 167. Schreb. 542. Willd. Sp. PI. v.-3. 1634. Mart.
Mill. Did. v. 3. (Suprago; Gertn. v. 2. 402. Anonymos,
n. 309; Walt. Carol. 196. Cirfium; Dill, Elth. t. 71, 72.
See Serratula ; Juff. 174. )—-Clafs and order, Syngenefia Poly-
gamia-equalis, Nat. Ord. Compofite capitate, Linn. Cinaroce-
phala, Juff.

Gen. Ch. Common Calyx oblong, imbricated, of nume-
rous, fomewhat ovate, unarmed, coloured {cales. Cor. com-
pound, uniform, tubular ; florets are perfeé&t and equal,
monopetalous, funnel-fhaped ; their tube inflexed ; limb in
five recurved fegments, Stam. Filaments five, capillary,
very fhort; anthers united into a cylindrical tube. Pf.
Germen to each floret, oblong ; ftyle thread-fhaped, very
long, divided as fur as the top of the ftamens, ftraight ;
ftigmas rather acute. eric. none, except the permanent

unaltered calyx. Seeds folitary, angular ; down {efflile, fea-
thery, fometimes coloured. Recept. naked, flat.

Ef. Ch. Receptac'e naked. Calyx oblong, imbricated,
unarmed, coloured, Downdeathery. y

This genus appears to have heen originally feparated

from Serratula by Gertner, who altered the name by which
he at firlt ditinguithed it, Suprago, to that it now bears.
Serratula differs from it in having a {caly or hairy receptacle,
as well as in habit. Eight fpecies are defined by Will-
denow, of which the following are the moft characteriftic and
remarkable.

Eh. feariofa, Willd: n. 2. (Serratula feariofa; Linn.

LIA

Sp. Pl. 1147. Eupatorio adfinis americana bulbofa, flori-
bus f{cariofis calycibus conteétis; Pluk. Phyt. t. 177. f. 4.)
—Leaves lanceolate, tapering at each end, rough-edged.
Flowers on long braéteated ttalks. Calyx-fcales obovate,
{preading.—Native of North America ; fometimes feen
with us in curious gardens, where it is a hardy perennial.
Root a bulb-fhaped tuber. Stem three or four feet high,
leafy, finely hairy, racemofe at the upper part, each flower
fupported by a flalk from two to four inches long, bearing
a few leafy draéeas. The fligmas are long, purplih, as well
asthe florets. Calya-/cales more or lefs obtufe, leafy, widely
fpreading.

L. elegans. Willd. n. 3. (Staehelina elegans ; Walt. Ca-
rol. 202. Serratula f{peciofa; Ait. Hort. Kew, v. 3. 138.)
—Leaves linear, dotted. Spike very long and denfe. Calyx-
{cales lanceolate, acute, hairy; the innermoft elongated,
coloured, fomewhat toothed. Florets few.—Gathered by
Bartram, in Georgia, in 1765; by Walter in Carolina.
The upper /lem-leaves are widely {preading, or reflexed ;
lower longer, more diftant and upright ; all finely dotted
on both fides. Spike long, denfe, ere&, flender, of nume-
rous, nearly feffile, bra¢teated flowers, whofe long, leafy,
fine pink, inner feales of the calyx are very beautiful.

L. pilofa. Willd. n. 4. (Serratula pilofa; Ait. Hort.
Kew. v. 3. 1 fe Naga dan linear, hairy, fomewhat dotted.
Clutter long, loofe, hairy. BraGeas and calyx-feales obtufe,
fringed. —Native of North America, from whence it was
introduced, in 1783, into Kew garden, where we gathered
it in flower two years after. It is perennial and hardy,
blooming in the autumn. As there is no defcription nor
figure extant, the following may be acceptable. The fem
is three feet high, flender, leafy, angular, clothed with longifh
fcattered hairs, at leaft in the upper part. Leaves narrow,
reflexed, fringed with fimilar hairs, and irregularly dotted
on both fides; the upper ones dilated at the bafe, and
embracing the item. Clu/fer terminal, fimple, long, loofe,
leafy, flightly hairy. ower flalks about an inch long,
axillary, bearing at their upper part two or three fhort,
obtufe, fringed, dotted bradeas, refembling the lower feales
of the calyx ; whofe inner-fcales are gradually longer, with
a membranous, fringed, white or reddifh edge. i*/orets and
Sigmas pink.

We cannot but lament, that while fo many well-known
plants are figured over and over again in every publication,
fuch curious and beautiful {pecies as the two lait fhould re-
main neglected and unknown.

L. fpicata. Willd. n. 6. (Serratula fpicata; Linn. Sp.
Pl. 1147. Cirfium tuberofum, la&tuce capitulis {picatis
Dill. Elth. 85. t. 72. f. 83.) —Leaves linear, diitantly dot-
ted, fringed at the bafe. Spike leafy ; denfe above. Ca-
lyx-fcales obtufe, fmooth — Native of various parts of North
America, from whence it was brought to the Englifh gar-
dens about eighty years ago, and itill remains at Kew. ‘The
nearly feffile fowers, and imooth-edged calyx, diftinguifh it
from the lait, to which it is otherwife nearly allied.

L. odoratifina. Willd. n. 8. (Anonymos odoratiffimus ;
Walt. Carol. 198.)—Leaves elliptic-cblong, fmooth ; the
upper ores heart-fhaped, clafping the ftem, Panicle corym-
bole, fpreading. Calyx-feales obovate, glandular—Ga-
thered by Walter in Carolina, from whence it was brought .
by the late Mr. Frafer in 1787. ‘I'his fpecies is remarkable
for its fine feent when dricd, which refembles that of the
Woodruff, and Holcus odoratus. The radical aves are
ftalked, three or four inches long, nearly elliptical ; thofe of
the {tem numerous, much fmaller. #/owers {mall, purple,
very numerous, in a {moothifh, fpreading, braGteated, corym-
bole panicle. SF /orets not numerous.

LIBA,

LIB

/

LIBA, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
ef Saatz; tomiles E. of Eger.

LIBAN, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ,
ro miles E.S.E. of Jung-Buntzel.

LIBANIUS, in Biography, a celebrated Greek fophitt,
or rhetorician, was born of an ancient family at Antioch,
about the year 314. He devoted himfelf from his youth
to the interefts of literature, and purfued his ftudies at
Athens. Having finifhed his education he colleéted dif-
ciples, and made himfelf known by various rhetorical com-
pofitions. His reputation was fo high at Conftantinople,
that fome other profeffors, jealous of his fame, procured
his banifhment on the charge of magic. He then went to
Nicomedia, where he obtained a great number of difciples,
among whom, ina private nvunner, was Julian, afterwards
denominated the Apoftate. He finally returned to An-
tioch, where he fpent the remainder of his days. About
the year 360, he was preceptor to Bafil and Chryfoftom,
perfons afterwards very celebrated in the church, though he
was always zealoufly attached to the ancient religion; and
en the acceflion of Julian, he was one of the firft whom
that emperor invited to be near his perfon. He declined
the honours intended him, preferring a life of privacy to
the buille of a court. He was, however, warmly attached
to a prince who patronized his ftudies, and fupported the
fame religious caufe ; and was enabled, by the influence
which he had over him, to foften many of the emperor’s
refentments. Julian admitted him to the equality of a friend,
and is thought to have derived fome afliitance from him in
his compofitions. He furvived to an advanced age, but the
time of his death is not known. The writings of Libanius
were very numerous, confilting chiefly of orations, decla-
mations, differtations, and epiltles ; which are characterized
by Gibbon as, * for the moit part, the vain and idle compo-
fitions of an orator who cultivated the fcience of words :’?
yet he admits that he had merit, and that his correfpondence
was various and elaborate ; ‘* he praifed the virtues of his own
times; he boldly arraigned the abufes of public and private
life ; and he eloquently pleaded the caufe of Antioch againft
the juit refentment of Julian and Theodofius.”’ Some of the
works of Libanius, confilting of his orations, declama-
tions, &c., were publifhed in two volumes, folio, in Greek
and Latin, in the years 1606 and 16273 but the moft com-
plete colleGiion of his epiltles is that publithed at Amfter-
dam in 1738. A volume, containing feventeen of his ha-
rangues, from the library of St. Mark, was printed at
Venice in 1755. In reference to the conclufion of this
writer’s life, Gibbon obferves, «it is the common calamity
of old age to lofe whatever might have rendered it defirable ;
but Libanius experienced the peculiar misfortune of fur-
viving the religion and the feiences, to which he had con-
fecrated his genius. The friend of Julian was the indig-
nant f{peétator of the triumph of Chriltianity ; and his
bigotry, which darkened the profpeét of the viiible world,
did not infpire Libanius with any lively hopes of celeflial
glory and happinefs.”” The judicious and excellent Lard-
mer has tranflated the whole of Libanius’s oration to the
emperor Theodofius, every part of which, he fays, is of
importance to Chriftians. The occafion of this oration
was, that in the reign of Theodofius, feveral heathen
temples had been pulled down and deftroyed by the monks,
with the confent or connivance, as Libanius thought, of the
bifhops, and without the orders of the emperor to that pur-
pofe. Of this Libanius complains and implores the pro-
teCtion of Theodofius, that the temples may be preferved.
Dr. Lardner, therefore, gives the oration at length, to fhew
that the teltimony of this heathen writer went .dire&ily to

LIB

prove the divine origin of Chriftianity. And he concludes
by maintaining, that the greatnefs and fplendour to which
the Chriftian church had attained from {mall beginnings, by
the force of truth again{t worldly terrors and allurements,
was a greater wonder and a work of greater power thar
the magnificence of Rome and the grandeur of her empire.
Libanius has given an interelting detail of the private life
of Julian, quoted and referred to by Gibbon; the mention
of which affords us an opportunity of making an additional
reference to the article Juctan im our laft volume. 'The
works of Dr. Lardner fhould have been cited as containing
a fummary of the arguments refpecting the extraordinary
interpofitions that prevented this emperer from rebuilding
the Jewifh temple. See Lardner’s teftimonies of Ancient
Heathens, vol. iv. or vol. viii. edit. 1788. Gibbon, vol. iv.
Moreri.

Lizanius, Greorcr, who flourifhed in the fixteenth cen-
tury, was defcended from a refpeétable family at Lignitz,
in Poland, of which place he was a native. He purfued his
ftudies for feveral years in the moft celebrated German uni-
verfities ; and coming to refide at Cracow, he was appointed
one of the profeffors in the principal college of that city.
He is faid to have been the firft perfon who introduced
there the ftudy of the Greek language. He publifhed fe-
veral works ; as «¢ Giconomicorum Ariftotelis Libri Grecis
et Latinis Annotationibus illuftrati 5?’ « Carmina Sibyilz
Erithree, &c.;’’ “ Paraclefis, id eft adhoriatio ad Grxca-
rum Literarum ftudiofus, habita Cracoviz ;’’ «De Mu-
fice Laudibus Oratio, &c,’? He alfo compiled an “ An-
thology,’’ or choice Coileétions from the Works of St.
Bafil, St. Gregory -Nazianzen, and St. Chryfoftom.,
Moreri.

LIBANOMANTIA, AiCas-povrax, in Antiquity, a {pe-
cies of divination performed with frankincenfe ; which, if it
prefently caught fire, and fent forth a grateful odour, was
eiteemed a happy omen, and vice ver/i.

LIBANOTIS, in Botany, the ancient appellation of a
plant, fuppofed by fome to have been the name of a boy,
changed into the plant in queftion ; but the moft evident and
generally received etymology is from A:8x0:, frankincen/ey
which the root is faid to refemble in fcent. ‘The asPcvihs
of Diofcorides appears to be our Rofemary, as has beea
ufually fuppofed ; which fhrub is by the modern Greeks called
dsdgoriGavv, or Tree Libanos. Libanotis however has, at
different times, been employed to defignate various umbcelli-
ferous plants, of an aromatic quality, and generally of meu-
tain origin, which may have been found under the genera of
Aihamanta, Cachrys, Bupleurum, &c.

LIBANUS, in Geography. See Lesanon. :

LIBATION, Lisario, a ceremony in the heathen fa-
crifices, wherein the prieft {pilt fome water, wine, milk, or
other liquor, in honour of the deity to whom the facrifice was
offered ; after having firft tafted it himfelf.

Alexander is faid to have facrificed a bull to Neptune ; ~
and, for an offering to the fea-gods, to have thrown the -
golden veffels ufed for the libation into the fea.

Libations were alfo in ufe under the law of Mofes, being
enjoined by God in Exodus xxix. and Numbers xv.

LIBAU, in Geography, a fea-port of the duchy of
Courland, fituated on the Baltic, built by the Lettonians,
and deriving its name, as it is faid, from the word « Lee-
paja,”’ which, in the Lettonian language, fignifies a piece of
ground planted with linden-trees, fuggefted by the circum-
itance that many of thefe trees formerly grew here. This
etymology is further confirmed by the confideration that
the Lettonians even now call the town “¢ Leepaja.”” Some
Germans intermixed with the inhabitants of this town in a

13th’:

LIB

13th century, and about the clofe of the fifteenth, and com-
mencement of the 16th centuries, many of that nation united
together, and in 1625 it obtained the privileges of a city.
In 1737, the harbour was cleared by Erneit John, and the
future accumulation of mud and fand prevented, fo that it
is now a commodious port for veflels of light burden; a
confiderable number of which repair hither and are loaded
with hemp, linfeed, &c. This town was often taken by the
Swedes, but ceded to Courland by the peace of 1660; 66
miles W. of Mittau. N. lat. 55° 28’. E. long. 21° 37!
In this part of the Baltic, as well as in the whole province
of Courland belonging to Ruffia, accounts are kept by mer-
chants, as at Riga, in Alberts dollars of eighty ferdings, or
of ninety Alberts grofchen ; but retail traders moftly reckon
two guldens of ninety current grofchen, four of which are
equal to three Alberts grofchen. The coins chiefly cir-
culating here are Dutch ducats, and Alberts dollars ; and
alfo pieces coined in the country of the fame ftandard and
value with thefe two coins. The ferding is an old filver
coin; but the grofche is imaginary. The Ruffian coins
are alfo current here. (See Rica.) The laft of wheat,
rye, barley or peafe, contains 48 leofs ;. that of oats and
malt 60 leofs, which are equal to 106 Englifh bufhels; fo
that a leof of wheat contains about 104 Englith quarters,
and a lait of oats 134 Englifh quarters: one hundred lafts
of falt are equal *to 11,110 Englifh bufhels. Libau ex-
changes with London at four Alberts dollars fifty grofchen,
more or lefs, for 1/. fterling, at three months date. The
old ftyle is ftill ufed at Libau. Kelly’s Un. Cambitt,
vol. 1.

LIBAVIUS, Awnpreco, in Biography, a phyfician and
chemift, was born at Hall, in Saxony. He was profeffor
of hiftory and poetry at’Jena, in 1588. But he removed to
Rothenburg, on the Tauber, in 1591, and to Coburg, in
Franconia, in 1605, in confequénce of an appointment to
the office of principal of the college of Cafimir, at that
place. He died at Coburg in 1616. Libavius obtained
a confiderable reputation in his time by his chemical works,
having purfued that fcience upon better principles than moft
of his contemporaries. He employed many chemical pre-
parations in medicine ; neverthelefs, he avoided the violence
of Paracelfus and his difciples, whofe principles he often re-
futed, and againit whom he frequently defends the doirines
of the Galenical fchool. But, like the chemical philofo-
phers of the age, he did not altogether efcape the delufions
of alchemy. He left his name long attached, in the labora-
tories, to a particular preparation of tin with muriatic acid,
which was called « the fuming liquor of Libavius.” It is
unneceflary to enumerate the titles of his many works, which
have now become obfolete, and are almoft forgotten. His
laft work, publifhed at Franefort in 1615, under the title
of « Examen Philofophie Nove, que veteri abrogand= op-
ponitur,”’ folio, is remarkable for the firft mention of the
transfufion of blood from the veflels of one living animal to
thofe of another, of which he {peaks with great confidence.
The fuggeition, however, was not fubmited to the teit of
experiment until the middle of the fame century, when the
fubject made a great noife throughout Europe, and many
phyticians anticipated from it no lefs than a remedy againit
all difeafes ; nay, fome of them felt a confident expeétation
of rendering life perpetual. But thefe notions were pre-
fently confuted by the numerous fatal terminations of the
experiment. See Eloy Dié&. Hift. Haller. Bibl. Med.

Ligavius, Liguor of. See Liquor.

LIBEL, Famofus Libellus, a writing or report, unlawfully
publithed abroad, containing injurious reproaches, or accufa-
tions, again{t the honour and reputation of any perfon, pare

LIB

ticularly of a faperior or governor : or, it is defined to be 2
malicious defamation of any perfon, exprefled either in
printing or writing, figns or pictures, to afperfe the repu-
tation of one that is alive, or the memory of one that is
dead. According to judge Blackt{tone, libels, in their moft
extenfive fenfe, fignify any writings, pictures, or the like,
of an immoral or illegal tendency. Confidered particularly
as offences againft the public peace, they are malicious defa-
mations of any perfon, and efpecially a magiftrate, made
public by either printing, writing, figns, or piétures in
order to provoke him to wrath, or expofe him to public
hatred, contempt, or ridicule.

Platina is of opinion, that a writing, how injurious foever
it is, cannot be called a libel, if the author’s name be to it.
Libellers, among the ancient’ Romans, were punifhed with
death, but in after-times they were only whipped. Auguftus
ranked famo/os libellos, detamatory libels, among the crimes
lefe mayjeftatis, of high treafon; and under the emperor
Valentinian it was made capital, not only to write, but to
publifh or even omit deitroying them. FF. Baldwin has pub-
lifhed a comnient on the imperial laws againit libels. Scan-
dalous pictures are reckoned amongtft libels.

A libel, the lawyers fay, may be either in /criptis, or fine

Scriptis + in fcriptis, when a writing 1s compefed, or publifhed
to another’s difgrace ; which may be done either verbis aut
centalenis ; as where this is malicioufly repeated, or fung, in
the prefence of others: or elfe ¢raditione, when the libel, or
any copy of it, is delivered out, to fcandalize the party.
3 Init. 174.

A libel fine feriptis, may be twofold. 1. Piduris, as to
paint the party in a fhameful or ignominious manner : or,
2. Signis, as to fix a gallows, or other ignominious figns, at
the door of the party, or elfewhere.

Where a writing inveighs againft mankind in general, or
againit a particular order of men, this is no libel ; in order to
make it a libel, it mult defcend to particulars and individuals.
(3 Salk. 224.) But a general reflection on the government
is a libel, though no particnlar perfon is refleCted on; and
the writing againft a known law is held to be criminal.
(4 St. Tr. 672. 903.) According to C. J. Holt, fean-
dalous matter is not neceflary to make a libel; it is enough
if the defendant induces an ill opinion to be had of the
plaintiff, &c: And if a man {peak fcandalous words, unlefs
they are put in writing, he is not guilty of a libel; for the
nature of a libel confilts in putting the infamous niatter into
writing. (2 Salk. 437. 3 Salk. 226.) A defamatory
writing, exprefling only one or two letters of a name, in
fuch a manner, that from what goes before and follows after
it may be underftood, by the natural conftruétion of the
whole, to fignify and point at fuch a particular perfon, is
as properly a libel as if the whole name were expreffed at
large. (1 Hawk. P. C. c. 73. f. 4.) On application for
information againit this offence, fome friend to the party
complaining fhould in fuch cafe ftate by affidavit his having
read the libel, and that he underftands and believes it to
mean the party. (3 Bac. Abr. 12.) And in the eafe
of ations for libels by figns or pi€tures, it feems neceflary
always to fhew, by proper innuendoes and averments of the
defendant’s meaning, the import and application of the
feandal, and that fome fpecial damage has followed ; other-
wife it cannot appear that fuch libel by pi€ture was under-
ftood to be levelled at the plaintiff, or that it was attended
with any actionable confequences. (Bl. Com. iii. c. 8.)
Although a private perfon or magiitrate be dead at the
time of making the libel, yet it is punifhable, as it tends to
a breach of the peace. (Hob. 215. 5 Co. 125. 1 Hawk.
P.C. c. 73.) But an indiétment for publifhing libellous

matter

js

matter reflecting on the memory of a dead perfon, not al-
legiag that it was done with a defign to bring contempt on
the family of the deceafed, and to ttir up the hatred of the
king’s fubjeéts againit them, and to excite his relations to a
breach of the peace, cannot be fupported ; and judgment
was in this cafe accordingly arrefted. (4 Term Rep, 126.)
No writing is efteemed a libel, unlefs it reflect upon fome
particular perfon. Anda writing full of ob{cene ribaldry is
not punifhable by any profecution at common law: but the
author may be bound to good behaviour, as a perfon of evil
fame.. (1 Hawk. P. C. c. 73.) Printing or writing may
“be libellous, though the feandal is not dire&tly charged, but
obliquely and farcattically. Id.
It is certain that he who compofes a libel, or procures
another to compofe it, and alfo he who publifhes or pro-
cures another to publifh it, is in danger of being punifhed
for it; and it is faid not to be material, whether he who
difperfes a libel know any thing of the contents or effec of
it, or not; for nothing would be more eafy than to publifh
the moft virulent papers with the greateft fecurity, if con-
cealing the purport of them from an -illiterate publifher
would make him fafe in difperfing them. (1 Hawk. c. 70.)
It hath alfo been faid, that if he who hath either read a libel
himfelf, or hath heard it read by another, do afterwards ma-
licioufly read or repeat any part of it in the prefence of
others, or lend or fhew it to another, he is guilty of an un-
lawful publication of it, (Id.) It hath alfo been holden,
that the copying of a libel fhall be a conclufive evidence of
the publication of it, unlefs the party can prove that he de-
livered it to a magiftrate to examine it, (Id.) When any
one finds a libel, if it be againit a private perfon, he ought
to burn it, or deliver it to a magiftrate ; and where it con-
cerns a magiftrate, he fhould deliver it prefently to a ma-
giltrate. (5 Rep. 125.) If a libel be found in a houfe,
the mafter cannot be punifhed for framing, printing, and
publifhing it ; but it is {aid he may be indiéted for having it,
and not delivering it to a magiltrate (1 Vent. 31.) 3 or it
may, in fome cafes, be confidered as evidence of his bein
the author or publifher. (2 Salk. 418.) It hath been
ruled, that the finding of a libel on a bookfeller’s fhelf is a
publication of it by the bookfeller, and that it is no excufe
to fay, that the fervant took it into the fhop without the
matter’s knowledge ; fer the law prefumes the mafter to be
acquainted with what the fervant docs. (1 Seff. C. 33.
-R. v. Dodd. 10 G.) The fale of the libel by a fervant in
a fhop is prima facie evidence of publication, in a profecution
againit the matter; and is fufficient for conviction, unlefs
contradiéted by contrary evidence, fhewing that he was not
privy, nor in any way aflentiug to it. 4 Term Rep. 126.
5 Burr. 2686, 7. 1 Hawk. P. C. c. 73. ;
It is faid to be immaterial, on a criminal profecution, with
refpet to the effence of a libel, whether the matter of it be
true or falfe, or whether the party againft whom it is made
be of good or bad fame; for in a fettled ftate of govern-
ment, the party grieved ought to complain’ for any injury
.done to him, in the ordinary courfe of law, and uot by any
means to revenge himfelf either by the odious courfe of li-
belling or otherwife. (5 Co. 125.) But this is to be un-
derftood, when the profecution is by information or indi@-
-ment ; but in an a@ion on the cafe, which is to repair the
party in damages, the defendant may jultify the truth. of
the facts, and thew that the plaintiff hath received no injury.
Although it has been held, agreeably to the doétrine main-
tained by lord: chief juttice Mansfield, for at leaft two cen-
turies, that the truth of a libel is no juttification in a cri-
minal profecution, yet in many inftances it is confidered as
2n extenuation of the offence ; and the court of king’s bench

has laid down this general rule, viz.

that it will ‘not grant
an information for a libel,

unlefs the profecutor who applies
for it makes an affidavit, aflerting directly and pointedly
that he is innocent of the charge imputed to him. This
rule, however, may be difpenfed with in particular cafes ;
as if the perfon libelled refides abroad, or if the imputations
of a libel are general and indefinite, or if it is a charge again{t
the profecutor for language which he has held in parliament.
Where, on application for an information, the truth of the
libel is not denied, the court, except in the inftances above
mentioned, will leave the injury to be remedied in the or-
dinary courfe of juftice by aétion or indi@tment. (Stra. 493.)
But the court will not grant: this extraordinary remedy by
information, nor fhould a grand jury find an indiétment, un-
lefs the offence be of fuch fignal enormity, that it be rea-
fonably conftrued to have a tendency to difturb the peace
and harmony of the community. (1 Hawk. P. C. c. Vie,
There are authorities, that truth is not a juttification even
in an aétion for a libel; anda very learned writer feems to
doubt whether fuch a plea would now be admitted by the
court, if the accufation in the libel did not amount to an in-
di€table offence. (3 Woodd. 182.) It feems, however,
that the contrary is the prevalent opinion ; and that in every
ation for a libel, if {pecific inftances can be {tated upon: the
record, fo as to fupport the general charge of the libel, the
courts would determine them to be a fufficient juttification
of the defendant. 1 Term Rep. 748.

The punifhment of libellers for either making, repeating,
printing, or publifhing the libel, is fine, and fuch corporal
punifhment (as imprifonment, pillory, &c.) as the court in
its difcretion fhall infli ; regarding the quantity of the of-
fence, and the quality of the offender. (1 Hawk. P. C,
c. 73-) Ifa printer print a libel againft a private perfon,
and much more againft a magiftrate, or again{t the king and
ftate, he may be indi&ted and punifhed for it; nor is it any
apology to fay, that it was done in the way of trade, or to
maintain a family. (1 St. Tr. 982. 986.) Alfo, if book-
fellers, &c. publifh or fell libels, though they know not
the contents of them, they are puuifhable. It has been re-
folved, that where perfons write, print, or fell any pamph-
lets, {candalizing the public, or any private perfons, fuch
libellous books may be feized, and the perfons punifhed by
law; and all perfons expoling books to fale, refleGing on
the government, may be punithed; alfo, writers of news
(though not fcandalous, feditious, or refleGing on the go-
vernment, if they write falfe news) are indiGable. St.
Dreg77: ;

wih regard to libels in general, there are two remedies 5
one by indictment and another by aétion. The former for
the public offence ; for every libel has a tendency to break
the peace, or to provoke others to break it; which offence
is the fame, in point of law, whether the matter contained
be true or falfe ; and, therefore, the defendant on an indi&-
ment for publifhing a libel, is not allowed to allege the
truth of it by way of jultification. In fuch profecutions
the only fa&s to be cenfidered are, firft, the making or
publifhing of the book or writing ; and fecondly, whether
the matter be criminal. But in the remedy by aétion on
the cafe, which is to repair the party in damages for the
injury done him, the defendant may, as for words fpoken,
jultify the truth of the faés, and fhew that the plaintiff
has received no injury at all. Blackft. Com. vol. iii. and
vol. iv.

In infotmation and Jaw proceedings, there are two
modes of defcribing a libel; viz. by the fenfe, and by the
words; the firlt is << cujus tenor fequitur,””? and the fecond
que: fequitur in hec Anglicana verba, &c.??. in which the

2 defcription

LIB

€cfeription is by particular words, and of which every
word is a mark, fo that if there is any variance, it-is
fatal; in the other defcription by the fenfey it is not
material to be very excct in the words, becaufe the
matter-is defcribed by the fenfe of them. (2 Salk. 660.)
It hath been adjudged, that libels, as having a direct and
immediate tendency to a breach of the peace, are in-
digtable before juttices of the peace. (1 Hawk. c. 8.)
A libel muft be proved to be written or publifhed in the
county laid in the indiétment; all matters of crime being
local. An information for a libel need not charge the
offeuce to have been committed “ vi et armis,”’ or allege
that the libellous matter is falfe. (7 T.R.4.) The de-
claration for a libel mutt lay it to be “of and concerning
the plaintiff ;*’ otherwife there can be no judgment.
(2 Strange, 934.) A very important fubje¢t of litigation has
arifen from profecutions for libels, and particularly for
itate libels; and that is, whether juries are, or are not,
judges of Jaw as well as of fa. With regard to libels, it had
for along time been the ufage for the judge to direct the
jury, that if the fa& of the publication of the paper charged
to be a libel was proved, and if they believed the innnendoes
in the indiétment, they muft find the defendant guilty ;_ with-
out adverting to any other circumftances, fuch as whether
the paper were, in their opinion, a libel, or publifhed with
a malicious, feditious, traiterous, &c. intention. The coun-
fel for the defendants in fuch profecutions always maintained,
that it was the province of the jury to judge whether the
paper was a libel (a queftion of mere law) ; and alfo whe-
ther it were publifhed with a malicious, feditious, &c. inten-
tion, as charged,—a complicated queflion of law and fact.
Mr. (nowlord) Erfkine was the moft flrenuous affertor of
this latter doétrine; and by the indefatigable exertions of
him and the late Hon. Charles Fox, the following a& of par-
liament was obtained with a view exprefsly of fettling this
-quettion by legiflative authority ; and in confequence of it a
great, and, as many have deemed it, a very favourable, altera-
tion has taken place in the trials for libels. ‘The ftatute is
that of 32 Geo. III. c.6>. After reciting that doubts had
arifen whether on the trial of an indi&tment or information
for making or publifhing a libel, where an iflue is joined on
‘the plea of not guilty, it were competent to the jury to give
their verdiét upon the whole matter in iffue, it enaéts that
-on every fuch trial the jury may give a general verdi& of
guilty or not guilty pon the whele matter; and thali not be
required .or directed by the court or judge, before whom
fuch indictment er.information fhall be tried, to find the de-
fendant guilty merely on the proof of the publication by
fuch defendant of the paper charged to be alibel, and of the
fenfe afcribed to the fame in fuch indi@iment or information.
(i. 1.) Provided always, that on every fuch trial the court or
judge before whom fuch indi&tment or information fhall be
tried, fhall, according to their or his difcretion, give their or
his opinion and direétions to the jury on the matter in iflue
between the king and the defendants, in like manner as in
vother criminal cafes. (f.2.) Provided alfo, that nothing
herein contained fhall extend, to prevent the jury from find-
ing a f{pecial verdict, in their difcretion, as in other criminal
cafes. ({. 3.) Provided alfo, that in cafe the jury fhall find
the defendant guilty, it fhall and may be lawful for him to
move in arreft of judgment on fuch ground, and in fuch man-
> as by law he might have done before the pafling of this
ae
When a perfon is brought before the court to receive
judgment for a libel, his conduét, fubfequent to his conviétion,
may be taken into confideration, either by way of aggrava-
fion or mitigation of his punifhment, (3 Term Rep. 432.)

LIB ;

Judge Blackflone obferves, that in all the inflances where
blafphemous, immoral, treafonable, {chifmatical, feditious,
or {candalous libels are punifhed by the Englith law, fome
with a greater, and others with a lefs degree of feverity, the
liberty of the prefs, properly under{tood, is by no means in-
fringed or violated. See Lélerty of the Press.

Lise, or libellus, a little book, in the {piritual court fige
nifies the original declaration of any aétion in the civil law.
(Stat. 2 Edw. VE. c. 53.) The libel nfed in ecclefialtical pro-
ceedings confilts cf three parts. 1. The major propofition,
which fhews a jult caufe of the petition. 2. The narration,
or minor propofition. 3. The covclufion, or conclufive pe-
tition, which conjoins both propofitions. Blackit. Com.
vol. iii.

Linen, in the Law of Scotland, is ufed for a criminal ac-
cufation or indiétment. ;

LIBELLA, in Natural Hifory. See LinenLuia.

Linriia, among the Romans, was the tenth part of the
denarius.

LIBELLATICI, an ancient kind of apoftates from
Chriftianity, under the perfecution of Decius ;, who, to pre-
vent their being obliged to renounce the faith, and facrifice
to idols in public, made application to the magiltrates, and
abjured their faith in private ; obtaining certificates of them,
either by intreaty, or by money ; by which they were at-
tefted to have complied with the orders of the emperor ; and
were thereby fheltered from any farther moleftation on ac-
count of their religion.

Thefe certificates were called /idc//i ; whence the people
who obtained them came to be denominated Lidellatict.

Others, particularly the centuriators of Madgebourg, are
of opinion, that the Libellatici were only fuch as furnifhed
the magiltrates with money, to fcreen them from profecution,
and from being obliged to renounce Chrittianity.

M.. Tillemont retains {umething of each opinion ; he
thinks, the Lubellatici, applying themfelves to the ma-
giltrates, bought off the facrificing and abjuration; and
obtained letters, by which they were declared to have re-
nounced Chrilt, and facrificed to idcls; though, in effeét,
they had done neither.

LIBELLUI.A, or Dragon Fly, in Entomology, a genus
of the order Neuroptere ; the character of which, accord.
ing to Gmelin, reduced to the arrangement of the ‘* Syftema
Nature,”’ confifts in the mouth armed with jaws, more than
two in number 3 lip trifid; antenne very thin, filiform, and
fhorter than the thorax ; wings expanded ; tail (of the male
infect) furnifhed with a forked procefs.

In this genus the antennz are very fhort, being merely a
pair of {mall hairs, the wings large.and {preading, and the
body lengthened. The libelulxe, or dragen-flies, exhibit an
inftance {earcely lefs {triking than the butterfly of that difli-
militude in point of form under which one and the fame
animal is deitined to appear in different periods of its exift-
ence. Perfons not converfant with natural hiftery, would
{carcely believe that thefe brilliant infeéts, flying with vaft
ftrength and rapidity, and purfuing other infects dtill {maller,
after the manner and with the velocity of a hawk, had been
inlabitants of the water, in which they refided a confider-
able time before they had’ aflumed the flying form. The
whole tribe, which is divided into feGtions, and one of which
feétions is fubdivided, is exceedingly ravenous, and generally
feen hovering over ftagnant waters: the larve are fix-footed,
ative inhabitants of the water, furnifhed with an articulate
forcipated mouth ; and prey with the utmoit rapacioufnefs
upon aquatic infeéts and the larvae of others; the pupa
refembles the larva, but, in the former itate, it has the rudi-+
ments of wings. ‘I'he libellule, or dragon-flies, are fome~

times,

LIBELLULA.

times, though very improperly, called horfe-ftingers. There
are nearly fixty {pecies: before, however, we come to the
taumeration of thefe, we may relate fome facts common to
the tribe itfelf. ‘The add-eifes of the male libellula to his
female feem carried on in a rough but very efficacious man-
ner. He hovers about on the wing, till the obje& of his
amours makes her appearance; he then watches an oppor-
tunity of feizing her by the head with thofe pincers with
which his tail is armed.- In this manner he travels through
the air, till the female, yielding either to fuperior ftrength
or inclination, forms her body into a kind of circle, adapted
to the purpefe of nature ; hence the libellule are frequently
feen coupled in the air, exhibiting the form of a ring. The
female, at a proper period, retires to fome ftagnant water,
where, by the afliftance of a ttick or reed, fhe @wers herfelf
down, by moving backwards, ti'l the tip of the tail is im-
merged a little in the water; the is then feized with a tre-
mor of the body, during which fhe depofits the egg in the
water. In this way the operation is repeated. The tail is
withdrawn from the water, by contracting the annuli ; and,
by the preffure of thefe upon each other, the egg is gra-
dually forced from the ovary to the extremity of the tail ;
whence. it is feparated by fhaking that part in the water.
‘The eggs are of a white colour, refembling thofe produced

* by the common blow-fly. The larve are difguiting in ap-
pearance, but beneath the head. is placed an initrumeut
excellently adapted for feizing and holding their prey. It
is fernithed with a forceps at the end, and can be advanced
or drawn back with the agility of the human hand! The
larva remains in the fame {tate about a year before it attains
its full ize: when the period of its transformation has ar-
rived, it repairs to the margin of the pond in queft of a
convenient fituation during the feafon of its inaction. It
there attaches itfelf to a plant or piece of dry wood, and
the fkin, which has gradually become parched and brittle,
at length fplits oppofite the upper part of the thorax.
Through this aperture the winged infe& quickly pufhes its

*-way, and being thus extricated from confinement, begins to
expand its wings, to flutter, and finally to launch into the
air. The complete infect, in its winged ftate, continues to
purfue food fimilar to that by which it had been fupported
before, and remains infectivorous. The lepidopterous in-
fe€is, the butterflies, and phalenz, are deftined for the fup-
port of the larger libel'ula, which are a part of thofe nume-
rous tribes appointed to confine thefe prolific genera within
due bounds. The life of the libellula, in its winged ftate,
is fhort in comparifon with that which it paffed in its aquatic
form, the frofts of the early autumn deftroying all thofe
that have not been devoured by birds in the preceding
months. Itis impoffible not to be ftruck with wonder in
contemplating the changes of the libellula, which, while
living in the water, would perifh by along expofure to the
air, while the winged infeét, having efcaped from the pupa,
would be deftroyed by fubmerfion under the water, of
which, not an hour before, it was the legitimate inha-
bitant.

The fpecies are divided into the fe€tions A and B. Sec-
tion A. Wings expanded when at reft. The infe&s of
this divifion are fubdivided into « Dorla) divifion of the lip
very minute ; and & Divifions of the lip equal ; conftituting
the tribe /Efhna of Fabricius, B. Wings erect when at
reft; eyes diflinét; outer divifions of the lip bifid. The
tribe Agrion of Fabricius. e

Species.
Sedtion A. Wings expanded when at reff: « Dorfal divifion

of the lip very minutes
VoL. XX.

4-Macutata. Lower wings at the bafe, and all in the
middle on the fore-part with a blackith fpot ; abdomen de-
prefled, downy. It is an European infeét, and defcribed by
Reaumur.

Depressa. All the wings blackith at the bafe ; abdomen
depreffed, yellowifh at the fides. This alfo is an European
infe&; figures and defcription are given by Edwards and
Donovan. The maie is of a bright tky-blue, with the fides
of the body yellow ; the female of a fine brown, with yel-
lowith fides. ‘The wings in both fexes are @anfparent,
except at the fhoulders, where they are each marked by a
broad bed of brown with a ftripe of yellow; the tips of
each wing have alfo a fmall oblong-fquare black fpot on the
outer margin. The larva is of a greyifli-brown.

Trimacutata. All the wings hyaline, with a ferru-
ginous {pot at the bafe, and band in the middle. It inhabits
Carolina. .

Birascrata. Wings hyaline, with a brown fpot at the
bafe and two bands. It inhabits America. The thorax is
villous-brown, with two yellow lines under the wings ; ab-
domen depreffed, brown, the fides yellowifh.

4-Puncrata. Wings white; lower ones black at the
bafe with a yellow line; all with a black dot ; abdomen
cylindrical. It inhabits America. Thorax is of a down
green; front veficular green ; abdomen gréenifh at the bafe,
but towards the tip blackifh; all the wings with a black
dot in the middle at the rib, and an oblong ftigma at the
tip.

FraveoLa. Wings pale yellow at the bafe. Inhabits
Europe. Its wings are fometimes without the yellow
fpot.

3 Liszata. Wings white with a yellowifh bafe, and black

band and tip; abdomen yellow, with a lateral black line.
This fpecies is found in India. Its head and thorax are yel-
low ; abdomen compreffed.

Sriematizans. This is a yellowifh infe& ; has wings
with a brown fpot, the tip brown with a {nowy fligma. It
is found in New Holland. Sir Jofeph Banks has a fpeci-
men in his mufeum. The abdomen is marked with black
lines ; wings hyaline.

Ocutata. ° Like the laft, this is of a ye'lowifh colour ;
the upper wings are hyaline at the tip, lower ones at
the margin, with a fnowy ftigma. It inhabits New Hol-
land.

Ixpica. This fpecies has wings varied with yellow and
brown, and white at the tip; the lower ones have a blue
fpot at the bafe. It is found, as its name imports, in India.
‘The body is brown; tip of the wings hyaline.

Murcia. Bronzed; wings are of a whitifh colour
{potted with brown; the lower ones yellow at the bafe.
Inhabits India. 5

VesicuLa. Wings white ; takes its name from an ele-
vated veficular front, and thorax yellow immaculate. Is
found in America, and is a large infect; the abdomen is
cylindrical, the fegments pale at the bafe and black at the
tip ; tail with cylindrical feales.

Rusicunpa. Lower wings only blackifh at the bafe;
body fquare. An inhabitant of Europe. In one fex the
back is fpotted with red, in the other with yellow.

Voureatissima. Thorax yellow, with eight black ftreaks.
It inhabits Europe.

Orscura. All its wings are ferruginous ; the body of
a dufky hue ; an American infe€t ; the abdomen is cylin-
drical ; wings with an eblong brown marginal dot.

Vuigata. Wings hyaline immaculate ; abdomen cyline
drical and reddifh. Inhabits Europe.

Sizerica. Wings hyaline, with a tranfverfe broad fer-

40 ruginous

LIBELLULA.

ruginous band towards the tip; body reddifh. Inhabits
Siberia. :

Stxvata. The. wings of this infe& are flat, longitu-
dinally finuate, and black on the thicker margin, with a
white ftigma. The body is blueifh, There is a {pecimen
in the Britifh Mufeum.

CancetiLaTa. Wings immaculate at the bafe ; back
and fides of the abdomen interrupted by yellow. . It inha-
bits Europe.

Pepemontanus. Found among the mountainous parts
of Italy ; wings flat, cinereotts, with a brown band at the tip.
It is fmall, and the body of an ob{cure yellowith.

Fascrata. Wings flat, brown, with a white ftreak. It
inhabits India.

UMBRATA.
brown band.

Serva. Wings flat, white, with an oblong black fpot at
the bafe and band in the middle. It inhabits China. ‘The
body is cylindrical.

Norara. The wings of this are flat, with white {pots
and tip. It inhabits Africa. A fpecimen is in the mufeum
of fir Jofeph Banks.

Diniprata. Wings flat and black from the bafe to the

Found in America. Wings flat, with a

middle. Itis found in America.
Equestris. Wings half black, with a fnowy band in
the middle. Et inhabits Africa. A fpecimen in the mu-

feum of fir Jofeph Banks. The head is brown, with a
yellow dorfal line ; all the wings are black from the bafe to
the middle, then a {nowy band; the tip hyaline with a com-
mon brown {pot.

Fiucruays. Wings black tipt with white. It inha-
bits India, is fmall, and brown; the front is veficular yel-
lowith. ¢

Nesurosa. Wings white tipt with black. It inhabits
India; the body is black; mouth yellow; fides of the
thorax and abdomen fpotted with yellow ; tail with yellow
appendages. :

Curxensis. The upper wings faint teftaceous; lower
ones green tipt with brown. It inhabits China.

Versicotor. Wings flat, white with three black and
‘three cinereous fpots. It inhabits America. A fpecimen is
in the mufeum of Dr. Hunter. The head is brown, {pot-
ted with yellow ; thorax brown, with two yellow lines each
fide under the wings; the abdomen is brown.

Visrans. Wings flat, white with a black {pot in the
middle, the tips ferruginous.

Americana. ‘Notwithftanding the name, this fpecies
is found in India. Wings purplifh, with a white band ;
upper pair tipt with white, lower ones with a white line at
the bafe. :

Marerata. Wings black ; upper pair with a white
fpot at the tip; lower ones edged with white. It inhabits
Africa ; may be feen in fir J. Banks’s mufeum. The front
is blue; eyes brown, dotted with yellow ; thorax black ;
abdomen brown, whitifh at the bafe.

Ferrvcixea. Wings white, yellow at the bafe ; body
yed. It inhabits China.

Tomentosa. The wings of the infetts of this {pecies
are alfo white; but the body is downy variegated with
brown and green. It is found in America. he front is
blue ; abdomen cylindrical black, the fegments with a
greenifh dot om each fide.

Engen. Wings hyaline ; thorax green bronzed.
hab'ts Europe. é

It in-

Cyanea. Wings white, with a fnowy {pot terminated
by a brown one. The body is blue. It inhabits Ame-
vipa. :

'

6-Macutata. Wings with three. black cofal fpots,
the lait with a {nowy ttigma; lower ones with yellowith
bands. It inhabits China. The head is yellowifh ; thorax
yellowifh with black lines ; abdomen flat and yellowifh with
black lines.

Conramixata. Yellowifh; wings whitifh, with a yel-
lowith fhade in the middle. It inhabits India. The head,
thorax, and abdomen yellowifh.

Ervonina. Wings yellowifh, with about three black
bands. Is found in Carolina. Head and thorax yellowith ;

abdomen cylindrical, with a yellowifh dorfal and lateral
line ; all the wings have a white coltal {pot near the tip.

VARIA, or great variegated libellula, the moft remark-
able Englith fpecies, makes its appearance towards the de-
cline of furimgr, and is an animal of fingular beauty ; it is
three inches long, and the wings, when expanded, meafure
about four inches from tip to tip. Wings varied with yel-
low and brown, the tip with a white {pet terminated by a
black one. The head is very large, and affixed to the tho-
rax by an extremely flender neck ; the eyes occupy by far
the greateft part of the head, and are of a pearly blue-grey
eait, with a varying luflre; the front is greenifh-yellow ;
the body is long, flender, and black, with sich varlegations
of bright blue, and deep grafs-green. The wings are per-
fe&tly tranfparent, itrengthened by numerous black reticular ©
fibres, and exhibit a itrongly iridefcent appearance, accerd-
ing to the different inflections of light. This infe&, in its
motions, is extremely rapid, flying abcut in purfuit of its
prey during the middle of the day, and is at this time takea
with extreme difficulty, darting off on the flighteft alarm
from the’ {pot on which it fettled, and in the fpace of a
fecond or two flying to a great diftance. During the early
hours of the morning, and the late ones in the evening, it is
eafily taken; at fuch times it is obferved to fit with its
wings expanded, but in fo inert a itate, that it will fuffer
itfelf to be readily feized by one of its wings, without at-
tempting to move from its place. F

Juxcea. Wings with a blackifh acceflory membrane ;
thorax with fix yellow lines; abdomen tapering towards the
bafe. Inhabits Europe. i 4

Carotixa. Wings whitifh ; lower ones indented fer-
ruginous at the bafe ; thorax brown. An inhabitant of

America.

Carensis. In this {pecies the whitifh wings are every
where {potted and dotted with brown ; it is found, as its
name imports, at the Cape of Good Hope.

Tricotora. Wings variegated with brown, blueifh, and
yellow, the tip hyaline. An inhabitant of India.

Rusra. fs fo named from its reddifh celour ; the win
with a ferruginous bafe and marginal lines. It inhabits
Europe.

€ Divifions of the Lip equal.

Forcrpata. This infeé, like the varia, is very large,
and expands full four inches and a half. Nofe yellow, with
a black line on the prominent part; thorax black, with
feveral broad yellow ftripes, two on the front, and two be-
hind the ligaments of each pair of wings; abdomen black,
with two itreaks refembling a erefcent on each fegment ;
wings tranfparent and white, with a tinge of amber; tail
with three incurved claws.

Grannis is the largeft of this genus found in Britain,
and ise erhaps, not inferior in bulk to any infe& which
this col. ry produces; the fore-part of the head is yellow ;
tke eyes brown, and fo large, that they meet at the top of
the head. The thorax is of a dun colour, with four ob-”
Lque bands.on each fide of a lemon colour. The abdomen

Ss

LIB

is reddifh, often fpotted with white and black upon the top
and bottom of each fegment; the {mall appendices which
terminate the abdomen are very long ; the wings have more
or lefs of a yellow complexion, and are diftinguifhed by a
brown fpot on the exterior edges. The colours of the in-
feét vanifh when dead.

VarreGara. Thorax with two yellow lines on each
fide ; wings with a white {pot at the bafe. It inhabits
Terra del Fuego. A fpecimen is in the mufeum of fir
Jofeph Banks. ‘The body is brown ; mouth yellowifh, with
a black dot at the bafe; the abdomen is round and ferru-
ginous, the fegments are edged with black, and in each a
white {pot divided by a black line.

Cravara, has a clavate abdomen, which is gibbous at
the bafe, variegated with brown and green. It inhabits
China. The head is veficular green; thorax green with
black lines ; abdomen green with black ftreaks, the middle
thinner and black with lateral yellow fpots, the tip thick-
ened black with a white tail.

Mixuta. Abdomen yellow, with two black lines;
Jower wings yellow with two black fpots. It is an inha-
bitant of China. The head is yellow, eyes brown ; thorax
with yellow lines beneath ; abdomen with two black lines
above and beneath ; upper wings black at the bafe with a
yellow fpot.

B. Wings ere& when at reff; eyes diflind ; outer divifions
of the lip biftd.

Virco. This is one of the mott elegant of the European

infe&s, but is fmaller than the varia or grandis, and is diltin-
guifhed by its flender, long, cylindric body, which, as well
as the head and thorax, is ufually either of a bright but deep
golden-green, or elfe of a deep gilded blue; the wings are
tran[parent at the bafe and tips, but are each marked in the
middle by a very large oval patch of dark violet blue,
accompanied with iridefcent hues, according to the direc-
tion of the light; fometimes the wings are entirely violet-
black, without the leaft appearance of tranfparency either
at the bafe or the tips, and fometimes they are altogether
tranfparent, without any appearance of the violet-black
patch which diftinguifhed moft of the individuals; lattly,
“the infeG fometimes appears with tranfparent wings, but
fhaded with a ftrong calt of gilded greenifh-brown, each
being marked by a {mall white {peck at the exterior edge
near the tips. The genus is divided into varieties, wiz.
a. Body fhining green-blue ; wings blueifh in the middle,
the bafe and tip whitifh, the margin immaculate. Donovan.
&. Body filky ; wings blueifh-green, the tip brown, the
margin immaculate. Reaumur. c. Body filky-green ;
wings brownifh with a white marginal dot. d. Body filky ;
wings brown-gilt with a black fpot. It inhabits Europe,
and is common about waters.

PurLtita. Wings hyaline, not coloured. This isa much
fmaller fpecies than the virgo. It varies in colour, but is
generally of a bright and beautiful fy-blue, variegated with
black bars on the joints, and with the thorax marked by
longitudinal ftripes; the wings are tranfparent, and each
marked near the tip with a {mall, oblong, fquare, black,
Maryinal {pot: the head in this fpecies is broader and nar-
rower in proportion than that of the Z. varia, and the eyes
are round, protuberant, and placed on each fide at a diltance
from one another. From the brilliancy and richnefs of its
coleurs, it has been called the king’s-fifher ; it frequents
little rivulets of water overfhaded with bufhes. ‘There are
feveral varieties of this {pecies, taken from the di ence of
fpots and colours: as a. Body red with yellow aad black
lines at each fegment; thorax green with yellow lines ;
wings with marginal {pots. ‘This is given by Mr. Donovan.

LIB

6. Body fieth colour; wings with a brown marginal dot.
ec. Body alternately blue and cinereous ; wings with a black
dot. d. Body beneath blue-green, above brown ; thorax
with alternate brown and blueith bands ; wings with a black
marginal dot. ¢. Body green with a flefh-colour bluth ;
thorax with three black lines ; wings with a brown mar-
ginal dot. It inhabits Europe, in almolt endlefs varicties.

Cittara. Green-bronzed ; abdomen brown ; legs fringed
black. Inhabits Coromandel. A fpecimen is in fir Jofeph
Banks’s mufeum. Head and thorax bronzed; abdomen
cylindrical.

Nositirata. Upper wings dufky ; lower ones filky
green tipt with black. Is found in South America, Body
glofly green ; lower wings beneath black.

Lixeanis. Wings with a yellowihh or black ftigma ;
abdomen extremely flrong. Is found in India, and is figured
by Drury; who, according to Dr. Shaw, has given a
beautiful figure of a fpecies not mentioned by Gmelin,
viz. the

Lucretia, which is a native of the Cape of Good Hope,
and is diftinguifhed by the length of its {lender body, which
is about five and a half inches long, though fearcely the
tenth of an inch in diameter. The wings of this {pecies
are tranfparent, flender, and narrow; they meafure from
tip to tip five and a half inches. The colour of the head
and thorax is brown, with a yellowifh ftripe on each fide,
and the body is of a deep mazarine blue.

Having defcribed the deveral fpecies of the libellula, we
fhall clofe.our account of this interefting genus of infects
with fome account of the eyes, as defcribed in Adams?
Effays. Thefe are finely adapted for microfcopical exami-
nation ; and by the affiftance of a good inftrument, it will
be feen that the eye is divided into a number of hexagonal
cells, each of which forms a complete eye. The external
parts of thefe eyes are fo perfectly fmooth, and fo well po-
lifhed, that when viewed as opaque objects they will, hke
fo many mirrors, reflect the images of all furrounding ob-
jects. The figure of a candle may be feen on their furface-
multiplied almoft indefinitely, fhifting its beam to each eye
according to the motion given to it by the hands of the
obferver. Leeuwenhoeck fays, there are twelve thoufand
five hundred and forty-four lenfes on each eye of the
libellula, If one of the protuberant fubftances be nicely
taken from the head of the infect, wafhed clean, and
placed before the miciofcope, its ftructure is elegantly feen,
and it becomes an object worthy of the highelt admiration.
Each of the eyes is an hexagon, and has the fame effe&t as
a convex lens in forming the image of an object placed
before it, as may be feen by turning the mirror of the mi-
crofcope fo as to bring the picture of fome well-defined
object under the eye. If turned toa fingle houfe, in the
eye of the infect the houfe is diminifhed very much, but it
is multiplied into a city ; if turnedto a foldier, there will
be feen an army of pigmies performing every motion at the
fame inftant of time ; if turned towards a candle, there will
be a beautiful and refplendent blaze from multitudes of
regular flames. See Adams’ Eflays, gto. p. 195—6.

LIBEN, in Geography, a tgwn of Bohemia, in the circle.
of Leitmeritz ; 11 miles N. of Leitmeritz.

LIBER, in Vegetable Anatomy, an ancient Latin word
for the thin inner bark or rind of a tree, which being ufed to
write upon before the invention of parchment or paper, is
fpppofed to have given its name to a book. For the nature
and fun¢tions of the /iber, fee Bank and Cortex.

Liner Niger, domus Regis, is the title of a book in which
there is an account of the houfehold eltablifhment of king
Edward IV., and of the feveral muficians retained in his

ae et Ge ~ fervices

LIB

fervice, as well for his private amufement, as for the fervice
of his chapel. See Kixe’s Bann, Hovsruorp, and Cua-
pen Eftablifhment. See allo, N° 293 of the Harl. MSS.
Brit. Muf. and N’ 1147, 2, 3, 11, of the Afhmol. Colleé.
Oxf. for “ ordinances touching the king’s houfehold,"’
made in the time of Edward II. as well as in that of Ed-
ward IV. And in the Liber Niger publifhed by Bat-
man, with additions.

LIBERA, in Mythology, the name of a goddefs,. which
Cicero, in his book of the Gods, reprefents as the daughter
of Jupiter and Ceres. Ovid in his Fafti fays, that the name
was given by Bacchus to Ariadne.

Libera is exhibited on medals, as a kind of female Bac-
chus, crowned with vine-leaves.

Lisera, in Law, a livery or delivery of fo much corn or
grafs to a cuitomary tenant who cut down or prepared the
faid grafs or corn, and received fome part or {mall portion
of it as a reward or gratuity. Cowell.

Lisera Chajea habenda, a judicial writ granted to a per-
fon fora free chafe belonging to his manor, after proof made
by inquiry of a jury, that the fame of right belongs to him.
Reg. Orig. 36.

Lisera Piftaria, a free fifhery, which being granted to
2 perfon, gives hima property in the fifth, &c. (2 Salk.
6 } See Fistiery. ; ¢

LIBERAL Anrrs, are fuch as depend more on the la-
bour of the mind than on that of the hand; or, that confilt
more in fpeculation than operation ; and have a greater re-
gard to amufement and curiofity than to necefliry.

The word comes from the Latin /beralis ; which, among
the Romans, fignified a perfon who was nota flave; and
whofe will, of confequence, was not checked by the com-
mand of any matter. See Arts.

LIBERALE Venrovxess, in Biography. By this name
Vafari {peaks of an hiftorical painter, born at Verona in
1451. He was at firita difciple of Vincenzo di Stefano ;
but afterwards he imitated the ityle and manner of Bellini of
Venice, whom, while a youth, he faw painting in the chapel
of St. Nicolo at Verona.

He began to paint very early in life, and filled the churches
and convents of his native city with highly wrought pictures,
which were very much efteemed; and of which the author
above-mentioned {peaks with high encomiums.

His ftyle appears by his account to be of the early dry
manner in art. Compofitions confifting of a number of
figures, all finifhed with great minutenefs ; and frequently
ef {mall proportions.

LIBERALIA, feafts celebrated by the ancient Romans,
in honour of Liber, or Bacchus, the fame with thofe which
the Greeks called Dionyfia, and Dionyfraca.

They took their name frnm fider, i.e. free, a title con-
ferred on Bacchus, in memory of the liberty or freedom
which he granted to the people of Beotia; or, perhaps,
becaufe wine, whereof he was the reputed deity, delivers

. men from care, and fets their minds at eafe and freedom.
Varro derives the name of this feaft from Jiber, confidered
as a noun adjective, and fignifying free; becaufe the priefts
were free from their funtion, and eafed of all care, during
the time of the liberalia,,as the old women officiated in the
ceremonies and facrifices of thefe feafts.

LIBERAM Lecem. See Lex.

LIBERAN, «in Geography, a {mall ifland of the Eaft
Indian fea, near the N.E. coait of the ifland of Borneo, on
which are many deer. N. lat. 6° 2’. E. long. 116° 8’.

LIBERANDIS Terris. See Terns.

LIBERATE, in Law, a writ that lies for the payment
ofa yearly penfion, or fum of money, ‘granted under the

LIB

great feal, and dire&ted to the treafurer, chamberlains, and
barons of the exchequer, &c. for that purpofe.

In another fenfe it is a writ to the theriff of a county, for
the delivery of poffeffion of lands, and goods extended, or
taken upon the forfeiture of a recognizance.

Liberate is alfo ufed fora writ iffuing out of the chancery,
direéted to a gaoler for delivery of a prifoner, who hath put
in bail for his appearance. F.N. B. 132 6 Ink 116.

LIBERATI, Awnzimo, in Biography, a finger in the
pontifical chapel at Rome in the 317th century. When a
youth, he was a choirifter in the chapel of the emperor Fer-
dinand 1I1., and his brother Leopold, previous to his ad-
miflion into the pope’s chapel: where, befides his vocal
abilities, he diftinguifhed himfelf as a ccmpofer. He was,
likewife, organift della fantiffima Trinita di Pellegrini, and
maeflro di cappella, and organift of the church di Santa
Maria dell’ anima della natione Teutonica at Rome. In
this quality he wrote a letter, which is often quoted, -par-
ticularly by Adami, in his Offervazioni per ben reg. il coco
de i Cantoci della Cap. Pont. This letter is addreffed to
Ovidio Perfapegi, in anfwer to fome queries he had fent to
him, concerning the tlate of mufic in the pontifical chapel ;
and the charaéter of fome muficians in its fervice, who were
candidates forthe place of maeftro di cappella of the
Metropolitan church at Milan. k

This letter, printed at Rome 1685, contains characters
of the great Roman matters, and defcriptions of ftyles, more
refembling found criticiim than any mufical work of the -
laft century ; but it is, unluckily, written in fuch a vein
of general panegyric, asis more likely to generate {cepticifm
in the minds of modern readers, than conviction. Liberati.
was a difciple of Benevoli, and his voi¢e a foprano.

LIBERATUS, a deacon of the church of Carthage,
flourifhed about the middle of the fixth century. In the
year 534, he was fent to Rome by a council of African
bifhops held at Carthage for the purpofe of confulting with
pope John about fome dubious points; and he was fre- —
quently employed refpe&ting affairs of importance. He
drew up an hiftorical memorial of the contefts which arofe
about the opinicns of Neftorius and Eutyches, entitled
« Breviarum de Caufa Neftorii et Eutychetis, &c.”? The
materials made ufe of on this occafion were collected from
the relations of various credible perfons, the hiftory of the
church, tranflated out of Greek into Latin, authentic a&s
of councils, and the letters of different bifhops. An ap-
pendix to this Breviarum is given by father Crabbe, in the
fecond volume of his edition of the Councils. Moreri. |

LIBERGA, in Geography, a town of Pruffia, in the
palatinate of Culm: 26 miles E. of Culm.

LIBERHOF, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Pomerelia ; 18 miles S.S.E. of Dantzic.

LIBERI Tauri Libertas. See Taurt.

LIBERIA, a feaft held among the Romans, on the day
whereon their children laid afide their juvenile habits, and
aflumed the robe called toga liberia.

The liberia were kept on the 16th of the kalends of
April; that is, on the 17th of March.

LIBERIUS, pope, in Biography, a native of Rome,
who, having difcharged the duties of different ecclefiaftical
offices with reputation, was chofen bifhop in 352. Imme-
diately after his ele¢tion he wrote to Athanalius, fammon- —
ing him to appear at Rome, and clear himfelf from the ac-
cufations preferred againft him by the eaftern bifhops. It _
fhould feem he had afterwards a much better epinion of
Athanafius, and undertook his defence with great zeal.
With this view he fent legates to a council which the em-
peror Conftantine had at ee to meet at Axles, but had —

the

LIB

the mortification to hear they had betrayed the caufe en-
truited to them. When Liberius was told of the conduét
of his deputies, he was’ filled with refentment and forrow,
and difavowed it in the ftrongeit terms, as well ia his decla-
rations, as in his correfpondence. He requefted the em-
peror to affemble a new council, for the purpofe of examining
the matters in difpute between Athanafius and his opponents,
and of reftoring peace and tranquillity to the Catholic
church. A council was accordingly held at Milan in 355,
at which there were 300 weltern bifhops, and a few from
the eaft. So far from calm difcuffion into the merits of
the queftion, the emperor infifted upon it, as a preliminary
meafure, that they fhould give their fignatures to the con-
demnation of Athanafius, and alfe to an edié containing the
chief tenets of Arius, which had been publifhed in his name.
Thofe who had refolution to oppofe the will of the emperor
were threatened with in{tant execution, and were aétually
banifhed. Such were the means ufed by Conftantius in ob-
taining the fignatures of by far the greater part of the
weiltern bifhops to the condemnation of Athanafius; but
Liberius {till declared in his favour, and exerted himfelf, by
all the means in his power, to gain others to his party. At
length, the emperor having fatled, by threats and proffered
bribes, to gain the fuffrages of the pope, he determined to
apprehend him, and gave his order accordingly. This was
executed in the dead of night, to prevent any commotion
among the people, who were much attached to their bifhop ;
he was carried fAr{ft to Milan, and thence to Berza in Thrace.
The hardfhips which Liberius experienced in exile, difpofed
him to yield to conditions which at one time he would have
rejected with the utmoft indignation. He not only fub-
feribed to the condemnation of Athanafius, but received, as
Catholic, the Arian confeffien, and made other conceffions
ftill more difgraceful to his reputation as bifhop of the holy
Roman fee. Before he could reach Rome, the emperor
had embraced the do@trine of the Semi-Arians, and obliged
Libertus to do the fame; fo that this pontiff, who, of
courfe, was always the infallible head of the church, avowed
himfelf an Athanafian, an Arian, and a Semi-Arian. On
account of his obedience, he was permitted to return to
Rome, on condition that he fhould govern the church jointly
with Ferm Il. (See the article.) Liberius arrived at
Rome in Auguft, 358, and entered the city in a kind of
triumph, being met on the road, and received by the
people at large with loud acclamations of joy. He died in
September, 366, after he had prefided over the Roman
fee fourteen years ; and notwithftanding his repeated change
of religious opinions, he is honoured both by the Latin and
Greek churches asa faint. ‘ A Dialogue with the Em-
peror Conftantius’? is afcribed to Liberius; fo, likewife,
are twelve “ Letters,’’ inferted in the fecond volume of the
Colleét. Concil. Bower. Moreri.

LIBERO, /a/., free, unconfined, in Mufic, the fame as
feiolto ; oppofed to Legato, reftrained by particular laws.
Thus, a free fugue, is diltinguifhed from a canon; fuga
Seiolta, or Libera, from Fuga perpetua. See Scioira, and
Lecaro.

LIBERTAS Eccrestastica, Church Liberty, a fre-
quent phrafe in old writers, who treat of ecclefiaftical im-
munities. The right of inveftiture, extorted from our
kings by the papal power, was at firit the only thing chal-
lenged by the clergy, as their /ibertas ecclefia/lica, but by
degrees, under the title of church liberty, they contended for
a freedom of their perfons and poffeflions, from all fecular
power and jurifdition ; as appears by the canons and decrees
of the councils held by Boniface, archbifhop of Canterbury,
at Merton, A. D. 1258, and at London, A. D. 1260, &e.

LIB

See Lord Littleton’s Hilt. of Hen. II., and Robertfon's
Hitt. of Ch. V.

LIBERTATE Prosanpa, in Law, an ancient writ
that lay for fuch as being demanded for villains, offered to
prove themfelves free ; direéted to the fheriff, that he fhould
take fecurity of them for the proving of their freedom be-
fore the juitices of aflize, and that in the mean time they
fhould be unmolefted. F.N. B. 77.

LIBERTATIBUS Axxocanpis, a writ lying for a
citizen or burgefs, impleaded contrary to his liberty, to have
his privilege allowed. Reg. Orig. 262.

If any claim a {pecial liberty to be impleaded within a
city or borough, and not elfewhere, there may be a fpecial
writ de libertatibus allocandis, to permit the burgefles to ufe
their liberties, &c. Thefe writs are of feveral forms, and
may be fued by a corporation, or by any fingle perfon,
as the cafe fhall happen. (New Nat. Br. 509, 510.) The
barons of the Cinque Ports, &c. may fue forth fuch writs,
if they are-delayed in having their liberties allowed theme

d.

Lisertatizus L£wigendis in Itinere, an ancient writ by
which the king commands the jultices in eyre to admit of an
attorney for the defence of another man’s liberty. Reg.
Orig. 19.

LIBE RTATIS Anglie Cuftodes. See Cusrones.

LIBERTE! de la Mufique, is the title of one of the late
M. D’Alembert’s Effays in his ‘* Melange de Litterature,”’
publifhed in 1767. After being the champion of Rameau’s
{yftem, and his baffle fondamentale, he became his opponent,
and a convert to Italian mufic. He enters into all the

‘reafoning of Rouffeau againit the French ftyle of compofition,

but in a more guarded manner. Indeed, he appears never
to have heard good Italian mufic well performed. The Suva
Paderna of Pergolefi, executed by a troop of Italian bur-
letta fingers, not of the firft clafs, was his ftandard of per-
feGtion. He tries hard to perfuade the French that their
mufic is bad, without knowing very well in what the Italian
was fuperior. Rouffeau had refided at Venice a confider-
able time, and feems forcibly to have ielt all the lyric beau-
ties of Metaftafio’s poetry, as well as the merit of the
great compofers and enchanting powers of the great fingers
of his time. This, D’Alembert only knows by tradition.
It was eafy for a man of his abilities to ridicule the old
French mufic, and praife the Italian; but he was too little
acquainted with its real beauties to know why Italian dra-

matic vocal mufic was fuperior to all other mufic, and the

French inferior. But it may, perhaps, be roundly afferted
that the French vocal mufic was, is, and probably ever will
dc inferior to the Italian from bad finging, as well as from
the nafal nature of their language, and the national -ex-
preffion founded upon it, by which the vocal organ is
vitiated from infancy to age, and its tones in their ex-
preffion rendered -unpleafing to all ears but thofe of the
natives.

The French, fince the time of Rameau, have often had
fine compofitions performed in their theatres, and a well
difciplined band to execute them infrumentally; yet, for
want of good fingers, the vocal part, which is the beft and
moft interefting in an Italian opera, is the worft in the mufi-
cal dramas of France. And for this there are two caufes
which affe@ the compofition as well as the performance of
French opera fongs ; the compofer, be he a Gluck, a Piccini,
or a Sacchini, having no great vocal talents to difplay, dares
not give way to fancy, or aim at new paflages, but, of necef-
fity, underwrites the vocal part fo much, that the produétions
of thefe great maflers for the French ftage are never in favour
elfewhere with their greateft admirers. And even the

Simple

LIB

Fimple and common paflages given to the voice, are fo ill
f{ung, that they give pleafure to no ears but thofe which are
accultomed to nothing better. k

In 1767, when D’Alembert wrote in favour of toleration
in the mufical religion of France, the accompaniments to
what were called fongs at the opera were fo bufy and fo
loud, that he compares the effect to twenty people reading
different books at the fame time.

Though D’Alembert and Rouffeau quarrelled about the
expediency of allowing plays to be aéted within the walls
of Geneva; ‘yet the mathematician in his difcourfe on the
Liberty of Mufic, is but a commentator on the citizen of
Geneva’s “ Letter concerning French Mufic."’

On the fubje& of adapting Italian melody to French
words, the great geometrician has not taken into his calcu-
lation all the objections to its fuecefs. In Italian poetry
each verfe is terminated by a double rhyme; and in the
French poetry, the mafculine and feminine rhymes are alter-
‘nate. This muit affect the melody. The mute fyllables
in French poetry (which are dogrel in Englifh), can alone
receive Italian melody : the mafculine rhymes admit of no
imitation.

M. D’Alembert, however, modeftly fays, that all his
refleGtions are not worth, a fingle fine air in mufic; and
adds (after Rouffean), that ‘inventing what fucceeds is in-
iinitely preferable to philofophical reafoning : a compofer
never thinks of giving precepts who is able to furnifh models :
Raphael produced pi€tures, not differtations. In mufic,
we (the French) write reveries; and the Italians compofe
and execute mufic.’? The two nations, in this refpect, re-
‘femble the two architeéts who were candidates at Athens
for the ereétion of a monument which the republic wifhed
to raife to a deceafed hero ; one of them [poke a long while
with great eloquence on his art; the other, after liftening
with great attention, only uttered thefe words: “ What
he fays, I have done.”

LIBERTIES. See Frawcuise.

LIBERTINES, in Scripture Hiflory, the denomination
of aclafs of Jews, or Jewifh profelytes, who had a fyna-
gogue at Jerufalem, which is mentioned in the book of
Aéts, ch. vi. 9. Libertinus, or Libertine, denoted a per-
fon who had been a flave, but who had obtained his
freedom; or one who was the fon of a perfon that had
been a flave, and was afterwards made free. Several
jearned men have fuppofed, that the libertines above-men-
tioned were Jews, or profelytes of the Jewith religion,
who had been flaves to Roman matters, and had been made
free, or the children of fuch. In proof of this, the learned
Lardner alleges, that there was a great number of Jews
at Rome; and, according to Philo, they occupied a
large quarter of the city; and they were chiefly fuch as
had been taken captive at feveral times, and had been
carried into Italy, and were made free by their Roman
maiters. That thefe Jews were called Libertines, appears
plainly from paffages, which Lardner has cited from
Tacitus, Jofephus, and Suetonius, in which they fpeak of
the banifhment of the Jews from Rome in the reign of
Tiberius. Jofephus and Suetonius exprefsly eall thofe
- Jews, whom Tacitus calls men of the Libertine race ; and
as there were many of them at Rome, it is not at all
unlikely that they had a fynagogue at Jerufalem. Such
are the fentiments of Grotius and Vitringa, adopted by
Lardner’s Works, vol. i. p. 114.

~Lisertiyes, Libertini, in Ecckfiaftical Hiftory, a religious
Yeét, which arofein the year 1525, whofe principaltenets were,
that the Deity was the fole operating caufe in the mind of
man, and the immediate author of all human actions: that,

Lis

confequently, the diftin@tions of good and evil, which had
been eftablifhed with regard to thofe ations, were falfe and
groundlefs, and that men could mot, properly fpeaking,
commit fin; that religion confifted in the union of the f{pirit,
or rational foul, with the Supreme Being ; that all thofe
who had attained this happy union, by fublime contempla-
tion dnd elevation of mind, were then allowed to indulge,
without exception or reftraint, their appetites or paflions ;
that all their a€tions and purfuits were then perfectly inno-
cent ; and that, after the death of the body, they were to
be united to the Deity.

They likewife faid that Jefus Chrift was nothing but a
mere je ne feai quoi, compofed of the f{pirit of God, and of
the opinion of men.

Thefe maxims occafioned their being called Libertines :
and the word has been ufed in an ill fenfe ever fince.

The Libertini {pread principally in Holland and Brabant.
Their leaders were one Quintin, a Picard, Pockelius, Ruffus,
and another called Chopin, who joined with Quintin, and
became his difciple.

This fet obtained a certain footing in France through
the favour and preteclion of Margaret, queen of Nayarrey
and filter of Francis I., and found patrons in feveral of the
reformed churches. This fect was probably a remnant of
the more ancient Beghards, or Brethren of the Free Spirit.
Mofheim’s Eccl. Hiit. vol. iv. .

Lisertines of Geneva, were a cabal of rakes rather than
of fanatics: for they made no pretences to any religions
fyftem, but pleaded only for the liberty of leading volup-
tuous and immoral lives. This cabal was. compofed of a
certain number of licentious citizens, who could not bear
the fevere difcipline of Calvin, who punifhed with rigour
not only diffolute manners, but alfo whatever bore the
afpect of irreligion and impiety. In this turbulent cabal
there were feveral perfons who. were not only notorious for
their diffolute and {candalous manner of living, but alfo for
their atheitical impiety and contempt of ali religion. To
this odious clafs belonged one Gruet, who denied the diyi-
nity of the Chriftian religion, the immortality of the foul,
the difference between moral good and evil, and rejected
with difdain the doétrines that are held moft facred among
Chriftians ; for which impieties he was at laft brought be-
fore the civil tribunal, in the year 1550, and condemned to
death. ‘The Genevan fpirit of retormation, improperly
direéted by the violence and zeal of Calvin, did at this time
operate to a degree, which has marked the character of this
great reformer with reproach. For, in 1544, Sebattian
Caftalio, matter of the public fchool at Geneva, who was a
man of probity, and diftinguifhed by his learaing and talte,
was, neverthelefs, depofed from his office and banifhed the
city, becaufe he difapproved fome of the meafures that were
purfued, and fome of the opinions entertained by Calvin and
his colleagues, and particularly that of abfolute and uncon-
ditional predeftination, Jerome Bolfec, alfo, a man of
genius and learning, who became a convert to the Proteftant
religion, and fled to Geneva for protection, was cait into
prifon, and, foon after, fent into banifhment, becaufe,
in 1551, he imprudently and indecently declaimed, in full
congregation, and at the clofe of public worfhip, againit
the doétrine of abfolute decrees. Mofheim’s Eccl. Hitt.
vol. iv.

LIBERTUS, or Liserrixus, among the Romans, a
reedman, or a perfon fet free from a legal fervitude.

Thefe flill retained fome mark of their ancient ftate ; he
who made a flave free having aright of patronage over the
libertus ; fo that if the latter failed of fhewing due refpect
to his patron, he was reftored to his fervitude; and if the liber-

I tus

LIB

tus died without children, his patron was his heir.
SLave.

In the beginning of the republic, libertinus denoted the
fou of alibertus, or freed-man ; but afterwards, before the
time of Cicero, and under the emperors, the terms libertas
and libertinus, as Suetonius has remarked, were ufed as fy-
nonymous.

LIBERTY, in Geography, a poft-town of America, in
Virginia ; 15 miles from New London. This is the chief

_town of Bedford county; it has a handfome court-houfe,
and contains 50 or 60 houfes.—Alfo, a county of Geor-
gia, bounded N. by Brian, S. by Mackintofh, W. by Alata-
maha, and N.E. by the ocean. It is 40 miles long, and
22 broad. The produétions are cotton and rice. An acre
of land yields 25 or 30 bufhelsof corn. It derives its name
from the circumftance, that its inhabitants were the firlt in
the tate who declared for liberty, and fent a delegate to the
congrefs at Philadelphia. It is divided into five towns, and
contains 5313 inhabitants, of whom 3940 are flaves.—Alfo,
a polt-town of Maryland, in Frederick county; 12 miles
N.E. of Frederickftown, and about 44 miles N.N.W. of
the Federal city.

Lizerty, Livertas, is ufually underfood of that ftate
wherein a man acts freely ; or that power by which he de-
termines himfelf voluntarily either to good or evil, to this
thing or that.

This is what fome have denominated a liberty of indiffer-
ence, natural liberty, philofophical liberty, or liberty of choice ;
defining it to be a power of doing an aétion or its contrary,
‘all the previous circumftances remaining the fame. In this
fenfeit [tands oppofed to neceffity, and is diftinguifhed from
external liberty, or liberty of a@ion, which is defined to
to be the power of doing what we pleafe or will; or, in
other words, the power of carrying our volitions or pur-
*pofes into effect. This external liberty is oppofed to com-
pulfion from external force, as philofophical liberty is to ne-
<effity, or the definite influence of motives, in definite circum-
dtances. Accordingly it is faid, that hberty of aaio# may
exift independently of liberty of choice; that is, the mind
may be wholly unreitrained in the execution of its volitions,
though in the fame circumitances it could not have made a
different choice. Liberty of choice likewife, if it exifts at
all, is perfeétly independent of hberty of afion.

Moit of the fchooimen confound liberty and the will to-
gether, and make one definition ferve for both. Whereas
Mr. Locke obferves, that liberty does not belong to the will,
but to the man or agent; and therefore, that the queltion,
in the ufual manner of ftating it, whether man’s will be free
ornot, isabfurd and unintelligible. Liberty, which is but
a power, belongs only to agents, and canaot be an attribute or
modification of the wiil, which is alfo but a power. They dif-

’ tinguifh liberty Into a great many kinds ; as liberty of contra-
riety, and liberty of contradifion. (See FrezpoM.) Alfo, next
liberty, proxima, which is a full abfolute freedom of doing any
thing : remate liberty, which isa liberty that comprehends a
natural power, though embarraffed with obftacles, which
it is inour power to remove, and to attain to anesxt liberty.
Some writers have divided hberty into

Liserty, Phyfical, or Philofophical, or liberty of. choice,
which is that principle of f{pontaneity or felf-determinaticn,
that conititutes us agents ; cr that gives us a command over
our actions, rendering them properly our’s andnot effects of
the operation of any foreign caufe. Without this liberty, or
being under a neceffity of always following fome will differ.
ent from his own, man would bea machine aéted upon by
mechanical {pring:, having no principle of motion in himfelf

See

LIB

or command over events: and, therefore, incapable of all merit
and demerit.

Whether man is endued with this kind of liberty or felf-
determining power has been a fubjeét of much controverfy :
it was agitated at the beginning of the laft century, between
Leibnitz, Collins, &c. on one fide, and Clarke, Jackfon,
&c. on the other; and has been more lately revived by
Dr. Prieitley.

Cicero defines liberty the power of living aftera man’s
own wifh, without any caufe or impediment to oblige him
to do one thing rather than another.

F. Malebranche gives us a {till more philofophical defini-
tion: the will he defines to be that impreffion, or natural
motion, which inclines towards good in the general ; and by
liberty, he underitands, that power which the mind has of
determining this general impreffion towards fuch objeéts as
pleafe us ; and fo of direGting our general inclinations to fome
particular things.

Whence it is eafy to perceive, that though all natural
inclinations be voluntary, yet they are not all free ; not, we
mean, with a liberty of indifference, which includes a power
of willing, or not willing, or of willing quite the contrary
to that whieh our natural inclinations lead us to. For
thoughit is voluntarily and freely that we leve good in gene-
ral, it is abfurd to fuppofe we fhould love any thing without
the will, or that the will can ever be conftrained ;. yet we do
not love it freely (in the fenfe juft laid down) becaufe it is
not in the power of the will not to defire to be happy.

It mutt be obferved, however, that the mind, confidered as
determined towards good in general, cannot divert its motion
to any particular good, unlefs the fame mind, confidered as
capable of ideas, have fome knowledge of that particular
good : that is, in plainer terms, the will is a blind power, that
cannot dire& itfelfto any thing but what the under{tanding
reprefents to it ; fo that the power which the will has to de-
termine its impreflion towards general good, or its natural
inclinations, varioufly, confifts in the power it has to come
mand the underitanding to reprefent fome particular good.

Thus, aperfon, for inftance, reprefents fome dignity to
himfelf, as a good to be wifhed for, immediately the will de-
fires this good ; that is, the impreffion which the mind con-
tinualiy receives towards good in general, determines it ro
this dignity. But as that dignity 1s not the univerfal good,
nor is perceived clearly and diftin@ly as fuch by the mind
(for the mind cannot conceive a thing clearly which. is not),
the impreffion we have towards good in general, is not en-
tirely exhaufted by that particular good ; the. mind has an
inclination to go farther ; it does. not love that dignity ne-
ceflarily or invincibly, and in this.refpeé& is free:

Now its liberty confifts in this, that, not being fully con-
vinced that this good contains in it all the good it is ca-
pable of enjoying, it may fufpend its judgment and its
defire.

The cafe is nearly the fame with regard to the knowledge
of truth: we love this, as we do the enjoyment of good, by
a natural impreffion ; which impreffion is not invincible in the
latter, excepting evidence be full, and our knowledge of the
object complete. We have the fame liberty in. our falfe
judgments, that we have in our irregular appetites. See
JupGMENT and WixL.

Mr. Locke detines liberty to be the power which a man
has to do or forbear doing any particular action, according as
its doing or forbearance has: the a¢tual preference in the
mind, ,which is the fame thing as to fay, according as he
himfelf wills it: and he obferves, that fo far as a man hag
power to think or not to think,, to. mave or not to move, ac-

cording

LIBERTY.

cording to the preference or direftion of his own mind, fo
far isa man free. The will, he acknowledges, is always
determined by fome, and for the moft part, by the moft
preffing uneafinefs or defire of happinefs. The liberty for
which he contends, and for the exiltence of which he appeals
to experience, isa liberty of fufpending our determinations,
The mind, he fays, having in molt cafes, as is eviderit in ex-
perience, power to fufpend the execution and fativfa€tion of
any of its defires, and fo all, one after another, is at:liberty
to confider the objects of them, examine them on ali fides,
and weigh them with others. In this lies the liberty a man
has. He has a power to fufpend the profecution of this or
that delire, as every one daily may experience in himfelf.
This feems to be the fource of all hberty. In this {eems to
confit, as he thinks, that which is improperly called free-
will. And he adds farther, that perfect indifference in the
mind, not determinable by its lait judgment of the good or
evil, that is thought to attend its choice, would be fo far
from being an advantage’and excellency of an intellectual
nature, that it would be as great an imperfection as the
want of indifferency to aét or not to act, till determined by
the will, would be an imperfeCtion on the other fide. Eff.
vol. i. book i. chap. 21.

From thefe conceflions the advocates for neceflity have
pleaded the authority of Mr. Locke, though he does not
feem to have been apprized of the confequences of his prin-
ciples. Mr. Hobbes, who feems to have been the firlt who
underftood and maintained the proper doétrine of philofo-
phical neceflity, defines liberty to be the abfence of all im-
pediments to action, that are not contained in the nature and
intrinfic quality of the agent. And Mr. Collins, the prin-
cipal writer on the fide of neceflity, defines liberty to bea
power in man to do as he wills, or pleafes ; though he de-
nies, that we are at liberty to will, or not to will; or to
will one or the other of two or more objects, between which,
all things confidered, we perceive a difference ; or that we
are free in our choice among things different or alike.

Dr. Clarke has remarked, that, in the above definition,
there is an ambiguity in the words, “ wills or pleafes ;”? be-
caufe they may either denote the lait perception or judgment
of the underitanding, which is entirely paflive ; or the firft
exertion of the felf- moving power, which is effentially ative.
Now, though the felf-moving power is an adequate caufe of
ation, yet underftanding, or judgment, or affent, or ap-
probation, or liking, or whatever name it is called by,’can
no more poffibly be the efficient caufe of action, than rett
can be the caufe of motion. Nothing can poflibly be the
caufe of an effect more contiderable than itfelf. Nothing
that is paflive can poffibly be the caufe of any thing that is
aGive: an occafion indeed, it may be; and attiun may be
confequent upon perception or judgment ; it may eafily be
fuppofed to be always confequent upon it, and yet at the
fame time there may be no manner of phytical or neceffary,
connection betweenthem. Befides, the word “ do.’’ in this
definition of Mr. Collins, has no fignification. For his
meaning is not, that the man “ acts’? or ‘ does’’ any thing ;
but the liberty or power in man to do as he wills or pleafes,
is with him exaétly and only the fame as the liberty or power
in a balance would be to move as it wills or pleafes ; fup-
pofing the balance endued with fuch afenfationor intelligence,
as enabled it to perceive which way the weights turned it,

. and to approve the motion, fo as to fancy that it moved itfelf,
when indeed it was only moved by the weights. Mr. Col-
lins makes the difference between aman and a clock, to con-
fift only in fenfation and intelligence, not in any power of
a¢ting : whereas the whole effence of liberty confilts in the

_ action, is to fay, that we may will it, if we will.

power of ating: fo that aétion and liberty are identical
terms. ;

The liberty of a moral agent, according to Dr. Reid, is
a power over the determinations of his own will. If, inany
action, he had power to will what he did, or not to will it,
in that action he is free. But if, in every voluntary aétion,
the determination of his will be the neceflary confequence
of fomething involuntary in the ftate of his mind, or of
fomething in his external circumftances, he is not free ; he
has not the liberty of a moral agent, but is fubje& to ne-
ceflity. ‘This liberty fuppofes the agent to have underftand-
ing and will; for the determinations of the will are the fole
obje& about which this power is employed ; and there can
be no will without fuch a degree of underftanding at leaft,
as gives the conception of that which we will. The liberty
of a moral agent implies, not only a conception of what he
wills, but fome degree of praétical judgment or reafon.
For if he has\not the judgment to difcern one determina-
tion to be preferable to another, either in itfelf or for fome
purpofe which he intends, what can be the ufe of a power
to determine ? His determinations muft be made perfeétly
in the dark, without reafon, motive, or end. ‘They can
neither be right nor wrong, wife nor foolifh. Whatever the
confequences may be, they cannot be imputed to the agent,
who had not the capacity of forefeeing them, or of per-
ceiving any reafon for aéting otherwife than he did. The
author now cited reftri€ts his attention to the liberty of
moral agents, who are capable of ating well or ill, wifely
or foolifhly ; and this liberty he calls, by way of diflinétion,
“ moral liberty.”” By neceffity he underftards the want of
this moral liberty. This moral liberty a man may have,
though it do not extend to all his aétions, or even to all his
voluntary actions. He does many things by inflin&, many |
things by the force of habit, without any thought at all,
and confequently without will. But in general this power
over the determinations .of his own will extends to every
ation for which he is accountable. This power may be
impaired or loft, by diforder of body or mind, as in melan-
choly, or in madnefs ; it may be impaired or loft by vicious
habits ; and, in particular cafes, it may be reftrained by
divine interpofition. In faét, man is a free agent in the
fame way as he is a reafonable agent. His reafon is liable
to be impaired or loit by his own fault, or by other means.
It is alfo the cafe with refpeét to his freedom of aétion.
The hberty above ftated and explained has been reprefented
by fome philofophers as inconceivable, and as involving an
abfurdity. ‘ Liberty,’’ fay Hobbes and others who have
adopted his reafoning, ‘ contilts only in a power to act as
we will; and it is impoflible to couceive in any being a

eater liberty than this. Hence it follows, that liberty
dees not extend to the determinations of the will, but only
to the actions confequent to its determination, and depend-
ing upon the will. ‘To fay we have power to will fuch an
This
fuppofes the will to be determined by a prior will; and for
the fame reafon, that will muft be determined by a will
prior to it, and fo on in an infinite feries of wills, which is
abfurd. To aé& freely, therefore, can mean nothing more
than to aé& voluntarily ; and this is all the liberty that can
be conceived in man or in any being.’? The advocates of
neceflity maintain, that this is the only liberty that is
pofhble, that is conceivable, and that does not involve an
abfurdity. Dr. Reid, however, mentions three other kinds
of liberty, to which the term is very commonly applied :
fuch are liberty, as oppofed to external force or confinement
of the body ; liberty as oppofed to obligation by law, or

by

LIBERTY.

by lawful authority ; and liberty as oppofed to neceffity, in
which latter fenfe it extends to the determinations of the
will only, and not to what is confequent to the will, It
has been a queition among philofophers, whether, in every
inftance, the determination of the will, which is the firft
part of the ation in every voluntary a¢tion, and upon which
alone the moral eftimation of it depends, be the neceflary
confequence of the conftitution of the perfon, and the cir-
cumitances in which he is placed; or whether he has not
power, in many cafes, to determine this way or that? This
has, by fome, been called the “ philofophical” notion of
liberty and neceflity ; but it is by no means peculiar to phi-
lofophers. ‘The lowett of the vulgar have, in all ages, had
recourfe to this neceffity for exculpating themfelves or their
friends when they do wrong, though, in the general tenour
of their conduét, they att upon the contrary principle.
Whether the notion of moral liberty, above ftated, be con-
ceivable or not, every man muft judge for himfelf. “'To
me,” fays Dr. Reid, ‘* there appears no difficulty in con-
ceiving it. I confider the determination of the will as an
effe&t. ‘This efieCt mutt have a caufe which had power to
produce it; and the caufe mutt be either the perfon himfelf,
whofe will it is, or fome other being. The firlt is as eafily
conceived as the lait. If the perfon was the caufe of that
"determination of his own will, he was free in that ation,
and it is juftly imputed to him, whether it be good or bad.
But if another being was the caufe of that determination,
either by producing it immediately, or by means and inflru-
ments under his direction, then the determination is the a&
and deed of that being, and is folely imputable to him.”’
Should it be faid, that nothing is in our power but what
depends upon the will; and therefore the will itfelf cannot
be in our power ; it may be replied, that this is a fallacy
arifing from taking a common faying in a fenfe which it
was never intended to convey, and in a fenfe contrary to
what it neceffarily implies. To fay that what depends
. upon the will is in a man’s power, but the wiil is not in his
power, is to fay that the end is in his power, but the means
neceflary to that end are not in his power, which is a con-
tradiétion.

The principal arguments in favour of liberty, as it is po-
pularly underitood, and as it is defined in the begianing of
this article, are the following : this principle is neceflary to
conftitute man an agent (fee AGENT); for, as far as it is
true of a being that he acts, fo far he muft himfelf be the
caufe of the action, and, therefore, not neceffarily deter-
mined to act: but if he has no abfolute power over his own
actions, i.¢. if he be not a free agent, the a¢tions which he
performs cannot properly be faid to be his own, but mut
be afcribed to fome other power, by which he is led on to
perform them; as a good clock or watch performs the
motions afligned to it by the artilt. This argument is ex-
cellently illuttrated by Dr. Clarke: man, fays he, either
has within himfelf a principle of a¢tion properly {peaking,
i. ¢. a felf-moving faculty, a principle or power of beginnin
motion 5 or he has not. If he kas within himfelf fuch a
principle, then he is a free, and not a neceffary agent : for
every necefflary agent is moved neceflarily by fomething elfe;
and then that which moves it, not the thing itfelf which is
moved, is the true and only caufe of the aétion. ‘That any
other thing operating upon an agent, fhould efficiently and
neceffarily produce felf-motion in that agent, is a direét
contradi¢tion iw terms. If man has not within himfelf a
principle or power of felf-motion, then every motion and
action of man is chiefly and properly produced by the effi-
ciency of fome astrint caufe; which caufe muft be either
what we ufually call the motive or reafon upon which a man

VoL. XX.

aéts; or elfe it mnft be fome infenfible fubtile matter, or
fome other being or fubftance making an impreflion upon
him. If the reafons or motives upon which a man ats be
the immediate and efficient caufe of the ation, then either
abftraét notions, fuch as all reafons and motives are, have a
real fubfiftence, that is, are themfelves fub{tances ; or elfe
that which has itfelf no real fubfiftence can put a bedy into
motion ; either of which is manifeftly abfurd. If infenfible
fubtile matter, or any other being or fubftance, continually
making impreffion upon a man, be the immediate and effi-
cient caufe of his aéting; then the motion of that fubtile
matter or fubftance muit be caufed by fome other fubftance,
and the motion of that by fome other, till at laft we arrive
at a free agent ; and then liberty is a poffible thing, and
man poffibly may have liberty : and if he may poffibly have
it, then experience will prove that he probably, nay, that
he certainly, has it. If we never arrive at any free caule,
then there is either in infinitum a progreffion of motions
without any mover, of effects without any caufe, of things
a¢ting without any agent; which is a manifeft contradiction:
or elfe motiou exilts neceffarily of itfelf. If motion exifts
neceflarily of itfelf, it muft be either with a determination
every way, or One certain way ; if with a determination
every way, this is no motion at all; if with a determination
one certain way, then that determination is either neceflary,
and confequently all other determinations impoffible, which
is contrary to experienoe ; or elfe there mutt be a particular
reafon of that determination, and fo backwards in infinitum,
which cdmes to the forementioned abfurdity, of effects
exiting without any caufe.

Farther, hberty is the diGate of our own confcioufnefs :
we have, really, the fame conftant and neceflary confciouf-
nefs of liberty that we have, that we think, choofe, will, or
even exilt; and whatever men may fay to the contrary, it
is impoffible for them, in earneft, to think they have no
aGtive felfmoving powers, and are not the caufes of their
own volitions, or not to afcribe to themfelves what they
mutt be confcious they think and do. Mr. Hume, though
he denies the reality of liberty, grants that we have a feel-
ing of it; that the divine plan required that we fhould be
fo made, as to feem to ourfelves free ; that the whole con-
ftitution of things is as if we were free; and that being
under a neceflity of approving and difapproving actions and
charagters, we are fo far under a neceflity of believing our-
felves and others free. After thefe concefficns, it can
hardly be imagined that the conftitution of nature fhould be
altogether impofition and deceit.

“© We have by our conftitution,” fays Dr. Reid, ‘a na-
tural conviétion or belief that we a& freely ; a conviction fo
early and fo univerfal, that it muft be the refult of our con-
{titution, and the work of him that made us.” And he
adds, ‘the genuine dictate of our natural faculties is the
voice of God no lefs than what he reveals from heaven ; and
to fay that it is fallacious, is to impute a lie to the God of
truth.”? Moreover, in favour of free-will an appeal has
been made to “common fenfe,” that is, to the irrefiftible
conviGtion and univerfal confent of mankind. To this pur-
pofe it has been faid, that very few have denied the exiftence
of liberty of choice even in theory ; but “ this,” fays a ne-
ceflarian writer, “is only faying that there have been very
few philofophers,” as if the denial of liberty of choice
were a teft of true philofophy. All men, it has been
alleged, without excepting profeffed neceflarians them-
felves, are under the neceffity of a¢ting upon the prin-
ciples of liberty, whatever their hypothetical {peculations
may be. f

All men agree in applauding fome actions and condemning

4P others,

LIBE

others, which would: be abfurd upon the fuppofition that
men were deltitute of free will; all men make a diftinGion
between harm and injury, e.g. between a blow given by de-
fign and another occalioned by accident ; and the laws of all
nations agree to punifh an action performed by a man in
pofleffion of reafon, when they excule a lunatic; the for-
mer being free, and the latter not.

Befides, if man be not, in the ftrifeft fenfe of the
word, a free agent, he can be no moral agent: It is
hard to fay, what virtue and vice, commendation and
blame, mean, if they do not fuppofe agency, voluntary
motion, free choice, and an abfolute dominion over our
refolutions. Can we applaud or reproach ourfelves for what
we were no more the caufes of than of our own beings, and
what it was no more poflible for us to prevent than the re-
turns of the feafons, or the revolutions of the planets? On
the fyftem of neceflity, confcience is an inexplicable prin-
ciple: its cenfures or applaufe are equally futile and ground-
lefs: the approbation of mankind is an infult with regard to
thofe on whom it is beftowed, becaufe they can have no
merit ; and the reproach of men unjuft and cruel, becaufe
there can be no demerit and ground of blame. Whatever
difficulties, therefore, may attend the nature of that in-
fluence which we aferibe to motives, (fee Morive,), they
cannot be the efficient neceflitating caufe of human a¢tions ;
fince, on this fuppofition, there could be but one agent ia
the univerfe; who mutt equally be the author of all the
good and evil in the world, and on whom mutt ultimately
be charged the fin and mifery, as well as the virtue and hap-
pinefs of his creatures.

Moreover, it has been urged by the advocates of liberty,
that if men’s determinations and actions flow neceflarily from
the previous {tate of their minds and the motives or influences
refulting from a nature or condition, impofed upon them
without their own confent or choice, the idea of refponfi-
bility or accountablenefs muft vanifh, and there can be no
propriety or ufe of rewards or punifhments. God cannot
reward without virtue, and there can be no virtue without a
felf-determining power : he cannot punifh without guilt, and
there can be no guilt when men do what they cannot avoid
doing, and when their aétions arife from circumftances in
which their Creator placed them. :

Tt is alfo equally unjuit and ufelefs to threaten punifhment
or infliét it on’men to prevent crimes, when they are necef-
farily determined in all their aétions. And if men are ne-
ceflary agents, though we cannot well admit this verbal
contradiction, it can be of no ufe to reafon with them,
to admonifh or intreat them; and God muft be infincere in
his addreffes and invitations, and cruel in his requirements
and commands. But fuch is the whole tenour of revelation,
and, therefore, the conclufion is neceffary, that man is a free
agent, capable of good or evil, and of determining his pur-
4 of either, from the fole power of his own judgment or
will.

“If we adopt the fyftem of neceflity,” fays Dr. Reid,
“the terms moral obligation and accountablene/s, praife and
blame, merit and demerit, Juplice and injuffice, reward and pu-
nifbment, wifdom and folly, virtue and vice, ought to be dif-
ufed, or to have new meanings given to them when they are
ufed in religion, in morals, or in civil government ; for upon
that fyftem, there can be no fuch things as they have been
always ufed to fignify.”’ Another argument for proving
that man has power over his own aétions and volitions has
been deduced from the confideration that he is capable of
carrying on wifely and prudently, a fyftem of conduét, which
he has before conceived in his mind, and refolved to profe-
cute. If all the particular determinations, which concurred

RTY:

in the execution of the plan which fuch a perfon had formed,-
were produced, not by himfelf, but by fome caufe acting:
neceflarily upon him, then there is no evidence left that he
contrived this plan, or that he ever {pent a thought about it.
The caufe that direGed all thefe determinations fo wifely,
mutt be wife and intelligent. If it be faid, that this whole
courfe of determinations was produced by motives, motives-
furely have not underftanding to conceive a plan, and intend
its execution. We mutt therefore revert to fome intelligent
being, who had the power of arranging thefe motives, and
applying them, in their proper order and feafon, fo as to
bring about the end. If man, then, had-no concern in the
execution, we have no evidence left, that he had any con-
cern in the contrivance, or even that heis a thinking being.
Man, withall his boafted faculties, is reduced to the ftate of
a mere automaton or machine. Whereas, if wife conduétin-
a man demonttrates that he has fome degree of wifdom, it
demontftrates, with equal force and evidence, that he has:
fome degree of power over his own determinations. We
fhall clofe this article with obferving, that Mr. Abraham
Tucker, the acute author of a work entitled «* The Light
of Nature purfued,’? by Edward Search, efq. after havin
argued itrenuoufly againft the exiftence of a liberty of indif~-
ference, contends for the exiftence of free-will, the exer--
cife of which he conceives ‘¢ to be only a particular {pecies-
of action, performed in raifing up ideas, or fixing them on»
the mind, which fhall determine us to fuch volitions as we-
want.’’ He exprefsly difavows the dotrine of necefflity.
See on this fubje& Collins’s Enquiry concerning Human:
Liberty, firft printed in 1717. Clarke’s Remarks, 17175.
and Colle€tion of Papers which pafled between Mr. Leib-
nitz and Dr, Clarke, in 1715 and 1716. Jackfon’s Vindi-
cation and Defence of Human Liberty, 1730. Price’s Re-
view of the principal Queftions, &c. in Morals, p. 315, &c.
edit. 1758. Hartley on Man. Prieftley’s Doétrine of
Philofophical Neceflity,1777. Reid’s Eflays on the AGive
Powers of Man, eff. iv. Gregory’s Philofophical Effays.-
Edwards on the Will. Palmer on Liberty. Beattie on
Truth. Belfham’s Elements of the Philofophy of the Mind,
&c. For the objections againtt liberty, and the arguments in
fupport of neceflity, fee NecxEssivy. .

Lisenty of conftience, a right or power of making pro-
feffion of any religion, or of ferving God in any manner that
a man fees fit.

This feems to bea natural right ; it is vigoroufly oppofed
by the generality of the Romanifts, and even by many of the
reformed, though it feems as if the reformation could fearcely
fubfilt without it. See TorzraTion and PeRrsgecuTion. —

Liserty, Moral, is the power of following, in all cireum-
ftances, our fenfe of right and wrong ; or of aéting in con-

‘formity to our reflecting and moral principles, without being
controlled by any contrary principles or habits. See Li-
BERTY, /upra. : ,

Lizerty, Religious, is the fame with liberty of confcience,
and fignifies the power of exercifing, without moleftation,
that mode of religion which we think belt; or of making
the decifions of our own confciences, refpeéting religious
truths, the rule of our conduét, and not any of the decifions
of others. :

Liserry, Civil, is the power of a civil fociety or ftate,
to govern itfelf by its own difcretion : or by laws of its own
making, without being fubje€t to any foreign difcretion, or
to the impofitions of any extraneous will or power. Civil
liberty, fays judge Blackftone, adopting the definition of the
Inftitutes, confilts in the power of doing whatever the laws
permit ; or it is natural liberty, or a power of, aéting as one
thinks fit, without any reftraint or contrgul, unlefs nya

aw

i i a es

. LIBERTY.

Taw of nature, fo far reftrained by human laws, ‘and no &®.

«ther, as is neceffary and expedient for the general advantage
ef the public. Others have defined civil liberty, in contra-
diftin€tion from political liberty, to be that power over
their own aétions, which the members of the ftate refer
themfelves, and which their officers muft not infringe. is
extends no farther than to a man’s own conduét, and figni§es
the right he has to be exempt from the controul of the focfty
or its agents, that is, the power he has of providing for*his
own advantage and happinefs, It is a man’s civil liberty,
which is originally in its full force, and part of which he fa-
crifices when he enters into a ftate of fociety.

Civil liberty, according to the definition of archdeacon
Paley, ‘is the not being reftrained by.any law, but what
conduces in a greater degree to the public welfare.” To do
what we will, he fays, is natural liberty ; to do what we
will, confiftently with the intereft of the community to which
we belong, is civil liberty ; that is, the only liberty to be
defired in a ftate of civil fociety. The definition above
laid down imports that the laws of a free people impofe no
reftraints upon the private will of the fubject, which do not
conduce in a greater degree to the public happinefs ; by which
itis intimated, tit, that reftraint itfeif is an evil; 2dly, that
this evil ought to be overbalanced by fome public advan-
tage; 3dly, that the proof of this advantage lies upon the
legiflature ; 4thly, that a law, being found to produce no
fentible good effects, is a fufficient reafon for repealing it, as
adverfe and injurious to the rights of a free citizen, without
demanding fpecific evidence of its badeffe€ts. This maxim,
our author adds, might be remembered with advantage in a
revifion of many laws of this couutry; efpecially of the
game laws; of the poor laws, fo far as they lay reftri¢tions
upon the poor themfelves; of the laws again{t papifts and
diffenters ; and amongft a people enamoured to excefs, and
jealous of their liberty, it feems a matter of furprife that
this principle has been fo imperfectly attended to. ‘The de-
gree of actual liberty always bearing, according to this ac-
count of it, a reverfed proportion to the number and feverity
of the reftri€tions, which are either ufelefs, or the utility of
which does not outweigh the evil of the reftraint, it follows,
among other conclufions of a more general nature, that we
may hence be enabled to apprehend the diftin¢tion between
perfonal and civil liberty. A citizen of the freeft republic in
the world may be imprifoned for his crimes; and though
his perfonal freedom be reitrained by bolts and fetters, fo
long as his confinement is the effeét of a beneficial public
law, his civil liberty is not invaded. Another idea of civil
liberty placesit in fecurity ; making it to confift not merely
in an aétual exemption from the conftraint of ufelefs and
noxious laws and aéts of dominion, but in being free from
the danger of having any fuch hereafter impofed or exercifed.
The definitions which have been framed of civil liberty are
moft of them adapted to this idea. Thus one political
writer makes the very eflence of the fubjeét’s liberty to con-
fift in his being governed by no laws but thofe to which he
hath aGtually confented; another is fatisfied with an indirect
and virtual confent ; another again places civil liberty in the
feparation of the legiflative and executive offices of govern-
ment ; another in the being governed by /aw, that is, by
known, preéconitituted, inflexible rules of a¢tion and adjudi-
cation ; a fifth in the exclufive right of the people to tax
themfelves by their own reprefents.tives ; a fixth in the free-
dom and purity of elections of reprefentatives ; a feventh in
the controul which the democratic part of the conftitution
poffeffes over the military eftablifhment. Of thefe and
fimilar accounts of liberty, it may be obferved, that they all
labour under one inaccuracy, viz, that they defcribe- not fo

much liberty itfelf, as the fafeguards and prefervatives of li-
berty ; ¢. g. a man’s being governed by no Jaws but thofe to
which he has given his confent, were it practicable, is no
otherwife neceflary to the enjoyment of civil liberty, than as
it affords a probable fecurity againit the diétation of laws,
impofing fuperfluous reftriGtions upon his private will. The
fame remark is applicable to the reft. We may farther ob-
ferve, that in molt of thefe definitions civil liberty ,and poli-
tical liberty are confounded. Upon the whole we may re-
mark, that whatever definitions of either kind of liberty we
adopt, that people, government, and conttitution is the free,
which makes the bell provilion for the enaéting of expedient
and falutary laws.

Liverty, Political, fometimes ufed, but improperly, as
fynonimous with civil liberty, in a diftin& fenfe, confilts in
the fhare which the members of the ftate poffefs in the-di-
rection of its affairs, and the power which they referve to
themfelves of arriving at the public offices, or, at leaft, of
having votes in the nomination of thofe who fill them: and
this is that which a man may or may not acquire in the
compenfation he receives for it. Ina ftate of civil liberty,
a man retains the moit important of his natural rights: in a
{tate of political liberty, he moreover acquires a controul
over the conduét of others.. It is, therefore, for his advar-
tage to lofe as little of the former, and to gain as much of
the latter as he can. In countries where every member of
the fociety enjoys an equal power of arriving at the fupreme
offices, and confequently of direGting the itrength and the
fentiments of the whole community, there is a ftate of the
moit perfect political liberty. On the other hand, in
countries where a man is, by his birth or fortune, excluded
from thefe offices, or from a power of voting for proper per=
fons to fill them; that man, whatever be the form of the
government, or whatever civil liberty or power over his
own aétions he may have, has no power over thofe of an-
other; he has no fhare in the government, and therefore has
no political liberty at all. Nay, his own condué, as
far as the fociety does interfere, is, in all cafes, directed by
others. :

Political liberty is the only fafe-guard of civil liberty ;
and it is chiefly valuable on that account. Civil liberty
ftands firft in the order of things, and political liberty the
fecond. The former is the end, and the latter the means of
preferving it. Every man has an abfolute and unalienable
right to civil liberty ; and for the fecurity of it, political
liberty fhould be extended as widely as poffible. No man
fhould be excluded from the exercife of it, excepting from’
circumftances of unavoidable neceffity. It may appear, at
firft fight, to be of little confequence whether perfons in the
common ranks of life enjoy any fhare of political liberty or
nots But without this, there cannot be that perfuafion of
fecurity and independence, which alone can encourage a
man to make great exertions. A man who is fenfible that
he is at the difpofal cf others, over whefe condué& he has no
fort of controul, has always fome unknown evil to dread,
He will be afraid of attracting the notice of his fuperiors,
and muit feel himfelf a mean and degraded being. Byra
fenfe of liberty, and a knowledge of the laws by which his
conduét muft be governed, with fome degree of controul
over thofe who make and adminifter the laws, give him a
contftant feeling of his own importance, and lead him to in-
dulge a free and manly turn of thinking, which will make
him greatly fuperior to what he would have been under an
arbitrary form of government. The diftinétion here made
between civil and folitical liberty was, we believe, firit laid
down by Dr. Priettley in his ‘¢ Treatife on Government.”

Mr. Chriftian, in his edition of Black{tone’s Commentary}

A Pe 2 has

LR

has fuggefted the difference between civil and political li-
berty, unnoticed by the learned judge and by other eminent
writers. He defines political liberty to be the fecurity with
which, from the conftitution, form, and nature of the efta-
blithed government, the {ubjects enjoy civil liberty.

The importance of liberty, civil and political, as well as
religious, to the honour and profperity of a nation, is fuffi-
ciently evinced by both ancient and modern hiltory. It has
been obferved by the ancients, that all the arts and {eiences
arofe among free nations ; and that the Perfians and Egyp-
tians, notwithftanding their eafe, opulence, and luxury,
made but faint efforts towards a relifh in thofe finer plea‘ures,
which were carried towards fuch perfection by the Greeks,
amidit continual wars, attended with poverty, and the
gréateft fimplicity of life and manners. Greece, fays Mr.
Hume, was a clutter of little principalities, which foon be-
came republics ; and being united both by their vicinity, and
by the ties of the fame language and interelt, they entered
into the clofef intercourfe of commerce and learning.
"There concurred a happy climate, a foil not unfertile, and
a moit harmonious and comprehentive language; fo that
every circumftance among thele people feemed to favour the
rife of the arts and feiences. Each city produced its feveral
artifts and philofophers, who refufed to yield the preference
to thofe of the neighbouring republics. ‘Their contention
and debates fharpened the wits of men: a variety of objects
was prefented to the judgment, while each chailenged the
preference to the reft; and the {ciences, not being dwarfed
by the reftraint of authority, were enabled to make fuch
confiderable fhoots, as are, even at this time, the objects of
our admiration. Hence, and from other circumitances de-
tailed by Mr. Hume, he concludes, that it is impoffible for
the arts and fciences to arife, at firft, among any people,
unlefs thefe people enjoy the blefling of a free government.
It has been further obferved, that when the Greeks loft
their liberty, though they increafed mightily in riches, by
means of the conquefts of Alexander; yet the arts, from
that moment, declined among them, and have never fince
been able to raife their head in that climate. Learning was
tranfplanted to Rome, the only free nation at that time in
the univerfe ; and having met with fo favoirable a foil, it
made prodigious fhoots for above a century; till the decay
of liberty produced alfo the decay of letters, and fpread a
total barbarifm over the world. From thefe two experi-
ments, of which each was double in its kind, and fhewed the
fall of learning in abfolute governments, as well as its rife in
popular ones, Longinus thought himfelf fufficiently juftified
in afferting, that the arts and fciences could never flourifh,
but in a free government ; and in this opinion he has been
followed by feveral eminent writers in our own country, par-
ticularly Mr. Addifon and lord Shaftefbury, who either
confined their views merely to ancient faéts, or entertained,
fays Mr. Hume, too great a partiality in favour of that
form of government eftablifhed among us. This writer has
alleged, as inftances which ferve to reftrain the extent of the
opinion maintained by the celebrated authors above cited,
thofe of modern Rome and of Florence. The former
carried to perfection all the finer arts ef fculpture, painting,
and mulic, as well as poetry, though it groaned under ty-
ranny, and under the tyranny of priefts: while the latter
made its chief progrefs in the arts and {ciences, after it be-
gan to lofe its liberty by the ufurpation of the family of
Medici. Ariofto, Taffo, Galileo, any more than Raphael
and Michael Angelo, were not born in republics. And
though the Lombard {chool was famous, as well as the Ro-
man, yet the Venetians have had the f{malleft fhare in its
honours, and feem rather inferior to the other Italians in

BL

their genius for the arts and fciences. Rubens eftablifhed
his [chool at Antwerp, not at Amfterdam. Drefden, not
Hamburgh, is the centre of politenefs in Germany. France
has, at a former period, to fay nothing now eis prefent
condition, furnifhed an eminent inftance of the flourifhing of
learning in abfolute governments. Although it had fearcely
ever enjoyed any eitabljfhed liberty, it has nevertheleds
carried the arts and {ciences as near perfection as any other
pation. The Englifh are perhaps greater philofophers, the
Italians better painters and mdficians, the Romans were
greater orators; but the French, fays Mr. Hume, are the
only people, except the Greeks, who have been at once
philofophers, poets, erators, hiftorians, painters, architeéts,
{culptors, and muficians. With regard to the ftage, they
have excelled the Greeks, who far excelled the Englifh,
And in common life, continues the fame author, they have,
in a great meafure, perfected that art, the moft ufeful and
agreeable of any, “ Vart de vivre,”? the art of fociety and,
conyerfation. He adds, if we confider the ftate of the
{ciences and polite arts in our own country, Horace’s ob-
fervation, with regard to the Romans, may, in a great
meafure, be applied to the Briuth.

*¢ —____ Sed in longum tamen evum
Manferunt, hodieque manent vetligia ruris.”’

It has become an eftablifhed opinion, that commerce can
never fiourifh but in a free governmeut; and this opinion
feems to be founded on a longer and farger experience than
the foregoing, with regard to the arts and feiences. If we
trace commerce in its progrefs through Tyre, Athens, Sy-
racufe, Carthage, Venice, Florence, Genoa, Antwerp,
Holland, England, &c., we fhall always find it to have
fixed its feat in free governments. ‘l'he three greateft
trading towns in Europe now, fays Mr. Hume at the time
when he wrote, are London, Amiterdam, and Hamburgh ;
all free cities, and proteftant cities; that is, senjoying a
double liberty. Hume’s Effays, vol. i. Eff. xii. and xiv.
See Liberal Ants and ComMMERCE. '

Lisenty, Perfonal, contilts in the power of locomotion,
or of changing fituation, or removing one’s perfon to what-
foever place one’s own inclination may direct, without im-
prifonment or reitraint, unlefs by due courfe of law. See
Haseas Corpus, IMPRISONMENT, and FaxsE Jmprifonment.

Liserty of the Prefs. See Liberty of the PREss.

Lizerty of the Tongue, in the Manege, is a void {pace left
in the middle of a bit, to give place to the tongue of a horfe,
made by the bit’s arching in the middle, and rifing towards
the roof of the mouth. The bit, according to the various
forms of the liberty, acquires different names; hence we
fay a fnatch-mouth, a Pignatelli, i. e. with the liberty after
Pignatelli’s fafhion, and a canon-mouth, with the liberty like
a pigeon’s neck.

In forging the bit, care muft be taken not to make the
liberty too high, left it hurt, or at Jeaft tickle the palate,
and make the horfe carry low. See Bits.

Lierty, in AZythology, was a goddefs both among the
Greeks and Romans. Among the former fhe was invoked
under the title Eleutheria ; and by the latter fhe was called
Libertas, and held in fingular veneration; temples, altars,
and itatues, were ere€ted in honour of this deity. A very
magnificent temple was confecrated to her on mount Aventin,
by Tiberius Gracchus, before which was a {pacious court,
called atrium libertatis. “Che Romans alfo ereéted a new
temple in honour of Liberty, when Julius Cfar eftablifhed
his empire over them, as if their liberty had been fecured by
an event which proved fatal to it. In.a medal of Brutus,
Liberty is exhibited under the figure of a woman, holding in

one

LIB

one hahd a cap, the fymbol of liberty, and two poniards in

the other, with the infcription ipIBvs MARTIIS.
LIBETEN, in Geography, a town of Hungary; 54

miles E.N.E. of Leopolditadt. N. lat. 48°47'. E. long.

To" 37".

BETH RA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Greece,
placed by Paufanias on mount Olympus, on the fide of
Macedonia. M. d’Anville places it upon the river Sus, at
a {mall diftancé from Heracleum, which lay to the eaft, upon
the fea-coalt. This is faid to have been the town where
Orpheus was born, and whence his monument was trans-
ferred to Dion by the Macedonians, when Libethra was
deltroyed by an inundation of the river Sus.

LIBETHRIDES, in Mythology, afurname given to
certain nymphs which were fuppofed to inhabit near mount
Libethra in Beotia, which was diftant about go fladia from
Coronza; andthe Libethridian fountain, in Theflaly, led the
poets to call the Mutes by thisname. Virgil, Eclog. vii. v. 21.

LIBICI, in Ancient Geography, a people of Italy, who
were planted eaftward of the Salaffi, in a diftri¢t now called
the lordfhip of Vercelli. Vercelle, or Vercelli, the capital,
ftood on the right bank of the Seffites, now Sefia, between
Turin and Milan. I&imulum, above Vercellz, was fituated
at the foot of the Alps, near fome gold mines. In that
retired corner, there was.a grove containing a temple facred
to Apollo.

LIBILITZ, in Geography, a town of Sweden, in the
government of Kuopio; 55 miles E.S.E. of Kuopio.

LIBISCHAU, atown of Bohemia, in the circle of Chru-
dim; 13 miles N. of Chrudim.

LIBITINA, in the Roman Mythology, a goddefs which
pretided over funerals, This goddefs was the fame with
the Venus infera or Epithymbia of the Greeks. She had
a temple at Rome, where was lodged a certain piece of
money for every perfon who died, whofe name was re-
corded in a regilter called Libitine ratio. This practice
was eitablifhed by Servius Tullius, inorder to obtain an ac-
count of thenumber of annual deaths in the city of Rome,
and confequently the rate of increafe or decreafe of its in-
habitants.

LIBITUM, in Mujfic. Sometimes, in the courfe of a com-
pofition, the Latin words ad ibitum occur, which fignify,
at the pleafure of the principal performer, who is at liberty
to do what he pleafes, in order to manifeft his fancy, tafte,
and execution ; and toreturn to the text of the compofer
whenever he pleafes: as to the reft of the band who ac-
company him, they are to remain inaGtive, and await his re-
turn to the written melody, ‘The difference betwen cadenza,
and ad /ibitum is, that a cadence, or clofe, is terminated by a
fhake, whereas an ad lilitum may be allowed to the per-
former by the compofer, at any part of the piece he
pleafes. Thefe Latin words are likewife joined to fome
inftrument of accompaniment, in the title page of a work ;
as at the beginning of a piece, to fay that fuch an initru-
ment is non obligato, or not ab{olutely neceflary ; as in afym-
phany, when the corni, or French horns, may be difpenfed
with ; and in a compofition for a pianoforte, when the vio-
lin has no folo parts or paffages, that will be miffed, notice
is then given by the words corni ad libitum, or “ with a violin
accompaniment ad libitum.” vale :

LIBLE, in Geography, a town of Bohemia, in the circle
of Konigingratz ; 13 miles E.S.E. of Konigingratz.

LIBOBO, a {mall ifland in the Eaft Indian fea; on the
SE. coalt of Gilolo. S. lat. 10° 48’. E. long. 128° 25’.

LIBOCH, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Leitme-
ritz ; 14 miles S.E. of Leitmeritz.

Lis

LIBONA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Spain, in
Celtiberia. Ptolemy.

LIBONATI, in Geography, a town of Naples, in Prin-
cipato Citra; four miles E.N.E. of Policaftro.

LIBONGO, a town of Africa, in the kingdom of Lo-
cango, on the Lufuna, near the fea; 50 miles S.S.W. of
Bombi.

LIBONOTUS, in Phyficlgy, one of the twelve winds
of the ancients. See Wriyp.

LIBORA, in Ancient Geography, atown of Spain, in the
Tarragonenfis, in the country of the Carpetanians; lituated
on the Tagus, N.E.of Auguitobriga, and almoft bordering
on Lufitania.

LIBOURNE, in Geography, a town of France, in the
department of the Gironde, and principal place of a diftrift.

* The place contains 8076, and the canton 17,376 inhabitants,

on a territory of 117% kiliometres, in nine communes. N.
lat. 44° 55!. W. long. 0° g!.

LIBRA, Barance, one of the mechanical powers. See
BALAnce.

Lipra is one of .the twelve figns of the zodiac ; exaétly
oppofite to Aries ; fo called becaufe when the fun is in this
fign, at the autumnal equinox, the days and niglits are equal,
as if weighed in a balance.

The {tars in this conitellation, according to Ptolemy, are
feventeen; ‘Tycho ten; Hevelius twenty ; and Flamftead
fifty-one. See ConsTELLATION.

Lira alfo denotes the ancieat Roman pound, borrowed,
as fome have faid, from the Sicilians, who called it tra,
Alex.

Mr. Pinkerton (Effay on Medals, vol. i. § 7.), though he
allows that the Greek pound in Sicily was called aijzs, as
it was in Greece, and divided into 12 ouyxies, or ounces, and
that the Roman word libra is derived from the Greek Arica,
will not admit the as or libra, a coin, to have been deduced
from a Sicilian medal, The Sicilians had a coin called fez,
but it was of filver, and equal to the obolus of the Eginean
ftandard, ten of which conftituted the Sicilian dsxaarigov.
The Syracufans, it is well known, were the chief people of
Sicily, and they were a colony from Corinth. Gronovius
takes pains to prove, that the ftandard of Egina was ufed
at Corinth, and of courfe in Syracufe ; but all the Corinthian
coins now remaining are upon the Attic model, which circum-
{tance at once confutes all his arguments ; and it appears from
Ariftotle, as quoted by Pollux, that the Sicilians had a
money talent, or ftandard, of their own. The Asjgz, or
Sicilian filver obolus, contained alfo, like the Roman primi-
tive as, 12 cvyxizs, or chalci, fo called at firft becaufe they
weighed an ounce, but afterwards becaufe twelve of them
went to the filver Avex, as twelve ounces to the pound. It
is of the Sicilian Asiex, or libella, fays Mr. Pinkerton, that
Varro fpeaks, when he fays it was of filver ; and not of the
Roman hiella, or as, which we may fafely fuppofe was
never ftruck in that metal. For after the Punic wars, of
which Sicily was the grand {cene, the Sicilian coins muft have
been frequent at Rome, and the Romanin Sicily. But the
Greeks, or Pheenicians, of which nations the chief towns
of Sicily were colonies, never knew fuch coins as the as
libralis, or any of its parts; and it is well known that the
ancient colonies commonly followed the plan of their parent
countries. And though it muft be granted, that the Sici-
lians had their own ftandard, it yet bore a refemblance of
the Greek ; their ea being equal to the Eginean obolus,.
and their igerilgx the drachma of Egina; and it is not to.
be fuppofed that when the Greek brafs coinage was always of:
the moft minute form, they fhould coin pieces of that metal:

weighing

LIB

weighing a pound. Mr. Pinkerton cannot agree in opinion
with thole, who f{trenuoufly maintain, thatthe Roman filver de-
narius owes its origin to the Sicilian AexzAilgov. The Arnoarigov,
containing 10 Avex, or Egina oboli, would weigh about
10 grains, whereas the Roman denarii do not amount to
above 60, ora third part. There feems, therefore, to be
no conneétion between the two. Upon the whole Mr.
Pinkerton is convinced, that the Romans did not derive one
idea of their coinage from Sicily ; but that the Sizilians had
their Avex, divided into 12 ovyximt, from the Etrufcans ;
though, according to the more elegant Greek plan, they
made the firlt a {mall coin in filver, and never ftruck any brafs
coin larger than the ovyxis, or piece of an ounce weight ; if,
indeed, the Sicilians had not this idea of 12 ovyxias to the
alex from the Romans themfelves, which is much more
probable, than that the Romans had it from Sicily. _ It is a
further and {tronzer argument againft the opinion of the
Roman coinage being copied from the Sicilian, that, though
we have innumerable Sicilian coins in every cabinet, yet not
one of them refembles the Roman As libralis, or its early
divifions, in the very {malleft degree. This argument Mr.
Pinkerton deems to be conclufive. Befides, in moft
cabinets there are Etrufean coins upon the exact feale
of the As libralis, and of its feveral parts; whence-it fol-
lows of courfe, that thefe, and thefe alone, muft have af-
forded a pattern to the primitive Roman coinage. The
Etrufeais, to whom the moft ancient brafs coins found in
Italy are known to belong, are more a colony from Lydia,
a country to which Herodotus afcribes the firft invention of
coinage. See CoInaGE.

The libra was divided into twelve unciz, or ounces, and
the ounce into twenty-four {cruples.

The divifions of the libra were the wncia, one-twelfth ;
the fextans, one-fixth ; the guadrans, one-fourth ; the triens,
,one-third ; the guincunx, five ounces; the /emis, fix ;the /eptunx,
feven; the des, eight ; the dodrans, nine; the deatans, ten;
deunx, eleven ; laitly, the as weighed twelve ounces, or one
Kibra.

Learned writers are not agreed as to the true weight of
the Roman pound. Villalpandus and Greaves, relying on
the congius of Vefpafian for its ftandard weight, have from
hence attempted to determine this intricate queftion. This
Roman congius contained ten pounds weight of wine; Vil-
Jalpandus found by filling it to the narrow part of the neck,
with fpring water, that 1t contained jut ten modern Roman
pounds, which are equal to 52560 Troy grains. Azout
filled it to the fame height, and, having weighed its contents
twice, founda refult very nearly agreeing with Greaves’s
meature, {tated by Millet, in Phil. Tranf. vol. li. p. 790.
His greater weight was 63024 Paris grains, equal to
516993 Troy; his lefler, 62760 Paris grains, equal to 51482+
‘Troy. The mean between both is 515917, Troy grains,
which, divided by 310, give 51594, fuch grains for the
weight of the ancient Roman pound. Several obje¢tions
have been made to this pound derived from the congius,
which Mr. Raper, ubi infra, has colleCted into one view ;
from which he infers, that it is more probable, that this
ftandard fhould give too great a Roman pound, than too
f{malla one. Butas the refult from hence mutt be uncertain,
he-has recourfe to the coins. Having weighed nine gold
pieces in the Pembroke colleGtion, containing 343 Roman
{cruples, he found their weight to. amount tq 608 Troy
grains, which divided by 344, give 1743 for the fcruple,
whence the Roman pound fhould weigh 507544 grains.
From fome other coins of the fame kind, a fcruple appears
to be 17% grains, Inftead of this fcrupular ftandard, an-

7

LiB

other was introduced by Sylla ; ané from the heavieft of four
pieces of this ftandard, allowing thirty of them to have
been coined out of the Romen pound, its weight is found
to be 5040 grains. The ftandard of forty in the pound,
mentioned by Pliny, fucceeded this of Sylla, and continued
to the eftablifhment of the monarchy under Auguftus: and
from ten different coins of this {ftandard, he deduces a mean
aureus of 1261, grains; and fuppofing the aureus of forty
in the pound to weigh 126 Troy grains, the Roman pound
muft weigh 5040. In Pliny’s time forty-five aurei were
{truck out of the pound; and the mean aureus from Nero
to Titus, in whofe reign Pliny died, was under 112 grains:
and if the ftandard weight of the imperial aureus of
forty-five in the pound did not exceed 112 grains, the
Roman pound will weigh so40 grains, as it is tound from
the confular aureus. Soon after the reign of Alexander
Severus, in whofe time the aureus came to be called folidus,
the coinage became very irregular, till Conftantine entirely.
modelled it anew, by coining feventy-two folidi of four
feruples out of the pound of gold. From twenty-nine of
thefe folidi in the interval from Conftantine to Heraclius, it
appears that the mean weight is 69 grains, which, multiplied
by 725 gives but 4968 grains for the Roman pound, But
if the ftandard weight of this coin amounted to 70 grains,
the pound will weigh 5040, as before. If we take so4o
Troy grains for the weight of the Roman pound, the feruple
will weigh 174 grains; the confular aureus 126; the impe-
rial aureus 112, and the folidus 70; and the confular dena-
rius of 84 in the pound will weigh juft 60 Troy grains.
(Phil. Tranf. vol. xi. part ii. p. 462, &c.) The common
Roman pound, ftill ufed at Rome, confifted of 12 ounces,
of 458 grains each, equal to one ounce avoirdupois; but
the money ounce feems to have had only 420 Troy grains
in the pound 5040. See farther on this fubjeé& the article
Dewnarius and Mitianensis. ’

The Roman libra was ufed in France for the proportions
of their coin till the time of Charlemagne, or perhaps till
that of Philip I. in 1093, their fols being fo proportioned,
as that twenty of them are equal to the libra, ‘

By degrees, it became a term of account ; and every thing
of the value of twenty fols, was called a /ivre. :

Linra Penfa, in our Law Beoks, denotes a pound of mo-
ney in weight.

It was ufual, in former days, not only to tell the money,
but to weigh it; becaufe many cities, lords, and bifhops, hay-
ing their mints, coined money, and often very bad too; for
which reafon, though the pound conjfilted of twenty fhillings,
they always weighed it.

LIBRARII, among the ancients, were a fort of copyitts,
who tranfcribed in beautiful, or at leaft legible, chara¢ters,
what had been written by the notarii in notes and abbrevi-
atures.

LIBRARY, an edifice or apartment deftined for the
placing of books; or the collection of books themfelves
lodged therein. “See Boox.

Some authors refer the origin of libraries to the Hebrews ;
and obferve, that the care thefe took for the prefervation of
their facred books, and the memory of what concerned the
actions of their anceftors, became an example to other na-
tions, particularly to the Egyptians. Ofmanduas, king of
Egypt, is faid to have taken the hint firft ; who, according
to Diodorus, hada library built in his palace, with this in-
{cription over the door, ¥¢XHE IATPEION. Nor were the
Ptolemies, who reigned in the fame country, lefs curious and*
magnificent in books, c

The

= Cc eS

LIBRARY.

The feripture alfo {peaks of a library of the kings of
Perfia, Ezra, v.17. vi. 1. which fome imagine to have con-
fifted of the hiftorians of that nation, and of memoirs of the
affairs of {tate ; but in effect it appears rather to have been a
depofitory of laws, charters, and ordinances, of the kingsa
The Hebrew text calls it the hou/é of trea/uresy and afterwards
the hou/fe of the rolls, where the treafures were laid up. We
may, with more juftice, call that a library, mentioned in the
fecond of Efdras to have been built by Nehemiah, and in
which were preferved the books of the prophets and of David,
and the letters of their kings.

The firft who erected a library at Athens, was the tyrant
Pififtratus ; and yet Strabo refers the honour of it to Arif-
totle. That of Pitiftratus was tranfported by Xerxes into
Perfia, and was afterwards brought back by Seleucus Ni-
eanor to Athens.
and re-eltablifhed by Hadrian. Plutarch fays, that under
Eumenes there was alibrary at Pergamus, containing two
hundred thoufand books. ‘T'yrannion, a celebrated gramma-
rian, contemporary with Pompey, had a library of three
thowfand volumes. That of Ptolemy Philadelphus, ac-
cording to A. Gellius, contained feven hundred thoufand,
all in rolls, burnt by Czefar’s foldiers. See ALEXANDRIAN.

Conitantine, and his fucceflors, erected a magmificent
ene at Conttantinople ; which, in the eighth century, con-
tained three hundred thoufand volumes, all burat by order
of Leo Ifaurus: and, among the reft, one in which the
Hiad and Odyffey were written in letters of gold, on the
guts of a ferpent.

The moft celebrated libraries of ancient Rome, were the
Ulpian, and the Palatine. They alfo boaft much of the
libraries of Paulus /Emilius, who conquered Perfeus ; of
Lucilius Luculius, of Afinius Pollio, Atticus, Julius Se-
verus, Domitius, Serenus, Pamphilus Martyr, and the em-
perors Gordian and Trajan.

Anciently, every large church had its library ;. as appears
by the writings of St. Jerom, Anaftafius, and others.
Pope Nicholas laid the firft foundation of that of the Vati-
can, in 1450. It was deftroyed by the conftable Bourbon
in the facking of Rome, and reftored by pope Sixtus V.
and has been confiderably enriched with the ruins of that of
Heidelberg, plunderedby count Tilly in r622, One of the
moft complete libraries in Europe, was faid to be that ereét-
ed at Florence by Cofmo de Medicis ; over the gate where-
of is written, Lazor apsqve LABORE: though it has been
fince excceded by that of the late French king ; begun by
Francis I., augmented.by: cardinal: Richelieu, and completed
by M. Colbert.

The emperor’s library at Vienna, according to Lambe--

cius, confifts of eighty thoufand volumes, and fifteen thou-
fand nine hundred and forty curious medals. -

The Bodleian library at Oxford, built on the foundation
of that of duke Humphry, exceeds that of any univerfity
in Europe, and even thofe 6f all the fovereigns of Europe,
except the’emperor’s, and late French king's, which are each
of them older by-a hundred years.. It was firft opened ‘in
1602, and has fince founda great number of benefactors ;

,particularly fir Robert Cotton, fir H. Savil, archbifho

Laud, fir Kenelm Digby, Mr. Allen, Dr. Pococke, Mr. -

Selden, and others.. The Vatican, the Medicean, that of
Beffarion at Venice, and thofe juft mentioned, exceed the

Bodleian in Greek manufcripts ; which yet outdoes them all.

in Oriental manulcripts.

As to printed books, the Ambrofian ‘at Milan, and that”
of Wolfenbuttle, are two of the moft famous, and yet both:

inferior to the Bodleian.

Long after, it was plundered by Sylla,”

Lrarary, King’s, at St. James’s, was founded by Henry,
eldeft fon of James I. and made up partly of books,
and partly of manufcripts, with many other curiofities, for
the advancement of learning. It has received many addi-
tions from the libraries of Ifaac Cafaubon, and others.

Lisrary, Cottonian, originally confifted of nine hundred
and fifty-eight volumes of original charters, grants, inftru-
ments, letters of fovereign princes, tranfactions between
this and other kingdoms and ftates, genealogies, hiltories,
regifters of monafteries, remains of Saxon laws, the book
of Genefis, thought to be the moft ancient Greek copy
extant, and faid to have been writ by Origen in the fecond
century, and the curious Alexandrian copy or manufcript,
in Greek capitals. (See ALexanprian.) Thislibrary is
kept in the Britifh Mufeum, with the large and valuable
library of fir Hans Sloane, amounting to upwards of forty-
two thoufand volumes, &c. There are many public libra-
ries belonging to the feveral colleges at Oxford and Cam-
bridge, and the univerfities in North Britain. The principal
public libraries in London, befide that of the Mufeum, are
thofe of the College of Heralds, of the College of Phyfi-
cians, of Doétor’s Commons, to which every bifhop, at the
time of his confecration, gives at leaft zo/. fometimes 5o/.
for the purchafe of books; thofe of the Gray's Inn, Lin-
coln’s Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple; that of
Lambeth, founded by archbifhop Bancroft in 1610, for the
ufe of fucceeding archbifhops of Canterbury, and increafed
by the benefaétions of archbifhops Abbot, Sheldon, Ten-
nifon, and Secker, and faid to confilt of, at leaft, fifteen -
thoufand printed books, and fix hundred and feventeen yo-
lumes in manufcript ; that of Red-Crofs {treet, founded by
Dr. Daniel Williams, a prefbyterian divine, and fince en-
riched by many private benefaCtions, and by an annual fum
appropriated to its increafe ; that of the Royal Society,
called the Arundelian or Norfolk library, becaufe the prin-
cipal part of the colle€&tion formerly belonged to the family
of Arundel, and was given to the fociety: by Hen
Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk} in 1666; which
library has been increafed by the valuable colleétion of Fran-
cis Aiton, efq.-in 1715, and is-continually increafing by the
numerous benefaétions of the works of its learned members,
and others; that of St. Paul’s, of Sion College, the queen’s
library, ere€ted by queen Caroline, in 1737; and the fur-
geon’s library, kept in their hall in Lincoln’s Inn Fields ;
the Weltmintter library, the library of the Royal Inftitution,
incorporated in 18003 the library of the London Taftitution,
eftablifhed in 1805, thofe of:theSurry Inftitution“and Ruf-
fell Inftitution, &c. &c.

Where a library is ere&ted in any parifh, it fhail be pre-
ferved for the ufes direGted by the founder ; and incumbents
and minifters of parifhes, &c. are to give fecurity for it, and
make catalogues of the books, &c. None of the books
fhall be alienable, without confent of the bifhop, and then °
only when there is a duplicate of fuch books. If any book
fhall be taken away and detained, ajuitice’s warrant may be
iffued to fearch for, and reftore the fame: alfo, a“tion of
trover may be brought in the name of the proper ordinary,
&e.- And bifhops have power to make rules and orders con- -
cerning libraries, appoint perfons to view their condition, and
enquire of the ftate of them in their vifitations.. (Stat.
7 Anne, cap. 14.) * Bray’s Inftitution for parochial libra. -
ries is under the direétion and management of a number of
aflociates, a treafurer ‘and fecretary. See the biographical
article Tuomas Bray.

Lizrary, Mujfical. Dr. Burney complains, in the fe-
cond vol, of -his General Hiftory of Mufic, p. 444, ake

is.

LIB

his travels through France, Italy, Germany, Holland, and
the Netherlands, in fearch of materials for his work, he was
able to find no complete mufical library. ‘* Something like
achain er feries of mufical theorifts (he fays) may per-
haps be found at Vienna, where the emperor Leopold I.
began to forma mufical library ; and the elector of Bavaria
another at Munich in the feventeenth century. But both
have been long neglected, and are now in a very confufed
and imperfeét ftate. Nor isa complete feries of mutfical
compolitions by the beft mafters, from the earlieft period of
counterpoint to the prefent time, to be found in any public
or private library in Europe, to which I have ever had ac-
cefs. Indeed the collectors of books for royal, collegiate,
or public libraries, feem never to’ have had an idea of. form-
ing any regular plan for making fuch a colleétion ; and
though many individuals have been poffeffed of a rage for
accumulating mufical curiofities, it has feldom happened that
they have extended their ideas to mutical produCtions in
general; {o that no more than one clafs or fpecies of compo-
lition has been completed by them, and even this, at the
death of the proprietor, is ufually difperfed.

“In alibrary, formed upon fo large a fcale as that of the
king of France af Paris, the Bodleian, and Mafeum in Eng-
land, it feems as if mufic fhould be put on alevel with other
arts and {ciences, in which every book of charaéter is pro-
cured. Ina royal or ample colleGtion of pi&ures, f{peci-
mens at leaft of every great painter are purchafed, and no
private library is thought complete while the writings of a
lingle poet of eminence are wanting.”

sis the author, in a note upon this paflage has given a
fetch of fuch a mufical library as he thinks wanting, and
which has been inferted in the Ecyclopédie Methodique, we
fhall give it a place here, in his own words,

In forming fucha mufical library as would affift the ftu-
dent, gratify the curious, inform the hiftorian, and afford a
comparative view of the flate of the art at every period of
its exiltence, it were to be wifhed that the books, when
collected, were clafled in a way fomewhat like the fol-
lowing :

Maffes
Motets From the infancy

|
Madrigals [th counterpoint to
In modern lan- P
Songs in parts, i puages: the year 1500.

and fingle fongs
The fame continued to the year 1600 ; to which fhould
be added:

Services and full Satetee |

to Latin words,

To Englith words, as well
r= thefe of other modern
j languages.

Verfe and folo anthems
Pfalmody, in two or more
parts

The fame clafles completed to the year 1700, with the
addition of mafques, intermezzi, ferenatas,

Operas, ferious and comic.

Oratorios.

Cantatas.

Fantalias and Recercari, for various inftruments.

_Allthe above continued to the prefent time, with an ad-
dition of full

Concertos, fymphonies, and overtures.

ee with folo parts for particular inftruments.
uintets.

Quatuors,

ae

Sonatas, or trios, duets, and

Solos for every inftrument for which mufic has been com-
pofed, including voluntaries for the organ, and leffuns
for every fpecies of keyed inftrument.

The mufic publithed in fingle parts fhould be fcored, and
that publifhed in partition tranfcribed, in fingle parts ; to be
alike ready for the eye or the ear, for the theorift to exa-
mine, or the praétical mufician to perform.

And in order that fcience and criticifm may keep pace with
the mechanifm and praétice of the art, all the treatiles,
tracts, and effays, both in the dead and living languages,
fhould be colleéted, arranged chronologically, and affigued
a particular portion of the library.

The Bodleian library, the Mufeum, and Royal Society,
with fome other libraries, have copies of new books fent to
them, by the Stationers’ company, and by individuals either
by law or by courtefy ; and when once {uch a foundation of
old mutic is laid as we have here fketched out, it would foon
become a cuitom, or might be made one by the legiflature,
for copies of all mufic that is publifhed in England, as well ©
as books on the fubje&t, to be prefented by the authors or
editors to the public library. And the fame means fhould
be ufed-for procuring all foreign mufieal publications as are
employed in accumulating books from all parts of the globe,
where the prefs is at work.

The librarian, cuffode, or keeper of thefe books, fhould
be a good praétical mufician, as weil as theorift and {cholar,
in order to know the worth of the produétions he has in
charge, and to be enabled to give in{truGtions at leat how to
draw fingle parts from a fcore, and {core fingle parts ; to
explain difficulties to the ignorant, and difplay curiofities to
the learned ; to know the rank each compofer fhould hold
in every clafs, and perhaps record the degree of refpeét that
has been paid to him by his contemporaries, and which is
due to him from pofterity.

LIBRATA Terra, a portion of ground, containing
four oxgangs, and every oxgang thirteen acres.

It was anciently fo much land as was yearly worth 20s.
and in Henry III.’s time, he that had guindecim libratas -
terre, was to receive the order of knighthood.

Some fay, that as money is divided into pounds, fhillings,
pence, and farthings, the fame degrees are to be obferved
m the divifion of lands; and, therefore, as guadrans fig-
nifies a farthing, fo guadrantata is the fourth part of an
acre ; obolata, an half; denariata, a whole acre; folidata,
12 acres; and /ibrata, 20 times 12 acres ; i. e. 240 acres.

This is the fame with what in Scotland is called pound-land
of old extent. |

LIBRATION of the Moon, in Affronomy. Few per-
fons are unacquainted with the remarkable circumftance, that
the moon always prefents nearly the fame face to the earth.
Sometimes, however, we fee rather more of the eaftern, and
fometimes rather more of the weftern hemifphere than at
other times. The fame occafional variation is hkewife ob-
fervable in the north and fouth hemifpheres. This fenfible
ofcillation, partly real and partly apparent, is called the
libration of the moon. ;

Galileo was the firft aftronomer who obferved and at-
tempted to explain the libration of the moon; his explana-
tion was, however, very imperfect, not being aware that the
moft confiderable part of the libration arifes from the un-
equal motion of the moon in its orbit, as was firft difcovered
by Heveliusin 1654.- Laplace gives the following popular
explanation of the aitronomical appearances connetted with
the libration. For the phyfical explanation the reader is re-

ferred

DLs

ferred to a memoir of Lagrange (Memoires de 1’ Acade-
mie) which obtained the prize in 1764, and likewife to the
Berlin Memoirs, 1780, in which the tame author has invef-
tigated this fubjeét at great length.

Yo forma jutt idea of the principal caufes of this pheno-
menon, we fhould confider the difk of the moon, when feen
from the centre of the earth, as terminated by a great cir-
cle of the lunar globe, perpendicular to its radius vector
(a line joining the centres of the earth and moon) ; on the
plane of this great circle, that hemifphere of the moon
which is prefented to the earth js projected, and the various
appearances of this hemifpheye are connected with the rota-
tory motion of the moon on its axis. If this motion did not
exift, its radius veétor would trace a great circle on its fur-
face, every part of which would be fucceflively turned
towards us, during every lunar revolution. But at the fame
time that the radits vector would defcribe this circum-
ference, the moon, by its revolution, bringsvery nearly the
fame point of its furface to the radius, and confequently
turns the fame hemifphere towards the earth. ‘The mequa-
hities in the moon’s motion produce fome flight variation in
the appearance of this hemifphere ; for as the motion of ro-
tation does not partake perceptibly of thefe inequalities, it
is variable with refpect to the radius veétor, which thus in-
terfets its furface at different points. The lunar globe,
therefore, makes, with refpe& to this radius, ofcillations
correfponding to the inequalities of its motion, which caufe
fome part of its furface to be alternately concealed, and ex-

ofed to our obfervation.

This libration, referred to the ecliptic, is called the bration
in longitude. But the moon has another /ibration in latitude
perpendicular to this, and by which the parts near the poles
of the axis of rotation of this globe alternately appear and
difappear. To comprehend this phenomenon, let us fup-
pofe the axis of rotation to be perpendicular to the ecliptic.
When the moon is in its afcending node, thefe two poles will
be at the northern and fouthern extremity of the vifible he-
mifphere. In proportion as the moon is raifed above the
ecliptic, the northern pole and the parts furrounding it will
difappear, while the regions near the fouth pole will be-
come more and more vifible, till the moon, having arrived at
it§ greatelt northern latitude, will return again towards the
ecliptic. Thefe phenomena will then be reproduced in the
reverfe order; and when the moon, having reached its de-
fcending,node, paffes below the ecliptic, the north pole will
prefent the fame phenomenaas the fouthern one had offered.

The axis of rotation of the moon is not always perpendi-
cular to the ecliptic, and its inclination produces appearances
which may be underftood by fuppofing the moon to move
upon the plane of the ecliptic, fo that its axis fhould always
remain parallel to itfelf; it is obvious that then each pole
will be vifible during half a revolution of the moon round
the earth, and invifible during the other half, fo that the re-
gions which furround them will be alternately vifible and in-
vilible.

And laftly, the obferver is not at the centre of the earth
but at the furface. It is the vifual ray drawn from his eye
to the centre of the moon, which determines the middle of
the vifible hemifphere, and it is clear that from the effe& of
the lunar parallax, this radius cuts the furface of the moon
at different points, according to its height above the ho-
rizon.

Ali thefe caufes produce only an apparent libration of the
lunar globe ; they are mére optical illufions, and do not af-
fe& its real motion of rotation; it is neverthelefs true, that
this rotation maybe fubje& to fome fmall irregularities, but
they have not yet been deteéted by obfervation,

“Vor. XX.

LIB

Tt is not the fame with the inequalities of the lunar
equator. In endeavouring to determine its pofition by obs
fervations of {pots on the moon, Dominique Caffini was led
to this remarkable refult, which contains all the aflronomi-
cal theory of the real libration of the moon. If we con-
ceive a plane to pafs through the centre of the moon, per-
pendicular to its axis of rotation, which plane wil coincide
with that of the equator; if, moreover, we imagine a fecond
plane parallel to that of the ecliptic, and a third plane, which
is the mean plane of the lunar orbit, thefe three plareg
will always have a common interfection. The fecone plane,
fituated between the two others, forms with the firil an
angle of about 1° 30'10", and with the fecond, an angle of
5° 8' 49". Thus the interfeétions of the lunar orbit with
the ecliptic or its nodes, always coincide with the mean nodes
of the lunar orbit, and, like them, have a retrograde motion,
whofe period is 18’ 2234 7" 13! 17".7. In this interval the two
poles of the equator and of the lunar orbit defcribe {mall cire
cles parallel to the ecliptic, in fucha manner, that thefe three
poles are conftantly fituated on a great circle of the heavenly
{phere.

Teasan ines of the Earth, is a term applied by fome
aftronomers to that motion, whereby the earth is fo retained
in its orbit, as that its axis continues conftantly parallel to
the axisof the world. See PARALLELISM.

This Copernicus calls the motion of libration ; and may
be illuftrated thus: Suppofe a globe, with its axis parallel to
that of the earth, painted on the flag of amaft, moveable
on its axis, and conftantly driven by an eaft wind, while it
fails round an ifland ; it is evident, the painted globe will be
fo librated, as that its axis will be parallel to that of the
world, in every fituation of the fhip.

LIBSHAUSEN, in Geography, a town of Bohemia,
in the circle of Leitmeritz; 15 miles S.W. of Leit-
meritz.

LIBUN, atownof Bohemia, in the circle of Boleflaw ;
16 miles N.E. of Jung-Buntzel.

LIBURNIA, in Ancient Geography, a province of Tilyriay
along the Adriatic fea, over-againit Italy, between Dalma-
tia on the fouth, and Iftria on the north. This peninfula
runs into the fea between the rivers Tedanius and Titiusy
now the Zermagne and Kerka, the latter of which was in
the Roman times the boundary between Liburnia and Dal-
matia. Zara, anciently Jadera, and afterwards Diadora,
was once the capital of Liburnia. The ruins of Burnum,
the Liburnia of Strabo, are to be feen on the right hand of
the Titius, or Kerka, in the defert of Bukoviza.

LIBURNII, er Lisurnians, the denomination of one
of the three natiens which fprang from the Illyrians, having
left the country which bore their name in Illyria. They were
probably the firft people who penetrated ito Italy by its
northern part, about the fixteenth century before the Chrif-
tian era, and in procefs of time fettled along the fea-coaft.
In Italy they were divided into three branches, viz. the
Apuli, the Pzdiculi, or Padicli, and the Calabri. The
country which they inhabited was called Apulia by the Ro-
mans, or Japygia by the Greeks.

LIBYA, the name anciently given to that part of the
world called dfrica (which fee), comprehending in ite
whole extent Egypt, Marmarica, Cyrenaica, the. Syrtic
region, Libya proper, Numidia, Mauritania, Libya or
Africa interior, Ethiopia, &c.; and bounded on the N. by
the Mediterranean, on the E. by the uthmus of Suez, the
Red fea or the Arabian gulf, and the Eaftern ocean; on
the S. by the Ethiopian fea ; and onthe W. by the Atlantic
fea. In a more reltri¢ted fenfe, the name has been ap-
plied to that divifion of Libya or Africa called |“ Li-

4Q bya

LIC

bya Interior,” which lay weftwards with regard to the
other divifien of Ptolemy denominated Ethiopia fub
Egypto. The line of divifion between thefe two parts,
marked by this geographer, pafles through Darnis, a
city on the confines of Cyrenaica. In this weltern part,
called Libya interior, the inhabitants confifted chiefly
of the Gatuli, Garamantes, Nigrite, and Hefperian
Ethiopians, befides many other people, lefs confiderable
and lefs known. See Getrunia, GARAMANTES, and
Erniopia.

Lrsya, a town of Hifpania'interior. Anton. Itin.

Lisya Palus, a lake of Africa, properly fo called.
Ptolemy.

LIBYARCHA, a people of Africa, in Libya, and
more particularly in Marmarica, of which they occupied
the northern part. Ptolemy.

LIBYCUM Mang, or fea of Libya, a name given by
the ancients to part of the Mediterranean fea, which adjoined
the coaft of the Marzotide Libya; bounded on the W. by
the fea of Africa, and on the E. by the fea of Egypt.

LIBYCUS Mons, a mountain of Egypt, near the city
of Thebes. The Nile ran between this mountain and the
Sacred mountain.

LIBYPH-ENICES, aname given by fome authors tothe
Pheenician colonies eftablifhed in Africa, in contradiftin@tion
to the Syro-phcenicians, or the Phoenicians of Afia.

LIBYSSA, a maritime town of Afia, in Bithynia,
fituated between Chalcedonia and Numidia. It was the
place of Hannibal’s retreat for avoiding the hatred of the
Romans.

LICANIA, in Botany, Aublet. Guian. 119. t. 45.
See Hepycrea.

LICAVO, in Geography, a town of the ifland of Cor-
fica; 20 miles E. of Ajazzo.

LICE. See Louse.

Lice of trees. See ApPuis.

LICEA, in Botany, a genus of Fungi, Schrad. Nov.
Gen. 16. Perf. Syn. 195, the fpecies of which have been,
fome of them, referred to Trichia, Spherocarpus, (not the
true Spherocarpus of Micheli, which belongs to the order of
Alge), and Didymium. Its charaéter is- thus given by
Perfoon.

Peridium, (or cafe,) naked, roundifh, or fomewhat inde-
terminate in fhape, brittle. Internal membrane wanting.
Seminal powder deflitute of fibres.

The ipecies he enumerates are five, all very minute pro-
duétions, fearcely bigger than pins’ heads, found chiefly on
rotten wood of the fir kind.

1. L. bicolor, the fir {pecies, (Didymium parietinum ;
Schrad. Nov. Gen. 24. t. 6. f. 1.) is fingular for being
found on white-wafhed mud walls. Its outer cafe is dark
olive, enclofing a quantity of bright yellow powder, which,
according to Schrader’s generic character of Didymium,
fhould be intermixed with fibres. Within is another, much
finaller, brown, likewife globular, rather hard and rough
cafe, full of a coarfer brown powder.

2. Ly eireum/ciffay (Spherocarpus feffilis ; Bulliard t. 417.
f. 5.), is brown and cluttered, opening by a circular divi-
fion. Found in autumn or winter, between the bark and
wood of the Afpen-tree.

3- L. pufilla, Schrad. Nov. Gen. 19. t. 6. f. 4, is he-
milpherical, polifhed, chefnut-coloured, ‘with a blackifh
powder.

4. L. variabilis, ibid. 18. t. 6. f. 5, 6, is various in
ficure and colour, reddifh-brown ; the powder dirty
yellow.

5. L. flexuofa, is defcribed by Perfoon as creeping or

LIC

oblong, fhining red brown, fomewhat wavy, with fawe
like incifions, Thefe three laft are found on fir wood.

Some of Schrader’s {pecies are removed by Perfoon to
other genera. Albertini and Schweiniz, in their Confpec-
tus Fungorum, have de{cribed two new fpecies.

‘L. frobilina, n. 303. t. 6. f. 3, found on the inner fides
of the feales of cones of Pinus Picea, growing regularly in
clulters, brown, with a dull yellow powder.

L. incarnata, n. 304. t. 10. f. 6, obferved once only, on
rotten fir wood in a moift foreft, the beginning of OGober.
It is crowded, flefh-coloured with a iteely glofs ; the pow-
der at firlt white, then flefh-coloured, finally deep rofe-
coloured.

LICENCE, Licenrra, in Law, a power or authority
given to another to do fome lawful aét.

A licence is a perfonal power, and cannot be transferred
to another; though a licence may be granted to a man and
his afligns. (12 Hen. VII. 25.) ‘There may bea parol li-
cence, as well as by deed in writing ; but if it be not for
a certain time, it pafles no intereft. (2 Nelf. Abr. 1123.)
By licence a man may practife phyfic and furgery in Lon-
don: licences are alfo neceflary for carrying on various
trades and profeffions, on which a duty is laid, for the pur-
pofe of raifing a revenue to government. If a Ieflor licenfe
his leffee (who is reftrained by covenant from aliening with-
out licence) to alien; and fuch leffor dies before he aliens,
this is no countermand of the licence: fo it is if the leffor
grants over his eftate. (Cro. Jac. 133.) But where a lord
of a manor for life granteth a copyhold tenant to alien,

» and dieth, the licence is deftroyed, and the power of alien-

ation ceafeth. (1 Init. 52.) Copyhold tenants leaiing
their copyhold for a longer time than one year, are to have _
a licence for it; or they incur a forfeiture of their eftates.
(1 Inft. 63.) If any licence is given to a perfon, and he
abufes it, he fhall be adjudged a trefpafer ab initio. 8 Rep.
146.

Licence to alien in mortmain. Alienations in mortmzin
to ecclefiattical perfons, &c. are reftrained by feveral fta-
tutes; but the king may grant licence to any perfon or
bodies politic, &c. to alien or hold lands m mortmain.
27 Ed. I. 7 & 8 W. III. cap. 37.

Licence is alfo ufed, in the Civil Law, for a permiflion
or leave granted by a fuperior.

Juftinian appointed four years to be {pent in the ftudy of
the law ; after which, thofe who had difcharged this obliga-
tion, were faid to have licence or permiffion to retire from
fludy.

Licence is alfo applied to the letters, or certificates,
taken out in univerfities, whether in law, phyfic, or di-
vinity. .

Licence in the Sorbonne, denotes a period of two years,
which the bachelors are obliged to pafs in aflifting at atts,
and difputing in them, to qualify themfelves for being ad-
mitted doctors. See DrGRreE.

Licence, letter of.. See LETTER.

Licence to arife, in Law, Licentia furgendi, is a liberty,
or {pace of time given by the court to a tenant, who is
effoined de malo /e&i in a real ation, to rife out of his bed,
and go about his bufinefs. .

Licence for eledion of bifkops. See Concer d’Elire.

Licence of marriage. Bilhops have power to grant li-
cences for this purpofe; and parfons marrying any perfon
without publifhing the banns of matrimony, or without li-
cence, incur a forfeiture of rool. &c. by 7 & 8 W. III,
cap. 35. See alfo flat. 26 Geo. ll. c. 33. See Mars,
RIAGE. : Pe

Licence, in Painting, are the liberties which the painter

6 takes

LIC

takes in difpenfin¢ with the rules of perfpective, and the
other laws of this art.

Licence, poetical, is the liberty which poets claim of dif-
penfing with the ordinary rules of grammar.

Anciently poets had much greater licences than are now
allowed. The Greeks, by having recourfe to the feveral
diale&ts of their tongue, could lengthen out a word, if it
were too fhort, or retrench fomething from it, if it were
too long. The old poets did what they pleafed with their
language, and’ fubjected it not only to all their neceflities,
but their caprices too:

* «Et data Romanis venia eft indigna poetis.””

But thefe became ridiculous in courfe of time; and the
poets are now defpoiled of molt of their ancient privi-
leges.

ae in Mufic, a feeming breach of rule.

There are licences in harmony as well as in melody.
As the laws of counterpoint were at firft arbitrary, and
formed of narrow and contracted principles, they became
fubject to change at the caprice or tafte of the compofer,
and at all times, the breach of an old rule by a great matter
became the eftablifhment of a new one for a compofer of
inferior fame. At prefent, except the two fundamental
prohibitions ef two sths and fwo Sths in regular progreflion,
there is no rule that has not been happily infringed, at one
time or other, by fome man of genius; fo that it may be
faid, perhaps, that whatever does not offend a cultivated
ear in harmony or melody, is allowable in mufic. Of
the difallowances of former times, there was none that
feemed fo inviolable as falfe relation, fuch as naturals
againit fharps, or fharps again{t naturals: in the perfe&
concords, as a redundant sta, a diminifhed 4th, ora falfe
octave. Yet thefe licences, of late years, have been fo fre-
quently. practifed, as almoft to eftablifh them into rules.
The good or bad efed determines the expediency.

If the effe& be good, it isa licence, if bad, a fault. Ema-
nuel Bach, we believe, was the firit who ventured to hazard
a falfe 8th, or a fharp againft a natural in melody. But
Haydn and Mozart having fince frequently violated the rule
with effe@, it almoft ceafes to be a licence, and every fonat-
teur in compofition affumes the fame privilege. Thefe li-
cences, however, can only be defended on the principle
of appoggialuras, as they are certainly inharmonic.

LICENSED Curate. See Curare.

LICENSING of Books. See Liberty of the Press, and
PRINTING. -

LICENTIA Concorpanp!, in Law, is that licence
for which the king’s filver is paid in pafling a fine, mentioned
in 12Car. IL. cap. 12.

Licentia Jogquendi. See EMPARLANCE.

Licentia ¢transfretandi, a writ or warrant dire€ted to
the keeper of the port of Dover, or other feaport, com-
manding them to let fuch perfons pafs over fea, who have
obtained the king’s licence for the purpofe. Reg. Orig.

193.
TICENTIATE, or Licencrats, he who has obtained
the degree of a licence.

Mott of the officers of judicature in Spain are known by
no other name than that of licentiates. ‘T'o pafs licentiate
in the common law, civil law, or phyfic, they muft have
ftudied feven years ; in divinity, ten.

LiceNTIATE, among us, is ufually underftood of a phy-
fician, who has a licence to practife, granted him by the
College of Phyficians, or by the bifhop of the diocefe.

A perfon practiting phytic without fuch licence, in cafe

BC

his patient dics under his hands, is
eye of the law.

LICETO, Forrunto, in Biography, a celebrated phry="
fician and philofopher, was born at Rapallo, in the {tate
of Genoa, on the 3d of of Oétober, 1577, where his fae
ther, Jofeph Liceto, was alfo a phyfician. His education
was conducted with great care, and he afterwards {pent four
years in ftudy at Bologna, which he quitted in 1599. He
then fettled at Pifa, where he foon obtained the profeffor-
fhip of philofophy, which he filled with fo much reputa-
tion, that he was invited to the fame chair in the univerfity
of Padua in 1609, which he occupied until 1636. He
removed at that time to Bologna, in confequence of failing
to obtain the profeflorfhip of medicine, which became va-
cant by the death of. Cremonini. But the Venetian ftates
very foon perceived, and acknowledged the lofs which
the univerfity of Padua had fuftained by the retirement of
Liceto ; and when a vacancy occurred in the firlt chair of
the theory of phyfic in 1645, he was induced, by the
preffing invitations which were made to him, to return to
Padua, where he held the profefforfhip, at an advanced
falary, till his death in 1657. He was a very copious
writer, having publifhed upwards of fifty treatifes upon
medical, moral, philofophical, antiquarian, and hiftcrical
fubjeéts ; but they are no longer fufficiently interefting to
require a detail of their titles, He was aman of confider-
able erudition, and an ardent admirer of the doGrines of
Ariftotle ; but difplayed little acutenefs in refearch or ori-
ginality of conception. He wrote a treatife “* De Lucernis
Antiquorum reconditis,’” in which he maintains the opi-
nion, that the ancients were poffeffed of a fecret procefs tor
making inconfumable lamps, by fome mode of condenfing
the vapour into oil, which returned to the refervoir, and
was extremely credulous in refpeét. to the pretended dif.
coveries of fepulchra] lamps of this fort. But his opinions
were pofitively refuted by profeffor Ferrari of Padua, in a
treatile, ‘* De veterum lucernis fepulchralibus."’ Among
his medical writings, his treatife, «* De Monftrorum Caufis,
Natura, et Differentiis,"” is beft known ; but it is replete
with inftances of credulity, and with the fables and {uper-
{titions of his predeceflors, and contains a claffification of
the monfters, which had been previoufly defcribed, without
any correctiog from his own obfervations. The be(t edi-
tion is that of Gerard Blafius, in 1668. Eloy Dié. Hiit.
Gen. Biog.

Licrro, in Ornithology. See CENorzqui. .

LICH, in Geography, a town of Gerrnany, in the prin-
cipality of Hohen-Solms, en. the Wetter; 12 miles E.S.E.
of Wetzlar. N. lat. 50° 31'. E. long. 8’ 4o!.

LI-CHAN, a town of Corea; 17 miles E.S.E. of
Ret-fin. :

LICHANOS, in the Ancient Mufic, is the name of the 3d
found of the two loweft tetrachords in the fyftem of the
Greeks ; as this found was produced by the index or fore-
finger, which: was called Jichanos.. The 3d found of the
loweft tetrachord afcending, was that, of the Aypate, and
called lichanos-hypaton, fometimes hypaton-diatonos, €n-
harmonic, or chromatic, according to the genus. That of
the 2d, or mean tetrachord, was called lichanos-mefon,

guilty of felony in the

-or Mefon diatonos.

LICHEN, in Botany, Asxnvy a name borrowed by the
Romans from the Greeks for the difeafe called a tetter, or
ringworm, and applied by both to fome plant of a mofly
Nature, growing on ttones, which was thought a cure for
fuch complaints. What the Lichen of the ancients may
have been is very obfeure, and the enquiry is given up by

4Q2 : ilenius

LICHEN.

Dillenius himfelf in defpair. He has applied this name to
the Marchantia of other writers, under which he compre-
hends the very diftinét genera of Targionia, Riccia and Sphe-
rocarpus ; fee his t. 78, Linnzeus much more happily adopts
the Lichen of 'Tournefort and Micheli, whofe cruftaceous
and feurfy nature, in many inttances, is affociated with the
original idea of the word. This Dillenius terms Lichenoides,
from which he diltinguifhes Coralloides and U/nea, but all
three are comprehended in the Linnean Lichen.—Linn.
Gen. 566. Schreb. 767. Mart. Mill. Di&t. v. 3. Hudf.
523. Juff. 7. Tourn. t. 325. Mich. Gen. t. 36—53.
Hedw. Theor. 120. t. 30, 31. Lamarck, Hluftr. t. 878.
(Lichenoides ; Dill. Mufc. 124. t. 183—30. Coralloides ;
ibid. 75. t. 14—17. Ufnea; ibid. 56. t. 11—13.)—Clafs
and order, Cryptogamia Alge, Nat. Ord. Ales Linn.
Jul.

Eff. Ch. Male, fcattered powdery warts ?—Female, fhields
or tubercles, in whofe difk the feeds are lodged.

Obf. Linnzus takes for male what are now known to be
the female flowers, and, vice veri, takes for the female
thofe powdery heads, warts or fiflures in the frond, which
are by fome thought buds, by others the male blofloms.
We -have therefore ventured to reverfe his character of this
vaft genus, which properly embraces an entire natural order.
(See Licnenes.) It is neceffary however here to give a
compendious view of Lichen, as underftood by Linnzus.
The fpecies defined in the 14th edition of his Sy/ema
Vegetabilium amount to 1303 but the infufficiency of this
catalogue, to comprize all the Lichens in the world, will
be ftrikingly evident, when we confider that about 345
Britifh {pecies have already appeared in Englifh Botany,
and that feveral more remain to be publifhed there. We
fhall on this occafion prefer illuftrating the nine fections,
into which Linneus has divided his genus, by {pecies of his
own, rather than by new ones. Molt of thefe exift in his
herbarium, few or none of them being adopted from Dille-
nius or other cryptogamifts, which cannot fo generally be
faid of the Linnean proper Mu/ti.

Se&. 1. Leprofi tuberculati. Twenty-one {pecies.

Thefe confift of a leprous perennial cruft, of more or
lefs denfity, hardnefs and {moothnefs, its furface often gra-
nulated, fometimes powdery, of various colours, (white,
grey, greenifh, or yellowifh,) in different {pecies; the in-
ternal fubftance however is generally very white, often with
a green ftratum immediately below the a€tual furface. This
cruft {preads circularly, with more or lefs regularity, over
ftones, rocks, earth, the bark of trees, or even dead wood,
to which it frequently adheres fo ftrongly, that, being more-
over in fome cafes very thin, it cannot be feparated entire.
Fibrous roots, of the cartilaginous or chalky fubftance of
the cruft, may be detected in {pecies that grow upon uneven
bodies, or on the ground. The circumference or border of
the cruft is always thin; often marked with a dark-coloured
line ; occafionally beautifully fibrous and branched. ‘The
central part firit decays, and finally crumbles away, young
plants, of the fame or a different {pecies, foon afterwards
{pringing up there from feed ; while the marginal boundary
of’ the original cruft, if its fituation be convenient for the
purpofe, is fometimes extended to ten times its ufual limits.

The cruit of the thicker or tartareous f{pecies, more ef-
pecially, is liable to affume a red or purplifh hue, from
the accefs of volatile alkali ; which is feen when certain ani-
mal i{ub{tances fall upon thefe plants in their native fitua-
tions. he obfervation of this has led to the ufe of fome
of them in dyemg; but feveral of the next and following
feGtions are preferable for this purpofe.—The female fructi-

fication, or rather the fruit itfelf, of this firlt {eGtion, is, of
ought to be, convex, without any border ;. except in a young
{late, when there is ufually a thin margin of its own fub-
ftance. The difk is moft frequently black, in fome brown,
pale grey, or reddifh ; and in its folid internal fubftance are
innumerable, vertical, clofed cells, each containing about
eight minute feeds. It may be obferved that the increafing _
convexity of this difk feems well calculated to allow room .
for the {welling of the feeds ; and finally, by feparating or
expanding the cells, to promote the efcape of their contents.
The fubjacent cruft, under each tubercle, is elevated into its
core or centre, fo as to form a nucleus there.- Difcoveries
fubfequent to the time of Linnzus have found this fection to
be rather heterogeneous, as to the affinities of the feveral kinds,
as will be explained hereafter. (See Licuenrs.) Our purpofe
is now merely to indicate the moit remarkable {pecies, for
the elucidation of our author.

L. feriptus. Sytt. Veg. ed. 14. n. 1. Linn. Sp. Pl. 1606.
(Lichenoides crulta tenuiflima, peregrinis velut literis inferipta;
Dill. Mufe. 128. t. 18. f. 1. Opegrapha {cripta; Engl. Bot.
t. 1813.)—Leprous, whitifh, bearing {mall, black, branched,
letter-like lines. —Common on the {mooth bark of young
trees. The cru/ is a fine, infeparable, whitifh film. The
fruélification conveys an idea of Hebrew or Chinefe writing,
inavery ftriking manner. This plant however, as underftood
by Linnzus, Dillenius, and moft of their followers till lately,
embraces at lealt 30 known {pecies, together conftituting a
moft natural and diltinét genus, of which we fhall fpeak
hereafter more than once, under the name of Opegrapha.

L. geographicus. n.2. Sp. Pl. 1607. Engl. Bot. t. 245.
(Lichenoides nigro-flavum, tabule geographicz inftar pi€tum;
Dill. Mufc. 126. t. 18. f. 5.)—Leprous, yellowifh, with
black lines refembling a map. — Frequent on the hard rocks
of mountainous countries, and almolt as hard itfelf, at leat
to the touch, forming broad infeparable patches, of a vivid
greenifh-yellow, or lemon-colour, curioufly ftreaked and
dotted with black marks, compofed of the tubercles, which
are flat, not elevated above the cru/?, frequently confluent or
crowded.

Of this fpecies, atrovirens, n. 3, is thought to bea variety,
or rather an early ftage of its growth.

L. fanguinarius. n.g. Sp. Pl. 1607. Engl. Bot. t. 155.
(Verrucaria fanguinaria ; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 41: f. 1.)—
Cruft tartareous, white, polifhed, uneven. Tubercles black,
without a border; bright red within.— Found on granite
rocks ; copioufly upon Cromford Moor, Derbyfhire ; very
rarely on the rugged barks of trees. This is extremely re-
markable for the internal ftains of bright red, perceived
when the tubercles, and even fome parts of the cru/f, are
broken ; which refembling blood, gave occafion to the very
apt name. Several fpecies, deftitute of that property, and
which otherwife but imperfectly refemble this, are confounded
with it by Linnezus, Hudfon, Lightfoot, and others.

L. ventofus. n. 17. Sp. Pl. 1607. Engl. Bot. t. 906.
(L. cruentus; Web. Goett. 184. t.1. L. flavefcens ; Jacq.
Mile. v.2.79.t.9. f.1. Li. gelidus ; Hudf. 528. Lichen-
oides tartareum lividum, fcutellis rufis, margine exili; Dill.
Mule. 133. t. 18. f. 14.)—Cruft tartareous, rugged, pale
fulphur-coloured. Shields irregular, a little fwelling, blood-
red, with a narrow pale border. — Found on large expofed
granite or fand-{tones, in mountainous places, forming
patches as broad as the hand, eafily pared from the rock
when moift. The cruft is of an elegant pale lemon or
fulphur-colour, turning white the fecond year, but in either
cafe it is ftrikingly contrafted with the crimfon /hields. Thefe
having a permanent border, of a different fubitance and

8 colour

L&C

eotoug from their difk, are /hields, not tubercles, fo that the
‘plant belongs properly to the fecond fection of its genus,
of which we flall next give a few examples, and to which
it is referred by Murray in Sytt. Veg. ed. 14, under Jac-
quin’s name of flave/cens, fo that it occurs twice in that
edition.

S2. 2. Leprofi fcutellati. Twelve {pecies.

The crult ae hele is almoft univerfally tartareous, fome-
times very thick, lefs hard than in feveral of the former, and
more eafily feparable from the ftones or bricks on which it
may happen to grow. The effential difference refides in the
fructification, which confiits of flattifh fhields, or, as Dil-
denius terms them, faucers, whofe elevated permanent mar-
gin is of the fubftance and colour of the cruft, not of the
diflc.

L. tartareus. n. 25. Sp. Pl. 1608. Engl. Bot. t. 156.
(Lichenoides cruftaceum et leprofum, acetabulis majoribus
luteis, limbis argenteis; Dill. Mufc. 132. t. 18. f.13.)—
Cruft tartareous, rugged, granulated, whitifh. Shields
tawny buff-coloured, with a white margin.—The largeft of
the cruftaceous Lichens; very frequent upon rocks in the
north, and important as an article of commerce. The diame-
ter of the cruf is fix, eight orten inches, and its thicknefs a
quarter or half an inch. The /bields are frequently half an
inch wide, confpicuous for their full buf colour, and white,
fmooth, wavy border. ‘This fpecies is much ufed in dyeing,
being {craped from the rocks when fully grown, which 1s
about the fifth year of its age, and mixed with volatile alkali
and alum. It is fold to the dyers in the form of a purple
powder, called Cudbear, which being boiled with woollen
yarn, communicates any fhade of its own colour that may
be delired, but does not dye vegetable fubitances. This
colour is by no means permanent, being far inferior, in that
refpect, to what is given by the Orchall of the Levant,
Lichen Roccella,

L. frigidus. n. 24, Swartz Meth. Mufc. 36. t. 2. f. 4.
Engl. Bot. t. 1879, found on the Scottifh mountains, 1s
pretty generally believed to be a mere variety of fartareus,
with a thinner cruff ; but it feems to differ in throwing out
flender branched briitly proceffes, not found in the former.

L. Perellus. n. 32. Linn. Mant. 132. Engl. Bot. t. 727,

is like ¢artareus on a {maller fcale, with /hields of the fame’

white colour as the cru/, and is ufed likewife for dyeing
purplifh colours, chiefly in the fouth of France.

L. upfalienfis, n. 33. Sp: Pl. 1609. Engl. Bot. t. 1634,
differs trom Perellus as frigidus does from #artareus, in having
flender awl-fhaped briltles protruded from the cruit.

L. fubfufeus. nv30. Sp. Pl. 1609. Engl. Bot. t. 2109.
(Lickeectes ier nce re leprofum, foutellis fubfufcis ;
Dill. Mufe. 134. t. 18. f. 16.)—Crult thin, continued,
fmoothifh, brownifh-white. Shields feffile, flightly convex,
reddifh-brown, with a tumid, whitifh, entire border.—This
is one of the thinneft, and ufually lealt tartareous, of the
prefent fection, and is very common every where on the
fmooth barks of trees, being diltinguifhed by its copious,
bay or chefnut /bie/ds, whofe white fmooth border renders
them confpicuous. Their difk is fometimes curioufly pro-
lifcrous, which happens alfo in tartareus. Sometimes it is
parti-coloured, or mixed with a pale waxy hue, as if
withered or abortive there. Numerous fpecies greatly re-
femble this, but have been diftinguifhed from it and from
each other, generally very fuccefsfully, by the acutenefs of
the learned profeflor Acharius and others.

In this fame fection Linnzus places his candelarius, fee
Engl. Bot. t. 1794, but improperly; doubtlefs from his
having, at one time or other, confounded with it, as others

HE N.

have done; the vitellinus of authors, Engl. Bot. t. 1792, and
citrinus, t. 1793+ ‘Uhefe are all yellow in their cruf? or frond,
as well as the /hields of their margins; and ferve to give a
golden colour to candles, ufed on feftival days in the Swedifh
churches, by being mixed with the melted wax or tallow.

Some of this fection have a lobed, though uot eafily fepa-
rable, crult, as ntigerus, n. 29. Engl. Bot. t. 871; and
gelidus, t.699. The true /hields of the latter, whofe dif
is of a fine pink colour, were not known to Linnzus, who
miftook for the fruétification of this rare fpecies certain
brown warts, or proliferous excrefcences of the cruft, which
he termed pelte ; fee his Mantiffa, 133. Having neverthe-
lefs true fhields, it properly belongs to this fecond feétion.
L. mufcorum, n. 31. Engl. Bot. t.626, on the contrary,
having we a black and evanefcent border to its black con-
vex tubercles, fhould have been placed in the firft.

Set. 3. Imbricati. ‘Thirteen f{pecies.

The plants of this fe€tion do not confift of an adherent
cruft, but approach more or lefs to a leafy ftru€ture, being
either of a membranous, cartilaginous or gelatinous texture.
The fegments fpread from a centre, lying over one another
like tiles, the central ones being moft divided and elevated,
the marginal part more depreffed, rather plaited than deeply
cut, and moft dilated outwards. The two fides differ re-
markably ; the upper being ufually either pitted, wrinkled,
warty, or befprinkled with mealy cracks, but deftitute of
hairs, and frequently polifhed, varioufly coloured ; the under
opaque, fometimes pale or white, fometimes quite black,
always befet with innumerable fibrous perpendicular radicles,
by which it is firmly attached to the bark, wood, earth or
{tones on which the plants grow. The fhields are horizon-
tal, {cattered over the upper furface, to which they are at-
tached chiefly by their central part. Their border is of the
fubftance and colour of the frond; the difk fomewhat deeper
in hue, and much inclined to a chefnut or tawny caft. The
mealy warts or cracks in the upper fide of the frond are pre-
fumed to be the male bloffoms, becaufe no other are known.
This is a mifcellaneous and unnatural combination of {pecies,
as will be explained under the next fection.

L. centrifugus. n. 34. Sp- Pl. 1609. FI. Lapp. ed. 2.
357- n. 448. t. 11. f. 2.—Imbricated, membranous ; green
ifh-white and fmooth above; white, with brownifh fibres,
beneath: fegments linear, divaricated, bluntifh. Shields
fcattered towards the circumference, reddifh-brown, with
an inflexed, almoft entire, border.—This is, according to
Linnezus, extremely common on large ftones throughont
Lapland, where Lichens that grow on ftones are more rare
than in other places. It is of all others moft remarkable
for its centrifugal mode of growth, forming circles a foot or
two in diameter, and indeed fometimes, as we are told, eight
or ten feet, confifting of a whitifh band two or three inches
broad, while the central part is quite decayed and oblite-
rated. Linnzzus errs in citing under this a fynonym of Dil-
lenius, t. 24. f.75, which is the confperfus of Acharius and
Engl, Bot. t. 2097, a fpecies found in yarious parts of
Europe, of a more compact manner of growth and greener
colour, with” broader lobes and larger, concave, dark chef-
nut fhields.

L. faxatilis. n. 35. Engl. Bot. t. 603; and omphalodesy
n. 36. Engl. Bot. t. 604; are of a more lax and leafy habit
than the laft, as well as different in colour. The former of
them is very commen ; the latter confined to mountainous
rocky heaths or moors. Both are ufed to dye browns or

dull. reds in the ruder ftates of human fociety, or amongit
the inhabitants of the alps.

L. parictinus. no 43+ Sps Pl. 1610. Engl. Bot. t. 194.
(Lichenoider

LICHEN.

{Lichenoides vulgare finuofum, foliis et fcutellis luteis ;
‘Pill. Mufe. 180. t. 24. f. 76.) Imbricated, membranous,
fteliated, roundly lobed and crifped, orange-coloured ; pale
and fibrous beneath. Shields of the fame colour, with a
thin entire border.—One of the moft common of its genus,
very confpicuous-on old walls, as well as on rocks, wooden
buildings, trees and bufhes. Its rich golden colour is moft
vivid in expofed fituations ; afluming an olive, greenifh, or
greyifh calt in the fhade and damp. Several {pecies how-
ever are perhaps confounded under this by Linnzus and his
followers.

L. fellaris. n. 45. Sp. Pl. 1611. Engl. Bot. t. 1697,
coloured too green.—‘ Imbricated; leaflets oblong, laci-
niated, narrow, afh-coloured. Shields brown.’’ Linn.—
Very common on trees. Under this a great number of
{pecies are undoubtedly confounded by~ Linneus, though
“Acharius may poffibly have gone too far in dividing them.
Some are green when wet; others continue grey, whether
morft or dry. The /bields in all of them are of a greyifh-
black, not verging towards red, and are ufually plentifully
produced.

Se&. 4. Foliacei. "Twenty-fix fpecies.

What Linneus refers to this fection are all naturally
allied to one or other fpecies of the laft, fo that the two
feftions ought to form but one, thofe of the prefent being
only more leafy, lefs imbricated, and in’ fome cafes quite
erect. Nothing however can be more mifcellaneous than
this divifion of the genus.

L. Burgeffii. n. 48. Lightf. Scot. 827. t. 26. Engl. Bot.
‘t. 300.—Gelatinous, membranous, crifped and fringed, of
adark glaucous grees. Shields deprefled, dark brown,

-with a leafy, crifped, elevated border.—Found on the
trunks of old trees in Scotland and Wales. One of the
smoft elegant of its tribe, confifting of dark-green patches
as broad as the hand, of delicate pellucid curled and wavy
eaves, bearing numerous /bields, very remarkable on account
of-their leafy, complicated, wreath-like borders. Z. ornatus,
n, 71, is the very fame {pecies. When dry the whole frond
becomes more opaque, verging towards a lead colour. This
belongs to a tribe called gelatinous Lichens, which contti-
tute a very natural genus, now named Collema. All agree
in their peculiar dark-green colour, femi-pellucid pulp
texture, and reddifh or tawny-olive, generally {mall, fhields.
Some of them are placed by Linnzus in the former fection,
others in this,

L. ciliaris. n. 49. Sp. Pl. 1611. Engl. Bot. t. 1352 ;
is of the fame natural famivy as /fellaris of the laft order ;
only larger, more lax, and remarkably fringed.

L. caperatus.n. 65. Sp. Pl. 1614. Engl. Bot. t. 654; is
in like manner allied to /awatilis, &c. and is properly an imbri-
cated fpectes.

L. iflandicus. n. 50. Sp. Pl. 1611. Engl. Bot. t. 1330.
FI, Dan. t. 155. Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 9. f. 13 18 celebrated
as a reftorative medicine in confumptive complaints. This
with the three following of this feCtion, nivalis, n. 51. Engl.
Bot. t. 1994 3 juniperinus, n. 64. Hoftm. Pl, Lich, t. 7. f. 2;

_and glaucus, n. 67. Engl. Bot. t. 1606, all elegant {pecies,
form a natural aflemblage, which Acharius has feparated,
with fome others, under the generic name Cetraria. See
Licnenes.

L. qmpullaceus. n. 54. Sp. Pl. 1613. (Lichenoides tinc-
4orium glabrum veliculofum ; Dill. Mufc. 18S.t. 24. f. 82.),
fee Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 13. £. 2. is only a morbid variety of
the aft, g/aucus, caufed apparently by the wound of fome
infeé&t, which produces a fort of gall. The original fpeci-
men of this, having been ftolen by a foreigner, more curious
than honeit, from the Dillerian herbarium about thirty or

thirty-five years ago, was deteted by the late profeffor Sib-
thorp when abroad, in this perfon’s collection, and recovered.
It is not however reftored to its original place, where the
figure only is now found. But this is of the lefs confequence,
as Mr. Menzies has gathered the plant in the very fame
{tate, which has been diffected in our prefence, and its im-
portance as a fpecies thus falls to the ground. By the
manner in which the hiftory of this Lichen is related by our
friend Mr. Turner, Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 7. 112, it might
feem that the excellent profefflor Von Jacquin was the thief,
from which we think it effential to exculpate him, ner did
Mr. Turner mean to imply any fuch thing. ?

To the feGtion in queition belong feveral fpecies of a very
diftin tribe, named Phy/cia by Acharius (but fince funk
in his Parmelia, the above Cetrarie being feparated from it),
of which the following are examples.

L. farinaceus. n. 56. Sp. Pl. 1613. Engl. Bot. t. 889.
(Lichenoides fegmentis argutioribus, ad margines yerrucotis
et pulverulentis; Dill. Mufc. 172. t. 23. f. 63.)— Leafy,
much-branched, upright, leathery, glaucous-afh-coloured,
{mooth, pitted ; the branches tapering, ftudded with lateral,
convex, pale, mealy warts. Shields {cattered, talked, flat,
pale-buff.—Common on trees, but the fhields are extremely
rare, whence L. faffigiatus, Ach. Prod. 175. Engl. Bot.
t. 8go, came to be taken for the fame thing. Its very
abundant fhields are nearly of the greenith-white hue of the
frond, and the mealy warts are wanting.

L. fraxineus. n. 61. Sp. Pl. 1614. Engl. Bot. t, 1781, is
fo common on trees, con{picuous for its large fize, and lan-
ceolate figure, that nothing need be faid of it.

L. fuciformis. n. 61. Sp. Pl. 1614. Engl. Bot. 728.
(Lichenoides fuciforme tinctorium, corniculis longioribus et
acutioribus ; Dill. Mufc. 168. t. 22, 23. f. 61.)—Leafy,
divided, pointed, flat, nearly upright, tapering at each end,
greyifh-white, obfcurely downy, with white mealy warts.
Shields convex, blackifh.—'This is found on granite rocks
upon the Cornifh coaft, but more plentifully m the Medi-
terranean, the Canary iflands, and the Eaft Indies, in which
laft climate it grows to the length of afoot. It is extremely
important as an article of commerce, being uled indifcrimi-
nately with, and according to fome preferred to, the famous
L. Roccella, for dyeing. See fection 8. -

Se@. 5. Coriaceit. Thirteen {pecies.

This is in itfelf a very natural feétion, but Linnzus has
referred to it one or two {pecies totally foreign to the na-

_ture of the reit ; as perlatus, n. 82. Engl. Bot. t.° 341.
(Lichenoides glaucum perlatum, fubtus nigrum et cirrofum ;

Dill. Mufe. 147. t. 20. f. 39.) —This is in habit, texture,
and natural affinity, clofely -allied to- /avatilis, in fe&t. 3.—
L. aquaticus, n. 73. Sp. Pl. 1615; for which a fynonym of
Dillenius, t. 20. f. 44, is quoted with doubt, has always
been involved in much eb{curity. The plant of Dillenius is
perforatis of Jacquin and others, well figured in Hoftm.
Pl. Lich. t. 13. f. 1. That of Linneus, preferved in his
herbarium, is {aid in the Flora Suecica to have been found
in mofly boggy places at Norrby, near Upfal, his own
country refidence ; but no one has ever difcovered what was
meant. Ona careful examination of the dpecimen, it proves
to be
L. corrugatus. Sm. Treof Linn. Soc. v. 1. 83. Engl. Bot.
t. 1652. Ach. Prodr. 122. (Lichenoides acetabulis cutaneis
et rugofis; Dill. Mufc. 185. t. 24. f. 79.), a plant found on
trees throughout Europe, though long negle&ted by Lin-
nexan botanilts, fome of the molt diftinguifhed of whom have
miftaken it for olivaceus.
The real coriaceous Lichens, which conftitute this fifth
feétion, are, as their denomination implies, of a tough lea-
thery

LICHEN.

thery texture ; fmoothifh above; ftrongly veined and bear-
ing numerous coarfe radicles beneath. ‘Their fhields, called
pelte, or targets, are peculiar, perfectly feffile, and as it were

lued to the frond towards its margin, fometimes at its under

de! They are oblong or kidney-fhaped, often flightly
convex ; their border merely a thin film which, in a tender
flate, cavers their dif, and finally recedes to the edge as it
withers. The plants of this fection moltly grow on the
ground, either at the roots of trees, or on fhady mofly
banks.

L. refupinatus. n. 74. Sp. Pl. 1615. Enzl. Bot. t. 305.
(Lichenoides fufcum, peltis pofticis ferrugineis ; Dill. Mufe.
206. t. 28. f. 105. )—Coriaceous, creeping, lobed, brownifh-
grey. Targets oblong, at the under fide of each {mall
aicending lobe.—Native of moift fhady rocks, or of the
mofly roots of trees in mountainous countries. The fronds
are imbricated, fmooth, of a dull brownifh lead-colour, com-
pofing broad depreffed patches ; the sargets reddifh-brown,
concave, plentifully produced, but each folitary at the con-
cave extremity of its own {mall lobe.

L. ar@icus. n. 77, and antarGicus. n. 78, both one fpecies,

are united by Acharius under the name of Peltidea polaris,
being found in very high northern or fouthern latitudes
only. They are remarkable for the great fize of their
targets, which grow at the back of the greenifh-white frond,
and are as big as the thumb-nail, orbicular, of a dark livid
flefh-colour.
_ L. caninus. n. 79. Sp. Pl. 1616. Engl. Bot. t. 2299.
(Lichenoides digitatum cinereum, lactuce foliis finuoiis ;
Dill. Mufe. 200. t. 27. f. 102.)—Coriaceous, dilated,
afcending, furrowed, grey ; white, with brown veins and
fibres beneath ; lobes very broad, with marginal fruit-bearing
proceffes. Targets in front, vertical, revolute, roundifh,
red-brown, with a pale border. The largeft, moft com-
mon, and moft famous of its tribe, being the celebrated
«© Afh-coloured Ground Liverwort,” fo extolled by Dr.
Mead as a cure for the bite of a mad dog, whence the
above f{pecific name. It was given with black pepper in
milk, the patient being firft bled, and afterwards bathed in
cold water; but whatever accidental circumftances might
confirm that famed phyfician in his opinion, the medicine has
long been entirely laid afide.

L. faccatus. n. 83. Sp. Pl. 1616. Engl. Bot. t. 288.
(Lichenoides lichenis facie, peltis acetabulis immerfis ; Dill.
Mute. 221. t. 30. f. 121.)—Slightly coriaceous, roundifh,
creeping ; green above ; white beneath. Targets f{cattered,
blackifh, funk in pits. Found on the ground among rocks
in mountainous countries,

L. croceus.n. 84. Sp. Pl. 1616. Fl. Lapp. t. 11. f. 3.
Engl. Bot. t. 498. (Lichenoides fubtus croceus, peltis ap-
preffis; Dill. Mufc. 221. t. 30 f, 120.)—Coriaceous,
creeping, rounded at the extremities ; green abdve ; orange
and veiny beneath. ‘Targets fcattered, brown, flat.—Found
only in the moit alpine fituations, near the limits of per-
petual fnow, growing on the ground.—Thefe two lat,
elegant and rare produétions, are not exa¢tly of the habit
of the reft. Acharius, in Schrader’s New Journal, y. 1.
fafc. 3. 20, 21, has referred them to his new genus 4rthonia
"(fee Licuenrs) ; from the true fpecies of which they differ
in their leafy, not cruftaceous, habit, nor is it eafy to fay to
what family they properly belong.

Se&. 6. Uniilicati. Eleven {pecies.

A mott diftin& and natural tribe, conftituting the genus
Gyrophora of Acharius, of which we have fpoken in its pro-
per place. (See Gyrnorpuora.) Linnzus defines thefe plants
as umbilicated, or attached by their centre, and dirty as it
were with foot. The latter perhaps may be their male

warts. The fruit exhibits the moft effentiat chara¢ter
in the concentric folds obfervable in its difk. The firft
{pecies however, miniatus, n. 86. Engl. Bot. t. 593, though
it agrees with the reft in its umbilicated habit, differs
from them in fruétification, in which latter refpect it ace
cords with Lndocarpon ; fee that article. ‘True Gyrephore
are

L. velleus.n. 87. Sp. Pl. 1617. (Lichenoides coriaceum,
latiffimo folio umbilicato et verrucofo ; Dill. Mufe. 545-
t. 82. f. 5.) —Umbilicated, ftalked, dilated, wavy ; brown-
ifh-grey and fmooth above; covered beneath with black,
branched, crowded fibres. ‘Tubercles cluttered, flat.—Na-
tive of rocks in Lapland and North America. Often as
broad as both the hands, tough and leathery, remarkable for
its denfe, black, hairy clothing beneath. In this laft refpeét
indeed it accords with the much fmaller, green or olive-
coloured, Britifh pellitus, Engl. Bot. t. 931, which Hudfon
miftook for welleus.

L. puflulatus. n. 88.. Sp. Pl. 1617. We need not repeat
what is {aid of this under the article Gyropuora.

L. viridis. n. 96. Linn. Suppl. 451, gathered at the
Cape of Good Hope by Thunberg, 1s Endocarpon Thun-
bergit, Ach. Meth. 129, has nething of the charaéter of a.
Gyrophora.

Sect. 7. Scyphiferit. Nine fpccies.

The natural family of cup-bearing Lichens, or pyxidati,-
being one of the moft diftin@ and ftrongly characterized,
has been feparated as a genus of itfelf by moft who have
confidered the fubjeé&t. (See Licuenes.) The fpecies are
extremely confufed and difficult to define, being variable in
themfelves and much refembling each other. heir frond
or bafis confifts of fmall, rounded, more or lefs difperfed,-
horizontal feales, or leaflets; fmooth and green or greyifh
above ; pure white beneath, as well as at the edges and:
withinfide. In fome few inftances they are dilated, and!
lobed or pinnatifid. From thefe arife upright ftalks, termi--
nating in a cup-fhaped figure, of a large proportion com-
pared with the leaflets, of a greenifh-grey colour, and mealy
or {ealy furface ; the edges of the cup producing the fruc-
tification, which confifts of fmall globular tubercles, either
brown, or of a moft beautiful fcarlet, feffile, or varioufly
ftalked. Sometimes the cup is proliferous from its edges
or centre; fometimes obfolete, or, as it were, ftarved.-
Thefe plants come under the Coralloides of Dillenius, t. 14,
15.—Examples are |

L. cocciferus. n. 97. Sp. Pl. 1618. Engl. Bot. t. 2051-.
(Coralloides feyphitorme, tuberculis coccineis; Dill. Mufc..
82. t. 4. f. 7.)—Cup-fhaped, leathery, pale greenifh-grey, -
mealy. Cups dilated, fomewhat toothed. 'Tubercles fun-
gous, fearlet. Leaves minute, lobed and crenate.x—A
beautiful {pecies, not uncommon in woods, or on heaths;
among ling, or in various dry fandy places. The large
{carlet tubercl:s render it very confpicnous. Several other-
fpecies indeed have the fame-coloured fruification, but.
{maller, and they differ. in other refpe€ts. The cups in this
are fhorter, broader, and more perfect than in any other with
{earlet tubercles.

L. pysidatus. n. 99. Sp. Pl. 1619. Engl. Bot. t. 1393.
(Coralloides {cyphitorme, tuberculis fufcis ; Dill. Mufc. 79. -
t. 14. f. 6.)—Cup-thaped, leathery, greyifh-green, fealy,.
often proliferous. Cups dilated, nearly entire. Tubercles
brown. Leaves minute, imbricated, crenate.—The moft-
common of this tribe, occurring every where, in broad
patches, on heaths, fandy banks, and under hedges.. Its -
cup-like fhape is ufually pretty regular, at leaft before the
tubercles appear; but the edges of the cup, or its centre, -
occalionally throw up others, even to four or five.ranks or.

flages,.

LICHEN:

flages, one upon another, in beautiful luxuriance. More
frequently the firft cup bears unequal and imperfect cups,
or tubular ftalks, crowned with the brown ¢udercles. The
Sflalks of all are frequently leafy or fealy, efpecially their
lower part.

L. gracilis. n. tot. Sp. Pl. 1619, Engl. Bot. ts 1284.
(Coralloides feyphiforme ferratum elatius, caulibus graci-
libus glabris; Dill. Mufc. 88. t. 14. f. 13.)—-Cup-fhaped,
long, flender, fmooth, -cartilaginous, greenifh-brown; at
length fomewhat branched. Cups conical, fharply toothed.
Tubercles brown. Leaves minute.—In heathy dry moun-
tainous places, or in woods, in the north, not unfrequent.
‘The chara&ter of this is widely different from the two pre-
ceding, difplayed in its brown hue, tall {lender form, and
fharp teeth or terminal branches. The ¢ubercles are dark
brown. Leaves very minute, and frequently obliterated.

L. flammeus. n. 105. Linn. Suppl. 451, Hoffm. Pl.
Lich. t. 3. f. 1.3 is very improperly referred to this feCtion
by Murray, merely, as it feems, on account of its tubular
ftem and branches. It ought, according to the Linnean
arrangement, to ftand in fection 3, after parietinus, n. 43,
and before phy/odes, n. 44, agreeing with the former in co-
lour, with the ‘atter fomewhat in ftruéture. We mean not,
however, to fay there is any confiderable real affinity between
thefe three {pecies.

Se&. 8. Fruticulofi. Ten fpecies.

A vague fection, comprifing, though fmall, feveral dif-
cordant things, of which no general definition can be given,
except that they are of an upright bufhy habit.

L. rangiferinus. n. 106. Sp. Pl. 1620. Engl. Bot. t.173.
(Coralloides montanum, fruticuli fpecie, ubique candicans ;
Dill. Mufe 107. t. 16. f. 293 et corniculis rufefcentibus ;
r1o. t. 16. f. 30.)—Buthy, tubular, very much branched,
white and hoary; the little branches divaricated and
drooping. .Tubercles terminal, globofe, moitly cluttered,
dark brown.—This is the Reindeer Lichen, fo celebrated
by Linneus, in his Flora Lapponica and Lapland Tour, as
the food of that animal. In the wide heathy tra€ts and
foreits of thofe northern regions, it covers the ground like
fnow, rifing to the height of a foot or more; with us it is
much humbler and more difperfed ; always choofing the mott
fterile heathy foil, and not very generally producing fruit.
Its texture is thin and brittle, foft to the grafp of the hand,
and excellent for package, the only ufe for which it can ferve
in this climate. The branches are occafionally, not always,
perforated at their divarications. The furface is hoary, or
rough with minute warts. Tubercles very {mall, terminal,
abundant when they occur at all.

L. uncialis. n. 107. Sp. Pl. 1621. Engl. Bot. t. 174.

L. vermicularis. n. 108. Swartz Meth. Mufe. 37. Engl.
Bot. t. 2029.

L. fubulatus. n. 109. Sp. Pl. 1621. (Coralloides corni-
culis longioribus et rarioribus; Dill. Mufe. 102. t. 16.
f. 26.)

Thefe three are naturally akin to rangiferinus. 'The fol-
Jowing are very different.

L. globiferus. n. 110. Mant. 133. Engl. Bot. t. 115.
(Coralloides cuprefliforme, capitulis globofis; Dill. Mufc.
417. t. 17. f. 35.)—Shrubby, folid, much branched, cy-
lindrical, brownifh and polifhed; branches with minute di-
varicated terminations. Fruit globular, fmoothifh, enclofing
a ball of black powder.—This very pretty coral-like pro-
duGion occurs cn mountainous rocky heaths, or in dry ftony
woods. Its /fems compofe loofe entangled tufts, of a tawny
light polifhed brown, and are white and folid within; the
ultimate branches are innumerable, fhort, flender, tufted,
and divaricated. The frudification is altogether. different

from every thing we have hitherto deferibed, confifting of
terminal folitary balls, the fize of a vetch feed, fmooth, of
the fubftance of the ltem, opening by a wide irregular per-
foration at the top, and containing a globular mals of black
condenfed powder, prefumed to be the feeds. This plant
therefore, by its fructification and habit, has every right to
conititute a diltin&’ genus, and is now, with the.two fol-
lowing, admitted as fuch by the name of Spheraphoron.
See LicnEnrs.

L. fragilis, n. 113. Fl. Suec. ed. 2. 425. FI. Lapp.
nm. 440. t. In f. 4. (Coralloides fragile; Hoffm. Pl.
Lich. 34 t. 33. f. 3. Spbzrophoron fragile; Ach. Meth.
135. t. 3. £5 )—Shrubby, folid, brittle, afhy brown;
branches level-topped, cylindrical, crowded, naked, Fruit
globular, rugofe, enclofing a ball of black powder,—Found
in fimilar places with the laft, with which moit botanilts, in
Britain and elfewhere, have confounded it, taking the fol-
lowing for the true fragilis. '

L. compreffus. (1. fragihs ; Ach. Prodr. 211. Hudf. 558.
Engl. Bot. t. 114. L. melanocarpus ; Swartz Prodr. 147,
Spherophoron compreflum ; Ach. Meth. 135. Coralloides
alpinum, corailinz minoris facie; Dill. Mufc. 116. t. 17.
f. 34.)--Shrubty, folid, cartilaginous, white, branched,
compreffed; branches ciuftered, fomewhat palmate. Fruit
depreffed, containing a cake of black powder.—The moft
elegant of this new genus, remarkable for its white coral-
like appearance, having the fplendour of porcelain when
frefh, The above characters mark it fufliciently. The
fruit 1s rare, produced in moiit fhady fituations only, This
{pecies feems to prefer lmettone rathcr than granite rocks.

To a very different famly belongs

L. pafchalis. 1. 111. Sp. Pl 1621. Engl. Bot. t. 282.
(Coralloides crifpum et botryforme alpinum; Dill. Mute.
114. t. 17. f. 33.) - Shrubby, folid, clothed with minute
cruflaceous leaves. Tubercles terminal, prominent, brown.
—This Lichen, found on in-caceous alpine rocks, is deitined
to perform an iniportant office in the economy ef nature,
being the firft vegetable that takes rot upon lava, whofe
porous furface will admit no crultaceous fpecies. Thus it
compofles in decaying a portion of vegetable mould, fit for
the reception ef the feeds of other plan's. Its roots and
Jftem are very tough and ftrong, and the aflemblage of minute
greyifh-brown /eaves, that cover the whole, gives it a pecu-
har and diftinét afpect. The tubercles are folid, white
within, convex, without any border.

Three {pecies only remain, having
any of the above, or to each other.

L. ¢riffis, n. 112. Web. Goett. t. 5. Swartz. Meth.
Mufe. 37. Engl. Bot. t..720. This alpine Lichen has
real fhieids. It occurs among the imbricated f{pecies, by
Jacquin’s name of rigidus, n. 42; and it is curious that
Murray, the editor, has quoted in both places the fame
fynonym of Haller, n. 1966. t. 47. f. 1.

L. verrucofus. n. 114. Suppl. 451. (Stereocaulon ta-
bulare ; Ach. Meth. 316. t. 7. f. 2.) —Found at the Cape
of Good Hope: It confifts of denfe, broad, white tufts of
low branched /e/ks, tumid and globole at their fummits, and
agrees altogether in genus, very nearly in fpecies, with
Mr. Dickfon’s oculatus, Eng). Bot. t. 1833. Yet profeffor
Acharius confiders the fructification of verrucofus as un-
known, and refers the plant to his genus Stereocaulon, of
which pa/chalis, n. 111, above-mentioned, is a genuine ex-
ample,

s Roccella. n. 115. Sp. Pl 1622. Engl. Bot. t. 212.
(Coralloides corniculatum fafciculare tin@orium, fuci teretis
facie ; Dill. Mufc. 120. t. 17. f. 39 )—This we have men-
tioned in {peaking of tartareus, n. 25, and fuciformis, n. E

t

little or no affinity to

LICHEN.

It agrees very much with the latter, except in being cylin-
drical; and lefs foft or flexible, and their fhields are exa@tly
alike.—A Cape variety, as itis thought to be, of Rocrella,
is partly cylindrical, partly flat, and much dilated.

Se&.9. Filamentofi. Fifteen {pecies.

A very curious, jiriking, and, for the moft part, very
natural afflemblage. Many of them hang in long, black,
grey, or white cluiters, from the branches of aged pines,
oaks, or chefnuts, in alpine foreits, to which they give a
fingular and romantic afpe&. Their fronds are filamentous,
often a foot or more in length, repeatedly branched, either
folid, or apparently jointed, in a beard-like manner, with a
central tough fibre ; fometimes they are compreffed, fome-
times pitted ; in one nondefcript f{pecies exquifitely reticu-
lated like lace. The fruGtification is various and uncertain ;
in fome perfeé fhields with a true difk,*and a border like
the frond ; in others a {purious kind of fhield, orbillus, is
found, along with coloured feed-bearing tubercles ; in others,
‘again, powdery warts only are difcoverable.

A few examples will fuffice.

L. plicatus. n. 116. Sp. Pl. 1622. Engl. Bot. t. 257.
{Ufnea vulgaris, loris longis implexis; Dill. Mufe. 56.
t. rz. f. 1.)—Filamentous, cylindrical, pendulous, whitith ;
branches entangled. Shields ({purious) whitifh-green, ra-
diated. Tubercles yellowifh.— Found in ancient woods.
The fronds are exceflively and finely branched, a foot or two
long, pendent in denfe clufters from the trees. Their fur-
face is minutely warty. The proper tubercles, defcribed by
Acharius, we have never feen. The fpurious /hields, his
-orbill:, are rare. - The latter are improperly made reddifh in
Englifh Botany.

L. divaricatus. n. 119. Syft. Nat. ed. 12. v. 2. 713.
(Ufnea mollis, ramis longis compreffis; Dill. Mufc. 62.
t.12. f. 5. U. flaccida; Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 67.)—Fila-
mentous, pendulous, angular, jointed, pale fulphur-coloured ;
branches divaricated. Shields feffile, chefnut-coloured, with
a narrow border of the fubftance of the frond.— Native of
fir woods on the alps of Savoy, Switzerland, &c. Often a
foot and a half long, foft and flexible, confpicuous for its
yellowith hue. The /bields are thofe of an Acharian Par-
melia. See LICHENES.

LL. aurantiaco-ater. n. 128. Jacq. Mifc. 369. t. 11. f. 2,
(very badly drawn, ) feems to us aifo a true Parmelia, though
retained in U/nea by Acharius ; fee his Methodus, 307.

L. capenfis. n. 130. Suppl. 451. (Ufnea capenfis ;
Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 10. f. 1.) is properly referred by
Acharius to his Parmelia. ‘

L. floridus. n. 129. Sp. Pl. 1624. Engl. Bot. t. 872.
_Ebrh. Crypt. 148. Uvfnea vulgatiffima tenuior et brevior,
cum orbiculis; Dill. Mufc. 69. t. 13. f. 13.) —Filamentous,
with a central thread, bufhy, ereét, greenifh-grey ; branches
round, fibrous, warty, with radiated fpurious fhields.
Tubercles on the branches, lateral, flefh-coloured, rugged.
—Not uncommon on dead branches of oaks in old woods,
but the orbilli feldom occur except on the higher trees, and
the real tubercles are extremely rare. The latter were fup-
pofed to have been publifhed for the firft time in Engl. Bot.
vol. xiii. in 1801, but the celebrated Schrader appears to
have defcribed though not figured them two years earlier.
They are conformable to what have long been known in other
genuine {pecies of this tribe. We cannot but think L. hir-
tus, 0. 125, Engl. Bot. t. 1354, f{pecifically diftin& from
flridus, of which profeffor Acharius makes it a variety.
The tubercles of hirtus grow chiefly on the ftem or large
branches, which are continued ftraight beyond them, not
ftrongly bent backwards, as in floridus. Thefe fpecies

Vou. XX.

* nature than is apparent to fuperficial obfervers.

boiled with wool, without alum, dye it of a rich tawny
yellow.

The moft minute {pecies of this great genus, or natural
order, hold amuch more important place in the economy of
They are
the firft beginning of vegetation on ftones of all kinds expofed
to the air, whofe decompofing furfaces are the receptacle of
their imperceptible feeds, and foon afford nourifhment to the
fprouting plants, whofe minute fibrous roots {till further in-
finuate themfelves. The larger fpecies take poffeffion of
every cavity and fiffure, both of ftones and the decaying ex-
ternal bark of trees. In time they all decay, and furnifh a
portion of vegetable mould, capable of nourifhing moffes,
or ftill larger plants. The refiduum of thefe, being {till
more confiderable, is wafhed by rains into larger cavities,
where even foreft trees can featter their feeds, by the pene-
trating power of whofe roots, great maffes are diflodged
from the moit lofty rocks. Thus the vegetable kingdom
exercifes dominion over the tributary foffil world, and, in its
turn, affords the fame no lefs neceflary aid to animal exiftence.
Nothing in nature is allowed to remain ftationary, idle, or
ufelefs, and the moft inconfiderable agents frequently ap-
pear, in the hands of Divine Providence, to be the mott irre-
fiftible. S.

Licuen, in the Materia Medica. The Lichen iflandicus
is a native of Britain, particularly on the mountains of
Wales and Scotland. In Iceland this is ufed as food.
For this purpofe, a difh of it is prepared by chopping it
fmall, boiling it in three or four fucceflive portions of wa-
ter to take off its natural bitternefs, and then for an hour
or two in milk. When cold this preparation has the form
of a jelly, which is eaten with milk or cream, and makes a
very palatable difh. ‘The medicinal qualities of this lichen
have of late been fo well eftablifhed at Vienna, that the
plant is admitted into the Materia Medica of the Edinburgh
Pharmacopeia, and into the London Pharmacopeia of the
year 1809. It is extremely mucilaginous, and to the tate
fomewhat bitter and aftringent ; but its bitternefs, as well
as the purgative quality which it manifefts in its recent
ftate, are in a great meafure diffipated by drying, ‘or, as
we have already obferved, may be extra¢ted by infufion in
water. An ounce of this lichen boiled a quarter of an
hour in a pint of water, yielded feven ounces of a muci-
lage as thick as that procured by the folution of one part
of gum arabic in three pints of water. Lord Dundonald
(Phil. Mag. vol. x.) has given the following direétions for
preparing the mucilage from the lichen. The lichen has an
outer fkin, covering a green refinous fubftance; and the re-
mainder of the plant confilts chiefly of gum and of fibrous
matter, on which water does not aét. In order to feparate
the outer fkin from the refinous matter, the plant muit be
f{calded two or three times with boiling water, which caules
the fkin to crack, {well, and peel off. It is then put imc a
boiler with about three quarts of water for every pound
of the plant, and about half an ounce of potafh or foda,
and the boiling fhould be continued till the liquor acquires
a confiderable degree of gummy confittence. The liquor
is then to be taken out and ftraimed from the pilan:,
and frefh water added to the fame material, for the pur-
pofe of further exhaufting the gum. ‘The feveral liquors,
after ftanding fome hours to fettle, and then removing
the dreys, are to be boiled down in a regulated heat to the
confiftence which is required for ufe, but not further, lett
jt fhould burn and become coloured. Two or three boilines
will be neceflary for entirely exhaufting the lichen of its
mucilage.

The medical virtues of this lichen were probably firit

4R learned

L1 CHE N.

learned from the Icelanders, who employ it in its frefh ftate
as a laxative; but deprived of this quality aad properly
prepared, it is faid to be an efficacious remedy in confump-
tions, coughs, dyfenteries, and diarrhceas. Dr. Crichton
informs us (Med. Journ. vol. x.), that during a refidence
of feven months at Vienna, he had frequent opportunities
of feeing the lichen iflandicus tried in phthifis pulmonalis at
the General Hofpital, and he confeffes, “ that it by no
means anfwered the expeétation he had formed of it.”’ He
adds, however, “ from what I have feen, I am fully con-
vinced in my own mind, that there are only two fpecies of
this difeafe, when this fort of lichen promifes a cure. The
two f{pecies I hint at, are the phthifis hemoptaica, and the
phthifis pituitofa, or mucofa. In feveral cafes of thefe 1 have
feen the patients fo far get better of their complaints, asto
be difmiffed the hofpital cured; but whether they remained
long fo or not, I cannot take upon me to fay.”’ That this
lichen ftrengthens the digeftive powers, and proves extremely
nutritious, there can be no doubt; but the great medicinal
efficacy attributed to it at Vienna will not readily, fays Dr.
Woodville, be credited at London. It is commonly given
in the form of a decoétion, an ounce and a half of the li-
chen being boiled in a quart of milk. Of this a tea-cup full
is direfted to be drank frequently in the courfe of the day.
If milk difagree with the ftomach, a fimple decoction of
the lichen in water isto be ufed. Care fhould be taken to
boil it over a flow fire, and not longer than a quarter of
an hour. In the London Pharmacopeia the decoétion is
direéted to be prepared by boiling down an ounce of the li-
chen in a pint and a half of water to a pint, and then
{training it.

The lichen caninus, or cinereus terreffris, which grows on
heaths, dry paftures, and woods, has a weak faint fmell,
and a fharpifh tafte. It was for a long time extolled asa
medicine of fingular virtue in preventing and curing that
dreadful diforder which is produced by the bite of rabid
animals. The ‘ pulvis antilyffus,’? a powder compofed of
equal parts of this lichen and black pepper, was firft re-
commended as a prefervative againft the rabies canina by
Mr. Dampier, brother of the celebrated circumnavigator,
and by the authority of fir Hans Sloane, it was publifhed
in the Philofophical TranfaGtions, (vol. xx. p. 49.) The
quantity of pepper having been found to render the medi-
cine too hot, the powder was afterwards prepared of two
parts of the lichen and one of pepper. This powder was
afterwards adopted in the London Pharmacopeia in 1721,
at the defire of Dr. Mead, who feems to have had repeated
experience of its good effects, and who declares that he
had never known it to fail, where it had been ufed, with
the affiftance of cold-bathing, before the hydrophobia came
on. He direéts the patient to be blooded to the extent of
nine or ten ounces; afterwards a dram and a half of the
powder is to be taken in the morning fafting, in half a pint
of cow’s milk warm, for four mornings fucceffively. After
thefe four dofes are taken, the patient is dire€ted to go into
the cold-bath every morning for a month, and then three
times a week for a fortnight longer. On the charaéter of
Mead, the pulvis antilyffus was long retained in the London
Pharmacopeia ; but on the revifion of that book in 1788,
it was defervedly expunged. Woody. Med. Bot. See
Anrtityssus Pulvis.

LicuEn, in Medicine, a cutaneous eruption, confifting
of papule (pimples), affecting adults, connected with inter-
nal diforder, and ufually terminating in fourf. It is not
contagious.

_ Such is the charaéter of an eruption, to which Dr. Wil-
lan has appropriated the term /ichen, in his valuable treatife

on cutaneous diforders. (Order i. Genus ii.) In the
writings of Hippocrates, he remarks, the term lichen, or
lichenes, (Aetynves,) is employed to exprefs an eruption of
papulz, and he did not include under that appellation any
puftular difeafe. There is, however, an extreme confufion,
as in the cafe of almoft every other denomination of cuta-
neous affections, among the fubfequent writers, in the ac-
ceptation of the word. The later Greek authors extend
the application of it, fo as to comprehend a putftular affec-
tion of the face, fometimes called /ycofis, and likewife the
mentagra, ‘a contagious difeafe, together with the fimple and
rank lichen (Asn cyeios). _ Pliny in one paflage (Nat. Hitt.
]. xx. cap. 1.) feems to ufe the term lichen as fynonimous
with the inipetigo of the Latins: he is, however, inconfiflent
with himfelf in other places. ‘The only author to whom we
can refer for a definition of impetigo is Celfus; and his ac-
count of it does not, in any refpeé, correfpond to that
which the Greeks have given of the lichenes. Under the
denomination of papula, Celfus has comprifed, and accurately
defcribed, two varieties of lichen, the L. agrius, and L.
circumfcriptus ; and he has correétly ftated the real relation
between the lichen and impetigo, when he fays, that “the
papula agria, through neglect or improper treatment, is
often changed into impetigo.’’ (De Méd. lib. v. cap. 28.)
Neverthelefs, all the tranflators of the Greek medical writers
have ufed impetigo as fynonimous with the original term
lichen ; and their example has been followed by many
re{petable authors on the fubje& of cutaneous diforders.

By more modern writers, again, the lichen has been ar-
ranged under other genera of difeafe, with which it has ftill
lefs affinity than with impetigo. Thus Sauvages defcribes
it under the title of herpes farinofus ; and Lorry confounds
both lichen and impetigo with herpes: while Plater, Hafen-
reffer, and others, arrange lichen under the gents feabies.
By adopting the charaéter of the lichen, ftated by Dr. Wil-
lan, we may avoid this extreme degree of confufion.

An eruption, thus charaterized, occurs under five or fix
varieties of form, to which Dr. Willan has appropriated
the following titles: 1. Lichen fimplea ig preceded by
fymptoms of feverifhnefs, or rather by a ftate of irrita-
tion not amounting to fever, which is relieved after five
or fix days, on the appearance of the eruption. This
contifts of diftin& red papule, with but little inflammation
round their bafe, firft appearing on the face or neck,
and f{preading thence over the body and limbs. In about
a week, the colour of the eruption fades, and the cuti-
cle feparates in feurf. The duration of the complaint,
however, is feldom in two cafes alike; from fourteen to
twenty, or thirty days, fometimes intervene between the
eruption and the renovation of the cuticle. It occurs, as
well as fome other of the {pecies, annually about the begin-
ning of fummer, or in autumn, in perfons of a very weak
and irritable conftitution. 2. Lichen pilaris is merely a
modification of the foregoing fpecies, the papule appearing
only at the roots of the hairs of the fkin. 3. In the lichen
circumfcriptus, or papulated ring-worm, the papule are ar-
ranged in cluiters, or patches, which are of an irregular
form, but with a well-defined margin, ‘and appear in fuc-
ceffion on the limbs or trunk of the body, fometimes by re-
peated eruptions, laiting for fix or eight weeks. It is ex-
cited both by internal and external caufes of irritation, and
is at firft attended with flight febrile fymptoms for a day or
two. 4. Lichen agrius is preceded by naufea, pain in the
ftomach and limbs, with fhivering and depreffion of ftrength
for feveral days, which fometimes diminifh when the eruption
appears. The papule are diitributed in great numbers in
various parts of the body, face, and limbs, having a high

red

LEE

red colour, and being attended with itching, heat, and pain-
ful tingling. The rednefs is augmented, and a fenfation of
burning and fmarting is excited by the warmth of bed, by
wathing, efpecially with foap, by violent exercife, or wine.
Its duration is uncertain. Womenare more liable to it than
men ; and it affects thofe efpecially who have undergone
Jong continued fatigue, watching, and anxiety. In men it
is often produced by the intemperate ufe of fpirituous
liquors.

Cure.—Every thing heating or ftimulating fhould be
avoided, whether great exercife, or ftimulant food and
liquors ; gentle laxatives fhould be ufed; and the fin fhould
be wafhed with warm-water, or thin gruel, by which the
irritation and itching are alleviated. All ftrong applications
are improper, and aggravate the complaint, producing into-
lerable {marting. Mild cooling ointments, as the rofe-po-
matum, relieve the uneafy fenfations of heat and itching.

Two other varieties of lichen are noticed by Dr. Willan,
one of which he terms lichen /ividus, and the other L. tro-
picus. The former of thefe is chara¢terifed by papulz of a
dark or livid hue, is more permanent than the fpecies before
defcribed, and principally affeéts perfons of weak conftitu-
tions, who live on a poor diet, and labour hard, or refide in
clofe fituations. The lichen is fometimes intermixed with
petechia in the latter cafes, or larger purple patches, which
point out its affinity with the purpura, or land-feurvy. It
is cured alfo by the fame means as are fuccefsful in the latter.
diforder ; namely, by nourifhing food, moderate exercife in
the open air, with the ufe of cinchona and fulphuric acid, or
the tinGture of muriate of iron. ‘The lichen tropicus fignifies
the eruption which is well known in hot climates by the
appellation of prickly heat, of which we have already given
fome account. See Heat, Prickly. tots

LICHENASTRUM, in Botany, fo called by Dillenius,
from: its affinity to Marchantia, his Lichen. See JuncEr-
MANNIA.

LICHENES, a Natural Order of vegetables of the
Cryptogamic clafs, (d/pidofere of Wiggers’s Holfat. 85.)
allied on one hand to the //ge, in which it was included
by Linnzus, and on the other to the Fungi, with many of
which it nearly agrees in habit, and with fome of them
very ftrikingly in the charaéter and fituation of its feeds,
This family has rifen gradually to the confequence it now
holds among botanifts, firft by the labours of Dillenius and
Micheli, and next by thofe of Linnzus and his pupils; but
the celebrated Dr. Acharius, profeffor at Wadftena in
Sweden, has finally elucidated it fully, with refpeé to
chara&ters and fynonyms, in feveral feparate works; not
merely as a genus, but as a natural order, comprifing many
genera. Profeflor Hoffmann indeed, and other German
betanifts, had already confidered it in the fame light ; but
none has fo completely treated the whole fubjeét as this
learned Swede. For a general view of the nature of this
family, with the leading fe€tions to which -its f{pecies have
been reduced, fee Licusn. We fhall now proceed to ex-
plain what has been done towards its.generic fub-divifion,
the firft attempt at which, by the fruit, was made in Wig-
gers’s Primitie Fl. Holfatice, a work of which Weber, ina
copy before us, claims being the author.

It would be tedious and difficult to trace minutely every
ftep in the progrefs of thofe who have at any time adyerted
to the generic diftribution of Lichens. Weber’s is but a
rude attempt. The labours of Hoffmann, having led the
way to Acharius, require fome previous explanation.

That writer, in his Flora Germanica, v. 2, publifhed in
1795, eftablifhed an order of Cryptogamia Scutellata, as diftin&
from Alge, which is intended to embrace all the certain

LIC

Lichenes, though it docs not, in fa&t, admit all that are
reckoned fuch i Acharius. It is thus defined.

Scutellata. Female fruétifications in orbicular, flat or
convex fhields, radiated or naked, bordered or without a
border, or fpirally twifted, fixed to the frond either by their
centre or their margin ; and this frond is either gelatinous,
coriaceous, umbilicated, caulefcent, {trap-like, filamentous,
leafy, tartareous, or leprous ; its duration perennial, throw-
ing out various buds or offsets. Each fhield contains feeds
within its fibrous or {pongy fubftance.—This order contains
nine genera.

1. Collema, Frond pellucid, gelatinous. Shields bor-
dered.—This comprehends the gelatinous Lichens of other
authors, of which 26 fpecies are here defcribed as natives
ofGermany. (See Licnen; feét.4. n. 48.) Collema is re-
cently admitted as a genus in Engl. Bot. v. 32. t. 2284,
where the effential charaGter is “ Shields orbicular, horizontal,
nearly feffile, fuperficial, with a gelatinous acceflory border.”
There can be no doubt of its conttituting one of the moft
natural genera to be found in any order.

2. Peltigera. Frond coriaceous. Shields (or targets)
comprefled, attached by their margin.—T he true coriaceous
Lichens, fect. 5, as re/upinatus, caninus, &c. 3 nine fpecies
in Germany.

3. Umlilicaria, Frond leafy, peltate. Shields contorted.
—Ten {pecies. The umbilicated Lichens, fect. 6; Gyro-
phore of Acharius.

4. Cladonia. Frond caulefcent, cylindrical, hollow. Shields
tubercular.—Thirty-feven f{pecies—This genus embraces
not only thofe of the Linnean fruticulofi, fe&. 8, to which
rangiferinus belongs, but likewife all the /cyphyferi (or
pyaidati) {e&. 7.—Thirty-feven {pecies are defcribed.

5. Stereocaulon. Frond caulefcent, cylindrical, folid.
Shields tubercular, globofe.—This is, perhaps, the moft ex-
ceptionable genus, confounding L. pa/chalis, (fee LicuEn,
fet. 8. n. 111.) along with the powdery-fruited kinds, globi-
ferus, fragilis, and compreffus ; and with thefe the coral-
crufted tribe, which make the Acharian genus Ufidium here-
after mentioned. Even L. niger of Hudfon and Linnzus,
Engl. Bot. t. 1161, perhaps more akin to Collema, though
its fhields have no border, is joined with them. The whole
however make but nine fpecies.

6. Ufnea. Frond ftrap-like, or filamentous. Shields
radiated or naked.— Equivalent to the filamentofi, fe&. g,
of Linneus. Sixteen German fpecies.

7. Lobaria. Frond lobed, laciniated, much divided, ere,
or depreffed. Shields bordered\—This large and rather
multifarious genus, comprehending 62 German {pecies, is di-
vided into four fe€tions, which perhaps run fo much into each
other as to juftify the whole affemblage. They are

* Platifma. Frond (moftly) pitted.

To this belong many of Linnzus’s fect. 4, foliacet, as the
farinaceus, fraxineus, and their allies. To thefe rigidus,
which is ¢riflis, n. 112. of the Linnzan arrangement, is fub-
joined. ‘Then follow é/landicus, &c. ; then furfuraceus, Linn.
n. 53. Engl. Bot. t. 984, and ciliaris. All thefe are
charaterifed as having a pitted or cellular frond, which is.
more or lefs ere&t. ‘They are however a very various tribe.
—Five fpecies have a pitted depreffed frond, as /axatilis, and
pulmonarius, Linn, n. 52, Engl. Bot. t. 572.—Twelve are
defined as having a dilated frond, in which /accatus is
included, with caperatus, perlatus, parictinus, and others,
which are by nomeans naturally allied, nor is the charafter ex-
preffive, if it means abfolutely that the frond is never pitted,
or that it is more dilated than in the preceding ones.

** Phyfcia. Frond inflated, as in L. phyfodes, Linn.
n, 44. Engl, Bot, t. 126.

4R2 ¥** Squae

LICHENES.

* Sguamaria. Frond narrowly divided, as in flellaris,
and its numerous allies.

**** Placodium. Frond cruftaceous, obfeurely imbri-
cated. In the beginning of this fection, feveral {pecies
occur which are not really cruftaceous, and which are
clofely akin to flellariss though more depreffed. True exam-
ples of Placodium are L.. faxicola, Engl. Bot. t. 16955 as
well as candicans, t. 1778; and gelidus, Linn. n. 23.

8. Pfora. Cruft figured” Shields bordered, convex.—
Twenty-fix German fpecies are enumerated under this
genus, many of which are among the imbricated Lichens
of Linneus, others amongft his leprous or cruftaceous ones.
In all of them the cruft is either formed into leaflets, or
pranalations of a determinate fhape, feated on a homoge-
neous white chalky bafis, the outer furface being varioufly
coloured. :

9. Verrucaria. Cruft leaflefs, leprous, tartareous. Shields
with or without a border.—This genus comprehends moft
of the leprous Lichens of Linneus. See Licnen, fect. 1
and 2. Seventy-one German fpecies are defined, difpofed
according to the colours of their fhields.

Such is the method of Hoffmann, who in his fumptuous
and truly excellent work, entitled Plante Lichenofe, cou-
fifting of three thin folio volumes, with feventy-two fine
coloured plates, has defcribed and figured a great number
ot {pecies from all parts of the world. This book however
does not exattly agree in generic diftribution with his Flora
Germanica, but they are eafily compared together. The
fame writer has left unfinifhed an Znumeratio Lichenum, in
quarto, begun in 1784, of which we have 102 pages, and
22 uncoloured plates, very finely drawn by the author. In
this book Lichen ttands as one genus, divided into feveral
Jfe&ions ; improperly termed orders.

Profeffor Acharius, above-mentioned, having previoufly
in feveral papers, with plates drawn by himfelf, in the
Stockholm TranfaGtions, elucidated various fpecies or tribes
of Lichens, publifhed in 1798 his Lichenographie Suecice
Prodromus, in one volume o€tavo, with coloured figures of
five fpeciesnly. This work marks an era in cryptogamic
botany, Though it profefles to treat of Swedifh Lichens
only, it in fa& indicates all of which the learned writer
could difcover any tidings, with their f{pecitie characters,
fynonyms, and places of growth, befides innumerable valu-
able obfervations.
of Lichen, as one genus, but divided into twenty-eight tribes,
or feétions, of which the genera of Hoffmann form the batis.
Thefe tribes compofe three families, under whofe fub-
divifions we fhall indicate them all. The peculiar terms
which occur will be explained hereafter.

Family 1. Crustacrous Licnens.
Having a cruftaceous, more or lefs expanded, bafe.
A. Crutt irregular, powdery, or in fibrous flakes.
1. Lepraria. Receptacles fearcely known.—(Moft of
thefe come under the genus By/us in Linnzus.)
B. Crutt folid, flattith, uniform, nearly orbicular.
2. Verrucaria. Receptacles (thalami) hidden in the
cruft, roundifh, concave, opening by a perforation at the top.
3. Opegrapha. Clefts (lirelle) clofely attached to the
cruft, and opening longitudinally.
4. Variolariz. Powdery little maffes (glomerul:) attached
to the furface of the crutt.
5- Urceolaria. Shields hollowed, funk in portions or
warts of the furface of the crutt.
_ 6. Patellaria. Shields attached to the furface of the cruft,
either concave or flat, with a border, or convex and hemi-
{pherical, with fearcely any.

The whole are ranged under the name -

7. Baomyces. ‘Tubercles fmooth and even, nearly globofe,
fungus-like, terminating elevated ttalks,

8. Calicium. Tubercles ftalked, lenticular, opening by
a torn border, difcovering a powdery elevated difk.

C. Cruft unequal, compofed of coral-like, crowded little
branches.

9. Lfidium. Tubercles terminal.

D. Crutt rather leafy. )

10. Pforoma. Crutt pee ee covered with minute fome-
what imbricated feales. Shields lateral, as well as mar-
ginal.

Il.
a lobed permanent margin,

Placodium. Crutt clofe-preffed, flat, orbicular, with
Shields lateral.

Family 2, Leary Licuens.

_ Without a ftem, and confifting of a fimple or multiplied,
feffile, divided, fomewhat membranous leaf.

E. Receptacles fcattered, feffile on the leaf.

12. Jmbricaria. Shields and powdery mafles (glomeruli)
lateral. Leaves membranous, depreffed, imbricated, fpread-
ing circularly, minutely fibrous underneath,

13. Collema. Shields lateral and marginal. Leaves ge-
latinous. :

14. Endocarpon. Receptacles (thalami) hollow, immerfed
in the leaf, opening by a prominent mouth. See Enpo-
CARPON.

15. Untbilicaria.
See GyropHORA.

16. Lobaria. Shields and powdery maffes lateral. Leaves
fomewhat coriaceous, widely {preading, afcending, villous
underneath.

17. Sti@a. Shields fcattered; or Targets marginal.
Leaves fomewhat coriaceous, ftamped beneath with little
bald pits, among{t down. :

18. Peltidea. *Targets lateral and fomewhat marginal,
on the front or back of the leaf. Leaves coriaceous, moftly
veiny, as well as downy, beneath.

19. Platifma. Shields target-like, feattered. Leaves
membranous, afcending, crifped, naked on both fides.

20. Phyfeia. Shields fcattered. Leaves rather cartila-
ginous, fmooth, tufted, linear and jagged. *

F. Receptacles elevated far above the leaves, on the tops
of ftalks.

21. Scyphophorus.
upwards, and clofed.

22. Helopodium. 'Tubercles fungous, on nearly folid,
fimply fub-divided ftalks, fearcely dilated upwards.

23. Cladonia. Tubercles nearly globofe, on taper-pointed,
elongated, tubular, branched and fhrubby ftalks.

Receptacles (trice) convoluted, raifed.

Tubercles on hollow ftalks, dilated

Family 3. Caurescent Licuens.

Stems either folid, branched, round and fhrubby, or elon-
gated and thread or {trap-like. q

G. Shrubby, with folid rigid ftems.

24. Stereocaulon. Shields globofe, folid, feattered.

25. Spherophorus. Cellules terminal, finally burtting.

26. Cornicularia. Shields radiated, at length rather con-
vex, terminal. ;

H. Filamentous, elongated.

27. Setaria. Shields and powdery maffes lateral. Branches
naked, {mooth and contiguous.

28. Ufnea. Shields flat and radiated, or convex and
flightly bordered, fcattered; as well as powdery mafles.
Branches with a cruftaceous, fomewhat jointed, coat.

It will eafily be feen, by comparifon, how far thefe fe&tions
anfwer to Hoffmann’s genera. The firlt five have nothing
correfponding with them, Pafellaria is equivalent to his

Ver-

LICHENES.

Verrucaria, at leait in idea. Baomyces, Seyphophorus, Helopo-
dium, and Cladonia, are included in his Cladonia. Pforoma and
Placodium are his Pfora. Collema, Peltidea, (his Peltigera,)
Unbiliaria, and Ufnea, agree with his. Calicium, Ifidium,
Endocarpon, Stida, Spherophorus, and Cornicularia, ave not
found in his fyitem, except that Spherophorus is, in his Pl.
Lich., called Coralloides. Imbricaria, Lobaria, Platifma, and
Phyjfcia are nearly comprehended under his Lobaria.

It is to be remarked that, in his generic characters,
Hoffmann takes the habit into confideration. To this per-
haps Acharius, as a philofophical Linnzan, had objeétions,
which induced him to confider thefe different affemblages of
fpecies rather as feGtions of one great natural genus, the
fructification being ftill much in the dark. In 1803 how-
ever he publifhed his AZethodus, in 8vo. with eight coloured
plates, and, foon after, a fupplement. In this new work,
itill keeping the Linnzan principle in view, he aimed at dif-
tinguifhing the Lichenes, as a natural order, into feveral
genera, by the fruCtification alone. Before we detail thefe,
it is neceffary to take a view of the phyfiology of the order,
as explained in his able preface, as well as of his technical
terms. Both thefe fubjects are treated alfo in the preface
to his Prodromus ; but it is beft te confider here his latter
view of them only, and they are fo united together, that
an explanation of the terms will fufficiently elucidate the
phyfiological ideas of the author.

Thailus is ufed by Acharius for the whole plant, or her-
bage, of a Lichen, the frons of Linneus (fee FRonp) ; dif-
tiné& from every thing belonging to the fruétification, It
is root, {tem, ftalk, and leaf, ali in one, its fubitance feeming
to affume the nature of either, according to circumftances ;
but this is, in fome meafure, the cafe with every vegetable
body, and by no means peculiar to a Thallus or Frond.
Acharius is unwilling to ufe the latter word for a mere
fhapelefs cruft or mafs of powder; but we confefs ourfelves
unable to difcover any ufe, or indeed any diftinét meaning,
in the new term, unlefs it were reftricted to fuch cruft or
powder. Its meaning moreover, SuAados, a green bough, is
precifely equivalent to frons ; but this objeétion is not mate-
rial—Of the different forms and textures of this part, we
have fufficiently fpoken under the article Licnen. It is
anveffential part, though fometimes nearly or quite deftroyed
by age, though the fruétification may ftill, for a while,
remain. ;

Apothecium (aroSnxn, a receptacle), is the receptaculum of
Linnzus, the part where the feeds are formed and brought
to maturity. Acharius defines it as “ bearing, encompaf-
fing, or containing the organs fubfervient to the propagation
of Pichens 3 di(tinét in figure, generally in colour and nature,
from the thallus, or frond, on which it is fituated, and which
fometimes furnifhes it with an exterior covering.”’
fecundation having taken place, in fome manner unknown to
us, within the frond, thefe receptacles, (as we mutt {till beg
leave to call them,) gradually increafe, and finally expofe
their internal part, which is either occupied by a fibrous
texture, more or lefs denfe, or is, when moiit, in fome
meafure gelatinous, rarely appearing hollow. Their fhape
is moft frequently roundifh, but otherwife very various, as
has been already explained. (See Licuen, feét.1.) When
ripe they difcharge their feeds, either naked, or contained in
cafes. Sometimes, though rarely, their under-fide pro-
duces naked feeds. To the various fituations of thefe recep-
tacles, the, generic characters already explained have fuffi-
ciently alluded ; their various kinds have alfo been mentioned,
but will now be more fully defcribed. Hedwig and Gertner
differ about the feeds of Lichens; the latter fuppofing
them (for it is entirely fuppofition) to be rather of the

10

The.

f

nature of buds or offsets, which he terms propagines, and not
aétual feeds produced by fexual impregnation. he reafon
for this opinion feems to be, that the mode of fuch impreg-
nation has not been difcovered, any more than in ferns or
fea-weeds,

Acharius defines thirteen forts of receptacle, or apothecium.

1. Scutelle, fhields. 'Thefe are open, orbicular, compared
by Dillenius to a faucer; their border, and under-fide, of
the fubftance, and ufually of the colour of the cruft, or
leaf. Their difk, (ffratum proligerum of Acharius) almoft
always differing in colour, and totally diftiné in fubftance
from the margin, contains the feeds in the vertical parallel
cells of its internal fubftance. Their border is termed an
acceffory, not oy i one. The fhields are either thick,
tumid, entirely feffile, or even funk, as in many cruftaceous
Lichens ; or membranous, often elevated, fomewhat ftalked ;
very rarely they become perforated in the centre.

2. Patellule. Spangles. (See Dillenius, p. 133.) Open
and orbicular, like fhields, but feffile, and by no means
formed of any part of the cruft, from which they differ in
colour, being moft ufually black. The feeds are lodged
beneath the membrane that covers their difk, as in the
former ; and the difk is furrounded by a proper border, that
is, of its own fubftance and colour. Their feeds are ob-
ferved to be naked in the cellular fubftance of the difk, not
inclofed in cafes. The figure of the patellule is not liable to
much variation, except that the difk is fometimes concave,
fometimes flat, but more frequently convex, and in an ad-
vanced ftate often globofe, fo that the border difappears.
This kind of receptacle is properly that of the /eprous tuber-
culated Lichens of Linneus, and belongs to the genus Le-
cidea of Acharius. 4

3. Cyphelle. Pits.. Open cup-like little naked, white
or yellow, fpots, on the under, generally downy, fide of the
leaf, in the Acharian genus S#@a; fee Engl. Bot. t. 2298.
2359- They are at firft minute dots, globofe, and im-
merfed in the fubftance of the leaf; at length they burft,
with an irregular margin, and difcharge a powder, which
Acharius, who has firit defined and named them, fuppofed
to be of ‘a fpermatic nature ;””? by which we prefume. he
means of the nature of pollen.

4. Lirelle. Clefts. Open, elongated, feffile, black re-
ceptacles, with a fomewhat fpongy, very narrow, or quite
linear difk, and a proper border, parallel to it on each fide.
Sometimes there is an acceffory border from the cruft befides.
This 1s the peculiar fruétification of the genus Opegrapha of
Perfoon ; fee Engl. Bot. v. 25 and 26 efpecially. The
lirelle ave either fimple and folitary, or aggregate, confluent,
and branched. Thefe differences often occur in the fame
fpecies. L. /eriptus of Linneus is a fpecimen of the genus.

5. Pilidia. (xirsdiov, a little cap or hat.) Puffs.—Little
round bordered knobs, whofe difk, at firft covered with a
membrane, and often clothed with fine grey hoarinefs,
finally turns to powder. They are elongated below into a
ftalk, fixed to the cruft, but totally different from it. Calj-
cium of Perfoon has this fort of fruétification.

6. Orbille. Orbs. Flat, orbicular and dilated, of the fub-
{tance of the frond, terminal, peltate, without a border, but
often furrounded with radiating fhoots. The membrane, or
diflk, under which the feeds are lodged, is {mooth, moftly of
the colour of the frond. ‘Thefe are feen in the filamentous
Lichens, or U/nee. Spurious orbille, bordered like fhields
or fpangles when young, are found in fome Cornicularie of
Acharius.

If orbille produce real feeds, the filamentous Lichens have
two kinds of fruit, for they bear alfo proper tubercles, or

rather

LICHENES.

rather cephalodia ; fee n. 12.
to this ; fee U/nea hereafter.

7. Pelte. Targets. Flat, clofely preffed, and attached
by their whole under-fide, as if glued, to the frond, fome-
times at its back. They are broad, kidney-fhaped or ob-
long, rarely irregular, covered with a thin coloured difk,
with no border, except occafionally a very minute acceffory
one, which feems to circumfcribe them. In an early ftage
they are concave, and concealed by a thin gelatinous fuga-
cious membrane, or veil. (See Licnen, feét. 5.)—The
genus Cetraria is thought by Acharius to have fpurious
pelte, with a more evident border, entire, crenate or lobed,
which is unconneéted with the frond beneath, though the
greater part of the receptacle is clofely attached thereto,
and fometimes funk into its fubftance. ;

8. Trice. Buttons; (Dill.)—Roundifh, feffile, unexpand-
ing receptacles, of a peculiar, compaét, black, folid fub-
ftance, continued along their whole furface. Their upper
fide is diftinguifhed by concentric or plaited and twitted
folds, covered by one common membrane through all their
convolutions, and lodging in their infide naked feeds, defti-
tute of cafes, or cells. See GyrorpHora, to which thefe
buttons are peculiar.—Sometimes the prefence of but one
marginal fold gives this kind of receptacle the appedrance
of a patellula, ie n. 2; but others will ufually be found
with more, on the fame plant, even in Gyrophora puftulata,
Engl. Bot, t. 1283.

But we cannot eafily affent

9. Thalamia. Hollows.—Spherical, nearly clofed recep- °

tacles, lodged in the fubftance of the frond, lined with a
proper coat, under which, in their fpongy texture, are cells,
each containing from two to four feeds. Each hollow
finally opens by an orifice in the. furface of the frond
above, which fometimes fupplies it with a fpurious ‘border.
Thefe are the proper receptacles of Endocarpon ; fee that
article,

10. Tubercula. Tubercles.—Spherical, or flightly conical,
nearly clofed, cruftaceous, black, more or lefs immerfed in
the furface of the cruftaceous frond, or thallus, which they
elevate ; or fometimes they are expofed, being merely
feffile. Each contains a ball or mafs of connected feeds,
deftitute of cells, but enveloped in one common membrane,
and the whole are finally difcharged together by an orifice
at the top of the tubercle. Such is the fruit of Verru-
caria, and if this account be corre, that genus is certainly
as diftin& in frutification as in habit from L£ndocarpon.
The nature of thefe minute parts is very hard to determine,
efpecially as the tubercles of Verrucaria often come under
our infpeétion after they are emptied of their contents.

It muft be remembered that Acharius here ufes the term
tubercle in a reftriG@ed fenfe, and not with that latitude
habitual to Linnzus and his followers, amongft whom it
commonly, when applied to Lichens, means almoft any
thing that is not a /hield.

11. Ciftule. Cellules. —Globofe terminal receptacles, formed
out of the fubftance ef the frond, filled with uncoated feeds
intermixed with fibres, and at length burfting irregularly ;
as in Spherophoron. See Licuen, fect. 8.

12. Cephalodia. Knobs.—Convex, or more or lefs globular,
covered externally with a coloured feed-bearing craft, and
placed generally at the extremities of ftalks originating from
the frond (being rarely feffile and fcattered as in Svereo-
caulon), permanent. Such are feen in Baomyces, or the
Cup-bearing Lichens. (SeeLicuen, fet. 7.) In fome of
the filamentous tribe, U/nee, they are at firlt like patellule,
and feffile, becoming afterwards cenvex and irregular. See
orbille, n. 6.—Cephalodia are fometimes fimple, fometimes
compound or conglomerated.

13

°

13- Globuli. Globules.—Globofe, folid and cruftaceous,
formed of the fubftance of the frond, and terminating its
points or branches, from whence they fall off entire, leaving
a pit or cavity, They are fuppofed to be covered all over
with a coloured feed-bearing menrbrane, and are taken for
one of the modes of fruétification in the J/idium of Acha-
rius ; fee hereafter.

Acharius explains as follows .certain terms ufed in his
defcriptions of Lichens. ;

Thece are the cafes or cells containing the feeds, in the
difk of moft receptacles, at leaft in /cutelle.

Spore are the feeds, of whofe nature very little is known.
This author declines calling them /emina, becaufe they are
prefumed to have no cotyledons ; but that is no fufficient
reafon. The queftion is, whether they are produced by
fexual impregnation ; if not, they are gemme (buds or off-
fets). We need not here repeat what is faid under the
article Gemma.

Propagula are thofe little roundifh deciduous bodies, com-
monly termed powder in {peaking of thefe plants, but which
may be called the efforefcence. ‘Thefe bodies are either dif- -
perfed or cluftered on the furface of the frond, and each of
them is afferted by Schreber to be a hollow veficle, and by
Hoffmann to-difcharge, through an orifice, a, quantity of
fine duft. They are alfo not unfrequently powdery at their
outfide ; fometimes interwoven with very fhort and flender
threads, and finally pafs into what is fuppofed by Acharius
to be an aflemblage of minute buds, gemme.

Acharius obferves, that ‘* fome have taken thefe bodies
for pollen, or male flowers; but that this conjefture is
utterly contrary to the obfervations of Micheli and Schmi-
del, who faw them germinate, and produce offspring.’
Schmidel’s remarks we have not feen, but Micheli certainly
afferts, in his Nova Plantarum Genera, 74,t- 41, Q, R, that
he faw this powdery matter germinate, and produce plants,
in the cup-bearing tribe of Lichens. He therefore takes
the fhields and their contents, which he has delineated in
his t. 52, for male bloffoms, and this opinion was adopted
by Linnzus. Hedwig neverthelefs, in his Theoria, p. 120,
ftrongly combats this’ do¢trine, afferting that Micheli might
eafily be miftaken, as the real feeds, vilible only with a very
high magnifier, would efcape obfervation, when fallen among
the powder, and vegetating there, would caufe the young
plants to feem the offspring .of the latter. Gaertner thinks
the powder is of the nature of buds; but his opinion is
equally theoretical with that of Adanfon, who takes the
contents of the fhields for feeds. Acharius adopts both
thefe opinions, and offers an ingentous conjecture of his own,
which is, that the powdery buds may be deftined to produce
individual plants that propagate themfelves fubfequently
by the fame mode; while the feeds of the fhields or tuber~
cles may produce complete fru€tifying plants, which go on
to increafe by feed. Hence, his genus of Lepraria, as he
prefumes, propagates itfelf by the former means, without
any other. We confefs this genus is very puzzling ; but
when fo confpicuous a plant as Lemna has fo long flowered
and fruited without obfervation, and fuppofed Leprarie are
from time to time detected with fhields, we are difpofed to
attribute much to our ignorance. We certainly cannot -
agree with Dr. Acharius when he goes fo far as to fuggeft
that the feeds, which originate from the fhields, may fome-
times produce fhields alone without any frond! The latter -
is well known to be now and then fugacious, and-fo is inva-
riably the root of Cufcuta, though abfolutely effential to
the young plant, It is very defirable that fome perfon
fhould fee the germination of the feeds of Lichens, taken
from the fhields; though there feems little reafon to doubt

their

LICHENES.

their being fuch, whatever the powdery maffes or warts may
be. We are chiefly led by the obfervation of Hoffmann,
above-mentioned, to perfift in the opinion of Hedwig. If
the powdery granules in queftion be really vafcular, and
emit a duft, it is fo analogous to the anthers of all other
known plants, and fo unlike the nature of gemme, that, if
the contents of the fhields can be proved to be feeds, of
which indeed we have no doubt, there would be little rea-
fon to hefitate refpeGting the others. We do not mean that
every granular appearance about the fronds of Lichens muft
be anthers. Much of it, doubtlefs, is gemmaceous, but
anthers may accompany it ; and the latter may in Lepraria
impregnate minute or folitary feeds, that alfo accompany
the granules, and that have hitherto efcaped detection.

Soredia are aflemblages of the above powdery bodies,
colle&ed on a fort of receptacle. This Acharius exem-
plifies by Variolaria, as will be mentioned in fpeaking of
that genus. Some /oredia originate from cracks in the
frond.

Pulvinuli ave excrefcences found occafionally on the fur-
face of the frond, often cluftered or branched, whofe ufe
and nature are unknown. They occur in Gyrophora pujflu-
lata ; but are moft remarkable in Lichen glomuliferus of
Lightfoot. See Engl. Bot. t. 293.

Verruce are’ varioufly-fhaped protuberances, folid, and
ufually fmooth, originating from the cruft, and fometimes,
though rarely, bearing or lodging the fruétification, as in
Lichen pertufus of Linneus. See Engl. Bot. t. 677 ; alfo
t. 2317. 2336. :

Podetia are ftalks elevating the fruit, as in the Cup Li-
chens, and are either folid or hollow.

Lorula are the long thread-like branches of the U/nea
tribe.

We are now to take a compendious view of the genera
of the Zichenes, as defined in the Methedus of Acharius,
upon principles dependent on the parts of fruétification, or,

at leaft, propagation. Thefe genera are 23, difpofed in three
fe€tions.
Se&. 1. SreREOTHALAMI; (from ¢:p:w, to deprive, and

Sarapioc, a bed.)

Receptacle none.
tered or aggregate.

1. Pulveraria. Efflorefcence powdery, collected into tufts
by fine, flender, interwoven threads. (Frond none.)

This genus is now reduced by its author to the following.
See Lepraria chlorina, Engl. Bot. t. 2038, a moft beautiful
produétion, which covers rocks with a coat many inches,
or fome .feet, broad, refembling bright lemon-coloured
cloth or velvet.

2. Lepraria. Efflorefcence fomewhat globular, feattered
loofe over a cruftaceous bafe, which it often entirely covers
fuperficially. (Frond cruftaceous, indeterminate.)

This, like Pulveraria, comes under the Byffus of Lin-
nzus, who has defcribed fome fpecies of it. ‘The mof
common is L. botrycides, Ach. n. 7. Engl. Bot. t. 2148,
feen every where on the trunks of trees, and on polts, to
which it gives a green colour in winter. Another very
common fpecies, incana, n. 2, has been found with patellule,
which make it a Lecidea of Acharius. See Engl. Bot.
t. 1683 ; as has his /eiphema, n. 3, which is his Lecidea (or
rather Parmelia) Stonei ; Meth. 65; Lichen Hematomma ;
Engl. Bot. t. 486. Lepraria rubens, n. 6, is Conferva liche-
nicola; Engl. Bot. t. 1609 ; and probably Micheli’s Lichen
cruftaceus, arboribus adnafcens, tenuiflimus, pulverulentus,
ruber ; Nov. Gen. 100. n. 73.

Wiggers, or rather Weber (fee the beginning of this ar-
ticle), places this genus (under the name Lepra, by which

Organs of propagation naked, feat-

Haller had previoufly diftinguifhed it), in his order of
Ajfperme, defined as ‘ deftitute of fruétification.”? But many
of the plants, which he refers to that order, are now known
to have feeds, and his genera are liable otherwife to much
exception.

3. Spiloma. Efflorefcence ? in fhapelefs, fuperficial maffes,
woolly and powdery, rigid. (Frond cruftaceous, indeter-
minate, thin, uniform.)—Of this genus feveral fpecies may
be feen in Engl. Bot. v. 29 and 30. Notwithftanding the
above charaéter, the cruft may be feen to be determinate,
or limited, in Engl. Bot. t. 2150, where it has a very diftinét
and curious border.

4. Variolaria. Efflorefcence globofe, colleéted in diftin&
aflemblages (/oredia). (Frond cruftaceous, moftly deter-
minate.)—Great light has been thrown upon this genus
fince the publication of the Methodus of Acharius. See
Turner Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 9. 137—140, and Engl. Bot.
v. 28. t. 2008 ; v. 29. t. 20613; fo that it is now removed
by Acharius himfelf to the fecond feétion of his Lichenes,
as having true receptacles. It feems indeed, in our opinion,
to give no {mall fupport to the theory of the powdery
efHorefcence (propagula), above-defcribed, being the male
part of the fruétification. Variolaria has true receptacles,
feated on a thick tartareous cruft, which fupplies them with
an acceflory border, of more or lefs thicknefs or regularity.
Their difk, or {pace within the border, is occupied with an
aflemblage of the powdery fubftance in queftion, of which
fo much has already been faid, and under which has been
obferved, in feveral fpecies, a coloured flefhy or waxy difk,
lodging feeds (as we all prefume them to be) in vertical
cells ; like a true fhield. Here then the two fexes feem
united in one receptacle. In fome cafes the male is moft
abundant and predominant, and the waxy difk is f{carcely
difcernible ; at leaft at that. period of growth when fuch
f{pecimens have happened to come under examination, which
is when the powdery fubftance renders them moft obvious ;

_ but it is moft likely, from analogy of other plants, that the

difk may fubfequently increafe. In other inftances, as in
Lichen multipundus, Engl. Bot. t. 2061, the powder is in
lefs proportion, fooner almoft difappears, and the difk is very
evident beneath it. Some traces of a difk may be found,
in what we would term the flowering ftate of the original
Variolaria faginea. See Engl. Bot: t. 1713.—The Hed-
wigian theory of the impregnation of Lichenes appears to
us greatly confirmed by thefe obfervations, and we cannot
but think that the opinion of the germination of their pow-
dery efflorefcence has been too haltily admitted by recent
naturalitts.

Se&.2. IprorHaLamt; (from sdio:, proper, and SaAzpoc.)

Receptacle compofed of a peculiar compaét hardith fub-
ftance, not in any manner formed out of the frond, from
which it differs in colour {being moftly black).

The feeds are naked, not enclofed in proper cells, except
in L£ndocarpon ; upon which we fhall offer fome remarks
hereafter. -

* Receptacles open.

5. Opegrapha. Clefts black, feffile, oblong or linear,
fimple, confluent, or branched, ftraight or zigzag, bor-
dered ; their difk flat or flightly concave, naked or pow-
dery, narrow, linear, rarely dilated ; their border (of their
own fubftance) often very narrow and f{carcely perceptible,
fometimes tumid, elevated, and fomewhat inflexed. Some-
times there is a fpurious acceffory border, or mere {welling
of the cruft. (Frond cruftaceous, uniform, thin, generally
indeterminate ; occafionally leprous. )

Lichen feriptus of Linnezus, with about thirty known fpe-

cies

LICHENES.

cies befides, compofe this genus.
32, &c.

~ 5%, Arthonia. Achar. in Schrad. N. Journ. v. 1. fafc. 3.
13.3. Receptacles flattifh, fhapelefs, {mooth, without a bor-
der, feffile.

We introduce this, as defcribed by the author fince the
publication of his Méthodus. A genuine example of it is
‘A. Swartziana, fee as above, p. 13. t. 4. f, 1. Engl. Bot.
t. 2079. We conceive feveral plants are improperly referred
to this genus by Acharius, as Spiloma verfico'or, Engl. Bot.
t. 2076, and Opegrapha aftroidea, Ach. Meth. 25. Engl.
Bot. t. 18473 to fay nothing of Lichen croceus, t. 498, and
Jaccatus, t. 288 5 whofe fhields or targets have no irregu-
larity of fhape, and whofe fronds are of fo totally different
nature from the cruft of .4. Sqwartziana. In fhort, we
can fearcely find another certain fpecies to aflociate with
this ; except poflibly 4. gyro/z, Ach. as above, p. 14.
tediating: :

é Teams: Spangles feffile, with a flattifh or convex difk.
(Frond various ; cruftaceous, whether uniform and limited,
or fcattered and indeterminate ; or even’ leafy, fomewhat
membranous, or ftellated. Acharius adds ‘‘ rarely umbili-
cated ;"’ from an idea now proved erroneous, that Gyrophora
puflulata was a Lecidea). See GyRoPHORA. '

This is an extenfive genus, excellent as far as only cruf-
taceous fpecies are admitted, fuch being the genuine Li-
chenes leprofi tuberculati of Linneus. See Licuen, fection
the rft; and the term patellule in the prefent article.—
Thefe conftitute the firft feGtion named catillaria, comprifing
80 fpecies, 45 of which have black or blueifh receptacles,
the reft red, yellow, or brownifh.—The fecond feétion, /epi-
doma, has a figured or lobed cruft, often imbricated, and
embraces 14 {pecies, among which are Lichen niger, Engl.
Bot. t, 1161, and decipiens, t. 870.—The third is a {mall
feétion, with a leafy cruft, /uphenaria, into which fhould be
admitted Lichen dedaleus, Engl. Bot. t. 2129.—The fourth,
ompbalaria, contains only Gyropbora puftulata, with its near
relation penfylvanica, and ought to be abolifhed.

7. Calicium. Puffs (pilidia) turbinate, lenticular, or nearly
globofe. They are generally elevated on a rigid fimple
ftalk, of a totally different fub{tance from the-cru{t. (Frond
cruftaceous, either leprous, or tartareous, uniform or fcat-
tered, powdery and granulated, or folid and checquered, or
fomewhat leafy and imbricated ; fee Lichen phaocephalus,
Turn. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 8. 260. t. 6.) Acharius de-
feribes 18 {pecies, to which feveral have fince been added
by difcoveries in Lapland and England. They are minute
produétions, long confounded with fungi, from which they
were firft diftinguifhed by Perfoon on account of their cruft.
It muft be acknowledged that they bear the fame analogy
to feveral genera of fungi, that other Lichens, with proper
ihields, do to others, the O@o/pore of Hedwig. Examples
of Calicium are feen in Engl. Bot. t. 1465. 1539, 1540.
1832. &c.

ox Receptacles clofed, at length opening.

8. Gyrophora. Buttons (trice) {uperticial, flattifh. (Frond
leafy, peltate, between membranous and leathery.) See
Gyropuora, in its proper place.

9. Bathelium. Receptacles feffile, fomewhat globofe, open-
ing by a deciduous lid, hollow, of one to three cells, lined
with feeds. (Frond cruftaceous, indeterminate, uniform.)
This genus conlifts of only B. majftoideum, Ach. Meth. 111.
t. 8. f. 3, found on the bark of trees at Sierra Leone by
Dr. Afzelius:

to. Verrucaria. Tubercles elevated, difcharging their
concatenated feeds by a terminal pore, or elfe falling out
entire. (Frond thin cruftaceous, uniform.)

See Engl. Bot. v. 25, 26.

A minute tribe, of which about go f{pecies are known.
See Lichen Schraderi, Engl. Bot. t. 17113 and analeptus,
t. 1848.

11. Endocarpon. Hollows (thalamia) hidden in the fub-
ftance of the frond, each owening bya little mouth. Seeds
enclofed in cells. (Frond membranous, fomewhat crufta-~
ceous, of a determinate figure.) See EnpocaRpon in its
proper place.

As the feeds are certainly enclofed in cells, like the genera
of the next fection, it feems defirable to range this genus
with them. We are moreover now well aware that it differs
fufficiently from Verrucaria in having parallel cells, lodged
in a difk lining the cavity of the receptacle; whereas, in
that, the concatenated naked feeds, cluftered into a ball,
fill the cavity. Their habits indeed are alfo totally unlike.

The receptacles of Exdocarpon are, moreover, fo united’ to
the fubftance of the frond, that they may perhaps be con-
fidered as belonging to it, though fomewhat different in
colour; fee Hedw. Crypt. v. 2.t. 20, A.

Se&. 3. Ca@norHALAMi ; (from xosvos, common or general,
and Sarcpore )

Receptacle formed of the frond itfelf, with which it
agrees in fubftance and colour. Seeds inclofed in proper
cells, except .in Spherophoron.

* Receptacles compound, either pierced or gaping»

12. Thelotrema. Receptacle compound; the outer one
wart-like, elevated, of the fubftance of the cruft; inner
fomewhat globular, with a concave difk. (Frond a firm,
continued, indeterminate cruft.)—Examples are Lichen per-
tufus, Linn, Mant. 131. Engl. Bot. t.677; and L. inclu/us,
t. 678. Acharius feems to have had the former in view
when he defined the receptacles as “‘ compound and opening
by feveral little mouths.?? They are, in that fpecies, gene-
rally aggregate or confluent, but each is internally diftiné& ;
and in others they are ufually as diltin@ and feparate as the
fhields of any other Lichen.

** Receptacles nearly globular, clofed, at length burfling

13. Spherophoron. Cellules nearly globofe, each enclofing
a roundifh ball of naked compaét feeds, which turns to black
powder, and is difcharged by the torn orifice, leaving the
cellule hollow and empty. (Frond fhrubby, branched,
{olid, rigid ; tartareous or minutely fibrous within; with a
fmooth cartilaginous coat.) —This elegant genus is exem-
plified by Lichen globiferus, Engl. Bot. t.115 5; and fragilis,
t. 1143; which, with the real fragilis of Linneus, make up
the lift of known fpecies ; fee Licuen, fe&t. 8 fruticulo/.

14. Ifidium. Receptacle of the feeds terminal, fomewhat .
difcoid, folid, various in thicknefs, covered with, and fhining
through, the cruft of the papille of the, frond, which at
length burfts, and each receptacle appears coloured, and
partly expofed. Glodules alfo either terminate each of the
papilla, or are nearly feffile on the cruft itfelf. Thefe are
coloured, and finally fall out, each leaving a little pit at the
fummit of the papilla or branch. The globule is internally
folid, and both fides are covered with a feed-bearing coat,
(Frond cruftaceous, leprous and tartareous, cracked, rather
indeterminate, either papillary only, or throwing up folid
branches. ) :

Such is, as precifely as we can give it, the character o:
Tfidium, a genus founded by Acharius. He allows in a note
that this genus is doubtful and ambiguous, neareft to Sphe-
rophoron, but differing in’ having a properly cruitaceous
frond, or bafis, and efpecially in the nature of its Jjtratum
proligerum, (difk, or receptacle of the feeds,) which does_
not turn to duft ; as well as in the prefence of terminal gio-
bules (fee the explanation of this term, n. 13, among the
kinds of receptacles,) even when the other receptacles are

wanting.

LICHENES.

wanting. He adds that this double fort of fruit in Z/dinm
demands further enquiry, for he is firmly perfuaded that
thefe globules belong to the organs of fruétification.—We
prefume that Lichen oculatus, Engl. Bot. t. 1833) (fee Ste-
reocaulon hereafter) exhibits the former kind of receptacle,
and L. Weffringii, t. 2204,.the latter; but of this we have
no certain knowledge.—J/idium gonatodes of Acharius ap-
pears by his 4) pen to be a mere variety of the crult
of ZL. tartareus of Linneus.

**%* Receptacles orbicular, open; their border of the colour of
the frond, furrounding a varioufly-coloured diffe.

15. Urceolaria. . Shields or {pangles cup-fhaped, varioufly
coloured, funk into the fubftance of the crutt, or of its fraz-
ments or warts. Difk concave, rarely becoming flattifh by
age, but never elevated above the cruft. Proper border
often fcarcely manifeft, of the colour of the dilk; the ac-
ceffory one fometimes formed of the cruft, which is elevated
like a ring, furrounding the difk of each fhield; but it is
generally fpurious, not united to the fhield throughout.
(Frond cruftaceous, tartareous, uniform, determinate, chec-
-quered or cracked, rarely figured or lobate.) —Examples of
this genus are the common Lichen fcrupofus, Engl. Bot.
t. 266; the rare exanthematicus, t. 1184. Tr. of Linn. Soc.
v. I. ti 4. f.13 and Urceolaria calcarea, Ach. Meth. 142,
very common on grey marble tombftones, in expofed country
churchyards, where it forms infeparable hard white patches,
two or three feet broad. This laft is >atellaria multipunda,
Hoffm. Pl. Lich. t. 63.’ f, 1—3; Lichen cinereus, Engl.
Bot. t.820, but not that of Linnzus, It is erroneoufly
made a Parmelia in Ach. Meth. 158. 2

16. Parmelia. Shields fuperficial, or elevated, thick or
fomewhat membranous, flattifh, convex, or concave, crowned
with a free acceflory border. (Frond various, cruftaceous,
leafy, branched or laciniated, cartilaginous, membranous or
gelatinous.) This vaft and various genus fwallows up the
greater part of the natural order; Lectdea, n. 6, being far
inferior to it in number of f{pecies, though greatly fuperior
as a natural and confiftent genus. 204 Parmelic are defined
in the Methodus, befides feveral in the Supplementum of
Acharius, This author is often in doubt to which genus
fome fpecies belong, for want of knowing them in every
fiate of growth. The true Parmelie have an acceflory bor-
der of the colour and fubftance of their cruft, but no proper
border formed of the fubftance of the difk. The feGtions of
this genus are eleven, diftinguifhed by the nature of their
frond, the firft three being cruftaceous, as in Lichen tar-
tareus (fee Licnen, fect. 2.); the two next are leafy,
more or lefs depreffed. The fixth fection confilts of Hoff-
mann’s Collema, (fee the early part of the prefent article,)
and has been lately reftored to the rank of a genus in Engl.
Bot. t. 2284, with this charaéter. ‘ Shields orbicular, ho-
rizontal, nearly feffile, fuperficial, with a gelatinous accef-
fory border.’? The five remaining fections are the moft
mifcellaneous poffible, nearly as much fo as the original

nus Lichen in Linnzus.

#*#* Receptacles flattened, nearly deflitute of a border ; their
upper fide entirely covered with a thin feed-bearing dif, of con-

Ira le folidity at the furface.

7. Stiéa. Shields on the upper fide of the frond, feffile,
clofe-prefled, orbicular, membranaceous; their difk flat,
rarely fomewhat convex ; their border acceffory, thin, en-
tire, free, flightly tumid, rarely ner. of the colour of
the frond. Pits amongft the down of the under fide, fcat-
tered, feffile, minute, coloured; their difk roundifh, pow-
dery ; border elevated, a little inflexed, entire or jagged,
fometimes obliterated. (Frond leafy, membranous or in

Vou. XX.

fome meafure coriaceous, lobed or jagged, downy or fhaggy
beneath. ) :

A beautiful and natural genus, of which the pits (cy-
phella) at the back of the froad form the moft effential clia-
racter.. Acharius feems to have admitted them as a part of
the fruétification. 1£ fo, they fhould feem to be the male
bloffoms. The {pecies of this genus, however, often abound
with powdery efflorefcence. See Lichen limbatus, Engl.
Bot. t. 1104; alfo /j/vaticus, t. 2298; crocatus, t. 21103
and auratus, t. 2359. Acharivs has fourteen {pecies in all,
feveral of them extra-european.

18. Peltidea. Targets clofely attached to the frond,
about the margin, on the upper or under fide, rarely la-
teral, or towards the middle, each entirely confifting of a
fiattifh, very rarely concave, coloured difk ; border accef-
fory, very thin and fecarcely difcernible, united with the
frond, and of the fame colour. (Frond leafy, rather
leathery ;_ with downy veins and fibres beneath, rarely
naked; the circumference lobed, its barren lobes de-
predede fertile ones elongated, afcending, naked, at the

ack.)

One of the moft natural genera, the Peltigera of Hoff-
mann ; moft allied to Sti@a in habit, but wanting the cy-
phellz, inftead of which the prominent veins or ribs under-
neath are remarkable.x—See Lichen caninus, Engl. Bot.
t. 2299; rufefcens, t. 2300; and the more rare weno/isy
t. 887 ; apbthofus, t. 11193 and collinus, t. 1834; which
laft Dr. Acharius now admits as diftinét from rufefcens, and
the fame plant with his Peltidea fcutata. He alfo informs
us that his P. chlorophylla, n.7, is no other than his Ce-
traria fepincolaf. For mention of other f{pecies, fee Licuen,
fect. 5.—Lichen creceus, Engl. Bot. t. 498; and faccatus,
t. 288, feem to us much better placed in this genus, as in
Ach. Meth. 290, than in 4rthonia above-mentioned.

19. Cetraria. ‘Targets fhield-like, thickifh, fiat, clofe-
prefied, feffile, near the margin ; their circumference loofe,
rounded, deformed or wavy; difk coloured, flightly con-
vex ; border acceflory, very narrow, entire or crenate, of
the colour of the frond. (Frond leafy, membranous or
fomewhat cartilaginous, rigid, fmooth and naked on both
fides ; fometimes cellular or pitted ; lobed and jagged, often
crifped at the edges. )

The receptacles of this genus are, as it were, of an in-
termediate kind between fhields and targets, rather moft
akin to the latter. The nature of the frond however, its
{moothnefs, polifh, and membranous, fomewhat rigid, tex-
ture, render Cetraria very di{tinét, on the fcore of habit,
from the laft. But eight or nine fpecies are defcribed ;
among which are Lichen i/landicus, Linn. n. 50. Engl.
Bot. t. 13303 cucullaius, Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. vy. 1. 84.
t. 4. f. 73; glaucus, Linn. n. 67. Engl. Bot. t. 1606. See
LicuEy, fect. a.

2c. Cornicularia. Orbs fhield-like, terminal, peltate,
thickifh, cartilaginous, orbicular, flat; at length rather
convex, uneven, and irregular; difk generally of the co- ~
lour of the frond; border fcarcely any, except in a young
ftate, a flight acceflory one, entire, naked, or radiated, at
length reflexed, (Frond cartilaginous, rigid, fmooth, rather
folid, fpongy within, of a fhrubby, tufted, branched habit,
the branches acute.)—-This genus is about as numefous in
{pecies as the lait. It is conceived by Acharius to. be in-
termediate betwixt Parmelia and U/nea, approaching the
former moft in the frond, the latter in the fruit, except
that the occafionally deeper colour of the difk, and the
prefence of an early border, betray more affinity to the
latter.—Examples of Cornicularia are, Lichen triflis of

a Ae Weber;

LICHENES.

Weber, Linn. n. 112, deferibed in Engl. Bot. t. 720; and
bifpidus, t. 452.5, which laft is C. /padicea of Acharius :
allo L. bicolor, Eng). Bot. t. 1853, which has lately been
thewn by the Rev. H. Davies to be the U/nea lane nigre
tnflar faxis adherens ; Dill. Mate. 66. t. 13. f.°8,; a long-
difputed and uncertain plant; t. 13. f. 9. being L. Janatus,
Engl. Bot. t, 846.

21. Ujnea. Orbs fomewhat coriaceous, flattened, pel-
tate, naked and fmooth on both fides, moltly very much
dilated ; dif firlt concave, then flat, even; fubfequently
rather convex and cracked, or warty, fearcely coloured ;
border either none at all, or an acceflory one, which is
entire or toothed in the circumference, very often radiated.
Knobs SS St on the fame, or a different plant, fef-
file, lateral, fcattered ; at firft fhield-like, and fometimes,
in a manner, bordered ;_ finally convex and warty, coloured,

This apparently double mode of fructification in the U/nee,
or proper filamentous Lichens, fee Licren, fect. the latt, in-
volves as great /a myftery as the propagula and feeds. Experi-
ments a® requifite to determine whether. the ordi/le produce
feeds, as well as the cephalodia. ‘Till this is proved, we can-

not but feel perfuaded that the former are more probably the
inale bloffoms ; or poflibly they may be abortive or imperfect
femaleones. Being much the moft frequent and confpicuous
of the two, and greatly refembling fhields, they have been
of courfe taken for the fruit, the cephalodia having nearly
efcaped obfervation, till lately ; fee Sm. Tour on the Con-
tinent, ed. 2. v. 1. 335, and Engl. Bot. t. 872 —(The frond
of Ufnea is branched, with elongated, cylindrical, thready
fhoots, either nearly ereét, proftrate or pendulous, befet with
fmall fibres, and tapering towards the extremities ; their coat
cruflaceous, more or lefs diftin@&ly jointed like a necklace,
and roughifh, having a central or medullary thread, which is
femipellucid and elattic. )

There can be little doubt of the natural diftinétnefs of the
prefent genus, though fome Parmelie, (as L. divaricatus of
Linneus,) greatly refemble it in general afpeQ. The jointed
frond is very curious, and'we believe effential. See examples
of Ufnea in Lichen floridus, Eng). Bot. t. 872; hirtus, t.1354.3
plicatus, t. 2573 and articulatus, t.258.. Many fpecies re-
ferred by Hoifmann and others to the fame genus, as L. diva-
ricatus ; and judatus, Engl. Bot. t. 1880; make a feGtion in
the Parmelia of Acharius, called tricharia.—1If the knobs
be the true female fruCtification, U/nea rather belongs to the
following feGtion.

WHEE Receptacles convex, more’ or lefs globofe, clothed with a
Sfeed-bearing layer, or difk, feffile cither on the branches, papillary
proceffés, or peculiar flalks, of the frond, terminal and per-
manent.

22. Stertocaulon. Knobs fomewhat turbinate; at ‘firft
furnifhed with a proper border ; then globofe, without ftalks,
fimple or cluftered, coloured, permanent; difk at firft flat
and fmall, but gradually occupying the whole; border
. of the fame uninterrupted fubftance ard colour, entire, at
Jength obliterated. (Frond folid, almoft woody, caulefcent,
erect, branched, moitly clothed with {cales, rough and
fibrous.)

This genus is more reftriGted than the Stereocaulon of Hoff-
mann, ‘yet not much more certain or definite. Its proper
type is Lichen pafchalis, Engl. Bot.'t. 282. Many others are
doubtful. We can fearcely diltinguith S$. tabulare, Ach.
Meth. 316. t.7. £.3, from Lichen otulatus of Dickfon, Engl.
Bor. t. 1833, Lfdium ? oculatum of ‘Acharius.

, 23: Bazomyces. Knobs capitate, nearly globofe, with Ye-
flexed, fearcely bordered, edges, terminating their own pro-
per fruit-italks, ‘fimple or cluttered, coloured, permanent;

dif properly none, the whole globofe furfice being ravered
with the thin, folid, feed-bearing coat; border none.
(Frond either foniewhat crultaccous, foftifh, granulated, ins
determinate, rarcly figured ; or confifting of a cartilaginous,
leafy and lobed crutt: Truic-{talks elongated out of the very
fubitance of the frond, fimple or branched, tubular or
nearly folid, either dilated or tapering upwards, fometimes
barren. —

A great genus, very difficult for the determination of its
{pecies, of which about 50 are deferibed. Acharius divides
it into fix feétions ; in the fir are Lichen byfides, Engl.
Bot. t. 373, and the beautiful Z. Beomyces, t. 374: in the
fecond L. Papillaria, t.go7: in the third L. rubiformis,
t. 2112, and ce/pititius, t. 1796: and in the fourth L. deli
catus, t. 2052, and microphyllus,t. 1782. 'Thefe four feétions
comprife in all but 14 or 15 fpecies\—The fifth is by fat
more confiderable, confifting of the true cup-beating Lichers,
Scyphiferi or Pyxidati of authors, which terms exprefs the
cup-like dilatation of their fruit-ftalks upwards. We have
already fpoken of this tribe 5 fee Licuen, fe&. 7. Acharius
defines 24 {pecies, with numerous varieties. ‘They feem to
have engaged much of his attention. Beautiful {pecimens
of them are his Beomyces bacillaris, (Lichen filiformis; Engl.
Bot. t. 2028; L. cocciferus, t.20515 bellidiflorus, t. 18945

_and alcicornis, t. 1392.—The fixth feGtion, confifting of rf

{pecies, embraces the fhrubby and awl-fhaped kinds of Hoff-
mann’s Cladonia. Such are L. uncialis, Linn. n. 107. Engl.
Bot. t. 1743 rangiferinus, n.'106. t. 173 3 and vermicularis,
nh. 108, t. 2029.

By the above detail, this arrangement of the Lichens by
their fructification wilkbe fufficiently intelligible to any who
will bend their attention to the fubje& ; and the more it is
ftudied, the more honour will it be found to confer on its
author. Whatever occafional laxity, or want of precifion,
may be obfervable in his ufe and adaptation of terms, wili be
found inévitable in fo intricate a ftudy, in which he was him-
felf learning, as well as teaching, at every ftep. "We have
unfortunately not yet been able to procure a fight of his more
recent publication, entitled Lichenographia Univerfalis ; but
from a manufcript fcheme of the whole, and fome informa-
tion siv n by an intelligent friend, we learn that the great
obje& of this work is the eftablifhment of a new diltribu-
tion cf Lichenes, in which the genera are vaftly multiplied,
Moft of the new ones feem formed out of the fettions, or *
fubdivifions, of thofe of his Methodus ; fo that he has here
given into the plan‘of taking Aaéit into the generic character,
toa great extent. How far this may be eligible, we dare
not, without feeing his reafons, decide. The few plates
of the book in quettion are, as we underitand, entirely fubfer-
vient to this objeét, and the fynonyms, as well as every thing
relating ‘to f{pecific illuftration, are but compendioufl
touched. Such fubjé&s will receive a fulland {ufficiently dif-
fufe expofition, in a new work, the firft fheets of which we
have lately been allowed to perufe, the Lichenographia Bri-
tannica of Mr. Dawfon Turner, atid Mr. William Borrer.
This, when completed, willexhibit a finifhed hiftory of the
‘Britith fpecies, the knowledge of which isnearly equivalent to
an acquaintance with the charattlvs of the whole order. An-
almoft complete feries of their figures is already before the
‘public in the Engli/h Botany, to which we have fo often re-
ferred. No other work, in any country, contains fo many.
The difcrimination of the f{pecies, in this and ‘the other
‘tribes of Britifh plants, has all along béen a primary object
of that publication: the new genera of Lithenes havin
been very cautioufly adopted ; indeed fearcely at all til
lately, they having been confidered by the author as in too

" ~~ fluc-

LIC

fluctuating a ftate, an idea which the above account will
abundantly juftify. The fame reafon, in addition to fome
inevitable impediments, has hitherto kept back the fourth
volume of the Flora Britannica, where the Lichens will make
a principal figure-

A very interefting work, on the dyeing properties of
Swedifh Lichens, is publifhed at Stockholm, in 8yvo. num-
bers, fromthe pen of Dr. Weftring. Seven numbers have
reached us, in which 21 {pecies of this natural order are il-
luftrated by admirable coloured plates, with diffections,
drawn ‘by the hand of ‘Profe% or Acharius himfelf, and ac-
companied by fpecimens of all the colours yielded by each
{pecies, the manner of procuring which is the chief {fubject
of the Swedifh letter-prefs. We regret that it is not given
to the public ina language more generally underftood. The
variety of beautiful colours afforded by Pulveraria (or Le-
praria) chlorina, t. 1, are yery {triking, and amount to 14, in
which blue, green, and yellow are confpicuons. J/dium
Wefiringii, t. 4, yields beautiful fhades of red, which colour,
with different browns, is derived from molt of the tartareous-
crufted tribe. The leafy membranous ones feem to excel in
browns, as L. faxatilis, t. 2; omphalodes, t..7 3 and en-
cauflus, t. 19, Sm. Tr. of Linn. Soc. v. 1. 83. t. 4. f..6.
The cup-bearing kind appears alfo by the common L. pyxi-
datus, t. 17, ta promife much in dyeing. When the high
price of Orchall, Lichen Roccella, is coniidered, the invetti-
gation of different {pecies under the guidance of improved
chemiftry, can hardly be thought an idle fpeculation, even
by thofe who have no other motive for the ftudy of
mature. 3

We cannot conclude this article, without adverting to a
fubje&, the confideration of which we have been dilpofed
to put off as long as we could, becaufe it is painful to differ
decidedly from thofe who have made any fubjeét their fre-
quent and patient itudy, and to whom, moreover, natural
{cience is fo much indebted in other refpecis. We allude
to the fuppofed transformation, for we can call it nothing
lefs, of one fpecies of this family into another. We can
readily explain why Lichen niger, Engl. Bot. t. 1161, may
feem to be turned into plumbeus, t. 353, from the feeds of
the latter falling into the decayed cruit of the former, and
finding there a mott excellent fituation for their germiwation ;
as an acorn might vegetate ina bed of rotten mofs, But
the transformation of a tuft of mofs intoa forett of oaks
would fcarcely be a lefs miracle than that fuggeited above,
or than the change of Lichen tricolor, or corneus, into a
Spheria. It is but juttice, indeed, to the excellent botanitt
who has afferted thefe changes, to declare, that we have no
lefs extraordinary reports of the fame kind from another
quarter, refpe¢ting the progrefs from one {pecies to another ;
in all which cafes, doubtlefs, the intricacies of nature have
deceived a molt acute obferver. We fhould fcarcely venture
to {peak on this fubje&, however clear to our reafon, from
the botany of the clofet only. A flight degree of praétical
obfervation will ferve to convince any one, that the diflemi+
nation of many far more obvious plants than thefe, is hardly
to be explained, and that the fhifting fcenes of nature, in the
animal as well as vegetable theatre, are almoft a metamor-
phofis. But we affert, with the confidence of experience,
that the fpecies of Lichens: themfelves, although un-
doubtedly liable to varieties like, other plants, of which we
‘have traced fome curious inftances amongtt the alpine Gyro-
phore in particular, are as conitant as thofe of any other
plants, and even better defined than many of the molt
fplendid. They differ indeed much in duration, fomewhat
in feafon, and above all perhaps in luxuriance, according to
favourable, or. unfavourable. circumitances ; for, they jare

yee

amongfl the moft hardy children of Flora, deftined to thrive
where others would perifh, and to prepare the way for fuch
as are lefs able to provide for themfelves. To underfland
them well requires laborious refearch, and perpetual obfer-
vation ; but the curiofity and beauty of their {truéture will
repay our toil, whilit, if we miltake not, the certainty of
their characters and diftinGtions will afford fatisfaGtion, as
well as initruction to the fcientific mind. 5S.
LICHENOIDES, Dill. Mufe. 124. See Licuen.
LICHFIELD, or Lircuriecp, in Geography, an ancient
city fituated in the hundred of Offow, and county of Staf-
ford, England. - According to the parliamentary returus of
1800, it then contained $73 houfes, and 4712 inhabitants,
of whom 1666 were found to be engaged in various. trades
and manufactures. ‘T'he more ancient name of this city was
Lichenfield, which, according to fome antiquaries, fignifies
the « field of dead bodies,’ froma mafiacre of the Chrif-
tians, faid to have taken place here during their conteits
with the Pagans in the reign of the emperor Dioclefian, Mr.
Shaw, however, in his ‘ Hitory of Staffordhhire,” exprefles
his decided opinion again{t the truth of this tradition, and with
greater probability confiders it as deriving its name from its
marfhy or watery fituation ; the word Lecetan, fro; which
lich comes, fignitying, in Saxon, land covered with water.
Lichfield is fuppofed to have arifen on the ruins of a Roman
ftationcalled Efocetum, which lies about a mile trom the prefent
city. Whether this idea be corre& it is not eafy to deter-
mine; but it feems to be clear that Lichfield was totally
unknown, or, more properly fpeaking, had no exiftence
either in the time of the Britons, or Romans. The origin
of it, according to the belt authorities, is attributed to the
Saxons; and Mr. Shaw fays, it was the firlt eftablifhed feat
of that people in England. In the year 669, when St.
Chad was bifhop of Lichfield, it was little more than a
trifling village. Even after the Norman congueft, it was
confidered by the fynod, then held at London, as too mean
a place for the refidence of a bifhop, for till this time the.
bifhops lived in an obfcure manner; and feem to have done
little towards adorning, or extending the town. However,
trifling as it was, it received great honours and privileges
from feveral of the Saxon kings. Borrocaphill, in the
neighbourhood of this city, was in all probability one of the
camps, or chief refidences, of fome Saxon princes: for,
though no traces of building remain, the fituation is too
fine and commanding to have efcaped the notice of that
warlike people. In the reign of Henry I. Lichfield was
encompailed with a ditch, and the caltle was fortified by
bifhop Clinton. No part of the fo¥tifications of the latter
are now vifible ; but the field in which,it {tood is {till deno-
minated Caltlefield, and the ditch around the city may be
eafily traced by an attentive obferver. The right of
coinage was granted to the bifhops of this diocefe by king
Stephen; but they did not enjoy this privilege for any
coniiderable period. Bifhop Langton, who fourifed in
the time of Edward I, was a great benefaftor to this ,
city, having built, among other things, an excellent bridge
over the pool which feparates the town from the clofe,
In the twenty-third year of the reign of the laft-men-
tioned prince, (1305,) Lichfield firft fent members to
parliament, which it ever after continued to do, Edward
VI. conitituted it a city by charter in the year 1549.
This charter gave the corporation power. to appoint bailiffs
and other chief officers, who fhould be entitled to hold all
pleas within the precincts of the city. Queen Mary, with
the authority of parliament, confirmed thefe privileges in
the year 1553, and added feveral others of importance.
The city, which before that ume formed a member or
452 parcel

LICHFIELD.

parcel of Staffordfhire, was then declared to be a county of
itfelf for ever, from and after the enfuing fealt of St. Thomas.
Allaétions of whatever denomination arifing within the city,
were ordained to be held by the bailiffs and citizens, if they
could determine them, and if not by the jultices next coming
into the city, and not on any account by any authority out
of the city. Thefe great privileges were conferred in con-
fequence of the faithful fervices of the citizens in the time
of rebellion. Both thefe charters were ratified by queen
Elizabeth, and afterwards confirmed by her fucceffor
James I. who granted {till further immunities to this city.
Charles IT. confirmed all the privileges of this city, by a
charter dated the 5th of November 1664. The govern-
ment at prefent is velted in two bailiffs, cle&ed from the
common council, one of whom is named by the bifhop, and
the other by the council themfelves, a recorder, a theriff,
a fteward, and other inferior officers. The burgeffes are
twenty-four in number. Lichfield fends two merabers to

parliament, the right of election being in the bailiffs, ma- '

giltrates, freeholders of 4os. a-year, the holders of burgage
tenements, and fuch freemen as are enrolled ard pay fcot
and lot. The number of voters is eflimated at 620.

This city has been the feat of a bifhop’s fee from a very
early period. ‘The famous St.Ceadda was confecrated in
the year 669. The great Offa, king of Mercia, of which
Stafford{hire formed a part, infifted upon his kingdom being
governed by an archiepifcopal power, and that the bifhop of
Lichfieid fhould be appointed te that dignity. Accordingly
Adulphus, the fucceflor-ef Sigebert, was created archbifhop
of Lichfield by pope Adrian, and the pall fent to him from
Rome, about the year 786. Lichfield, however, did not
long enjoy the pre-eminence it had thus acquired, for upon
the death oz Offa it was again reduced to a bifhopric, at
the earneft requeft of the archbifhop of Canterbury, who
prefented pope Leo, the thea poffeifor of the papal chair,
with a large fum of money, in order to give weight to his
entreaties. For a confiderable period the bifhoprics of
Coventry and Lichfield were united, but at the reformation
they were again disjoined. In the tower, built by bifhop
Clinton, king Richard IJ. is faid to have kept his fump-
tuous Chriftmas feftival, in the year 1397, when he con-
fumed two hundred tuns of wine and two thoufand oxen.
This fortrefs was likewile the place of his confinement when
on his way to the Tower of London as a prifoner, about
two years afterwarcs. Here he attempted to effect his
efcape, by flipping from the window of the high tower into
the yarden, but being difeovered was carried back to his
confinement. Lichfield has ever been celebrated for the at-
tach nent of its citizens to the caufe of royalty. When the
civil war commenced between king Charles and the paria-
mei&, his majeity having feat an order to the inhabitants of
his loya! city to bring im their arms, his order was not only
willingly complied with, but many of the inhabitants volun-
tarily fubferibed confiderable fums of money for his ufe,
and enrolled themfelves as foldiers under the command of
captain Richard Dyott, for the protection of their own
eity againit the parl.amentary forces. This officer being
joined by many ncblemen and gentlemen of the country
under the earl of Chellerfield, the cathedral and clofe were
jixcd upon as a proper place of defence from the height of
its fituation, and the flrength of the fortifications arcund it.
In a fhort time after the garrifon was attacked by the re-
publican troops. During this fiege they maintained their

oft with great refolution, but the town as well as the
cathedral {offered very material damage. In one affault,
Jord Brock, a -moft furious fanatic, who eommanded the
parliamentary army, loft his life in a manner fomewhat

fingular. Waving drawn up his army about half a mile
from Lichfield, and prayed moft devoutly for the deftruc-
tion of the cathedral, he ordered an immediate attack,
and placed himfelf in a {mall houfe near the fouth gate,
with the view of directing the operations of the gunners,
whom he had ftationed againft this gate, in order, if poffible,
to open a breach. Upon fome fudden accident which oc-
cafioned the foldiers to give a fhout, lord Brook came to
the door, and being perceived by a gentleman of the name
of Dyott, who ftood on the top of the tower, he levelled
his piece at him, when the b.e penetrated directly into the
focket of the eye and lodged in the brain, cauting inftant
death. As this happened on the feftival of St. Chad, the
patron of the church, the ball was fuppofed to have been
guided by the influence of that faint. The lofs of their
commander, however, did not difmay the belieging army,
who continued to carry on the fiege with great vigour, and
at laft fucceeded in compelling the garrifon to fubmit. The
troops of the parliament left to fecure this fortrefs were in
their turn attacked by prince Rupert, about the year 1643-
Colonel Rowfwell then commanded the garrifon, -who
evinced the utmo!t bravery in the defence of his peft. The
commanding fituations chofen by prince Rupert, however,
for ere€ting his batteries, and the explofion of a mine, foon
effe€ted an extenfive breach, and the gayrifon was com~
pelled to furrender. The prince conferred the government
on colonel Hervey Bazot, who maintained it for the king
till the utter deltruGtion of his majefty’s affairs, when he
very properly furrendered-upon honourable terms.

Lichfield ftands in a very pleafant and healthful valley,
almott in the centre of England, at the diftance of 120
miles from the metropolis. It is furrounded by hills of a
moderate fize, eafy of afcent, and of very agreeable ap-
pearance. It is chiefly inhabited by gentry, being of little
importance in a mercantile point of view. The buildings
of this city have generally affumed the air and tafte of
modern times, and the fpirit of improvement, fo confpicuous
in the prefent age, is plainly manifelted in many alterations
which have taken place within thefe few years. . This city
was formerly divided into two portions, by three lakes cr
pools of water, one of which is now dried up. It contains
three +arifhes, but part of the lands of St. Chad’s and
St. Michael’s lic without the boundaries of the ety. Lich-
field is adorned with a number of buildings well worthy of
notice, both on account of their antiquity and the f{plendid
ftyle of their architecture. OF thefe the moit con{picuons
in every refpect is the cathedral, which ftands in the clofe,
and is faid to have been fortified by bifhep Clinton;
though Dr. Shaw thinks he only repaired the fortitications
which had exitted there from the time of the Saxons. Some
are of opinion, that the cathedral was firtt founded by king
Oiwy, in the year 655; but others attribute it to Peada,
his fon-in-law. Who was the firft bifhop is fomewhat uncer-
tain, but St. Chad is generally allowed that honour. The
buildings of this cathedral, which was then called the Mer-—
cian church, were probably at firlt only conftruéted of
wood. ‘The whole of them were pulled down, in the year
1148, by bifhop Clinton, and another of enlarged dimen-
fions, and more elegant defign, commenced in the place of
the Saxon firucture. To this prelate the cathedral is in-
debted for that noble {tone vault, which is at this day the
admiration of architefs, and is undoubtedly one of the
fineft works of its kind extant in Engiand. ‘lhe nest be-
nefactor to this cathedral was Walter de Langton, who
laid the foundation of the choir. He expended the fum of
two thoufand pounds on a fhrine for the reliques of St. Chad,
and obtained many privileges ~ the vicars and canons, 7“

°

LICHRIELD.

of which was the right of hanging upon the next gallows,
without trial, divers perfons who withheld their lands from
the church. This beautiful fhrine continued in its full
glory till the diffolution, when the cathedral was defpoiled
of this and many other valuable relics to fatiate the avarice
of the tyrannical Heury.

During the fieges which it fuftained, as already mentioned,
in the time of the civil wars, this noble building fuffered
much, being the firft cathedral that fell into the hands of
the parliament. The roof was ftripped of its lead; and
many of the curious ftatues, monuments, and other carved
works, were demolifhed with axes and hammers. The
coitly and beautiful painted windows were battered to pieces.
In fhort, little of this fplendid ftruGture efcaped ruin, except
the noble vaulted roof already mentioned. What did re-
main was ultimately deftroyed in 1651, when colonel Dan-
vers, by authority of the Rump Parliament, employed
workmen in order to effect this purpofe. At this time, the
remarkable bell, called “ Jefus bell,’? was knocked to pieces
by a pewterer named Nicklin. During this perfecution of
the eftablifhed church, Dr. John Hacket rendered himfelf
remarkable by his courage and refolution. When a ferjeant
with a trooper were fent to {top the performance of the daily
fervice, and, putting a piftol to his head, threatened to
fhoot him inftantly if he did not defift, this noble prelate
calmly, but refolutely, replied, «* Soldier, I am doing my
duty; do you your’s:’? a fentence which may juftly be
reckoned among the remarkable in{tances of the Ciblide: and
which fo imprefled the minds of the foldicrs, that they left
him to the free exercife of the duty he thus evinced himfelf
fo worthy to perform. No fooner was he nominated to the
bifhopric of Lichtield, than he vigoroufly fet himfelf to re-
ftore the ancient {plendour of the cathedral. By his large
contributions, the benefa¢tions of the dean and chapter, and
the money arifing from his affiduity in foliciting aid from the
gentlemen of his diocefe, he fucceeded in reftoring this
building to the admiration of the country. The whole un-
derwent a thorough repair in the bifhopric of Dr. James
Cornwallis, when it received its laft finifh by the addition of
a painted window at the eaft end of the choir, the execution
of which reflects the higheft honour on the artift Mr. Egin-
ton. ‘This cathedral is 411 feet in length, and 153 in

“breadth. From the centre rifes a fpire 256 feet high, of
moft elegant proportions, At the weft front are two
towers, terminated by fpires, 66 feet in height. The por-
tico can hardly be equalled by any thing of the kind in
England. The chancel is paved with alabafter and channel

one, iz imitation of black aud white marble. The north
door is particularly rich in eal On the weftern front
are a number of images, beautifully executed and arranged ;
the fubjects ofr which are taken from the facred writings.
The {tatue of king Charles II. ftands between the two
weitern {pires, where a figure of Adam, or of Chrift, was
alfo formerly placed, beneath which the other itatues are
ranged. ‘Thefe figures were originally all richly gilt and
painted ; but the embellifhments _ fuffered much injury
from the action of the elements. ith regard to the in-
terior ornaments of this church, they are by far too numerous
to admit of particular notice in awork of this kind. Every
part of it is filled with {tatues and tombs, both ancient and
modern. The nave, 60 feet in height, is fupported by
pillars formed from a number of flender columns, with neat
foliated capitals. Along the walls of the aifles are rows of
arcades, with feats underneath. The upper windows in the

- mave are of uncommon appearance, being triangular, and
including three circles in each 3 and over the weltern door is

a very beautiful one, raifed by the duke of York in the

reign of Charles [1., and afterwards beautifully painted by
a gift of the benevolent dean Akenbrooke. Behind the
choir was the chapel of St. Mary, which contained a ftone
{ereen of the moit elegant and iplendid workmanfhip that
can be imagined, embattled at the top, and adorned with
feveral rows of niches moft exquifitely finifhed. Each of
thefe formerly contained a {mall ftatue. The ftone fcreen
was taken down during the late alteration, and the materials
employed to fix the organ upon, and form pillars for the
entrance into the choir. This chapel now forms part of the
body of the choir. It is neatly pewed, and contains, be-
fides, forty-eight ftalls, which are richly carved, and appro-
priated for the ufe of the members of the church, The altar
is of free ftone very neatly fculptured. The government of
the cathedral is vetted in a dean and four refidentiary canons.

The diocefe of Lichtield, joined to Coventry, contains all

the county of Stafford, (with the exception of Brome and

Clent,) all Derbythire, and nearly one-half of Shropfhire.

The archdeaconries are thofe of Coventry, Stafford, Derby,

and Salop. The bifhop's palace is fituated at the north-eait

fide of the clofe. ‘The original building is faid to have been

founded by bifhop Clinton, but it was probably of earlier

date. This palace was quite deitroyed in the civil wars,

wher bifhop Hacket, having expended 1000/. on the pre-

bendal houfe, fixed upen it as his refidence, Whether the

prefent palace is the fame, or another wholly ere&ted by his

fucceffor bifhop Wood, is uncertain. It is now inhabited

by different families ; the bifhop’s refidence having been for

many years at Ecclefhall caitle.

The next building worthy of notice is the church of St.
Chad, now called Stowe church, and is generally confidered as
the oldett foundation in or near the city. By fome writers
it iseven fuppofed to have been ereéted by the Romans, to-
wards the end of the fecond century. St. Ceadda or
Chadda, the faint to whom the church is dedicated, had his
cell here in the year 653. The interior of this fabric has
been lately repaired and beautified. It contains a number
of neat monuments. The church of St. Mary's ftands in
the market-place, near the Guild-hall. Leland fays, “ St.
Maries is a right beautiful piece of work, in the very mar-
ket-place.””? The.body of the prefent building is very neat,
and is adorned with a handfome altar-piece, and a few an-
cient monuments to the memory of the family of the Dyotts.
St. Michael’s church is ftationed at the fouth-eaft extremity
of the city, on the fummit of Greenhill, and is remarkable
for the extent of its burial-ground, which is fcarcely to be
paralleled in England. Jt contains within its limits not lefs
than fix or feven acres of excellent pafture land. This hill
is remarkable for a court held here annually on Whit-
monday, in a temporary ftand of wood erected for the pur-
pofe. This court was anciently called the Court of Array,
or view of men and arms. The high conftables having af-
fembled all the inhabitants, they perambulate the whole city 5
and the whole concludes with a proceflion through the prin-
cipal ftreets to the market-place, where the town-clerk, in
the name of the bailiffs and citizens, delivers an oration or
charge to the high conftables, thanking them for their at-
tendance, and urging them to the due execution of their office.
The origin of this remarkable cultom is uncertain. On the
top of the fame hill, a {mall edifice has been ereéted by
fubfeription, with feats; from this fpot there is a very
beautiful and extenfive view of the circumjacent country,
and of the many interefting objects it affords. South of
Greenhill is Folly-hall, which alfo commands a very fine
profpe&. Not far from hence is the hofpital and chapel of

St. John, which was originally a monaftery. When it was
firft founded is unknown, The front of the prefent
, building-

LIC

Building is remarkable for the numbet and antique form of
its chimnies. According to an infeription over the door
it was ereGed by bithop Smith, who was alfo the founder
éf Brazén-nofe ‘College, Oxford. The free grammar
{chool, built at the fame time with the hofpital, ftands nearly
Oppofite to it. : ’

This city can boalt of having been the place at which
fome of ‘the brighteft ornaments of the two Jalt centuries
were educated. Among others were the unrivalled Garrick
and his friend Dr. Samuel Johnfon, whom Mrs. Barbauld
defignates ‘as the Hercules of literature. The latter was
born in a ftuccoed “houfe fituated at the corner of Market-
itreet, where his ‘father kept a bookfeller's fhop. The
Guildhall, ‘the theatre, and'the free Englith fchool, are fitu-
ated in Broad-ftreet. ‘Che latter is an ancient brilding,
erected and endowed by Thomas Minors about the year
1670, At the back of the Guildhall is’a gaol for the con-
finement of debtors and felons apprehended within the
boundaries of the city. ‘Lo the welt of Bird-{treet is avery
pleafant feat called the Friary, having been formerly a mo-
naltery of Francifcan'or Grey friars, founded about the
year ra29. On the eaft fide'there ftill remains an antique
monument in honour of ‘a merchant named Richard. It is
inferibed with'a very fingular epitaph, which the limits of
this article, however, will not admit of being inferted. The
réfidence of the late ‘celebrated Dr. Darwin ‘is fituated in a
ftreet called Beacon-ftreet, which ‘was nearly burnt to the
ground during the civil wars. Oppofite ‘to ‘the fhrabbery
which furrounds Dr. Darwin’s houfe'is an ‘hofpital, built
by Dr. Milley in the year r504, for the fupport of fifteen
poor women. Contiguous to'this fpot there formerly flood
a very ftately edifice, once the refidentiary houfe of the arch-
deacon of Chefter. Lichfield contains, befides thefe, many
objeéts ‘which “deferve the attention “of the inquifitive and
curious. “The mufeum’and the botanic garden of Dr. Dar-
Win are particularly interefting to all who have the flighteft
tafte for the fubjéGts of natural hiftory. Lichfield was long
the relidence of Mifs Seward.

The markets ate held here on Tuefday and Friday; the
fairs on the three firft Thurfdays after Twelfth day, Ath
Wednefday, Muay rift, and the’ Friday before St. Simon and
‘St. Jude. By means of canals this city communicates with
a variety of rivéts, fome of which difcharge themfelves into
the German ocean, and others into’ the Irifh fea and St.
George’s channel. - Harwood’s Hiftory and’ Antiquities of
Lichfield, 4to. 1806. Jackfon’s' Hittory of the City and
Cathedral ‘of Lichfield, Svo. 1805. »Shaw’s' Hiftory, &c;
of Staffordfhire, “vol. i. folio.

LICHTEMBERG, a town of ’France, in the depart-
ment of the Lower Rhine ; 22 miles N.N.W. of Strafburg.

LICHTENAU,’a town of Auftria; 12> miles W. of
Crems.—Alfo,'atown of Auttria ; 6 miles SE. of Aigen.
—Alfo, ‘a'town of Weltphalia, in the bifhopric of Pader-
‘born ; 9 ‘miles S.E. of’ Paderborn. ‘Nu lat. 51°32'. -E.
Jong. 8° 58’.—Alfo, a'town of Heffe-Caffel ;13 miles S:E.
of Caffel. N.Jato51° 12'. E/long. 9° 24'—Alfo, a town
of Germany, in the “principality of Hanau-Lichtenberg ;
x2 miles N.E. of Strafburg—Alfo, a town of Germany,
in the territory of ‘Nuremberg, with a fortrefs on the Ret-
‘zat, infulated “in the’ margraviate of Anfpach; 22 miles
‘S.W. of Nuremberg. "'N. lat. 49? 17!. Es longs ro® 121.
—Alfo, a town of Pruffia, in'the’province of Ermeland ;
a2 miles N.W.of Heilfberg.—Alfo, an ifland near the W.
coaft of Ealt’ Greenland. © N. lat.60? 30. W.-long. 45°
is'—Alfo, a° Moravian féttlement in America, onthe EB.
fide“ of Mufkingum river,’ 3\miles ‘below Gofchachguenlk ;
‘afterwards rembved'to Salem, 5‘miles*below Gtadenhuetten.

Lic

LICHTENBERG, a town of Pruffian Pomerelia; 5¢
miles S.W. of Dantzic.—Alfo, a town of Germany, in
the county of Henneberg ; 8 ‘miles S.E. of Meinungen.—
Alfo, a'ttownof France, in, the department of Mont Ton-
nerre; 9 miles W.S.W.-of Lautereck.—Alfo, a town of
Silefia, in the principality of Neiffe; 3 miles N.N.W. of
Grotkau.—Alfo,; a town of (Germany, in the principality
of Culmbach, on the Selnitz; having in its vicinity quar-
ries of marble, and mines of copper and iron); 22 miles N-~
of Bayreuth. N.lat. 50° 22’. E. long. 11° 48'.—Alfo,
a-town of Saxony, in the circle of Erzgebirg.; 5 miles
§.S.E. of Freyberg. iy

LICHTENECK, a town of Carniola; 10 miles E.S.E.
of Stein.

LICHTENFELS, .a town of Auttria, on the river
Kamp; 7 miles E. of Zwetl.—Atlo, a'town of Bavana,
fituatedcn the Maine ; 20 miles N\N.E..of Bamberg. _N,
lat: 50° 104s) EL long..11° 8! : ,

LICHTENFELT, a town of -Pruffia, in Pomerelia ;-
12 miles E.S.E. of Marienburg.

LICHTENHAGEN, a town of Pruffia, in the circle
of Natangen; 8 miles S.S:W. of Konigfberg. :

LICHTENSTEIG, ,attown of Switzerland, and capi-
tal of the county of T'ockenburg, feated on the Thur, and
the refidence: of a bailiff. It has places of worfhip for Ro-
man Catholics and»Proteftants; 27 miles E of Zurich, .N.
lat. 41:07". Eslong. 996! /

LICHTENSTEIN, a principality of Germany, on the
E. fide of the lake of Conftance, fituated on the Rhine,
betwixt the lordfhips of Pludenz and Feldkirch—Alo, a
town of Saxony, and chief place of a lordthip, belonging
to'the counts of Schonburg; 5 miles N.E. of Zwickau.
Nolate 502 44!. Ew long..12° 31.

LICHTENTANEN, a town of Germany, in the prin-
cipality of Culmbach; 7 miles N.W. of Bayreuth.

LICHTENWALD, a town of the duchy of Stiria;
12 miles S.E. of Cilley.

LICHTENWALT, a town of Pruffia, in Ermeland;
23 miles N.W. of Heilfberg. '

LICHVIN, a town of Ruffia, in the government of
Kaluga, on the Oka; 28 miles S, of Kaluga. N. lat. 54°.
E. long. 35° 44!. : ;

LICHWE, a town of Bohemia, in the circle of Konig
gineratz ; 6 miles W. of Geyerfberg.

LICINIO, Giovanni Antonio, in Biography. See
PoRDENONE. iy

LICINIUM, a word ufed by many chirurgical writers
to exprefs a tent. ; s

LICINIUS, in Biography,.a Roman emperor, a native
of Dacia, of an obicure origin, and accultomed, from his
infancy to the toils and hard{hips of rural life, becamea
Roman foldier, and rofe through,all) the gradations of the
fervice.. He was raifed to the rank of Auguttus in the year
307. When the civil war broke out between Conitantine
and Maxentius, the former fecured) the friendthip of Lici-
nius' by promifing him in marriage. his filter, Conitantia,
which alliance took place in.313, when the two emperors
had an ‘interview at’ Milan, and joined in en edict.in favour of
the Chriftians. In thefame year Maximin invaded the terri-
tories of Licinius, and took “Byzantium and Heraclea;
fuccefs was very fhort lived, for Licimus advanced to ‘meet
him, and by ns military {kill obtained a complete victory.
Maximin died foon aftér,,and Licinius fueceeded to his
authority over the provinces of the Eatt, “The conqueror,
who was harth, ignorant,;and brutal, knew not-how to ufe
his fuccefs with generofity or even with humanity; he put
to death a. great number of »perfons, aud among dthers;Va-

6 * Jeriay

LIC

Yeria, the widow of Galerius, who had been a great bene-
fa&tor to Licinius. This: lady had taken refuge -at ‘his
court, but terrified with his favage conduét, fhe took flight,
' and with her aged mother wanderéd long in difguife through
the provinces; but being at length difeovered, they were
both beheaded, and their bodies thrown into the fea. After
the difplay of thefe barbarities the two emperors did not
live long in peace. A civil war broke out between them,
in which the firft battle was fought in 315: Licinius was
vanquifhed, and after another attempt or two to maintain
his ground againft his rival, he was obliged to fue for peace,
which he obtaimed on the condition of putting to death
Valens, whom he had lately created Cefar, and of refigning
all his European provinces. In 317 he created his own fon
- Cefar, and peace was maintained during the eight following
years.. About this period, Licinius, growing fufpicious of
his Chriftian fubjects, who feemed tobe attached to his rival,
began to banifh them from about his perfon and palace, and
to prohibit bifhops from vifiting each other, and from hold-
ing councils and affemblies. By degrees the reftriGtions that
were laid upon them were exchanged for dire& and cruel
perfecution, which produced another civil war in 323. The
rivals met near Adrianople, and after fome time fpent in
firmifhes, a general engagement was brought on,’ in which
the fuperior fkill of Conttantine, and valour of his European
foldiers, gained a very decifive victory over the much more
numerous but lefs warlike hoft of Licimius. The vanquifhed
emperor fhut himfelf up within the walls ef Byzantium,
while his fleet was deftroyed in the Hellefpont by Crifpus,
the fon of Conftantine. Licinius efcaped to Chalcedon,
and colle&ing a new army made one more effort to oppofe
his foe, but being again defeated, he feems to have aban-
doned all ideas of farther refiftance. He retired to Nico-
media, rather with a view of gaining fome time for negocia-
tion than with the hope of effe€tual oppofition. His wife
Conftantia, the fifter of Conftantine, interceded with her
brother in favour of her hufband, and obtained from his
policy, rather than from his compaffion, a folemn promife,
confirmed by an oath, that after the iach of the
purple, Licinius fhould be permitted to pafs the remainder
of his days in peace and affluence. Licinius folicited and
‘accepted the pardon’ of his offences, laid himfelf and the
infignia of his office at the feet of the conqucror; he was
raifed from the earth with infulting pity, was admitted the
fame day to the imperial banquet, and foon afterwards was
fent to Thefalonica, which had been chofen as the place of
his confinement. His imprifonment was foon terminated by
death, but whether this was occafioned by a tumult of the
’ foldiers, or by a decree of the fenate, is uncertain. He’ was
accufed of forming a confpiracy, and of holding a treafon-
able correfpondence with the barbarians; but as he was
never convicted, either by his own condu&t or by legal
evidence, his innocence, in this refpe&, has been prefumed

by many writers. The memory of Licinius was branded ,

with infamy, his ftatues were thrown down, and by a rafh
edi&, all his laws, and the judicial proceedings of his reign,
were at once abolifhed. By this victory of Conftantine, the
Roman world was again united under the authority of one
emperor. See Constantine. Gibbon.

Licixtus Catus, a Roman tribune, of a plebeian
family, rofe to that rank by his own afpiring temper: he
was the firft plebeian who was raifed to the dignity of mafter
of horfe to the diGtator.. He was furnamed Sto/o, or uféle/s
Sprout, on account of the law which he caufed to be enaéted
(if his tribunefhip. By this law no perfon was permitted
to hold more than soo acres of land, it being alleged, that
when more was held by one proprietor, he would not have

LIc
leifure to pull up the ufelefs fhoots (Stolones) which grew

from the roots of trees.. He afterwards carried a law
which permitted the plebeians to fhare the confular dignity
with the patricians, and was himfelf one of the firft ple-
beian confuls, in the year 364 B.C.

Licintus, Txeura, a comic Latin poet, flourifhed
about 200 years before the Chriflian era. His fragments
have been publithed. by H. Stephens, and in the Corpus
Poetarum, Maittaire. ‘There was an orator and poet of this
name, who lived at the fame time with Cicero, and who has
been compared with Catullus. His orations are highly com-
mended by Quintilian: he is fuppofed to have written annals
quoted by Dionyfius Halicarnaflus. He died in the 30th
year of his age.

LICIO, in Geography, one of the fmaller Lipari iflands.
N. lat. 38° 54/. E. long, 15° 201,

LICK, atown of Profiia, with a caftlé; So miles $.E.
of Konigfberg. | N. lat. 53° 39/.. E. long. 22° 38'.

Lick, a name given to the falt-{prings in the weftern
parts of the United States.

LICKING, a navigable river of America, in Kentucky,
which rifes on the weltern confines of Virginia, interlocks
with the head-waters of Kentucky river, runs ‘in a nortl-
weft direGtion upwards of 180 miles, and by a mouth 150
yards wide through the fouth bank of Ohio river, oppofite
to Fort Wathington. On this river are iron-works and
numerous falt-fprings. Its chief branch is navigable nearly
7o miles. From Limettone to this river the country is very
rich, and covered with corn, rye-grafs, and natural clover.
Morie.

Lickine Creek, a river of Maryland, which runs into the
Potowmack, “N. lat. 39° 38'."W. long! 78° 5/.

Lickine Hole Creek, a viver of Virginia, which runs into
James river, N. lat. 37° 42'. W. long. 78° 5/.

LICKNENA, a town of ‘Spain, in Arragon 3 18 miles -
S.S.W. of Huefca.

LICKY, the name of a fmall river in the county of Wa-
terford, Ireland, which falls into the river Blackwater, a
little above Youghal.

LICNON, Avwox, in the Dionyfian folemnities, the myf-
tical van of Bacchus; a thing fo effential to all the, folem—
nities of this god, that they could not be duly celebrated
without it. See Dionysia.

LICNOPHORI, AvcaPopos, in the Dionyfian folemnity,.
thofe who carried the licnon.

LICODIA, in Geography, a town of Sicily; in the valley
of Noto; 18 miles S.W. of Lentini. ‘

LICONDA, a town of Africa, in the country.of 'Tri--
poli, fituated on the fea-coait. N. lat. 30° 36. E. long.
18° Io!

LICOSTAMO, a town of European Turkey, in Thef-
faly, the fee of a bifhop, fuffragan of Lariffa; 16 miles
E.S.E_ of Lariffa. :

LICQUES, a:town of France, in the department of the
{traits of Calais; 10 miles S. of Calais. :

LICTORS, among the Romans, were officers eftablifhed
by Romulus, who always attended the chief magiftrates
when they appeared in public,

The duty of their office confifted in the three following
particulars: 1. Submotio,.or clearing the way for ‘the ma-
gillrate they attended: this they did by word of mouth;
or, if there was occafion, ‘by -ufing the rods they always
carried along with them. 2. Auimadverfio, ar caufing the
people to pay the ufual- refpeét to the magittrate, as to alight,
if on‘ horfeback, or ina chariot; to rife up, uncover, make
way, and the like. 3. Preitio, or walking “before the.ma--
giftrates: this they did not confufedly, or.all together, oe

7

LID

by two or three abreaft, but fingly following one another
in a flraight line. They alfo preceded the triumphal car in
public triumphs: and it was alfo part of their office to arreft
criminals, and to be public executioners in beheading, &c.
» The enfigns were the fa/tes and /ecuris.

As to the number of lictors allowed to each magiftrate, a
diGtator had twenty-four, a matter of the horfe fix, a conful
twelve, a pretor fix; and each Veital virgin, when fhe ap-

eared abroad, had one. ‘

LICUALA, in Botany, is the vernacular appellation of
this palm among the natives of the Molucca iflands. The
name was adopted by Rumphius, and has been retained by
all fucceeding botaniits. Linneus and Willdenow properly
refer it to the fixth clafs, ranking it there amongit others of
the natural order of Palme, Schreber having claffed it in
his Appendix Palme. Schreb. 774. Linn. Sylt. Veg.
ed. 14. 313. Willd. Sp. Pl. v. 2. 201. Mart. Mill. Diét.

v. 3. Thunb. Nov. Gen. 70. Jufl. 39. Gertn. t. 139.—
Clafs and order, Hexandria Monogynia. Nat. Ord. Palme,
Juff.

Gen. Ch. Gal. Perianth inferior, three-cleft, permanent,
outwardly hairy. Cor. of one petal, cloven almoft to the
bafe into three equal, ovate, acute, concave fegments ;
Ne@ary annular, truncated, twice as fhort as the corolla.
Stam. Filaments fix, inferted into the neétary, erect, very
fhort; anthers oblong, in pairs. s/f. Germen fuperior,
convex, three-cleft, furrowed, fmooth; ftyle fimple; ftigmas

two. eric. Drupa globofe, the fize of a large pea. Seed
a hard nut.
Ef Ch. Calyx three-cleft. Corolla three-cleft. Nec-

tary annular, truncated. Drupa fingle-feeded.

1. L. /pinofa, Linn. and Willd., is the only {pecies
known ; a native of the Moluccas, and figured by Rum-
phius in his Herb. Amboin. v. 1. 44. t. 9, under the name
of L. arbor. The trunk of this palm is from three to four
feet in height, and about the thicknefs of a man’s arm,
jointed, dividing in the upper part into five or fix foot/alks,
{earcely fo thick as a finger, triangular, their lower part
ferrated at the angles with thick rows of teeth or f{pines.
Each of the ftalks bears a /eaf which is fan-fhaped, and di-
vided down to the bafe into about fourteen lateral, ribbed
rays. Flower-/lalk rifing from the trunk, in the midft of
the leaves, of the fame length with them, and involved from
the bottom in fheaths, dividing at the top into about five
f{maller ones, which bear green heads, in three rows, ex-
panding into flowers. Fruit green for a long time, then
brown or blackifh. Nut oblong, very hard, longitudinally
ftriated.

‘The natives of Macaflar make ufe of the f{maller leaves
for tobacco pipes, after they are dried, rolled, and pro-
perly prepared. The larger leaves are ufed for packages,
but the wood is not fufficiently durable to be confidered
ufeful.

LICZ, in Geography, a town of Auftrian Poland, in Ga-
licia;_ 30 miles W. of Przemyl.

LID, or Lyn, a river of England, which runs into the
Tamar, 4 miles N.N.W. of Taviftock.

LIDA, a river of Sweden, which runs into the Wenner
lake, at Lidkioping.

Lipa, a town and caftle of Lithuania, in the palatinate
of Wilna, in which is held a provincial diet; 48 miles S. of
Wilna. _N. lat. 53° 52'. E. long. 25° 35!.

LIDBECKIA, in Botany, named by Bergius, in honour
of Profeffor Eric Guitaf Lidbeck, of Lund, Knight of the
order of Wafa, author of feveral botanical and economical
treatifes in the Stockholm T'ranfaétions. Berg. Cap. 306.
Willd. Sp, Pl. v. 3, 2163. Juff. 183. (Lancilia; La-

LID

marck. Illuftr. t. yor. Gaertn. v, 2. 422.) —Clafs and or-
der, Syngenefia Polygamia-fuperflua. Nat. Ord. Compofite
Difcoidee, Linn. Corymbifere, Jul. See Lancista, and
Coruta, fection 2.

LIDDEL, Duncan, in Biography, a phyfician of the
fixteenth century, was a native of Aberdeen; but he was
elected profeflor of aftronomy in the univerfity of Helmitadt
in 1587. He afterwards taught geometry, and ultimately
medicine, of which he was appointed profeffor-in 1596. He
was likewife made firft phyfician to the duke of Brunfwick.
But he quitted thefe advantages, and returned to his native
country in 1607. He left the following works: ‘ De
Facultate vegetante ejufque Funétionibus,”’ Helmftadt,
1592; ‘* Univerfe Medicine Compendium,” ibid. 16055
1620; Ars medica fuccinéte et perfpicué explicata,”’
Hamburgh, 1607, feveral times reprinted ;‘* De Febribus
Libri tres,” ibid. 1610; * Operum Iatro-Galenicorum,
ex intimis Artis medice adytis et penetralibus erutorum,””
a pofthumous work, Leyden, 1624. Eloy Dié. Hilt.

Lippe, in Geography, a river of Scotland, which rifes
in Roxburghfhire, and joins the Efk, three miles fouth of

Longholm, in the county of Dumfries; giving to the valley

in which it flows the name of Liddefdale, or Lithdale.

LIDEN, a town of Sweden, in Angermanland ; 60 miles
N.N.W. of Hernofand.

LIDENS, a town of Sweden, in the province of Me-
delpadia; 24 miles N.N.W. of Sundfwal.

LIDFORD, a village of England, in the county of
Devon, near the foreft of Dartmoor, fituated in a parifh
faid to be the largeft in England, including almoft the whole
of Dartmoor. It was formerly a fortified town, furrounded
with walls and a moat, and having three gates, of which no
trace now remains. It is fuppofed to have been deftroyed
by the Danes in the year 997. In this village is an ancient
caftle, in which courts are held for the duchy of Cornwall ;
and offenders again{t the ftannary laws were here confined in
a dreary and difmal dungeon, which gave rife to a proverb,
*¢ Lydford laws punifh a criminal firft, and try him after-
wards.’’ This village contaims only about 15 houfes, and
its fituation is bleak and dreary ; 28 miles W. of Exeter.
Cruttwell. i

LIDHULT, a town of Sweden, in the province of
Smaland ; 60 miles S. of Jonkoping. N. lat. 56’ 50!. Ey
long. 15° 14!.

LIDKIOPING, a fmall, neat, trading town of Sweden,
fituated in the midit of a plain near lake Wetter or Wenner,
at the influx of the Lide, and containing the epifcopal pa-
lace, the cathedral, and the palace in which refides the
governor of Eait Gothland ; 42 miles E.N.E. of Uddevalla,
N. lat. 58° 33’. E. long. 12° 54".

LIDL, in Biography, a native of Germany, who ar-
rived in England about the year 1785, and was a remarkable
fine performer on the viol da gamba. His tafle and ex-
preffion on this ungrateful initrument were exquifite ;
though he had embarraffed himfelf with the additional dif-
ficulties of bafe ftrings at the back of the neck of his inftru-
ment, with which he accompanicd himfelf, thrumming
them in pizzicato with his left thumb; an admirable ex-
pedient in a defert, or even in a houfe, where there is bat
one mufician; but to be at the trouble of accompanying
yourfelf ina great concert, furrounded by idle performers
who could take the trouble off your hands, and leave you
more at liberty to execute, exprefs, and embellith the prin-
cipal melody, feemed at beft a work of fupererogation.
The tone of the inftrument will do nothing for itfelf, and it
feems with mufic as with agriculture, the more barren and
ungrateful the foil, the more art is neceflary in its cultiva-

tion.

LIE

tion. And the tones of the viol da gamba are radically fo
crude and nafal, that nothing but the greateft fill and re-
finement can make them bearable. A human voice of the
+ fame quality would be intolerable.

This excellent mufician died of a confumption in London,
at about 30 years of age, in 1788; as was the cafe, about
the fame time, with two other admirable German profeffors,
and worthy men, Pfifer and Eichner. See their articles,
and that of Lamotte, who had likewife been in England,
and died young of a confumption.

LIDMEE, or Indian Antelope, Antilope Cervicapra, in
Zoology, a {pecies of antelope, having long, round, pro-
minently annulated, tapering, and f{pirally twifted horns,
which are {mooth and fharp at the points. ‘The body is of
a brown colour above, and white on the under parts. This
is the common and brown antelope of Pennant; the gazella
africana S. antilope of Charleton, Ray, and Grew; the
carra cervicapra of the Syft. Nat.; the capra bezoartica of
Aldrov., Olear.; the tragus ftrepficeros of Klein; the
hircus gazella of Brifflon; the Lidmee Arabium of Shaw’s
Travels.

It inhabits Barbary and India; it is fomewhat {mallet
than a fallow-deer, brown clouded with reddifh and duflcy ;
the belly, breaft, and infide of the thighs are white; the
circumference of the orbits is white; the horns are ereé,
about fixteen inches long, of a black colour, and almoft en-
tirely covered wah prominent rings, the points only being
fmall, and are about twelve inches diftant. The female has
no horns, and after going nine months with young, brings
generally twins, Pennant diftinguifhes between the Lidmee
of Barbary and that found in India; though the only dif-
ference feems to confift in the greater fize of the former, the
latter being rather {maller than a roe. He likewife men-
tions horns frequently fent from India, which have been
ufed as daggers, that feem to belong to this {pecies, but
_with all their rings polithed off.

LIDO di Malamocco, in Geography, a {mall ifland in the
Adriatic, defended by a fort; 12 miles from Venice.

Lino di Padefrina, a long ifland in the Adriatic, with a
fort to defend the city of Venice.

Lino di Sottomarino, a town in the ifland of Chioggia,
forming as it were the fuburbs of that city.

LIDS, a fmall ifland in the Baltic, near the fouth coaft
of Laaland. N. lat. 54° 41’. E. long. 11° 201.

LIE, a town of Arabia, in Yemen; 20 miles S. of Abu-
Arifch.

Lig, or Lye under the Sea. See Lyinc, &c.

LIEBAU, in Geography, a town of Silefia, in the prin-
cipality of Schweidnitz, on the river Schwartbach ; 22 miles
S. of Schweidnitz.

Liesau, Liebe, or Libona, a town of Moravia, in the
circle of Prerau; 13 miles N. of Prerau, N. lat. 49° 38'.
E. long. 17° 28’.

LIEBENAU, a town of Silefia, ‘in the principality of
Glogau; 8 miles W.N.W. of Glogau. N. lat. 52° 25.
E. long. 15° 56'.—Alfo, a town of the principality of Hefle,
on the Dimel; zo miles N.W. of Caffel. N. lat. 51° 30!
E: long. 9° 22'.

LIEBENGRUND, a town of Saxony, inthe circle of
Neuftadt ; 14 miles S. of Neuftadt. N. lat. 50° 30’. E.
Jong. 11°. 41’.

LIEBENTHAL, a town of the duchy of Stiria;. 12
miles S.E. of Gratz.—Alfo, a town of Bohemia, in the
circle of Chrudim ; 13 miles E. of Hohenmaut.—Alfo, a
town of Silefia, in the-principality of Jauer; 30 miles W. of
Jauer. N. lat. 50° 57". E. long. 15° 37'.—Alfo, a town

Vou, XX.

’ LIE

et Saeonys in the margravate of Meiflen; 4 miles S.W. of
tolpen.

LIEBENWALD, a town of Brandenburg, in the
Middle Mark, on the Havel ; 24 miles N. ef Berlin. N.
lat. 52° 53’. E. long. 13° 30/.

LIEBENWARDA, a town of Saxony; 22 miles N.
of Meiffen. N. lat. 51° 28'. E. long. 13° 26’.

LIEBENZELL, or Zetxz, a town of Wirtemberg, on
the Nagold ; having two warm baths in its vicinity ; 36 miles
E.N.E. of Strafburg. N. lat. 48’51'. E. long. 8° 43'.

LIEBEROSE, a town of Lufatia; 17 miles W. of
Guben. N. lat. 52°. E. long. 14° 16',

LIEBETEN, a town of Hungary; 65 miles N.N.E.
of Gran.

LIEBMUHL, a town of Pruffia, in the province of
Oberland, with a Caflle; €6 miles S.S.W. of Konigtberg.
N. lat. 53° 42!. E. long. 19° 45'.

LIEBO Ses, a lake of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark; fituated to the S. of Dolgen See.

LIEBSTADT, a town of Saxony, in Meiffen; 14
miles S.S.W. of Drefden—ANHo, a town of Pruffia, in
Oberland, with a caftle; 48 miles S.S.W. of Konipfberg.
N. Jat. 53° ¢7'. E. long. 20° 2/.

LIECHEN, a town of Brandenburg, in the Ucker
Mark; 40 miles N. of Berlin. N. lat. 53? 124. E. long.
Tze 2AM
LIECHSTAL, or Lrestat, a tolerably fruitful diftri@
of Switzerland, containing a fmall, regularly built, populous
town of the fame name, confifting of three parallel ftreets,
in the canton of Bafle; 2! leagues S.E. of the capital, on
the river Ergetz, which forms a cafcade below it. In this
diftri& are the remains of a large Roman aqueduét.

LIE’ES, Fr., a mufical term, equivalent to tied, bound,
fuftained. It likewife implies flurred, in mufic, for bowed
inftruments, when two or more notes are played with one
ftroke of the bow, or with one touch of the tongue on the
flute or hautbois. What muficians call a fur is a femi-
circle, ~~. The fame charaGer is ufed over or under
two or any number of notes, in vocal mufic, that are fung
to one fyllable.

LIEFDE Bay, in Geography, a bay on the north coaft
of Spitzhergen. N. lat. 79° 32. E. long. 12° 30!

LIEGE, a bifhopric and ele€torate of Germany, before
the French revolution; bounded on the north by Brabant ;
on the eaft by Limburg, Juliers, and Luxemburg; on the
fouth by Luxemburg and the French department of the
Ardennes; and on the weft by Brabant, Namur, and
Hainaut ; about 80 miles in length from north to fouth, and
of an irregular breadth. ‘The foil is fertile, yielding corn
and paftures, and alfo wine that refembles the middling
wines of Burgundy and Champagne. In this diffrict are
alfo confiderable forefts, and mine-works of copper, lead,
iron, and coal, ftone quarries, and fome of marble. Ite
chief mineral waters are thofe of Spa and Chaude-fontaine.
Its principal rivers are the Meuie and Sambre. This
bifhopric is now united to France, and forms the department
of the Ourte; which fee. Its chief exports are beer, arms,
nails, ferge, leather, and coal. It formerly~ contained 26
towns, divided into Walloon and Flemith. '

‘Liece, a city of France, and capital of the department
of the Ourte, and a bifhop’s fee. It is Jarge, populous, and
rich, divided into four parts, each confifling of 12,500 in- .
habitants, and four cantons; the r{t containing 16,964 in-
habitants, on a territory of 124 kiliometres, in four communes ;
the 2d canton, including 13,906 inhabitants, on a territory
of 20 kiliometres, in two communes; the 3¢ comprehending

(ty ta ae 17,408

Lik

27,408 inhabitants, on a territory of 15 kiliometres, in two
communes; and the 4th containing 17,237 inhabitants, on a
territory of 25 kiliometres, in one commune. This city is
fituated on the Meufe, in a pleafant valley between hills,
watered by the rivers Loofe, Ourte, and Ambleve, which
difcharge themfelves ‘into the Meufe, as it enters this city.
It is proverbially called the hell of women, the purgatory of
men, and the paradife of priefts. Liege has ten grand faux-
bourgs, and two {maller, 16 gates, 17 bridges, and 154
ftreets, and alfo two quays planted with rows oftrees, Be-
fore the revolution, it had within the city and fauxbourgs, be-
fides the cathedral, feven collegiate and 30 parifh churches,
and 46 religious houfes. The cathedral of St. Lambert is
a large building, erected by St. Hubert in the year 712, on
the {pot where his predeceffor St. Lambert, bifhop of
Meettricht, had fuffered martyrdom. On the 22d of No-
vember 1792, Dumourier, at the head of the French troops,
took poffeflion of Liege; but in the following March they
were driven out of Liege and Brabant. In 1794 the French
troops again entered Liege, and it was annexed to the do-
minions of France. N, lat. 50° go’. E. long. 5° 37!
Accounts are kept in this city in florins or guldens current ;
each florin being divided into 20 fous or ftivers, and each fti-
ver into 16 pfenings. The itiver is fometimes divided into
four oertjes or liards. The patacon of account is four
florins, eight efcalins or fchillings, or 80 ftivers. The gold
coins of Liege are the ducat of 84 current florins or 17
efcalins, the florin d’or or gold gulden of 5 current florins
or 10 efcalins.. The filver coins are the patacon of 4% cur-
rent florins or 83 efcalins, the efcalin of 10 ftivers, and the
blamafe of five {tivers. The ftiver isa copper coin. Since
the year 1792 there has been no coinage at Liege ; the city
and its territory having been foon after united to France, and
the new French monies and coins introduced here. The
commercial weight of Liege is four per cent. le{s than that of
Amfterdam ; 21lbs. of Liege being = 22Ibs. avoirdupois
nearly. A. laft of corn contains 96 fetiers, the fetier being
1827 Englith cubic inches, fo that 20 fetiers are = 17
Englifh bufhels. The foot is 11} Englifh inches, the ell is
21} Englith inches; fo that 18 feet of Liege = 17 Englifh
feet, and 63 ells of Liege = 38 Englifh yards. Since its
union with France, Liege has adopted the new French de-
nominations of money in the bufinefs of exchanges.’ Kelly’s
Univ. Cambift. vol. i.

Citizen Gretry, the eminent compofer of French comic
operas, a native of that city, in his Memoirs, vol. i. p. 1255
gives an account of the college eftablifhed at Rome for the
reception of ftudents in all the arts from the eity of Liege.
‘There was a time, before Rome was bereaved of its models of
perfection, that we fhould have devoutly wifhed for an
Englifh college of arts, fimilar to that of France and Liege,
where our young artifts of promifing talents, pining to vifit
Italy, but unable to bear the expence, might have an afylum
in which they could be received and fupported during a cers
tain number of years, while they were purfuing their {tudies.
Such an eftablifhment would refle& honour on an opulent and
learned nation, always difpofed to patronize, and colleé
f{pecimens in all the fine arts, perticularly in painting, mufic,
fculpture, and architeQure.

Liege, Ligius, properly fignifies a vaffal, who holds a
kind of fee that binds him in a clofer obligation to his lord
than other people.

‘The term feems to be derived from the French /ier, to bind;
en account of aceremony ufed in rendering faith or homage;
which was by locking the vaflal’s thumb, or his hand, in
that of the lord, to thew. that he was faft bound by his oath

7.

LIE

of fidelity. Cujas, Vigenere, and Bignon, choofe rather to
derive the word Ros the fame fource with /eudis, or Jedi, loyal,
faithful. But Du-Cange falls in with the opinion of thofe
who derive it from /iti, a kind of vaflals, fo firmly attached
to their lord, on account of lands or fees held of him, that
they were obliged to do him all manner of fervice, as if they
were his domeftics. He adds, this was formerly called /it-
gium fervitium, and the perfon litge. In this fenfe, the word
is ufed, Leg. Edw. cap.29. ‘ Judai fub tutela regis ligea
debent effe ;’’ that is, wholly under his proteCtion.

By liege homage, the vaflal was obliged to ferve his lord
towards all, and againft all, excepting his father. In which
fenfe, the word was ufed in oppofitien to /imple homage ;
which laft only obliged the vaffal to pay the rights and ac-
cuftomed dues to his lord; and not to bear arms againft the
emperor, prince, or other fuperior lord: fo that a /ege man
was a perfon wholly devoted to his lord, and entirely under
his command.

“Omnibus, &c. ‘Reginaldus, rex Infularum, falutem,
Sciatis quod deveni homo ligeus domini regis Anglie Jo»
hannis, contra omnes mortales, quamdiu vixero ; et inde ei
fidelitatem et facramentum preititi, &c.’’ MS. penes W.
Dugdale.

But it muft be obferved, there were formerly two kinds
of liege homage: the one, by which the vaffal was obliged
to ferve his lord againft all, without exception even of his
fovereign ; the other, by which he was to ferve him againft
all, except fuch other lords as he had formerly owed liege
homageto. See Homace.

In our old ftatutes, lieges, and liege people, are terms pe~
culiarly appropriated to the king’s fubjects ; as being /iges,
ligi, or ligati, obliged to pay allegiance to him; 8 Hen VI.
14 Hen. VIII. &c. though private perfons had their lieges
too.

« Reinaldus, Dei gratia, abbas Ramefiz, prepofito et
hominibus de Branceftre, et omnibus vicinis Francis et An-
glis, falutem. Sciatis me dediffe terram Ulfe, in depedene
(hodie depedale) huic Bofelino, et uxori ejus Alfniz—ea
conditione quod effeéti fint homines.’? Lib. Ramef. See
ALLEGIANCE and FEAury.

Lisce vaffalage. See VassaLace.

LIEGNITZ, or Licnrrz, in Geography, a town of Si-
lefia, one of the beft as well as moft ancient in the country,
and capital of a principality of the fame name; fituated on
the Katzbach. The palace, within the town, is furrounded
with a moat and high wall. Here, ina very ftately ftone-
edifice, the ftates of the provinces affemble. The Lutherans
have two churches in this town; and the Roman Catholics
are in poffeffion of the collegiate church, a magnificent col-
lege, and other religious foundations. The emperor Jofeph
founded here a fpacious academy for the inftruction of young
gentlemen of both religions in military exercifes. The
trade of Lignitz in cloth and madder is confiderable; 32
miles W. of Breflaw. N. lat. 51° 11'.. E. long. 16° ro’.

LIEN, Fr., a word ufed in the law, of two fignificae.
tions: perfonal lien, fuch as bond, covenant, or contraét :
and real lien, a judgment, {tatute, recognizance, which.
oblige and affeé&t the land. Term de Ley.

Lien fignifies an obligation, tie, or claim annexed to, or-
attaching upon any property; without fatisfying which fuch
property cannot be demanded by its owner. ‘Thus, the
cofts of an attorney are a /ien upon deeds.and papers in his.
hands ; a faétor has a lien on goods in his hands for balance
due from his principal, &c.

LIEN-CHAN-POU, in Geography, a town of Chinefe
Tartary ; 12-miles N.N.E. of Ning-yaen.

UIENIS,

Eirrey

LIENIS Inrarcrvus. - See Spieen.

LIEN-TCHEOU, in Geography, acity of China, of the
firft rank, in the province of Quang-tong, feated on the
river Lien-kiang, which forms a very convenient harbour
for Chinefe barks, The territory of this city borders on the
kingdom of Tong-king, from whichit is feparated by inac-
ceffible mountains. It has under its jurifdiction one city of
the fecond clafs, and two of the third. N. lat. 21° 40’.
E. long. 108° 36.

LIENTERY, in Medicine, fignifies that variety of
diarrhoea, in which the alimentary matters pafs off by ool,
in an undigefted or almoft unchanged ftate. ‘The term is
derived from Ass, /mooth, or polifhed, and eregov, inte/fine,
the ancients having been of opinion, that this affection was
owing to the too great fmoothnefs and lubricity of the in-
ternal membrane of the inteftines, which allawed the food to
flip off in an undigefted ftate.

Some writers have treated of the lientery as a difeafe alto-
gether diftinét from diarrhea; but Dr. Cullen properly
confidered it as only a variety of that complaint. The
principal caufe of the lieateric diarrhoea appears to confift in
a morbid ftate of irritability of the ftomach and bowels;
whence the former organ is excited to an exceflive motion of
its mufcular coat, by the itimulus of whatever aliment is in-
troduced into it, and confequently expels it into the bowels in
an undigeited itate ; and the latter, being likewife morbidly
fenfible to the fame ftimulus, hurries on the undigefted mat-
ter {peedily through the whole canal. The motions are at
the fame time loofe or liquid, becaufe, on the one hand, the
undigefted matter is not taken up by the la¢teals, and, on the
other, the irritation of this matter, thus rapidly paffing, ex-
cites the exhalent veffels, and the excretories of the mucous
glands to pour out a more abundant quantity of their fluids.
‘This affection is generally accompanied with a great weak-
nefs of the digeltive power, as well as a morbid irritability of
the ftomach.

From this view of the fubje&, two indications prefent
themfelves with a view to the method of cure in lientery ;
namely, firft, to leffen the irritability of the whole alimentary
canal; and fecondly, to ftrengthen the digeftive power of
the ftomach. For it mutt be obferved, that, although food,
when converted into a proper bland chyle by the procefa of
digeftion, paffes through the bowels without producing any
irritating effet: yet the fame food, when it is tranfmitted
into them. from the ftomach ina crude and unaltered condi-
tion, operates as an extraneous and foreign matter on the
irritable villous lining of the bowels, and excites them to
an extraordinary periftaltic a€tion.

The firft indication, of allaying the irritability of the fto-
mach and inteftines, is to be fulfilled by the adminiftration
of opiates, or other narcotic medicines, and of aftringents.
Opium itfelf is the moft effeétual foother of morbid irrita-
hility that we poffefs; and in cafes, like that under confi-
deration, its operation is improved by the union of fome aro-
matic fubftance; hence the form of the opiate confeétian,
according to the formula of the London pharmacopeia, is
a grateful and efficacious medicine for this purpofe. But the
irritability is ftill more effe€tually allayed, when aftringents
and abforbents are employed at the fame time with the
opiates; the beft of thefe are the catechu, kino, and the
teftaceous powders, or chalk. The confeétio catechu of the
Edinburgh pharmacopeia, which combines the opiate, aftrin-
gent, and aromatic in one fubftance, is a valuable medicine
for the fulfilment of this indication, ‘Thefe fub{ftances may
be adminiftered in a little diftilled water of fome aromatic
vegetable, as of mint, cinnamon, pimente, &c.

LIE

Or, witha view to the fecond indication, of ftrengthening
the digeftive power of the ftomach, the fame medicines may
be combined or alternated with the tonic bitter medicines ;
fuch as the infufion of cafcarilla, gentian, or orange-peel, or the
decoétion or infufion of the cinchona. At the (ane time mo-
derate exercife, efpecially on horfeback, will aid in re-efta-
blifhing the funétions of the ftomach ; and all cold and debi-
litating articles of diet, or fubftances of difficult folubility,
fhould be ftudioufly avoided. Of the former are ice, fallads,
water-creffes, cucumbers, or other raw vegetables, vege-
table acids; &c. We once witneffed a fevere inftance of lien-
tery, which was brought on by eating a little ice-cream, at a
time when a confiderable degree of indigeftion already pre-
vailed ; it appeared at once to fink the feeble digeftive powers
of the ftomach, and the food was difcharged almoft un-
changed. Of the latter, or food of difficult folubility, we
may mention cheefe, hard or falted meats, fatty fubfiances,
&e. which require all the energy of the healthy ftomach to
fubdue them into chyle. When the alimentary canal is in
the irritable condition above-mentioned, it is advifable for
the invalid to avoid aétive exercife immediately after his meals,
which is liable to hurry on the food into the inteftines before
the digeftion is completed, and thus to occafion a lienteric
attack. We have known perfons, fubjeét to habitual indi-
geftion, or at leaft great feeblenefs of ltomach, who at thofe
times certainly brought on a diarrhea of the lienteric kind,
unleis they remained!quiet for fome time after every meal.
See Diarrua@a.

LIEOU-KIEOU, in Geography, iflands fituated between
Corea, Formofa, and Japan, which are 36 innember. The
principal and largeft is called Lieou-kiow, and the reft have
each a particular name. The large ifland extends from N.
to S. almoft 440 lys (200 lys making 60 geographical miles),
and 120 or 130 from E. to W.; but onthe S. fide, the ex-
tent from E. to W. is not 100 lys.. The S.E. part of the
ifland, where the king relides, is called “ Cheouli,””? and it
is in this part (actording te Grofier, but in the S.W. part
according to d’Anville and others), that ‘* Kint-ching,”’
the capital city, is fituated. (See Kiy-rcnin.) Thefe
ifles form a powerful and extenfive empire, the inhabitants of
which are civilized, and eught not to be confounded with
other favage nations difperfed throughout the iflands of A fia.
If we believe the iflanders themfelves, the origin of their
empire is loft in the remoteft antiquity. They reckon 25
fucceffive dynafties, the duration of which forms a period
of more than 18,000 years; but it is needlefs to expofe the
abfurdity of thefe pretenfions. Itiscertain, however, that
the exiftence of the country called Lieou-kieou was not
known in China before the year 605 of the Chriftian era.
In the courfe of this year one of the emperors of the dynafty”
of Soul deputed fome meffengers to enquire into their fitua-
tion. Some information having been obtained concerning
them, the emperor Yang-ti fent fkilful perfons, accompanied
by interpreters, to fummon the prince to do homage to the
emperor of China, and to pay him tribute. The king of
Lieou-kieou took offence, and returned an anfwer to the de-
mand, that he acknowledged no prince to be his fuperior.
An armament was fitted out by the emperor, and a fleet, in
which was embarked. 10,000 men, was equipped for the
expedition. This fleet arrived in fafety at the port of Napa-
kiang, and, in {pite of the natives, the army landed on the
ifland. The king fell in battle, upon which the Chinefe pil-
laged, facked, and burnt the royal city, made more than
5000 flaves, and returned to China. In 1291 Chi-tfon, em-
peror of the dynafty of Yven, thought of reviving the pre-
tentions of his predeceffors ; and fitted:out a fleet to fubdue

aT 2 thefe

LIE

thefe iflands; but this fleet proceeded no further than the
ifles of Pong-hou, and the weltern coaft of Formofa, from
whence, under various pretenfions, they returned to Fo-
kien. It was not till the year 1372, under the reign of
Hong-vou, founder of the dynaity of Ming, that thefe
iflands voluntarily fubmitted to the Chinefe government.
Tifay-tou, the prince, was folemnly declared a vaffal of the
empire ; and when Hong-vou had received his firft tribute,
confifting of valuable horfes, aromatic wood, fulphur, tin,
&e. he fent to this prince a golden feal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his fons for a {ucceilor. The
emperor afterwards fent 36 families, almott all from the pro-
vince of Fo-kien, to Lieou-kieou. Thefe families were hof-
pitably received, and had lands affigned them near the port of
Napa-kiang, and certain revennes were appointed for their
ufe. Thefe families firft introduced into Lieou-kieou the
learned language of the Chinefe, the ufe of their charafers,
and the ceremonies praétifed in China in honour of Confucius.
On the other hand, the fons of feveral of the grandees of the
court of TYay-tou were fent to Nan-king to fudy Chinefe in
the imperial college, where they were treated with diftinction
and maintained at the emperor’sexpence. As thefe ifles had
neither iron nor porcelain, they were fupplied by Hong-vou.
Commerce, navigation, and the arts foon began to flourifh,
Thefe iflanders learned to caft bells for their temples, to ma-
nufaGture paper and the fineft ftuffs, and to make porcelain,
with which they had before been fupplied from Japan. The
. fubfequent revolution, which placed the 'Tartars on the impe-
rial throne of China, produced no change in the conduét of
the kings of Lieou-tcheou. The emperor Kang-hi (about
A.D.1720) paid amore marked attention to thefe ifles than
any of his predeceflors. He cauled a fuperb palace to be
erected in honour of Confucius, and a college, where he
maintained matters to teach the {ciences and the Chinefe cha-
raters. He alfo inftituted examinations for the different
degrees of the literati. He ordained that the king of Lieou-
kieou fhould never fend in tribute rofe-wood, cloves, or any
other production which was not of the growth of the
country ; but that he fhould find a fixed quantity of fulphur,
copper, tin, fhells, and mother-of-pearl, which is very
beautiful in thefe iflands. He permitted, that, befides the
ufual tribute, he might prefent him with horfe furniture,
iftol-cafes, and other things of the fame kind, which thefe
iflanders are faid to manufacture with great tafte and neatnefs.
It is more than goo years, fays Grofier, iince the bonzes
of China introduced at Lieou-kieou the worfhip of Fo, and
the principal books belonging to their fet. This worfhip is
at prefent the eltablifhed religion both of the grandees and
of the people. In the royal city there is {till to be feen a
magnificent temple, ere€ted in honour of another idol bor-
rowed from the Chinefe, named Tien-fey, which fignifies
“ celeftial queen, or lady.?? Thefe iflanders do not fwear
er thake promifes before their idels. “For this purpofe they
burn perfumes, prefent fruits, and ftand refpectfully before
fome itone, whieh they call to witnefs the folemnity of their
engagements. Of thefe ftones many are to be feen in the
courts of their temples, in moft public places, and upon the
mountains ; and they are appropriated to this ufe. They
have alfo among them women confécrated for the worfhip of
{pirits, who are fuppofed to have great influence over thefe
beings. They vifit the fick, difthibute medicines, and write
prayers for their recovery. They refpe& the dead as much
as the Chinefe, but their funerals are lefs pompous. They
burn the flefh of the deceafed, and preferve only the bones.
‘They place round them lamps, and burn perfumes, and dif-
ferent families are diflinguifhed by {urnames, as in China ;

LIE

but a man and woman of the fame furname are not allowed
tomarry. The king is not at liberty to marry except in the
three grand families, among which the highelt offices are dif-
tributed. A plurality of wives is allowed in thefe ifles.
The women are very referved; they neither ufe paint, nor
wear pendants in their ears; they colleét their hair on the
top of their heads, in the form of a curl, and fix it in that:
manner by long pins made of gold or filver. Befides the ©
vait domains which the king poffeffes, he receives the pro-
duce of all the fulphur, copper, and tin-mines, and of the
falt-pits, together with what arifes from the taxes; and from
thefe revenues he pays the falaries of the mandarins and officers
of his court. Of the mandarins there are, as in China,
nine orders, diftinguifhed by the colour of their caps, or by
their girdles and cufhions. Inthe royal city tribunals are
eltablithed for managing the revenue and affairs of the prin-
cipal ifland, and of all the others dependent upon it. There
are alfo particular tribunals for civil and criminal matters,
for the affairs of religion, for manufa@tures, commerce, navi-
gation, &c. The veffels built in this country are highly valued
by the people of China and Japan. In thefe the natives fail
not only from one ifland to another, but alfoto China, Ton-
quin, Cochinchina, Corea, &c. Befides thofe articles of
commerce, which their manufactories ef filk, cotton, paper,
arms, copper utenfils, &¢. furnifh them, they alfo export
mother-of-pearl, tortoife and other fhells, coral and whet-
ftones, which are held in high eftimation both in China and
Japan. Three languages are fpoken in the ifles of Lieou-
kieou, different from thofe of China and Japan. The lan-
guage of the large ifland is the fame as that of the neigh-
bouring ifles; but it differs from thofe of the ifles which lie
to the S.W. and N.E. Letters, accounts, and all the
king’s orders are written in Japanefe charaéters, not in the
language of the country ; books of morality, hiftory, medi-
cine, altronomy, and aftrology, are written in Chinefe cha-
racters. The diftribution of time, and the divifion of the
year, are the fame in Lieou-kieou as in China. The edifices,
temples, and palace of their kings are built after the Japanefe
manner ; but the houfes of the Chinefe, the hotel of the em-
baffador, the imperial college, and the temple of the goddefs
“ Tien-fey,’? are built after the fafhion of China. The
natives of Lieou-kieou are, in general, mild, affable, and
temperate ; they are active and laborious, enemies to flavery,
and deteft falfhood and difhoneity, Excepting the grandees,
bonzes, and Chinefe eftablifhed in Lieou-kieou, few of the
inhabitants of thefe iflands can either write or read. The
people are fond of games and diverfions. They celebrate
with great pomp and {plendour, thofe feftivals that are infti-
tuted in honour of their idols, and thofe which are appointed
for the termination and commencement of the year. Great
harmony prevails among families and individuals, which they
take care to preferve by frequent repafts, to which they in-
vite one another, Suicide is unknown among thefe iflanders ;
and they are free from thofe crimes that are common in the
ifles fituated to the N.E. of them, which being nearer to
Japan, have adopted the vices of its inhabitants, as well as
their manners and cuftoms. Grofier’s China, vol.i. ‘The
capital is in N, lat. 26° 2’. E. long. 128° 40’. :

LIEQU-TCHEOU, a town of Corea; 37 miles S.E.
of King ki-tao.—Alfo, a city of China, of the firft rank,
in the province of Quang-fi, fituated on the river Leng.
N. lat. 24° 12’. E. long. 108° 47/. :

LIEPE, a town of Pruffia, in the palatinate of Culm;
14 miles E.S.E. of Culm.

LI&EPPE, a town of Prvffia, in Oberland; eight miles
from Ofterrod,

LIER.

LIE

LIERGANES, a town of Spain, in the province of
Bifcay ; to miles S.S.E. of Santander.

LIERNA, a town of the republic of Lucca; 7 miles
N.N.W. of Lucca.

LIERNAIS, a town of France, in the department of
the Céte-d'Or, and chief place of a canton, in the diftriét
of Beaune; romiles N.W. of Arnay-le-Duc. The place
centains 705, and the canton 8602 inhabitants, on a territory
of 260 kiliometres, in 15 communes. .

LIERNE, a town of France, in the department of the
Two Nethes, and chief place of a canton, in the diftrict of
Malines, feated on the Nethe ; 10 miles S.E. of Antwerp.
The place contains g58i, and the canton 13,159 inha-
bitants, on a territory of 105 kiliometres, in four com-
munes.

LIETZAN, a town of the Middle Mark of Branden-
burg; 15 miles S. W. of Cuftrin. N. lat. 52° 28’. E.
long. 14° 30',

LIEURE, a town of France, in the department of the
Straits of Calais; 11 miles S. of Calais. ©

LIEUREY, a town of France, in the department of
the Eure ; 7 miles S. of Pont-Audemer.

LIEUTAUD, James, in Biography, a French mathe-
matician, who flourifhed in the former part of the eighteenth
century, was the fon of a gun-fmith at Arles, and died at
Paris in the year 1733. He particularly attached himfelf
to the itudy of aftronomy, and from the great proficiency
which he made in this branch of knowledge, he obtained a
feat in the French Academy of Sciences. He publifhed
twenty-feven volumes of the ‘* Connoiflance des ‘Temps,’

“from the year 1703 to 1739.

Lieuravup, Josepu, a celebrated phyfician and anatomitft,
was born at Aix, in Provence, on the ar1ft of June, 1703.
His family had been eftablifhed from time immemorial at
Aix, and had produced a great number of diftinguifhed
officers, eccleliaitics, lawyers, and ufeful citizens, He was
at firft intended by his parents for the church ; but the re-
putation of his maternal uncle, Garidel, the profeffor of
medicine in his native place, gave him a bias to the ttudy of
medicine. Botany was the fir't object of his purfuits. He
travelled into the countries which Tournefort had furveyed
before him, and brought back many plants which had
efcaped the obfervation of that diftinguifhed bota nift. This
fuccefs gained him great applaule in the univerfities of Aix
and Montpellier, and he foon obtained in the former the
reverfion of the chairs of botany and anatomy, which his
uncle had long tilled. Being appointed phyfician to the
hofpital at Aix, the neceflity of purfuing his anatomical
ftudies prefented itfelf to his mind, together with the greater
facilities which this appointment afforded, and he thence-
forth nearly abandoned the fubject of botany. His audi-
ence foon became numerous, comprifing many perfons not
engaged in the ftudy of medicine, and among others the
niarquis d’Argens, the intimate friend of the king. M.
Lieutaud publifhed, in 1742, a fyllabus of anatomy for the
ufe of his pupils, entitled «‘ Eflais anatomiques, contenant
l Hittoire exacte de toutes les Parties qui compofent le Corps
humaine ;’’ it was feveral times reprinted, with improve-
ments, and in 1777 was edited by M. Portal, in two vo-
jumes, He communicated alfo feveral papers on morbid
anatomy, to ufe a common phrafe, and on phyfiology, to
the Academy of Sciences, of which he was ele&ed a cor-
refponding member. In 1749, however, he quitted his polt
at Aix, and went to Verfailles, at the inftance of the cele-
brated Senac, who then held the higheft appointment at
court, and who obtained for Lieutaud the appointment of

phyfician to she Royal Infirmary. ‘This act of friendship is

LIE

faid to have originated from the private communication of
fome errors, which Lieutaud had dete&ted in a work of
M_. Senac, and which he did not deem it proper to publifh.
At Verfailles he continued his anatomical inveftigations with
unabated zeal, and was foon after his arrival eleéted affiftant-
anatomift to the Royal Academy, to which he continued to
prefent many valuable memoirs. He alfo printed a volume,
entitled «* Elementa Phyfiologiea, &c.’? Paris, 1749, which
had been compofed for the ufe of his clafs at Aix. In
1755, he was nominated phyfician to the royal family, and,
twenty years afterwards, he obtained the place of firft phy-
fician to the king, Louis XVI. In 1759, he publifhed a
fyitem of the practice of medicine, under the title of
*« Precis de la Medicine pratique,”? which underwent feveral
editions, with great angmentations, the beft of which is
that of Paris, 1770, in two volumes, gto. In 1766, he
publifhed a “ Precis de la Matiére medicale,"’ in 8vo. after-
wards reprinted in two volumes. But his moft important
work, which {till ranks high in the eftimation of phyficians,
is that which treats of the feats and caufes ‘of difeafes,
afcertained by his innumerable diffections. It was entitled
‘© Hittoria Anatomico-medica, filtens numerofiffima cada-«
verum humanorum extifpicia,’’ Paris, 1767, in two volumes,
4to. M. Lieutaud died on the 6th of September, 1780,
after an illnefs of five days. Eloy Di&. Hilt, Hitt. de
P Acad. Roy. des Sciences, for 1780, p. 48.

LIEUTENANT, LocumTenens, a deputy, or officer,
who holds the place of a fuperior, and difcharges in his:
abfence the duties of the office which he ought to exercife
in perfon. The term is originally derived from /egatus
(which fee), and more immediately from the French /ieu~
tenant, fupplying or holding the place of another.

OF thefe, fome are civil; as lords lieutenants of king-
doms; who are the king’s viceroys, and govern in his ftead,
fuch as the lord lieutenant of Ireland ; and lords lieutenants
of counties. See Lorps Lieutenants.

But the term is moft frequent among mikitary men, among
whom there is a variety of lieutenants. ;

Lirutenant is the fecond commiffioned officer in every
company of both foot and horfe, and next to the captain,
who takes the command upon the death or abfence of the
captain. Fuzileer corps, grenadiers, and light infantry,
have fecond lieutenants and no enfigns. See Caprain.

Lieutenant of Ariillery, is an officer of the artillery in
each company, of which there are one firft and three fecond
lieutenants. The firft lieutenant has the fame detail of
duty with the captain, becaufe, in his abf{ence, he commands
the company. ‘The fecond lieutenant is the fame as the
enfign in an infantry regiment, being the youngeft com-
miflioned officer in the compary, and it is his duty to affift.
the firit lieutenant.

Lizutenant-General of Ariillery.
NERAL of Artillery.

Lieutenant-Capiain. See CAPrain.

Lizurenant of Engineers. See ENGINEFR.

LiIcuTENANT-General. See GENERAL, Lieutenant.

In France they have alfo lieutenant-generals of their naval
forces, who command immediately under the admirals.

In Holland they have a lieutenant-admiral, which is the
fame with what we call a vice-admiral.

Lizutrenant-General of ihe Ordnance, is he who has the
charge of the artillery, batteries, &c. under the mafter-
general, or in his abfence. This officer was firft eftablifhed
in 1597. See ORDNANCE.

LiguTenant-Colone] of Fost,

3 4

See Lieutenant-Gu+

See Licutenant-CoLon2t.
The

LIf£

The dragoons have alfo a lieutenant-colonel ; but the horfe
have not, properly, any ; the firft captain of the regiment
fupplies the office. .

LisuTeNAnt-Colonel of Horfe, is only the firft captain of
the regiment, who commands in the abfence of the colonel,
taking place of all other captains. ,

Lieutenant of a Ship of War, is the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whofe abfence he is
charged with the command of the fhip, and alfo the execution
of any orders which he may have received from the com-
manders relating to the king’s fervice. The lieutenant, who
commands the watch at fea, keeps a lift of ail the officers and
men belonging to it, in order to mutter it, and report to the
captain the names of thofe who are abfent from their duty.
During the night-watch he occafionally vifits the lower deck,
or fends thither a proper officer to fee that order is ob-
ferved: He is always to be upon deck in his watch, to give
orders for trimming the fails and fuperintending the navi-
gation, and for preferving order ; but he is never to change
the fhip’s courfe without the captain's direction, unlefs it
be to avoid an immediate danger. In time of battle he is
to fee that all the men are prefent at their quarters, to
order and exhort them to perform their duty, and to inform
the captain of any mifbehaviour. The youngeft lieutenant
of the fhip, who is alfo called lieutenant at arms, is, befides
his common duty, to train the feamen to the ufe of {mall
arms, and in time of battle to attend and direét them for
this purpofe.

Lieutenant de Roy, the deputy governor of all ftrong
towns in France before the revolution, who is a check upon
‘the governor, and commands in his abfence.

Lieutenant Reformed, is he whofe company or troop is
broke or difbanded, but continued in whole or half-pay, and
ftill preferves his right of feniority and rank in the army.

LIFE, in. Phyfology, is the peculiar condition or mode
of exiftence of living beings. Surrounding matter we ob-
ferve to be divided into two great claffes, living and dead :
the latter is fubje& to phytfical laws, which the former alfo
obeys in a great degree : it exhibits alfo phyfical properties,
which we find equally in the latter. But living bodies are
endowed moreover with_a fet of properties altogether dif-
ferent from thefe, and contrafting with them in a very re-
sarkable way; thefe are the vital properties, powers,
faculties, or forces. They animate living matter fo long as
it continues alive, and are the fource of the various pheno-
mena which conftitute the funétions of the living animal
‘body, and which diftingnifh its hiftory from that of dead
matter. The ftudy of life, then, which is the objeét of
the f{cience of phyfiology, as organization is of anatomy,
includes an inquiry into the properties that charatterize
living matter, and an inveftigation of the funétions which
the” various organs, by virtue of thefe properties, are ena-
bled to execute.

As the animals, which belong to the different clafles of
natural hiftory, differ greatly in the number of fun@tions,
which they .can execute, as we have every gradation from
that of the greateit fimplicity, to as great a complication
in ftructure and functions ; life includes very different no-
tions in the different inftances. Our view would be very
imperfect if we obferved it only in one example ; we fhall,
therefore, extend our furvey in a very general manner,
through all the orders of animals. For this purpofe we
fhall avail ourfelves of the very excellent introdu€tory lec-
ture to the Lecons d’Anatomie comparée of Cuvier, which
exhibits a luminous and philofophical view of life in ge-
neral, and of its principal modifications in* the different
claffes of animals. We fhall fubjoin a general account of

LIE

Bichat’s divifion of the animal fun@ions, and of the vital
properties by which they are executed, from his Recherches
fur la Vie et la Mort.

The idea of /ife is one of thofe general and obfcure
ideas produced in us by obferving a certain feries of pheno-
mena poffefling mutual relations, and fucceeding each other
in aconftant order. We know not indeed the nature of the
link that unites thefe phenomena, but we are fenfible that a
connection muft exift; and this conviétion is fufficient to
induce us to give it a name, which the vulgar are apt to regard
as the fign of a particular principle, though in fact that name
can only indicate the totality of the phenomena which have
occafioned its formation.

Thus, as the human body, and the bodies of feveral other
animals refembling it, appear to refilt, during a certain
time, the laws which govern inanimate bodies, and even to
a& on all around them ina manner entirely contrary to thofe
laws, we employ the terms /ife and vital force to detignate
what are at leaft apparent exceptions to general laws. It is
therefore by determining exactly in what the exceptions
confift, that we fhall fix the meaning of thofe terms. For
this purpofe, let us confider living bodies in their ative
and paffive relations with the reft of nature.

For example,. let us contemplate a female in the prime of
youth and health. That elegant veluptuous form, that
graceful flexibility of motion, that gentle warmth, thofe
cheeks crimfoned with the rofes of delight, thofe brilliant
eyes, darting rays of love, or fparkling with the fire of
genius, that countenance, enlivened by fallies of wit, or
animated by the glow of paffion, feem all united to forma
moft fafcinating being. A moment is fufficient to deftroy
this illufion. Motion and fenfe often ceafe without any ap-
parent caufe. The body lofesits heat; the mufcles become
flat, and the angular prominences of the bones appear; the
luitre of the eye is gone; the cheeks and lips are livid.
Thefe, however, are but preludes of changes {till more
horrible. The flefh becomes fucceffively blue, green, and
black: it attracts humidity, and while one portion evapo-
rates in infeGtious emanations, another diffolves into a putrid
fanies, which is alfo fpeedily diffipated. In a word, after
afew fhort days there remains only a {mall number of
earthy and faline principles. The other elements are dif-
perfed in air, and in water, to enter again into new combi-
nations.

It is evident that this feparation is the natural effect of the
action of the air, humidity, and heat,—in a word, of external
matter upon the dead body ; and that it has its caufe in the
elective attraGtion of thofe different agents for the elements
of which the body is gompofed, That body, however, was
equally furrounded by thofe agents while living, their affini-
ties with its molecules were the fame, and the latter would
have yielded in the fame manner during life, had not their
cohefion been preferved by a power fuperior to that of thofe
affinities, and which never ceafed to act until the moment of
death. ’

Of all the phenomena, the particular ideas of which enter
into the general idea of life, this is what at firft fight ap-
pears to conititute its effence, fince we can form no con-
ception of life without it, and fince it evidently exilts with-
out interruption until the inftant of. diffolution.

But a further ftudy of any living body convinces us, that
the power which preferves the union of the moleculz, not-
withftanding the external forces which tend to feparate
them, does not confine its aétivity to this tranquil opera-
tion, and that.the fphere of its ation extends beyond the
bounds of the living body itfelf. At leaft it does not ap-
pear that this power differs from that which attracts new

molecule

LIFE.

molecule to depofit them between thofe that already exift :
and this aétion of the living body, in attraCting the fur-
rounding moleculz, is not lefs conftant than that which it
exercifes in retaining its own; for, befides that the abforp-
tion of the alimentary matter, its converfion into nutritive
fluid, and its fubfequent tranfmiffion to all the parts of the
body, experience no interruption, and continue from one re-
palt to another; another abforption conftantly takes place
at the external furface, and a third by the effect of refpira-
tion. The two latter are thofe only which exift in all
living bodies which do not digeft, that is to fay, in all
plants.

Living bodies, however, do not increafe indefinitely.
Nature has affigned to each limits which it cannot exceed.
It follows, therefore, that they muft lofe, in one way, a
great part of what they gain in another ; and indeed an atten-
tive obfervation has convinced us, that tranfpiration, and a
numiber of other caufes, tend continually to diminifh their
fubiftance.

This confideration muft modify the notion which we at firlt
formed from the principal phenomenon of life. Inftead of
a cont{tant union in the molecule, we cannot avoid obferving,
that there is a continual circulation from the exterior to the
interior, and from the interior to 'the exterior of bodies ;
a circulation which, though uniformly preferved, is not-
with{tanding fixed within certain limits. Thus living
bodies may be confidered as a kind of receptacles, into
which inert fubftances are fucceffively thrown, in order to
combine among themfelves in various manners, maintain a
certain place, and perform an action determined by the na-
ture of the combinations they have formed ; and from which
they efcape in order to become again fubject to the laws of
inanimate nature. :

It muft be obferved, however, that there is a difference,
depending on age and health, in the proportion of the parts
which enter into this kind of circulation, and thofe which
abandon it; and that the velocity of the motion ufually
varies according to the different conditions of each living
body. '

It appears, at the fame time, that life is terminated by
caufes fimilar to thofe which interrupt all other known mo-
tions, and that the hardening of the fibres, and the obftruc-
tion of the veflels, render death the neceflary confequence
of life, as repofe is of motion, even though the crifis were
not accelerated by innumerable caufes which are foreign to
the living body.

This general and common motion of all the parts forms fo
peculiarly the eflence of life, that the parts which are fepa-
rated from a living body foon die, becaufe they poffefs no
motion of their own, and only participate in the general
motion produced by their union. Thus, according to the
expreffion of Kant, the reafon of the mode of exiltence of
each part of inanimate bodies belongs to itfelf, but in living
Bodies it refides in the whole.

The nature of life, as above defcribed, being once well’
afcertained by the obfervation of the moit conftant of its
effects, a wifh would naturally arife to-inveltigate its origin,
and to inquire how it is communicated to-the bodies it ani-
mates. Living bodies have, therefore,.been traced to their
infancy ; and it has been endeavoured to carry this examina-
tion as near as poflible to the moment: of their. formation.
But they have never been obferved otherwife than completely
formed, and already. enjoying that vital force, and produc-
ing that circulatory motion, the firft caufe of which we are
defirous of knowing. In faé, however feeble and minute
the parts of anembryo, or of the feed of a plant, may be
at the moment we are firft.capable of perceiving them, they

then enjoy areal life, and poffefs the germ of all the pheno-
mena which that life may afterwards develope. Thefe ob-
fervations, extended to all the claffes of living bodies, lead
to this general fact, that there are none of tho/? bodies which have
not heretofore formed parts of bodies fimilarto themfelves,
from which they have beea detached. All have participated
in the exiftence of other living bodies, before they exercifed
the funétions of life by themfelves; and it was even by
means of the vital force of the bodies to which they formerly
belonged, that they were enabled to develope themfelves fo
completely as to become capable of enjoying feparate vita-
lity ; for though the particular ation of copulation is ne-
ceflary for the produétion of a number of {pecies, many are
produced without it; copulation, therefore, is only a circum~-
ftance belonging to certain cafes, er does not change
the effential nature of generation. It appears then that
the motion proper to living bodies has really its origin in
that of their parents. It is from them they have re-
ceived the vital impulfe ; and hence it is evident, that, in
the actual ilate of things, life proceeds only from life, and
that there exifts ng other except that which has been tranf-
mitted from one living body to another by an uninterrupted
fucceffion.

Unable to afcend to the origin of living bodies, there-
remains then within our reach no fource of information
refpecting the real nature of the powers which animate
them, except the examination of the compofition of thofe
bodies, that is to fay, of their texture, and the union of
their elements: for, though it may be truly faid, that this
texture, and this union are in fome manner the refult of the
action of the vital impulfe which has given them being, and:
which maintains them; it is alfo evident, that in them only
this impulfe can have its fource and foundation: and if the-
firft union of the chemical and mechanical elements of any
living body has been effeéted by the vital force of the body
from which it defcended, we ought to find in it a fimilar
power, and alfo the caufes of that power, fince it has to
exercife a like a€tioa in favour of the bodies which are to
defcend from it.

But this compofition of living bodies is too imperfely
known to enable us to deduce clearly from it the effects
they exhibit. We obferve, in general, that they are com-
pofed of fibres or lamine, forming altogether a feries of:
reticulated fubftances more or !efs compaét, which form the
bafes of all their folids, as well of thofe that are mafly, as-
of thofe that prefent the appearance of lamine and fila.-
ments. We are acquainted with the form, the confittence,.
and the pofition of the larger of: thofe folids ;.the ramifica-
tions of the moft confiderable of their veffels, and the
courfe of the fluids they contain: but their more minute
branches, and their more fecret texture, cannot:be traced
by our inftruments.. We likewife know the chemical cha-
ra¢terssof the moft apparent of the different fluids and con-
erete fubftances ; we can even decompofe them to a Certain
point. This inveftigation, however, is not only imperfect,
fince we cannot recompofe them, but the phenomena indi-
cate, that there muft exift feveral other fluids which we
have not yet been able to difcover..

The efforts hitherto made by naturalifts to prove a con-
nection between the phenomena of: living bodies and the
general laws of nature, have doubtlefs been unfuccefsful.
It would, however, be wrong, on that account, to conclude
that thofe phenomena are abfolutely of a different kind;
but, on the other hand, there would be much temerity in
refuming this tafk, while our knowledge of the bodies in
which the phenomena appear is fo limited. We fhould be
able to give only an empirical expofition, inftead of a

rational .

Lit FE.

rational fyftem. All our labours on organic economy muft
therefore be confined to its hiltory. ;

If, however, our knowledge of the compofition of living
bodies be not fufficient for the explanation of the pheno-
mena they exhibit, we may at leaft employ it in recognizing
thofe bodies when out of a ftate of aétion, and in diftin-
guifhing their remains long after death ; for we find in no
inert body that fibrous or cellular texture, nor that multi-
plicity of volatile elements which form the characters of
organization and organized bodies, whether in thofe that
are alive, or in thofe that have lived.

We know that inert folids are compofed only of polye-
drous molecule, which attract each other by their fides, and
never move except to feparate—that they are refolvalle into
a very {mall nunber of elementary fubftances—that they are
formed of the combination of thofe fubftances, and the ac-
cumulation of thofe molecules—that they grow only by the
juxtapofition of new molecules, the ftrata of which enve-
lope the preceding mafs—and that they are deftroyed only
by fome mechanical agent feparating their parts, or fome
chemical agent altering their combinations ; but organized
bodies, which are tiflues of fibres and laminz, and have their
inter{tices filled with fluids, refolve almoft entirely into vola-
tile fubftances, are produced by bodies fimilar to themfelves,
from which they do not feparate until they are fufliciently
developed to a& by their own force; conftantly aflimilate
foreign fubftances, and depofit them between their particles;
grow by an internal power, and finally perifh by that in-
ternal principle, or by the effect of life itfeif. AMa:

Origin by generation, growth by zytrition, termination by
@eath, are the general and common charatteriftics of all
organized bodies: if, however, there are bodies which per-
form only thefe fun&tions, and thofe which are fubfidiary to
them, and poffefs only the organs neceflary for fuch opera-
tions, there is a great number of others which perform
particular funGtions, that not only require appropriate organs,
but neceffarily modify the manner in which the general func-
tions are performed, and the. organs proper to thofe func-
tions.

Among the lefs general faculties which indicate organiza-
tion, but which are. not the neceflary confequences of it,
the faculty of fenfation, and that of voluntary motion, in
whole or in part, are the moft remarkable, and thofe which
have the greateft influence on the other fun¢tions.

We are confcious that thefe faculties exift in ourfelves,
and we attribute them, by analogy, and from their apparent
exiftence, to a number of other beings, whom we therefore
name animated beings, or, ufing a fingle word, animals.

It appears that thefe two faculties are neceffarily con-
neéted, the idea of /enfation is even included in that of volun-
tary motion ; for we cannot conceive volition without defire,
and unaccompanied by the fentiment.of pleafure or pain.
There may indeed exit inanimate bodies, that manifeft ex-
ternal motion produced by an internal principle ; but their
movements are not of the fame nature as thofe which conititute
the functions effential to life, and do not merit the name of
voluntary.

On the other hand, the bounty which nature difplays in
all her produétions, does not permit us to believe that fhe
has deprived beings fufceptible of fenfation, that is to fay,
of pleafure and pain—of the power, in a certain degree, of
avoiding the one and purfuing the other. Among the mif-
fortunes which affiG our f{pecies, one of the moft painful is
the fituation of a man of courage withheld by a {uperior
power from refifting oppreffion; and the poetic fictions belt
calculated to excite compaffion, are thofe which reprefent
Sentient beings inclofed within immoveable bodies. The

fighs of Clorinda iffuing, with her blood, from the trunk of
a cyprefs, would arreft the fury of the moft favage of
mortals. La Gierufalemme Liberata, canto xiii.

But, independently of the chain which conneés the two
faculties, and the double fy{ftem of organs they require, they
are accompanied by feveral modifications in thofe faculties
which are common’ to all organized bodies: thefe modifica-
tions, joined to the two firft mentioned faculties, are what
more particularly conftitute the nature of animals.

With refpe& to nutrition, for example, vegetables, which
are attached to the foil, abforb immediately, by their roots,
all the nutritive parts of the fluids whch they imbibe.
Thefe roots are fubdivided to extreme minutenefs ; they pe-
netrate into the fmalleft interftices, and proceed, if it may
be fo faid, to feek at a diltance food for the plant to which
they belong. ‘Their a¢tion is tranquil and uniform, and
never is interrupted except when deprived by drought of
the juices which they require.

Animals, on the contrary, which are not fixed, and which
frequently change their place, can tranfport with themfelves
a portion of the fubftances neceflary for their nutrition:
they have therefore received an internal cavity, into which
they depofit the matters deftined for their aliment ; and the
inward furfaces ot this cavity are furnifhed with innumerable
abforbing pores or veffels, which, according to the ener-
getic expreflion of Boerhaave, are real internal roots: the
magnitude of this cavity, in a number of animals, permits
them to introduce folid fubftances into it. It was neceflary,
then, that they fhould have inftruments for dividing thofe
fubftances, and liquors for diffolving them. In. a word,
with fuch animals nutrition does not immediately commence
upon the abforption of the fubftances which the foil or the
atmofphere furnifh them. It is neceffarily preceded by a
vaft number ef preparatory operations, the whole of which
conttitute dige/tion. See DicEsrion.

Thus, it appears, that digeftion is a funétion of a fecond-
ary order, proper to animals, the exiftence of which, as well
as of the alimentary canal in which it is performed, is ren-
dered neceffary by the faculty they poffefs of voluntary mo-
tion ; but this is not the only confequence of that faculty.

The faculties of vegetables being very few, their organiza-
tion is very fimple; almoft all their parts are compofed of
fibres, whichare either parallel, or diverge very little. Far-
ther, their fixed pofition admits, that the general motion of
their nutritive fluid may be preferved by fimple external
agents. It appears that it proceeds upwards, by the effect
of the f{uétion of their fpongy or capillary texture, and the
evaporation which takes place at their top, and that its mo-
tion in that direétion is the more rapid in proportion as the
evaporation is great. It appears alfo that the motion of
this fluid may even become retrograde, when it ceafes to
flow in its ufual courfe, or changes into abforption by the
coolnefs and humidity of the air.

It is not only neceffary that animals deftined continually
to change their place of exiftence, and to live in all kinds of
fituations and temperatures, fhould poffefs within themfelves
an active principle of motion for their nutritive fluid; but
their more numerous and more developed faculties requiring
a much greater complication of organs, their various parts
being differently formed, often at a diftance from each other,
and even capable of changing their refpetive pofitions and
direttions, means more powerful, and otherwife difpofed
than in vegetables, are neceflary for tranfmitting this fluid
through fuch a multiplicity of intricate windings.

In the greater part of animals, therefore, this fluid is con-
tained in innumerable canals, which are the ramifications of
two trunks communicating with each other, in fuch a man-

ner,

L I

nef, that the one receives in its roots the fluid which the other
has puthed into its branches, and carries it back to the centre,
to be again driven forward from that point.

Where the two great trunks communicate, the heart is
placed: it is merely an organ, the contraétions of which
drive this fluid forward with great force into all the ramifi-
cations of the arterial trunk. It has two orifices, the valves
of which are fo difpofed that the fluid contained in the whole
vafeular fyftem can proceed in no other manner than in that
we have pointed out ; that is to fay, fromthe heart towards
the other parts of the body by the arteries, and from thofe
parts back to the heart by the veins. See CincuLATION and
Heart.

In this movement, by rotation, confifts the circulation of
the blood, which is another funétion of a fecondary order,
proper to animals, and of which the heart is the principal
agent and the regulator ; but this funétion is not fo necefla-
rily conneéted with the faculties of fenfation and motion as
the funtion of digeftion is; for two numerous clafles of
animals are completely deprived of circulation, and are
nourifhed like vegetables, by fimply imbibing a fluid which
is prepared in the inteftinal canal. ‘

In the animals that have a circulation, the blood appears
to be merely a vehicle which is continually receiving from
the alimentary canal, from the external furface of the body,
and from the lungs, different fubftances, which are inti-
mately incorporated with it, and continually furnifhing fub-
ftances to all the different parts of the body, for their pre-
feryation and growth. In its paflage through the extremi-
ties of the arteries the blood effects the real nutrition of the
parts ; at the fame time it changes its nature and its colour :
and it is only by the acceffion of the different fubftances,
which have juft been pointed out, that the venous blood is
rendered proper for nutrition, or, in one word, becomes
arterial blood. .

It is by particular veffels, called /ymphatics, that the
venous blood receives the fubftances with which the fkin
and the alimentary canal fupply it. By them, alfo, it re-
ceives even the refiduum of nutrition, and the particles which
are detached from different parts, to be carried out of the body
by various excretions. See AbsoRBENTS and ABSORPTION.

With refpe& to the lungs, the air that penetrates into
them produces, with the venous blood, a kind of combuf-
tion, which appears to be neceflary to the exiftence of all
organized bodies: for it takes place in them all, though in
very different ways. See Respirarion. ‘

Vegetables, and animals which have no circulation, re-

Jpire throughout the whole of their furface, or by veffels
which introduce the air at different points into the interior of
their bodies. No animals refpire by a particular organ,
except thofe that have a real circulation, becaufe, in them,
the blood coming from one common fource, the heart, to
which it conftantly returns, the veffels that contain it are fo
difpofed, that it cannot arrive at the other parts until it has
pailed through the lungs. This, however, cannot take place
in vegetables, or in thofe animals in which this fluid is every
where diffufed in an uniform manner, without being contained
in veflels. ) ;

Hence it appears that pulmonary or branchial refpiration
is a funétion of a third order, the exiltence of which de-
pends on that of circulation, and that it is a remote con-
fequence of thofe faculties that characterile animals.

Even the mode of generation in animals, at leaft as far as
the fecundation of the ova is concerned, depends on their
particular faculties ; for the faculties they poflefs of moving
and advancing towards each other, of deliring and enjoying,

‘VoL. XX.

FE.

has fitted them for tafting all the delights of love: while,
with refpeét to the purely mechanical part, their fpermatic
fluid has no occafion for any envelope, and is capable of
being tranfmitted directly to the ova; but in vegetables,
which do net poffefs within themfelves the power of dircét-
ing this fluid, it was neceflary that it fhould be enclofed in
little capfules, which are fufceptible of being tranfported
by the winds, and which form what is called the polln of
the flamina. Thus, while animals, for the performance of
mott of their other funétions, have, in confequence of fa-
cultics peculiar to themfelves, received more complicated
organs, they are enabled, by thofe chara¢teriltic faculties,
to exercife the funétion of generation in a manner more
fimple than vegetables.

Thefe examples fhew how much influence the faculties
of fenfation and motion, which animals poffefs‘in addition
to thofe of vegetables, have over the organs of all the other
faculties which are common to both thefe kinds of ‘beings.
The comparifon which we fhall hereafter make of the dif-
ferent orders of animals, will, in the fame manner, demoti-
{trate that the modifications of their principal fun€tions exer-
cife a fimilar influence on all the others :—fuch is the union
and harmony, which prevails in all the parts of living bodies.

We have thus defcribed the principal funétions which
compofe the animal economy. It is obvious that they may
be divided into three diftin@ orders. There are fome which,
in conftituting animals what they are, fit them for fulfilling
the part that nature has afligned to them in the general ar-
rangement of the univerfe.—in a word, which would be
fufficient for their exiftence, if that exiftence were only mo-
mentary. Thefe are the faculties of fenfation and motion:
the latter enables them to execute certain aGtions, and the
former determines their choice of the particular aétions they
are capable of performing. Each animal may be confidered
as a partial machine, co-operating with all the other machines,
the whole of which form the univerfe: the organs of motion
are the wheels and levers, in fhort, all the paflive parts ; but
the active principle, the {pring which gives the impulfe to
every part, refides only in the fenfitive faculty, without which
the animal, plunged in a continual lumber, would be re-
duced to a itate purely vegetative ;—plants themfelves, as
Buffon has obferved, may be called animals which fleep.
Thefe two funétions form the firlt order, and are termed
animal funions. But animal machines, unlike thofe we con=
ftruct, poffefs an internal principle of prefervation and repara-
tion. This principle confifts. in the union of the different
funétions which ferve to nourifh the body, that is to fay, di-
geftion, abforption, circulation, refpiration, tran/piration, and the
excretions. hefe form the fecond order, and are denomi-
nated vital fundions.

Finally, the duration of each animal’s life being determined
according fo its kind, generation is a funiétion’ of a third
order, by which the individuals that perifh are replaced by
others, and the exiftence of each {pecies maintained. See
Function.

Having confidered thefe funétions with refpe& to theg-
felves, and to their reciprocal relations, we ‘hall next exa-
mine the organs by which they are performed.

General idea of the organs of which the animal body is
compofed.—No part of the animal body is compofed entirely
of folid particles ; they all yield fluids by expreffion, or lole
them by exficcation ; and they all exhibit the appearance of
an areolated or reticular texture.

The mechanical divifion of the folids condu&s us, in the
laft refult, to lamelle, or filaments, which feem to be the
elementary molecule, When the lamelle are feparate, and

4U interrupted

LIFE.

interrupted by fenfible vacancies, they form what is called
cellulotity. This cellulofity not only envelopes and per-
vades the moft denfe parts, but it appears to form almott
always their bafis; for membranes confift only of a more
compact cellulofity, the lamella of which are more clofely
approximated, aud placed more exaétly above each other,
and are refolved inte’an ordinary celluloity by macera-
tion. (See Certunan fubflance, and Membrane, cellular.)
The vefiels are merely membranes rounded into cylinders.
All the foft parts of the body, the fibres excepted, feem
to be an affemblase of veffels, differing from each other
only according to the nature of the fluids they contain,
by their number, their direction, and the {truéture of their
coats.

The chemical analyfis of thefe fubfances, folids as well
as fluids, exhibits only a few principles, almott all of which
are to be found in each of them, though in very different
proportions. Some earths, fome falts, phcfphorus, carbon,
azote, hydrogen, oxygen, a little fulphur, and a little iron,
combined in a preat variety of ways, produce different
compofitious, viz. gelatine, albumen, and fibrous matter,
&e. which, uniting in their turn, form animal folids and
fluids, fuch as we know them. Dut, diflant as we are from
a complete analyfis, we fee enough to convince us, not only
that we alter thefe compofitions by our experiments, but alfo
that feveral of their principles entirely efcape our inflru-
ments, Fora more particular account of the elementary
tiffues, into which the body can be refolved, fee the
article Frere. 2 j

The general organ, by which we exercife the faculty of
fenfation, is the medullary fubflance. In all the animals in
which we can diitinguifh it, that fubftance is divided into
filaments, which arifing from certain centres, diltribute
themfelves over moft parts of the body, where they appear
to ferve other purpofes befides that of procuring fenfations.

The centres from which thofe nervous cords proceed, com-
municate with each other in a manner more or lefs intimate,
and feveral of the filaments feem of no other ule than to ef-
tablifh thofe communications.

A nerve, when touched by a foreign body, caufes the
fenfation of pain, theugh its contact with the parts of the
body which are naturally contiguous to it, produces na fen-
fibie effect in a tate of health. he nerves, by which we
difeern external objets, are provided, at their extremities,
with orgdns, each of which is difpofed in a particular man-
ner, -and always poffefles an admirable relation to the
nature of the objects, a knowledge of which each of thefe
fenfes is deilined to convey to us. See Nerve and Brain.

The general organ of motion is the flefhy or mufcular
fibre. ‘This fibre contraéts itfelf by volition; but the will
only exercifes this power through the medium of the nerves.
Every flefhy fibre receives a nervous filament ; and the obe-
dience of the Gbre ceafes, when the communication of that
filament with the reit of the fy‘tem is interrupted. Certain
externa! agents, applied immediately to the fibre, likewife
eaufe contraction » and they preferve their aétion upon it,
even after the feGion of its nerve, or its total feparation
from the body, during a period which is Tonger or fhorter
in different {pecies of animals. This faculty, of the fibre is
called its irritability. Does it in the latter cafe depend
upon the portion of the nerve semaining in the fibre after
its feCion, which. always. forms an effential part of it?
Or is the influence of the will itfelf only a particular cir-
cumftance, and the effe&t of an irritating aétion of the
nerve on a faculty inherent in the mufcular fibre? Haller
and his followers have adopted the latter opinion; but

every day feems to add to the probability of the oppofite
theory. See Muscie.

Be this as it may, all the internal parts of the body
deftined to preduce a compreffion on the fub{tances they
contain, have their parietes furnifhed with flefhy fibres, aud
receive nervous filaments ; fuch is the cafe with the bladder,
the intellines, the heart, &c. But the principal ufe of
thefe fibres is the formation of mu/clr. This is the name
given to the bundles of flefhy fibres, the extremities of
which are attached to the moveable parts of the animal
body. When the fibres which compofe the mufcle fhorten,
the two points to which it is attached are brought towards
each other: this is the fole means by which all the external
motions of the body and the members, even thofe which are
neceflary for removing the body entirely from one place to
another, are produced.

Animals that can only crawl have their mufcles attached
to different parts of their fin, on which they alternately
produce dilatations and contra€tions, which are the only
motions of which they are fufceptible: but thofe which are
capable of moving themfelves by {teps or otherwife, either
wholly or partially, have their mufcles attached to hard
parts placed externally or internally. ‘Thofe parts perforin
the office of levers, and have points of fupport on each
other, which are-called their articulations.

All the hard parts taken together form the fkcleton.
When they are covered by the mufcles, they receive the
name of bone; when they cover mufcles, they are denomi-
nated fhell, crult, or fcale, according to their degree of
confiftency. In both cafes they always enclofe vifcera, and
determine the exterior form of the body, and the propor.
tions of its different parts. al

The articulations are provided with as many mufcles as
ane neceflary for the different movements of which they are
fufceptible ; each mufcle moving the bone to which it is at-
tached, in its proper direction. They may be regarded as
the moving powers. Their force, the’ point of their infer-
tion, and the length and weight of the parts attached to
the lever they have to move, determine the velocity and the
duration of the motion they are capable of producing. On
thefe different circumfiances depend the foree of leaping,
the extent of flight, the rapidity of running, and the pre-
henfile power pollefied by different {pecies of animals; but,
as we have already obferved, all this organization would re-
main immoveable, were it not animated by the neryous
fyltem. i

The foft white fubftance which forms the effence of this
fyftem, is divided into filaments that approach each other,
and unite in bundles, which contain more filaments m. pro-
portion as they are traced nearer to the common fa{cicalus
of all the nerves, called the fpinal marrow, the anterior ex-
tremity of which is joined to the brain, thats to fay, to a
medullary mafs of more or lefs magnitude, and diflerently
formed according to the various kinds of animals.

T'rom the aétion of externa] bodies on our own, we per-
ceive that the nerves affected by that ation communicate
with the comman fafeiculus, and that it communicates with
the brain. A ligature or a rupture intercepts the phyfical
communication, and deftroys fenfation. :

The only fenfe which belongs generally to all animals, and
which pervades almolt the whole: furface of the bedies. of
each of them, is that of feeling. It refides.in the extre-
mities of the nerves which are diftributed to the {kin, and
makes us fenfible of the refiftance of bodies, and their
temperature.

‘Che other fenfes fem to be only modifications of this

ane,

LI

ene, but more exalted, and capable of receiving more deli-
tate impreflions. Every one knows that the other fenfes are
feeing, which refides in the eye; hearing, which belongs to
the ear; fmelling, which is attached to the membranes
within the nofe; and taiting, the feat,of which is in the
furface of the tongue. Thefe fenfes are almoft always fitu-
ated in the fame extremity of the body which contains the
brain, and which we call the head.

Light, the vibrations of the air, the volatile emanations
which float in the atmofphere, and faline particles foluble in
water, or faliva, are the fubftances which a& on thefe four
fenfes; and the organs, which tranfmit the aétion to the
Nerves, are appropriate to the nature of each. The eye
prefents tranfparent lenfes to the light, which refraét its
rays. The ear offers membranes and fluids to the air, which
Teceive its concuffions. ‘The nofe inhales the air which is to
go to the lungs, and feizes, in their paflage, the odoriferous
vapours it contains. Finally, the tongue is covered with
{pongy papill, which imbibe the favery liquids that are
taken into the mouth.

By thefe means we obtain a knowledge of what paffes .

around us: but the nervous fyftem likewife makes us ac-
quainted with a great deal of what pafles within us. Inde-
pendently of thofe internal pains which indicate fome dif-
order in our organization, and the difagreeable {tate in
which we are placed by hunger, thirit, and fatigue, it is in
confequeice of the operation of this fyftem that we expe-
rience the agonics of fear, the emotions of pity, the defires
of love. Senfations of this laft kind feem, however, to be
rather the effects of the re-action of the nervous fyltem,
than immediate impreflions; though, at the fight of any
imminent danger, we halten to avoid it before it appears
that the mind has had time to act; and the fame obierva-
tion applies to the tranfports we feel on the prefence of a
beloved object, or to the tears we fhed over the {peftacle of
fuffering virtue. hele effects of the nervous fyitem are
produced by numerous communications which particular
nerves, called /ympathetics, eftablifh between different branches
of the general trunk, by means of which the impreffions
are tranfmitted more rapidly than by the brain. The knots
called ganglia, when they are confiderable, are each a kind
ef fecondary brain ; and it is obfervable, that they are
larger and more numerous in proportion as the principal
_ brain is lefs.

Vhe faculty of fenfation, and that of contraétion, the
firlt of which, in moft animals, is exclufively appropriated to
the nervous fubftance, and the fecond to the flefhy fibre, ap-
pear to be equally diffufed in all the parts of certain gelatinous
animals, in which we cannot perceive either fibres or nervgs.

_ It is by the means of thefe two faculties that animals feel,
defire, and are enabled to provide for their wants. The
rooft irrefiltible feeling of all is that of hunger, which con-
ftantly reminds the animal of the neceffity of procuring new
materials for its nutrition. This third function commences
in the mouth, into which the aliments are taken; and, when
they are folid, matticated and moiltened with diffolving li-
quors ; thence they traverfe the alimentary canal, which is
longer or jhorter, and more or le{s convoluted and dilated in
different animals, and the parietes of which are compofed
of feveral continued tunics,’analogous to thefe which form
the external teguments of the body.

Thefe coats act in a mechanical manner, on the fubflances
which they contain, by flight contraGtions of their fibres ;
and in a chemical manner, by thé liquors which are poured
out within them.

The firit dilatation of the alimentary canal. is called the
Howach. ‘here are fometimes feveral ftomachs, or. feveral

F E.

divifions of that organ; its parietes yield a liquid which re-
duces the aliments to a homogeneous pulp, during the time
they remain in it. The remainder of the cawal is more par-
ticularly called bowels or inteltines. Independently of the
juices, which the different coats of the bowels produce,
there are fome which are fepareted from. the mafs of the
blood by glands, and which penetrate the inteflinal canal by
particular conduits. The molt remarkable and the mott
general of thefe glands are the liver and the pancreas. The
firft, which fecretes the bile, is always of a con!derable
fize ; and befides the effect of its liquid on the inteftines,
produces another very remarkable effeét on the blood itfelf,
trom which it removes feveral principles. See Sromacn, Iv-
TestTines, Liver, and PANcreas.

It is in the inteflines that the aliments undergo that
change which fits them for nutrition. ‘Lhe nutritive part is
abforbed, during the aét of digeilion, ¢ither by the pores
of the canal itfelf, in animals that have vo circulation, or,
in thofe that have, by very {mall vefiels which conduct it
into the general fyitem of nutritive veffels. Thofe {matl
veffels are called /ymphatics. They are very diftinét from the
yeins, in animals whofe f{truéture moft refembles that of
man: in the more inferior animals they become gradually
more like the veins, and cannot be diftinguifled from them
in thofe which have white blood. The membranes which
compofe the lymphatic veffels and veins are thin, and with-
out apparent fibres. Internally they are furnithed with
valves, all opening in the direétion in which the fluid they
convey has to flow, that is to fay, towards the heart. The
arteries, on the contrary, are {trong and mufcular, but have
no valves; the vigorous impulfe of the heart is fufficient to
impre{s a con{lant direction on the blood they contain.-

But the chyle, or the liquor produced by digettion, is not
fufficient for renewing the venous blood, and rendering it
fit for the nutrition of the different partsof the body. It is
neceflary that it fhould experience the contaét of the air
before it enters into the arterial fyftem. ‘This is effected by
refpiration. The organs of refpiration, in animals which
have blood-veffels, confift in a ramification of thefe veffele,
which increafes their furface to fuch a degree, that almoft
all parts of the fluid are feparated from the furrounding
element only by a very thin pellicle, which cannot obftruét
its action. ‘This ramilication takes place on the furface of
certain folds or lamellz in aquatic animals, and on that of
certain cells in aerial animals. In the firit cafe the organ Is
denominated dranchie, in the fecond /ungs. In animals which
have no veflels, the air reaches all parts of the body, and
acts on the nutritive fluid at the fame moment in which that
fluid combines with the parts of the body which it is
deftined to nourifh. This is the cafe with infe&ts that have
trachee. It will be ealily conceived that there muft be muf-
cular organs, appropriated to each of thofe fpecies of refpira-
tion, dettined to attra@ or impel the ambient fluid towards
the place where it has to a&t upon the blood. This office
is performed by the ribs, the diaphragm, the mufcles of the
abdomen, the flaps cf the gills, and fevera] ovher parts, ac-
cording to the nature of the animal. See Lune.

The air cannot be employed in the formation of the voice,
except in the animals that refpire by céllular lungs, becaufe
it is in them only that it enters by a fingle and lengthened
tube. At one or two parts of this tube there are membranes
fufceptible of tenfion, which vibrate when the air acts upon
them, and thereby produce the various founds which we call
the voice. The animals which have no voice, properly io
called, are not, however, deprived of the power of pro-
ducing certain founds, but they are produced in them by
other means. See Larynx. ;

4U2 The

LIFE.

The blood, on its paffage into the organ of refpiration,
experiences a kind of combuttion, which removes a part of
its carbon, carrying it off under the form of carbonic acid,
and which thereby augments the proportion of its other ele-
ments. ‘The eflect of this procefs on the refpired air, is to
deprive it of its oxygen, which is the only aeriform fluid
that can be ferviceable to refpiration. Its effet on the
blood is lefs known: we know that it heightens the colour
of the blood in red-blooded animals, and gives it the power
of exciting the heart to contraction, There is even reafon
to believe that it is this aGtion of the air on the blood which
gives, indirectly, to the flefhy fibres their contractile power.
It is {till neceflary that the blood fhould lofe feveral ether
principles: fome are carried off. by the kidnies, which
fecrete the uvme, and which are found in all animals that
have red blood. The matter which tranfpires through
the pores of the fkin, and the fubftances which pafs through
the inteftinal canal, a great part of which are carried away
with the excrements, relieve the blood of other principles.
Thefe three kinds of exeretions, to a certain degree, fupply
the place of each other, and appear, therefore, to tend
towards one common obje&. See InrEGuMEN?s, Kipney,
and Respiration.

» Thefe are all the organs which conttitute the animal; con-
fidered individually, and which are fufficient for its feparate
exiltence, while the obje& is not the multiplication of the
fpecies: fuch are the whole of the organs in the higher
orders of animals. We fhall fee that, in proportion as we
defcend in the fcale of being, they fucceflively difappear,
and that at laft we fhall find, m the loweft claffes, ouly what
is neceffarily conneéted with the idea of an animal; that is, a
fac, fenfible, moveable, and capable of digefting.

Upon a clofe obfervation of the action of all thefe organs,
it will appear, that all the operations which take place in
the animal body, depend on the combination and decompo-
fition of the fluids contained within it. To the animal pro-
cefs, by which one fluid is feparated from another, or is
formed from a part of the elements of one, mixed witha
part of thofe of another, we give the name of fecretion: this
term, however, is ufually confined. to the changes which
take place in different kinds of glands, that is to fay, in
bodies more or lefs thick, in which the blood-veffels, being
infinitely fubdivided, permit the liquid which the gland fepa-
ratesfrom the blood to tranfude from their extremities. (See
Guianp.) But the animal economy exhibits a number of other
transformations, or feparations of humours, which equally
merit this name, It cannot be fuppofed that the nerves act on
the mufcular fibres without producing a chemical change-on
the fluid that may be contained in the one, by the acceffion
of that which the others may tranfmit, nor that external
objects a& upon the nerves otherwife than by producing a
eliange of the fame kind. The fluid contamed in the
nervous fyftem mult have been feparated from the blood in
the brain, and, in general, in all the medullary organs., The
blood itfelf does not attain its itate of perfeétion until a mul-
ntude of fubflances have been detached from it by the
Jungs, the kidnies, the liver, &c. and until after it has
received a number of others which have been feparated from
the alimentary mafs by the lateal veffels: on the other hand,
this mafs is not capable of yielding chyle until it has in its
tura received different liquors which have been fecreted from
blood by feveral organs; and the blood only nourifhes the
parts to which it is diftribated, by thé particles that are de-
tached from its mafs, while other particles are feparated
from ‘thefe parts to return into the mafs of the bloo
shxough the medium of the lymphatic veffels.

Jn a word, all the animal fanétions appear to reduce them-

felves to. the transformation of’ fluids. In the manner: im
which thefe transformations are produced, the real fecret of
the admirable economy of animals confilts, as health depends
upon their perfection and regularity.

If we do not perceive this procefs in a manner fufficiently
clear when the embryos of new individuals begin to develope
themfelves within or without the bodies of theiz mothers,
we can at leaft difcover it in the preparation of the male
liquor, which, by its prefence, excites or occafions that
developement in all the fpecies in which copulation is necef.
fary. This developement takes place in the fame manner as the
ordinary growth. It, therefore, comes under the general rule.

- The organs of generation, which alone remain to be
noticed, are thofe which prepare the prolific liquor, and
convey it to the ova, and thofe which are dettined to contain
and protect the embrye during its developement.
conttitute the male, the fecond the female fex. r

The tefticles are the glands which fecrete the feminal
fluid; feveral other glands prepare liquors which mingle
with it. The penis contains the feminal canal; it {wells by
the accumulation of blood when the nerves are excited by
defire: by that means, it is rendered capable of penetrating
the vagina, which leads to the matrix, or to the ovidudus,
and of conveying thither the fluid deftined to vivify the
ova. The oviduct or tube receiyes the ovum at the moment
in which it is detached from the ovarium; and conduéts it
without the animal if it be of the oviparous kind, ‘or into
the matrix if it be viviparous. The little embryo developes
itfelf, and draws its nourifhment, either from the body ofits
mother, by the abforption of a large tiflue of veflels con-
nected with thofe of its own body, or from an organize
ma{s attached to it in the fame manner, and which forms the
yolk of the egg, or the vitel/us. When the embryo attains
a certain flate, the matrix expels it; or it breaks the fhell of
the egg in which it is contained, and efcapes from its prifon,
See GENERATION. (

View of the principal differences which animals exhibit in
their feveral organs.—It appears from the preceding account,
that what is common to each kind of organs, confidered in
all animals, refolves itfelf into a very {mall compafs, and that
frequently they only refemble one another in the effe€ts they
produce. This is particularly obvious with refpeé& to re-
{piration, which is performed in the different clafles of ani-
mals by organs fo various, that their ftructure prefents no _
common point of comparifon. Thofe differences in the
organs of the fame kind are precifely the object of compa-
rative anatomy ; and the fhort expofition we are about to
make, of the principal of thefe differences, may be regarded
as*a general view of this fubjeét. We fhall, therefore,
return to each of the-fun€tions of which we have treated, and
examine the different degrees of energy it poflefles, and the
particular means by which it is carried on in different animals.

The organs of motion prefent us at firft fight with two
important diftintions with refpect to their fituation. Some-
times the bones form an internal fkeleton, articulated and
covered by the mufcles; fometimes there are no internal
bones, but merely fcales or fhells which cover the fkin, with-
in which are the mufcles: in other cafes there is no hard
part that can ferve as a lever or point of fupport for the
motions of the animal’s body.

Animals of the firlt kind have the whole body fupported
by a ftrong pillar, formed of feveral bony pieces, placed
one above the other, and called the fpine of the back, or
the vertebral column. “They are, therefore, denominated
vertebral animals. 'Thefe are the mammalia, birds, reptiles,
and fifhes. 3

The animals without vertehre are either entirely ai or

ave

The firft _

‘

LIFE.

Wave their bodies and members enveloped in fcales articu-
lated on one another, or, finally, are enclofed in fhells.
Thefe are the foft worms, infects, and the teftacea.

It is by the greater or lefs perfe&tion of certain parts
hat the animals of thefe different clafles become fufceptible
Of various kinds of motion.

The organs of fenfation prefent confiderable varieties ;—
fome have a relation to the internal part of the nervous fyf-
tem, others to the external fenfes. The firlt give rife to three
claffes :—that of animals which have no apparent nervous
fyftem, and in which we difcover neither veflels nor nerves 5
fuch are the zoophytes or the polypes : —that of animals in-
which there is only the brain above the alimentary canal,
and which have all the remainder of the common bundle of
nerves fituated underneath, and contained in the fame cavity
with the other vifcera; thefe are the mollufca, the cruf-
¢acea, infects, and a part of the articulated worms: ~lattly,
that of animals in which the common fafciculus of the nerves
is fituated entirely in the back above the alimentary tube,
and enclofed in a canal which pafles through the vertebral
column; thefe are all the vertebral animals. Their ganglia
are placed on the fides of their medullary cord, or difperfed
in the large cavities. Among the invertebral animals there
are fome that have ganglia only in theiarge cavities, as the
mollufea, and others, which have them all on the medullary
cord itfelf, of which they appear to be fwellings; thele
are the infects, and fome articulated worms. x

The differences in the external fenfes confift in their
number, and in the degree of energy that belongs to
each.

All vertebral animals poffefs the fame fenfes as man.

Sight is wanting in the zoophytes, in feveral kinds of
articulated worms, in feveral larve of infef&is, and in the
acephalous mollufca. Hearing does not exift, at leaft we
have not yet difcovered its organ, in fome mollufea and in-
fe&ts. The other three fenfes, but particularly ‘thofe of
tafte and tovch, appear never to be wanting.

But each of thefe fenfes may vary confiderably in the
degree of its fufceptibility, and the complication of its
#racture. The perfection of the fenfe of tonch, for ex-
ample, depends upon the delicacy of the external teguments,
and on the divifion of the extremities that more particularly
‘enjoy that fenfe ; their formation rendering them capable of
being applied more or lefs exattly to the bodies of which
the animal wifhes to acquire a knowledge. Above all, it is
in the number and flexibility of the fingers and toes, and
the fmallnefs of the claws or nails, that the anatomift dif.
eovers important charafers.

The eyes may be more or lefs moveable, more or lefs
covered, and more or lefs numerous. The ears mav be
fank within the cranium, or expofed outwardly ; or they

may be provided with an external trumpet, which colleéts

the rays of found. The membranes in which the fenfe ot
fmelling refides, may be more or lefs extenfive : thofe which
are the feat of tate, may be more or lefs delicate and hu-
mid ; -but it is only by particularly confidering each of thofe
fenfes, that we can take a comprehenfive view of the dif-
ferences that exift in the various clafles of animals.

The organs of digeftion exhibit two important differences
in their general difpofitions. In certain animals, (in the
greater part of zoophytes,) the inteftines form a fac with
only one aperture, which ferves at once for the entrance of
the aliments, and the iffue of the excrements: all other
animals have two diftinct apertures, for thofe purpofes, at
the two extremities of the fame canal; but the convolu-
tions of this canal may be fuch as to remove thefe openings

to a greater or le{s diftance from each other. Another dif-
ference which has much influence on the nature of the ali-
ments appropriated to each fpecies, is, that in certain ani-
mals the mouth is armed with teeth, or hard parts proper
for grinding folid fubftances, while in others they do not
exilt. In the latter cafe, the animal can only {wallow
whole bodies if its mouth be large, or merely fuck in fluids
if its mouth be in the form of a tube. The ftruGture of
thofe teeth has icfelf much influence on the fubftances the
animal can fubmit to majtication. The remainder of the
alimentary canal varies alfo confiderably in its ftruGture, ac«
cording to the diflerent fubftances which the mouth conveys
to it. On this likewife depend the length of the canal,
and the number of ftomachs, cxca, &c.

The chyle produced by the aGtion,of the digeftive organs
on the alimentary fubftances is tranfmitted to the various
parts of the body in two different ways. It either fimply
tranfudes through the parictes of the inteftinal canal, to
bathe all the interior of the body, or it is abforbed by par-
ticular veffels which convey it into the mafs of the blood.
The firft is the mode in which this operation is performed
in zoophytes, and, probably, alfo in common infeéts, which
appear to have no kind of veflels proper for circulation.
As to’ the other animals, viz. the mollufea, and the verte-
bral animals, that have abforbent veffels, they exhibit two
new differences. The latter have red blood, and the lymph
and chyle white. Almoft all the others have thefe two
fluids of the fame colour.

Vertebral animals differ among themfelves, with regard
to the colour of the chyle, which is white and opaque in
the mammalia, and tranfparent, like the other lymph, in birds,
reptiles, and fifhes. The three laft claffes, therefore, have
no conglobate glands in their chyliferous veffels, while they
are very numerous in the firft.

The circulation of the blood is accompanied with very
important differences in its organs. In the firit place, there
are animals which have no circulation whatever, viz. in-
fe&ts and zoopbytes: others have a double, and others a
fingle circulation. We call that a double circulation ia
which no part of the venous blood can enter the arterial
trunk, until it has pafled through the organ of refpiration,
which is generally formed of the ramifications of two veflels :
the one arterial, the other venous ; each nearly as large, but,
not fo long, as the two principal veffels of the body. Such
isthe circulation of man, of all mammalia, of birds, fifhes,
and a number of mollufca.

In the jingle circulation a great part of the venous blood

“Te-enters the arteries without pafling through the lung ;

becaufe only one branch of the arterial trunk is expanded
upon that organ; fuch is the circulation of the amphibia.

There are, befides, other differences in the hearts, or muf-
cular organs, deitined to give impulfe to the blood. In the
fingle circulation there is only one heart; but when the cir-
culation is double, there is fometimes an organ at the bafe
of the aorta, and alfo at that of the pulmonary artery. At
other ‘times it is at one of the two only.

In the one cafe, the two hearts, or rather the two ven-
tricles, may be united, as in man, mammalia, and birds 3 or
they may be feparate, as in the cuttle fith.

Where there is only one ventricle, it may be placed at
the bafe of the artery of the body, as in f{nails, and other
mollufca; or at the bafe of the pulmonary artery, as ia
fifhes. i ;

The organs of refpiration are likewife diftinguithed by a
number of remarkable differences, When the element that
acts on the blood is the atmofpheric air, it penetrates even

4 into

°

LIFE.

into the interior of the refpiratory organ ; bat when that
element is watet, it fimply glides over a furface more or lefs
multiplied.

The lamellz which compofe the organ, in the latter cafe,
are called dranchie. They are found in fifhes, and ina
number of mollufea: inftead of lamellae, we fometimes find
fringes or tufts.

The air either enters the body by a fingle aperture, or
by feveral. In the firft cafe, which is that of all animals
that have what is properly called lungs, the canal, which ree
ceives the air divides into a number of branches, terminat-
ing in as many fmall cells, that are ufually united into two
maffes, which the animal has the power of comprefling or
dilating at pleafure.

When there are feveral apertures, which is the cafe only
with infe@s, the veflels that receive the air are ramified ad
infiuitum, and convey it to all parts of the body without
exception. This we call refpiration by trachez.

Laltly, the zoophytes, if we except the echinodermata,
have no apparent organ of refpiration.

The organs of the voice prefent only two differences,
which may be regarded as general. They depend on the
polition of the glottis, in which the found is formed. In
birds, it is at the lower part of the ¢rachea or tube, which
conduéts the air, where it divides into its two branches to
pafs into the lungs. In quadrupeds and reptiles it is fitu-
ated in the beginning of the trachea, at the root of the
tongue. :

Only thefe three claffes have a glottis; but the other ani-
mals produce founds by different means. Sometimes they
employ the friction of certain elaltic parts ; fometimes they
beat the air with other parts, or produce a rapid motion in
certain portions of air, which they fomewhere retain in their
bodies.

Generation gives rife to varieties of two kinds. The
one relates to the actions which occafion it, the other te the
refult.

Ina {mall number of animals, belonging almoft entirely
to the clafs of zoophyta, generation is performed without
copulation, and the young animal grows on the body of the
parent, like a fluot ona tree: others only produce in confe-
quence of copulation, and are therefore provided with
two fexes; but thefe two fexes may be feparate in different
individuals, or united inthefame. It is only in the mollufca

and zoophyta that this laft cafe eccurs: all animals with.

vertebre, and infects, have the fexes feparate.
Hermaphrodite animals, fuch as the bivalve fhell-fifh, ge-

nerate fingly ; in others, a reciprocal copulation takes place,
each of the two individuals performing the funétions of male
and female; this is the cafe with the fhails and other mollufca
that crawl on the belly.

The produce of generation is either a bud which deve-
lopes itfelf into an animal, remaining fome time on the body
from which it proceeds, and-of which it forms as it were a
branch; orit is a foetus, which unfolds itfelf in the uterus
of its mother, to which it is connected by a plexus of veffels,
and from which it comes forth alive ; or, finally, it isa
feetus inclofed in a fhell, with a fubftance adhering to it by
veffels which it mult abforb before it is difcharged. Thefe
are the gemmiparous, viviparous, aud oviparous modes of
generation.

The firft occurs in fome zoophytes, and in fome articu-
lated worms ; the fecondin man and other mammalia only ;
the third is common to all other animals ; and when their
young come forth alive from the body of the mother, as is

the cafe with the viper, it is becaufe the eggs are hatched int
the oviduct. ; ;

Lattly, if we confider the ftates through which the young
animal is obliged to pafs before it becomes, in its turn,
capable of perpetuating its {pecies, we again difcover two .
principal differences. Some have at their birth the form
which they will always preferve, with the exception of a
few inconliderable parts which have yet to difclofe them-
felves; and to change their proportions: the others, on the
contrary, have a form altogether different from their perfeét
ftate, and not only kave to produce and unfold new parts,
but mutt lofe their old ones: thefe are the animals which
undergo a metamorphofis, Hitherto this change has only
been obferved to take place among infe&s, and among
the reptiles without feales, that is fay, frogs and fala-
manders.

Such are the chief varieties which the organs belonging to
the feveral funCtions of animals exhibit.

We have, however, yet to notice one very important va-
riety which extends to feveral of thefe fun€tions; it relates
to the organs of fecretion. In the four clafles of vertebral
animals, and in fome mollufca, thefe organs are glands,
or at leaft expanfions of blood-veffels; the name of gland
being particularly applied to them when they form mafles of
fome thicknefs.

It is not fo in infe&ts, which, inftead of fecretory
organs, have only tubes more or lels long, which attrac
into the f{pongy texture of their parietes, that portion
they have to feparate from the mafs of the nutritive
fluid. )

Weare as yet little acquainted with the organs of fecre=
tion in zoophytes, if indeed they can be faid to have any
paritcular organ for that purpofe. jin

Divifion of life into the animal and organic.—Vhe preceding
fketch has exhibited to us a general view of life; when
we come to examine it more in detail, it offers to us two
remarkable modifications. One is common to vegetables
and animals, the other peculiar to the latter. Compare to-
gether two individuals, one taken from each of thefe king-
doms: one exilts only within itfelf, has no other relations to
furrounding objects than thofe of nutrition, is born, grows,
and perifhes, attached to the foil, which received its germ ;
the other joins to this internal life, which it poffeffes in a ftill
higher degree, an external life, which eftablifhes numerous
relations between it and the neighbouring objects, unites its
exiltence to that of other beings, and draws it near to or
removes it from them according to its wants or fears. We
might fay that the vegetable is the feleton of the animal,
and that, in order to form the latter, it was only neceffary
to clothe the fkeleton with an apparatus of external organs,
calculated to eftablifh the neceflary relations. Hence it fol+
lows that the funétions of the animal form two very diftin@
claffes. One of thefe confiits of an habitual fucceflion of
affimiation and excretion ; by which it is conltantly trans-
forming into its own fubttance the particles of other bodies,
and then rejecting them, when they have become ufelefs.
By the other he perceives furrounding objects, reflects on
his fenfations, performs voluntary motions under their influ-
ence, and generally can communicate, by the voice, his plea-
fures or pains, his defires or fears. By the one he lives
only within himfelf ; by the other he carries his exiltence out
of the {phere of his own body. ‘

I call, fays Bichat, the fun@ions of the former clafs,
taken altogether, the organic life, becaufe ali organifed be-
ings, whether vegetable or anintal, enjoy it in a more or lefs
marked degree, and becaufe organic itruéture is the only

a condition

Lu

condition neceflary for itsexercife. The aflembled funétions
of the fecond clafs form the animal life, fo named becaufe
it is the exclufive attribute of the animal kingdom.

Generation does not enter into the feries of phenomena
of thefe two lives, which relate entirely to the individual ;
while that function regards the fpecies, and is confequently
connected only in an indireée manner to molt of the other
funGtions. Its exercife does not begin until the others have
been for a long time in action ; and it is extinguifhed long
before they ceafe. In moft animals its periods of adtivity
are feparated by long intervals of entire inaction : and in
man, where the remiffions are lefs durable, its relations to
the other funétions are not more numerous.

Each of the lives is compofed of two orders of fun¢tions,
fucceeding each other, and mutually conneéted. In the
animal life, the firft order takes place from the exterior of
the body to the brain; and the fecond, frem the latter
organ to thofe of locomotion and the voice. Objects affect
fucceffively the fenfes, the nerves, andthe brain. The firlt
receive, the fecond tranfmit, and the laft perceives that
impreffion which conititutes a fenfation. The animal is
nearly paffive in this firlt order of funétions ; he becomes
attive in the fecond, which refults from the fucceflive ope-
rations of the brain, where volition arifes in confequence of
fenfation, of the nerves, which tranfmit this volition, and
of the locomotive and vocal organs, which are the agents of
its execution, A double movement of compofition and de-
compotition exifls alfo in the organic life. Hence the ani-
mal is not the fame at one time asat another : his organifation
is unchanged, but the component elements are conitantly
varying. ‘The order of fun@tions, which affimilate to the
animal nutritive fubftances, confifts of digeftion, circulation,
refpiration, and nutrition. All foreign matters undergo the
influence of thefe four funGtions, before they belong to the
elements of the body. After a certain time abforption re-
moves them, and conveys them into the circulation, from
which they are feparated by the cutaneous or pulmonary
exhalation, or by the various fecretions. Thus abforption,
circulation, exhalation, and fecretion, form the fecond order
of funétions in the organic life ; or the order oppofed to
afimilation. he circulating fyltem is the common centre
in the organic, as the brain is in the animal life. The blood
confifts of two parts; one, furniihed principally by the food,
affords the materials of nutrition; while the other, contti-
tuting the wreck or refidue of all the orgaus, fupplies with
materials the fecretions and external exhalations. Yet the
latter funétions fometimes convey out of the body the

_ produéts of digeftion where they have never been em-
ployed in nourifhing the organs. This is exemplified in the
urinary and cutaneous difcharges confequent on copious
drinking.

The molt effential difference that appears to exilt between
the organs of the animal and thofe of the organic life, is the
fymmetry of the one and the irregularity of the other.
This obfervation, indeed, does not apply. to all animals ;
nor is it invariably truein maa; butit holds good generally
in the latter, and forms a itriking general feature. Two
globes exactly alike receive the impreflion of light. Sounds
and odours have each their double organ. The median line
is clearly marked on the tongue, and its two halves exaétly
refemble each other. his line is not very manifeft in. the
fkin. The nerves, which tranfmit i npreffions from the fen-
fitive organs, are arranged in fymmetrical pairs. And the
brain, in which the impreflion is received, has a regular form ;
its double parts refemble each other on the oppofite fides ;
and its fingle organs are all fymmetrically divided by the
median line into two.exa€tly correfponding halves. The

FE.

nerves, which tranfmit our volitions from the brain to
the agents of locomotion and the voice; and the loco-
motive /organs, compofed of a great part of the mufcular
fyltem, of the bony fy{tem and its dependencies; and the
larynx and its acceffory organs; the double agents for
the execution of volitions, have’ a fymmetrical {tructure ,
throughout.

The mufcles and nerves, when they do not belong to the
animal life, no longer exhibit this regularity of form.
The heart, and the muicular coverings of the digettive
vifcera, prove this with refpeét to the mulfcles ; and the great
fympathetic nerve, every where employed in the internal life,
clearly fhew the irregularity in the nerves.

On furveying the parts concerned in the organic life, we
fhall find that an exactly oppofite character is applicable to
them. The ftomach, the inteftines, the fpleen, liver, &c.
are all irregularly formed in the digeftive fyftem. In the
circulating apparatus, the heart, and the large veflels, fuch
as the vene cave, the azygos, the vena portarum, &c.
exhibit no trace of fymmetry. Continual varieties are ob-
ferved in the blood-veflels of the extremities, and the difpo-
fition. of one fide is often by no means the fame with that
of the other.

The refpiratory apparatus, at the firft glance, appears
regular ; but we find the two branches of the trachea diffi-
milar in fize, length, and dire€tion ; the two lungs differing
in fize and in the number of their lobes, &c. ‘Che organs
of exhalation and abforption, the ferous membranes, the
thoracic du, and the right lymphatic trunk, as well as the
other abforbing veffels, have every where an irregular dif-
tribution.

Among the glands we fee the mucous follicles every
where {cattered regularly. The pancreas and liver are out
of all fymmetry: the kidnies differ in pofition, fize, &c.

It is apparent, from thefe confiderations, that the organs
of the animal life in man are effentially charaéterifed by fym-
metry ; while thofe of the internal life have the conitant
character of irregularity in their external forms.

It follows from this view, that the animal life is ina manner
double; that its phenomena, executed at the fame time on
the two fides, form an independent fy{ftem on each fide, of
which one may go on while the cther ceafes. This happens
in thofe cafes of paralyfis called hemiplegia, where the ani-
mal life is annihilated on one fide of the body, fo that the
individual has no relation to furrounding objects ; while the
prefervation of fenfation and motion on the other fide give
him all the ufual powers. The median line in thele cafes
accurately diftinguifhes the found from the affected fide.

In the organic life, on the contrary, all the parts confpire
to form one fyitem, fo that the funétions of one fide can-
not be interrupted without thofe of the other being affected.
The liver on the left influences the ftate of the ftomachson
the right ; if the colon ceafe to act on one fide, that of the
other cannot go on; the fame caufe that fhould arrelt the
circulation in the large venous trunks and the right fide of
the heart, would ftop it alfo in the left fide, and ia the
arteries, &c. Hence, if all the organs of the internal life
on one fide fhould have their functions {topped, thofe of the
oppofite fide would neceffarily remain inactive, and death
mutt follow. This affertion, however, is ceneral,.end applies
to the organic fun@tions co'lectively 3. fome of the organs
are in. fact double, and. may fupply each other’s places, as-
the kidney and lung.

Bichat proceeds to point out the differences by which the
animal and organic lives are diftinguifhed when im a ftate of
action. He obferves that harmony is to the funétions of”

the organs, what fymmetry is.to their conformation ; it
fuppofes:

LIFE.

fuppofes a perfeét equality of force and a€tion, as fymmetry
indicates an exaét analogy between the external form and
the internal ftruGture. It is a confequence of the law of
fymmetry ; for two parts, eflentially alike in their itru&ture,
carnot a@t differently. This reafoning would lead to the
general pofition, that harmony is the character of the exter-
nal funétions, and difcordance the attribute of the internal
ones. He then enters at confiderable length into a detailed
confideration of this fubjeét ; but does not fucceed in prov-
ing the point to the extent afferted. ;

A more important diftinGive chara@ter of the two lives
is drawn from the periodical intermiffions of the external
funGions, and the uninterrupted continuity of the internal
ones. Whatever fufpends refpiration and circulation, ful-
pends and even annihilates life if it be continued. All the
fecretions go on uninterruptedly ; if fome periods of re-
miffion are obferved, as in the bile and faliva, when digeftion
and mattication are not going on, thefe affeét only the de-

ree of activity and not the entire exercife of the funtion.
Exhalation and abforption fucceed each other without ceaf-
ing ; nutrition is never inactive ; the double motion, of
compofition and decompofition, from which it refults, ends
only with life. ;

In this concatenation of the organic phenomena, each
fun¢tion depends immediately on thofe which precede it.
The circulation is the centre of the whole, and immediately
connected with their exercife ; if that is difturbed, the
othegs languifh ; they ceafe if the blood no longer moves.
Thus, the numerous wheels of a clock itop as foon as the
pendulum, which fets them all in motion, is at reft. Not
only is the general action of the organic life conneéted to
the particular aGtion of the heart, but each funétion is allo
feparately connected to all the others. Without fecretion
there would be no digeftion ; without exhalation, no ab-
forption ; without digettion, no nutrition. We may, there-
fore, lay down as a general character of the organic func-
tions, their continuity of a¢tion and mutual dependence on
each other.

On the contrary, confider each organ of the animal life
in the excercife of its funtions ; you will fee conftantly
alternations of aStivity and repofe, complete intermiffions,
and not remifiions like what may be feen in fome of the
organic phenomena. Each fenfe, fatigued by a long con-
tinuance of fenfations, becomes momentarily unfit for the
reception of new ones. The ear is not excited by founds,
and the eye is clofed againit the light, merely becaufe the
re{pective funétions have been exerted for fome time. Fa-
tigued by a long exercife of the perception, the imagination,
memory, &c., the brain requires a fuipention of a¢tion pro-
portioned to the duration of the preceding activity, in order
to reervit the powers, without which it could not again be-
come active.

When a mufcle has been contra&ed firongly, and fora
confiderable time, it cannot perform new contraction until
after a certain interval of relaxation. Hence there are in-
termiffions in the exertions of the locomotive and vocal
powers,

This intermaiffion in the animal life may be either partial or
general. The former is feen when a particular organ has been
a long tyme in exercife, the others remaining inactive ; this or-
gan then relaxes ; it fleeps while the others areawake. Each
animal funétion, therefore, is not in an immediate dependence
on the others, as is the cafe with the organic functions. When
the fenfes are clofed againft external objeéts, the a€tion of
the brain may itill continue; memory, imaginatien, and reflec-
tion, are then often exercifed. Locomotion and the voice
may ftill remain; when the latter are interrupted, the func-

tions of the fenfes flilt go on. ‘The animal can fatigue 4
part feparately. Each, therefore, fhould have the power o
refting in order to recruit its forces feparately ; this is the
partial fleep of the organs. General fleep is the aflemblage
of thefe particular aéts, and arifes from the law which we
have juft illuftrated. e

Differences of the organic and animal lives in refpe@ to
the vital properties.—Phyficians and phyfiologitts, in. their
writings on the vital powers, have generally begun by fearch-
ing for the principle on which they depend: they have
wifhed to defcerid from the ftudy of its nature to that of
the phenomena, inftead of afcending from the refult of ob-
fervation to the conclufions which theory may fuggeft.
The foul of Stahl, the archeus of Van Helmont, the
vital principle of Barthez, the materia vite of Hunter,
with a long train of et ceteras, have been regarded in their
turns as the fingle centres of all thofe actions which bear
the character, of vitality, and have fucceflively afforded the
bafes on which afl phyfiological explanations reft in the laft
refult. Tach of thefe has been fucceflively deftroyed, and
nothing has been preferved from their wrecks, except the
facts afforded by experiment on the powers of fenfation and
motion. So narrow are the limits of the human under-
ftanding, that the knowledge of firft caufes feem placed for
ever beyond our reach. The thick veil which covers them,
envelops in its innumerable folds whoever attempts to break
through it. In the ftudy of nature, principles are certain
general refults of firft caufes, from which innumerable fe-
condary refults proceed; the art of difcovering the con-

nection between thefe primary and fecondary refults is the ¢ -

objet of every judicious mind. To feek the conneétion
between firft caufes and their general effets, is ike walking
blindfold through a road from which we may ftray by g
thoufand paths. ,
Moreover, how are we interefted in knowing thefe caufes ?
is it neceffary that we fhould underftand the nature of light,
oxygen, caloric, &c., in order to ftudy the phenomena ?
Let us imitate, in the f{cience of phyfiology, the examples
of modern metaphyficians in their inveftigations of the in+
telle€tual phenomena ; let us fuppofe the caufes, and fix our
attention entirely on the grand refults. ?
We may obierve in nature two clafles of beings, two*
clafles of properties, and two clafles of {ciences. Beings
are either organic or inorganic, properties vital or not vital,
and fciences phyfiological or phyfical. Animals and vege-
tables are organic ; minerals, inorganic. Senfibility and
contractility are vital properties; gravity, affinity, elafti-
city, are non-vital properties. Animal and vegetable
phytiology, and medicine, compofe the phyfiological ici- -
ences ; altronomy, chemiltry, &c. &c. are phyfical feiences.
Thefe two claffles, of {ciences relate merely to phenomena.
Two others, relating to external and internal forms, confe-
quently defcriptive, correfpond to them; thefe are botany,
anatomy, zoology, for organic ; mineralogy, &c. for inor-
ganic bodies. ;
From thefe properties are derived all the phenomena in
each clafs of fciences. Whatever we fee in aitronomy, hy-
draulics, dynamics, &c. mutt be ultimately referred through
the concatenation of caufes, to gravity, elafticity, &c. In
the fame way the vital properiies are the mainfpring at
which we arrive, whatever phenomena we may be con-
templating in refpiration, digeition, fecretion, inflamma-
tion, &c.
Each body poffefles a certain number of properties,
which efpecially charatterize it, and by virtue of which it
concurs in its own manner in the produ@ion of the pheno-
mena, which are fucceflively -developed in the univerfe.
Oblerve |

\

f

LHF E

Obferve furrounding obje&s ; carry your view towards the
molt diftant ; ufe the telefeope on the celettial bodies mov-
ing in {pace, or penetrate with the microfcope into the
world of thofe concealed from our view by their minute-
nefs ; you will conftantly fee inert bodies gravitating to-
wards each other, living bodies alfo gravitating, but more-
over feeling and performing a motion, which they owe only
to themfelves. hefe properties are fo inherent in both,
that we cannot conceive the bodies without them; to enjoy
them and to exift mean the fame thing. Suppofe that they
fhould be fuddenly annihilated, all the phenomena of nature
would inftantly ceafe.

Differences between the vital properties and the phyfical
powers —The extent of this difference cannot fail to itrike
us on the firft glance. The vital properties, conftantly va-
riable in their intenfity, often pafs with the greatelt rapidity
from the loweit to the higheft degree of energy, are fuc-
ceffively exalted and weakened in the different organs, and
affume, under the influence of the {lighteft canfes, a thou-
fand different modifications. Sleep, exercife, reft, digeftion,
hunger, the paflions, the effe&t of furrounding agents, &c.
expofe them at every inftant to numerous revolutions. The
others, on the contrary, conftantly the fame at all times,
give rife to a feries of phenomena always uniform. Com-
pare fenfibility to attraétion ; the latter is always in propor-
tion to the mals of the body, in which it is obferved, while
the former is conftantly changing in the fame organ, in the
fame maf{s of matter.

The invariable nature of the laws which prefide over the
phyfical phenomena, enables us to fubmit to calculation all
the feiences of which they are the objects; but the appli-
cation of the mathematics to vital aGtion can only lead
to very general formule. The refiftance experienced by
a fluid in paffing through a dead tube, the velocity of a
projeétile, &c. may be eafily reduced toa fixed law ; but to
¢alculate with Borelli the power of amulcle, the velocity
‘of the blood with Keil, the quantity of air entering the
lungs with Irwine and Lavoifier, is like building on a mov-
ing-fand an edifice which is folid in itfelf, but which quickly
falls from the infecurity of its foundation.

From the circumftances juft explained, the vital and phy-
fical phenomena derive refpeGtively the charaéters of irregu-
larity and uniformity. Inert fluids are known, when they
have once been accurately analyfed; but one, or even many
examinations do not inform us of the nature of the living
fluids. Chemical analyfes give us, fays Bichat, the anato-
my (Anatomie cadaverique) of them; but their phyfiology
confifts ina knowledge of the innumerable variations which
they exhibit according to the condition of the refpective
organs. ‘The urine differs as it is voided after a meal or
after fleep; in winter and in fummer: the mere paflage
from a warm to a cold temperature alters its compofition :
it is not the fame in the child, the adult, and the old man;
in the male and in the female; in a quiet ftate of the mind
and in the agitation of paffion. Add to thefe differences
the innumerable alterations produced by difeafe. Thefe
fa&ts prove that the organs muit undergo continual changes
in their mode of action, to produce corre{pondent variations
in the fubftances feparated from the blood.

The fcience of organized bodies fhould be treated ina
manner entirely different from thofe, which have inorganic
matter for their objeét. We fhould employ a different lan-
guage; fince words tranfported from the phyfical fciences
to the animal or vegetable economy conftautly recal to us
ideas not at all connected with the phenomena of that {cience,

If, fays Bichat, men had cultivated phyfiology before natu-
ral philofophy, inftead of after it, we cannot doubt that

Von. XX.

they would have Uifcovered numerous applications of the
former to the latter ; that they would have defcribed rivers
flowing by the tonic a¢tion of their banks; cryftals formed
by an excitement of the reciprocal fenfibilities of the parti-
cles ; planets moving by their mutual irritation at great dif-
tances, &c. All this would appear to us very unreafonable,
as we fee gravity only at the bottom of thefe phenomena:
is it more rational to have recourfe to gravity, chemical af-
finity, and a language entirely founded on thefe fundamental
data, in a fcience where their influence is moft ob{cure?
Natural philofophy, chemiftry, &c. are conne&ted, becaufe
the fame laws regulate their phenomena: but a vaft interval
feparates them from the feience of organifed bodies, becaufe
a wide difference exifts hetween their laws and thofe of life,
To call phyfiology the natural philofophy of animals can
only lead to inaccurate notions: as well might we denomi-
nate aftronomy the phyfiology of the ftars.

Difference between the vital properties and thofe which arife
Srom organifation —The properties of any living organ are
of two kinds: the one immediately conneéted with life, be-
ginning and ending with it, or rather forming its principle
and eilence ; the other connetted to it only indireétly, and
appearing rather to depend on the organifation, on the tex-
ture of the part.

Senfibility, and the power of contracting, are vital pro-
perties. Enxtenfibility (the capability of being ftretched),
and the power of recovery, when the extenfion has ceafed,
are properties refulting from organifation. The latter de-
rive an increafed energy from life; but. they ftill remain im
the organs when life has ceafed, and decompofition is the
only termination of their exiftence. We thall confider fir
the vital properties.

Of the animal and organic fenfibilities.—The vital properties
are reduced to thofe of perceiving or feeling (fenfibility),
and moving (contrattility): each of thefe has a different
charaéter in the animal and organic lives. In the latter,
fenfibility is only the capability of receiving an impreffion :
in the former, it is the capability of receiving an impreffion,
with the additional power of referring it to a common centre,
or confcioufnefs. ‘The ftomach is fenfible to the prefence
of food, the heart to that of the blood, and an excretory
tube to the contact of its proper fluid: but this power ends
in the organ itfelf. The organs of fenfe, the mucous fur-
faces at their origins, the nerves, &c. are fenfible to the im-
preflions of bodies which touch them, and moreover tranf-
mit thefe impreffions to the brain, which is the general centre
ef the fenfibilities of thefe various organs.

Thus we have an organic and an animal fenfibility. On
the former depend all the phenomena of digeftion, circula-
tion, fecretion, exhalation, nutrition, &c. it is common to
plants and animals; the zoophyte enjoys it as well as the
mott perfectly organifed quadruped. From the latter low
the fenfations, perception, and pleafure and pain, which
modify them. The perfe€tion of an animal is in proportion
to the degree in which he enjoys this fenfibility. It is not
an attribute of vegetables.

The difference in thefe two modifications of fentient
power is well marked in the mode of their termination in
fudden deaths. The animal fenfibility is immediately extin-
guifhed. There is no trace of this faculty left in the inftant
which fucceeds a powerful concuflion of the brain, a great
hemorrhage, or an afphyxia: but the organic fenfibility fill
fubfilts for a longer or fhorter time. ‘The lymphatics {till
abforb; the vce quivers when pricked; the nails and
hairs even feem to grow. All traces of this fenfibility are
not deftroyed until after an interval, occadionally of can-
fiderable length,

4X Yer

LIFE.

Yet the effential nature of thefe two powers is probably
the farne. In many parts they are conneéted together and
fucceed each other in an infenfible manner; as we may ob-
ferve in the origins of the mucous membranes. We are
fenfible of the paflage of the food through the mouth and
the pharynx: this fenfation becomes weaker in the beginning
of the cefophagus, almoft ceafes in the middle of that tube,
and difappears at its lower extremity and in the ftomach,
where the organic fenfibility alone remains, The urinary
and generative organs exhibit exactly the fame phenomenon ;
there is animal fenfibility near the {kin ; it gradually dimi-
nifhes, and becomes at laft organic in the interior of the
organs, Purif

Different ftimuli, applied to the fame organ, excite in it
one or the other of thefe fenfibilities. When ligaments are
cut, or irritated by acids or alkalies, they do not. tranf{mit
to the brain the {trong impreffions which they receive.
But, if they are twifted, diftended, or torn, acute pain is
the confequence. The blood circulates in the arteries with-
out our feeling it, but inject an extraneous fluid, and
the cries of the animal fhew that he is fenfible to the im-
preffion. ‘

We daily obferve inflammation, by increafing the organic
fenfibility of a part, transform it into animal fenfibility.
Cartilages, ferous membranes, &c. which, in their ordinary
ftate, have only the obfcure fenfibility neceflary for their
nutrition, become endued, when inflamed, with animal fen-
fibility, often more acute than that of the organs, in which
it refides habitually. Inflammation accumulates the vital
properties in a part, and thereby changes the organic into
animal fenfibility, which differs from it only in degree.

The diftin@ion now explained does not arife from the
nature of the faculty, which is every where the fame; but
is founded on the different modifications of which it is fuf-
ceptible. The power is common to all organs, and forms
their true vital charafter; but it is diftributed in different
proportions, and beftows a different mode of exiftence on
each. In thefe varieties there is a certain meafure, below
which the excited organ alone receives and perceives the
fenfation ; and above which it is tranfmitted to the brain.

Although each organ exhibits continual varieties in its
fenfibility, yet it feems to poflefs originally a certain pro-
portion, to which it always returns after thefe alternations of
augmentation and diminution. This proportion conftitutes
the proper life (vita propria) of each part, and fixes the
nature of its relations to thofe bodies, which are foreign to
it, but which often come in contaé& with it. The falivary,
pancreatic, and biliary duéts, having a proportion of fenfi-
bility exa@tly analogous to the nature of the fluids which
pafs through them, admit thofe readily, but rejeé all
others. The larynx refufes admiffion to every thing except
the air. The excretory tubes are in contact, on the mucous
furfaces, with various fluids that pafs over thefe furfaces,
but they never allow them admiffion, In the fame way the
la&teals, which open on the furface of the inteftinal canal,
abforb chyle only, and not the fluids which may be mixed
with it, Thefe relations do not exift only between the dif-
ferent proportions of fenfibility in the organs, and the
various animal fluids; they may alfo take place between ex-
ternal matter and the parts of the animal frame. ‘The par-
ticular fenfibility of the bladder and kidnies, and of the
falivary glands, eftablifhes the relations between thefe organs
and cantharides, mercury, &c.

It may be enquired, why nature, in the diftribution of
the different proportions of fenfibility, has beftowed this
property only in inferior degrees on the internal organs, or
thole of the interior life, while fhe has fo abundantly pro-

vided with it the external organs? why, confequently, each
organ concerned in digeftion, circulation, refpiration, nu-
trition, abforption, does not tranfmit to the brain the im-
preffions which it receives, while all the a¢ts of the animal
life fuppofe this tranf{miffion? The reafon feems to be,
that all the phenomena, which eftablifh our relations to fur-
rounding beings, muft be, and are in effe€t, under the in-
fluence of the will, while thofe, which are fubfervient to
the purpofes of affimilation, ought to be exempt from that
influgnce. To make a phenomenon dependent on the will,
we mutt be confcious of it; to exempt it from the influence
of that power, this confcioufnefs muft not exit.

Of the animal and organic contradilities. —ContraGtion is the
mo{t common form of motion in the animal organs. Some
indeed move by dilatation, as the iris, corpus cavernofum,
&c.; but we know as yet fo little of this kind of motion,
that we fhall confine our remarks entirely to the former.

Spontaneous motion, a faculty inherent in living bodies,
prefents, like fenfibility, two great modifications diftiné&
from each other, as we obferve it in the phenomena of the
two lives; thefe are the animal and the organic contraétility.
The former, fubje& to the will, has its origin in the brain,
ceafes to exilt when the organs ne longer communicate with
the brain, and participates in all the affeGtions ef that part. .
It refides exclufively in the voluntary mufcles, and prefides
over the funétion of loeomotion and the other movements,
and the voice. The latter, not dependent on any common
centre, has its origin in the part, is not connected with any
voluntary aéts, and produces the phenomena of digettion,
circulation, fecretion, &c. Like the correfponding fenfi-
bilities, they are effentially diftinguifhed in violent deaths,
which fuddenly annihilate the animal contraétility, allowing
the organic ftill to exert itfelf for a longer or fhorter time,
The fame difference is obferved in afphyxia, which fo much
refembles death: the animal contraétility is entirely fuf-
pended, the organic {till continuing aétive. In paralyfis.
alfo, voluntary motion is deftroyed, while the organic moye-
ments ftill go on,

Thefe two kinds of contraétility are conneéted to their
correfponding fpecies of fenfibility. The fenfations pro-
duced by external objects bring the animal contractility into
exercife: and before the organic contraétion of the heart
takes place; its fenfibility has been excited by the contaét of
blood.

Yet the conne¢tion is not the fame in the two cafes. The
animal fenfibility may be excited, without the analogous
contractility being neceflarily brought into aétion: but the
two other powers are never feparately exercifed. The ex-
cretory tubes immediately re-aét when the fecreted fluids are
brought into contaé& with them: the arrival of blood in the
heart is neceffarily followed by its contraétion. This eon-
junction is fo conftant, that authors have included both
powers in ene name. Irritability defignates both the fenfa-
tion excited by the contaét of any body, and the contrac-
tion of the organ when it re-acts.

There is a very fimple reafon for this difference. In the
organic life nothing intervenes between the two faculties
in their exercife; the fame organ is the point at which the
fenfation terminates and the contra‘tion begins. In the
animal life, on the contrary, the two acts are feparated by
middle funétions, thofe of the nerves and brain, which, if
they are not exerted, interrupt the communication. In the
fame way we explain this further difference ; viz. that there
is always a ftriét proportion between the fenfation and the
contraction in the organic life, while they may be feparately
exalted or diminifhed in the animal.

Two varieties of the organic contraaility.—The animal con-

tractility

LIF £.

eractility is always nearly the fame, in whatever part it may
exift; but the organic difplays two effential modifications,
which might feem to indicate a difference of nature, al-
though there is only a diverfity of external appearance.
Sometimes it may be obferved very diftin&ly, while, on
other occafions, although it really exifts, infpeétion alone
cannot appretiate it. :

Senfible organic contractility may be feen in the heart,
ftomach, inteitines, bladder, &c.: its a€tion is exerted on
the animal fluids in confiderable maffes.

It is by virtue of the infenfible organic contra¢tility, that
the excretory tubes aét_on their refpetive fluids, the fecre-
tory organs on the blood which they receive, all parts that
are nourifhed on their nutritive juices, the lymphatics on
the fubftances applied to thefe orifices, &c. Whenever the
fluids exift in {mall maffes, where they are minutely divided,
this fecond kind of contraétility is developed.

We may illuftrate the difference between them, by com-
paring one to the attra¢tion, which is exerted between large
mafles of matter, and the other to the chemical affinities,
which take place between the component particles of an
aggregate. Barthez compares them to the motions of the
hands of a watch: that, which marks feconds, moves round
the circumference in a very obvious manner; the hour hand
moves alfo, although we cannot perceive its motion.

The fenfible organic contraétility correfponds nearly to
what has been called irritability; the other to the tonic
power, or tonicity. Thefe two words are objectionable,
becaufe they indicate a diverfity of nature in the two pro-
perties. The common term which we employ, defignates
their general charaéter, that of belonging to the internal
life, and of being independent of the will ; while the addi-
tional epithet expreffes the peculiar attribute of each. This
view of the matter is confirmed by the faét, that the two
properties are conne¢ted by infenfible gradations. Between
the obfcure, but real contractility neceffary for the nutrition
of the hair, nails, &c. and that which we fee exerted in the
motions of the inteftines, ftomach, &c., there are many
fhades which form the tranfition ; fuch as the motions of the
dartos, of the arteries, of fome parts of the fkin.

The circulation will ferve to give us an idea of the gra-
dual tranfition from one to the other kind of organic con-
traétility. In the heart and large veffels, this fun@tion is
regulated by the fenfible kind; it becomes lefs and lefs ap-
parent, in proportion as the diameter of the veffels diminifhes ;
and it is laftly infenfible in the capillaries where tonicity
alone is obfervable.

Do confider, with moft authors, irritability as a property -

exclufively belonging to mufcles, and conftituting a cha-
raéter by which they are diftinguifhed from other organs,
and to exprefs this property by a name indicating this ex-
clufive feat, is taking a confined and erroneous view of the
matter. The mufcles undoubtedly occupy the firft rank in
this refpeét ; they poflefs the greateft fhare of organic con-
tradtility. But every living organ re-acts, like them, though
in a lefe apparent manner, on ftimuli artificially applied, or
on the fluids which it receives, and which bring to it the
materials of fecretion, nutrition, exhalation, or abforption.
Hence nothing can be more uncertain than the rule com-
monly adopted for deciding whether a part be or be not of
a mufcular nature ; a rule which confifts in examining whe-
ther it contraéts under the aétion of natural or artificial
ftimuli. From this mode of judging, a mufcular coat has
been affigned to the arteries, although their organization is
throughout unlike that of the mufcles; the uterus has been
‘pronounced to be mufcular, although there are great dif-

ferences ‘between ‘it and any mufcles; and a mufcular tex-
ture has been admitted in the dartos, iris, &c.

This faculty of contraétion, like fenfibility, is unequally
diftributed in the organs; and thefe differences, like thofe
of fenfibility, appear to be only differences in degree.

If we were to defignate any kind of contraction in the
mufcles by a particular term, it would be their animal,
rather than organic contraétility ; fince they alone, of all
parts in the body, move under the influence of the brain.
This property is foreign to their tiflue, and is derived en-
tirely from the latter organ.

The two kinds of contraétility cannot be changed, like
the two fpecies of fenfibility. The organic is never tranf-
formed into animal ; however its intenfity may be increafed,
it is ftill of the fame nature. The ftomach and inteftines
are often fo fufceptible, that the flighteft caufe will pro-
duce violent motions ; but thefe are never influenced by the
brain.

The extenfibility and contradility arifing from organization.—
Thefe properties depend entitely on the organic arrange-
ment of the parts of the frame. They fucceed and are con-
ne€ted to each other, and are in a ftate of mutual depend-
ence, like the vital phenomena of fenfibility and con-
tractility.

The extenfibility of tiffue, or the power of elongation
beyond the ordinary ftate, from a foreign impulfe, belongs
in a very fenfible manner to a great number of organs. The
extenfor mufcles are remarkably lengthened where the limbs
are bent to the greateft degree; the fkin gives way and is
{tretched to envelop tumours ; aponeurofes are diftended by
fluids accumulated under them, as in afcites and pregnancy.
The mucous and ferous membranes prefent analogous phe-
nomena. The fibrous membranes and even the bones are
fufceptible of this diftention; as, for inftance, the dura
mater, cranium and pericranium in hydrocephalus, the ex-
tremities and middle of the long bones in the various affec-
tions of thofe organs; the kidnies, brain, and liver, in
abfceffes of their interior, the fpleen and lung when diltended
with blood, the ligaments in hydrops articuli ; in a word, all
organs, under a thoufand circumftances, offer to us innu-
merable proofs of this property, which is inherent in their
tiffue, but not dependent on life. It fubfifts, as long as the
organic ftru€ture remains, even for a long time after life has
become extinét. Putrefaétion, decompofition, and what-
ever affects the organic tiffue, are the only caufes that -
deftroy the exercife of this property, in which the organs
are always paflive, and experience a mechanical influence
from the various bodies which a& on them.

We may draw out a {cale of extenfibility for the different
organs. At the top are placed thofe which have the moft
foftnefs in the arrangement of their fibres; as the mufcles,
fkin, cellular tiffue, &c.: at the bottom thofe charaterized
by confiderable denfity, as the bones, cartilages, tendons,
nails, &c.

A particular mode of contractility correfponds to this
extenfibility ; it may be called the contractility of tillue, or
contractility through the ceffation of extenfion. For its
exertion in any organ, it is only neceflary that the extenfion
fhould ceafe. Ordinarily, moft of our organs are main-
tained in a certain ftate of tenfion by particular caufes ; the
locomotive'mufcles by their antagonifts ; the hollow mufcles,
by the various fubftances which they enclofe ; the veffels by
the fluids which circulate in them; the fkin of one part, by
that of the neighbouring organs ; the alveoli of the jaws by
the teeth, &c. Now, if any of thefe caufes cealeto act, con-
traction immediately takes place; divide a mufcle, and its

4X2 antagonift

LiF iE.

antagonift will be fhortened; empty a- hollow mufoular
organ, and it will contraé ; prevent an artery from receiving
bleod, and it will be converted into a ligament; cut the
fkin, and the edges of the incifion will be drawn afunder ;
remove a tooth, and the focket will be obliterated.

In all thefe cafes contraGtion follows the ceffation of a
natural extenfion ; in other inftances it is the confequence of
the ceffation of an unnatural extenfion. “Thus the abdomen
is reduced after parturition or paracentefis; the cellular
tiffue after the opening of an abfcefs ; the tunica vaginalis
after the operation for hydrocele; the fkin of the ferotum
after the removal of a large difeafed tefticle; and aneurifmal
facs after the evacuation of the contained fluid.

This kind of contractility is perfectly independent of life ;
like the extenfibility, it is connected only to the tiflue or
erganic arrangement of parts; but the vital powers beftow
on it increafed energy ; thus a divided mufcle retraéts much
lefs in the dead than in the living ftate. It terminates only
by the diforganization of the parts from decompofition, &c.,
and not by the annihilation of their vital properties.

Molt authors, as Haller, Blumenbach, Barthez, &c.,
have confounded the phenomena of this contraétility with
thofe of the organic infenfible kind, or tonicity ; they refer
the reduction of the abdomen after its diitention, the retrac-
tion of the divided {kin, and the corrugation of the {crotum
by cold, and the crifpation of parts by certain poifons,
ityptics, &c. to the fame principle. The two former phe-
nomena belong to the contractility of tiffue, which never
fuppofes the application of irritants; the latter to tonicity,
which is never exerted without their influence.

In order to render the diftinG@ions, which we have made
on this fubje&, more clear, let us fele& for obfervation an
organ in which all the kinds of contraétility are united; a
voluntary mufcle for example. This mufcle ats, rift,
through the influence of the nerves, which it derives from
the brain; this is the animal contractility ; 2dly, by the ap-
plication of a chemical or phyfical ftimulus, which produces
in it a general movement analogous to thofe which naturally
belong to the heart and other involuntary mufcles; this is
the organic fenfible contraétility or irritability; 3dly, by
the arrival of fluids, which convey the materials of nutrition
to allits parts, and which excite motign in every fibre and pac-
ticle,—-a motion indifpenfible to the funétion of nutrition,
as it is in the glands to fecretion, in the lymphatics to ab-

Eluffes.

E Vital

Properties Z
|

Genera.

| II. OF tiffue

The peculiar motions of the iris, corpora cavernofa, &c.
and the dilatation of the heart, are not included in this view,
becaufe our ideas on the relations which conne& thefe to the
other kinds of motion, and the differences which difting uifh
them, ‘are not yet fufficiently clear.

From the properties which have juft been explained, all
the funGions, all the phenomena of the animal economy, may
be deduced; we may refer them all, in ultimate analyfis, to
one or the other, as we conftantly arrive, in the confideration

of phyfical phenomena, at the fame principles, viz. attrac-
tion, elafticity, &c.

1 Senfibility
2. Contraétiliy

forption, &c.; this is the infenfible organic contractility or
tomecity ; 4thly, by the tranfverfe fection of its fubftance,
producing retraGion of the divided ends towards their
points of infertion ; this isthe contractility of tiffue. Bach
of thefe-properties may be feparately deftroyed ina mufcle ;
divide its nerves and the animal contractility: ceafes, although
the two organic kinds ftill fubfift. Apply opium to it, and
ftimuli will no longer excite it to motion, although the tonic
movements determined by the contact of the blood {till
remain. Kill the animal, or intercept all the veffels which
go to the limb, and the tonic powers will be dettroyed,
leaving only the contractility of tiflug, which does not ceafe
until gangrene or putrefaction, the confequences of deftreyed
vital action, appear.

This example. will enable us to appretiate the different
kinds of contraétility in organs, where they exiit in fmaller
number than in the voluntary mufcles, as in the heart or
inteftines, which have all the kinds except the animal ; in
the white organs, as the tendons, aponeurofes, bones, &c.,
where the infenfible organic contraétility and that of tiffue
only are found. In general, the two latter belong to all
organs, the former belonging exclufively to fome particular
ones. We may therefore fele& tonicity, or infenfible or-
ganic contraétility, as the general character of all living
parts; and the contraétility of tiffue as the common attri-
bute of all parts, whether living or dead, which are organi-
cally compofed. The latter property, like the extenfibility
ef tiffue, to which it correfponds, has its different degrees ;
the mufcles, fkin, cellular fubftance, &c. on one part, and
the tendons, aponeurofes, and bones, on the other, form
the two extremes of the feale.

It will be eafily feen, from what we have juft faid, that in
the contractility of any organ two things are to be con-
fidered ; viz. the power and the caafe which brings that
power into exercife. The power or the contraétility is al-
ways the fame, connected to, and inherent in the organ;
but the caufe which determines its exercife varies greatly,
and hence the various kinds of contraétion. Confequently,
the diitinétive epithets fhould be applied rather to the con-
traction, which exprefies the effeét produced, than to the
contractility which indicates the principle or caufe.

The general refult of the preceding remarks on the vital
properties, is exhibited in the following table, which prefents
all thefe properties in one point of view.

FV aricties.

Species.
ae Animal.

2. Organic.
1. Animal 1. Senfible.
2. Organic - 2. Infenfible.

1. Extenfibility.
2. Contraétility.

Wherever the vital properties are in activity, a difengages
ment of caloric takes place, peculiar to the animal, and
compofing for it a temperature independent of that of the
medium in which it lives. ‘The word caloricity, or calorifi-
cation, is improper to exprefs this phenomenon, which is a
general effect of the twp great vital powers in exercife,
and does not flow from any particular faculty. We do net
fay digeltibility, refpirability, &c. becaufe refpiration, digef-
tion, and other proceffes, are the refults of funGtions de-
duced from the common laws: the produétion of heat is in
the fame cafe. The digeitive force of Grimaud is an cx-

preffion

LIFE,

preflion equally objeGionable. The aflimilation of hetero-
geneous {ubfiances to our organs is one of the grand refults
of fenfibility and contrattility, and not a peculiar property.
The fame obfervation. will apply to the formative power of
Blumenbach, that of fixed fituation of Barthez, and to the
various principles admitted by numerous authors who have
attributed to functions, or refults, names that indicate laws,
or. vital properties.

In the article Empryo we have given a fketch of the
ftate of the two lives in the foetus: we fhall add here a fhort
view of the changes which occur after birth.

A new mode of exiftence commences as foon as the child
has quitted the uterus: various funétions are added to the
organic life, and the animal, which has not yet begun,
comes into exercife, eftablifhing relations, hitherto unknown,
between the individual and furrounding obje&s. While
the organs of the internal life aét at once in a perfect
manner, thofe of the external require a kind of education,
and arrive only by degrees at that perfection which they
exhibit in the fequel. ‘The fenfations are at firft confufed,
and offer only general images: habit gradually deadens
thefe firft impreffions, and then the particular fenfations
come tobe diftinguifhed, after long and repeated exercife.
Thus a man, introduced for the firft time to the magic
f{peétacle of an opera, perceives only a whole which pleates
him; and he gradually feparates the fources of pleafure
arifing from the dancing, the mufic, the decorations, &c.
The education of the brain in this refpect refembles that of
the fenfes: all the mental faculties dependent on its action
acquire very gradually the degree of precifion to which
they are deftined. Perception, memory, and imagination,
which are always preceded and determined by fenfation,
are enlarged in proportion to their employment. The
judgment, of which they are the triple bafis, at firft affo-
ciates irregularly notions which are themfelves irregular:
its exertions are foon diftinguifhed by greater clearnefs ;
and they become at lait rigorous and precife.

_. The voice and locomotion prefent the fame phenomena :
the cries of young animals confilt, at firft, of one unformed
found, without any diftin& charaéter. Age gradually mo-
difies them; and, after repeated exercife, they acquire the
charaéters peculiar to each fpecies, It is unneceffary to
mention {peech, as that is fo evidently the refult of education.

The mufcles of the newly born animal are in continual
aGtion; but progreffion, or even ftanding, cannot be effected.
Habit muft teach the art of conneéting together particular
contraGtions for the prodution of certain effects. Until
this period has arrived, there is a vacillation in all the
motions, particularly the general ones, which almoft deprives
the child of the power of locomotion.

It is obvious, then, that we are obliged to learn the art
of extending our exiftence beyond ourfelves ; that the ex-
terior life acquires trefh developement every day, and de-
mands a kind of apprenticefhip, which is not obferved in the
organic life, ,

Society exercifes a remarkable influence on this kind of
education which the external organs undergo: it enlarges
the {phere of aétion in fome, contraétsit in others, and
modifies it in all. The occupation in which an individual
is habitually employed, almoft always exercifes one parti-
cular organ more than the others. ‘The ear of the mulician,
the palate of the cook, the brain of the philofopher, the
mufcles of the dancer, the larynx of the finger, &c. have,
befides the general education of the external life, a particular

- education, which frequent exercife carries to.a high degree
of perfection. Hence, the mufician and painter become able
to diftinguifh in a harmony, or a picture, what efcapes
vulgar obfervation. In fome inftances, this perfection of

: 2

ation in an exercifed organ is accompanied by an excels of
nutrition, as in the occupations where particular memberg
are exerted greatly and habitually.

It is no lefs true, that when one organ is eonftantly oc-
cupied, the others are inactive, and appear to lofe in capa-
bility what the other gains. The philofopher who fpende
his life in his ftudy, and devotes himfelf to ab{traét medita-
tions, condemns his locomotive organs to inattivity, and hence
lofes the facility of exerting them: the dancer is in the
oppofite ftate. The obfervation of man in fociety will lead
us every moment to fimilar remarks: perfection of aétion
in the locomotive organs fearcely ever coincides with
that of the brain or fenfes; and vice verfz. This obfer-
vation naturally leads to a fundamental principle of focial
education; viz. that we fhould never direét the attention
to feveral ftudies at once, if we with to fucceed in
each ; that it is vain for any individual to cultivate various
departments of human knowledge and exertion with an ex.
pectation of fhining in each; and that in general the fecrec
of excelling in any one, is, to be inferior in all the reft. For
a more detailed account of thefe views, which are not, per-
haps, ftri@ly phyfiological, fee Bichat, fur la Vie et la
Mort, p. 121—130.

When the child quits the womb of the mother, its or-
anic life undergoes a remarkable developement : feveral
unctions, which did not exift before, are now brought into

exercife ; and thofe which had begun become niore enlarged,
But the organs, in either cafe, require ne education: they
exhibit at once a degree of perfeétion, which thofe of the
animal life arrive at only after frequentexercife. Digeftion,
refpiration, a great part of the exhalations, and abforptions,
begin at birth: after the firft ats in the refpective organs,
they proceed with as great facility as they will ever after
poflefs. The glands, which had been hitherto inactive, or
at leaft had produced a very {mall quantity of fluid, are
excited by various applications to their excretory ducts.
The paffage of food over the openings of the falivary ducts,
of the chyme over the pancreatic and biliary tubes, &c.
ftimulates the refpedtive glands. The excretions now alfo
begin: all thefe phenomena are at once executed with pre-
cifion, and no education is required in the organs which
exhibit them,

As all the organs of the internal life aé&t perfe&tly at oncey
none can acquire in the fequel a fuperiority over the others,
as in the animal life. Yet it is common, even here, for one
fyftem. to predominate over the reft: fometimes the
blood-veffels, fometimes the pulmonary [yftem, fometimes the
gaftric organs, and particularly the liver, are exerted be-
yond their due proportion, and give a peculiar character to
the temperament. But the foundation of thefe differences
feems to be laid in original difference of {truéture : and the
fame is the cafe where one fy{tem is remarkably weak.

« Such, then, concludes Bichat, is the leading difference
of the two lives, in refpe€t to the degree of perfeétion of
the various fyltems of functions. of which each confiits : in
the animal, predominance or inferiority of one fyftem
arifes from the greater activity or indolence of that fyttem ;
in the organic, the original conformation is the caufe.
Hence, the phyfical temperament and the moral character
cannot be changed by education, which has fo vaft an effeét
in modifying the animal life. The character, if I may ufe
the expreflion, is the phyfiognomy of the paflions ; the tem-
perament is that of the internal funétions : as both are con-
itantly the fame, and not influenced by habit and exercife,
they cannot be affected by education. That may, indeed,
beftow fuclr perfeCtion on the judgment and reflection, as to
make them more powerful than the paffions ; it may fortify
the animal life, and make it fuperior to the impulfes of the

organic, '

: a

etganic. But to attempt altering the charaéer, foftening
er exalting the paffions, of which it is the habitual expreflion,
or enlarging or contracting their fphere, would be an enter-
prife cindlagous to that of permanently raifing or diminifhing
the extraordinary force of the heart, or accelerating or re-
tarding the motions of the arteries in the ftate of health.
We fhould inform any perfon who entertained the latter
project, that circulation and refpiration are not under the
influence of the will, and cannot, therefore, be modified by
the individual, without the occurrence of difeafe. The fame
obfervation will apply to thofe who think they can change
the chara&ter, and confequently the paffions; fince the
latter are the produce of the actions of all the internal organs,
or, at leaft, are efpecially feated in them.”

For the mode in which the fun@ions ceafe, the connec-
tions of the animal and organic life to each other, and the
reciprocal influences of the heart, brain, and lungs, fee
Deatu. Cuvier, Lecgons d’Anatomie comparée, tom. 1.
Bichat, Recherches Phyfiologiques fur la Vie et la Mort ;
and his Anatomie Generale, in the Confiderations Generales.

Lire of Mind, vita mentis,.as contra-diflinguifhed from life
of body, vita corporis, is held, by the Cartefians, to confit in
a perpetual cogitation, or uninterrupted courfe of thinking ;
which feems likewife to have been Ariftotle’s meaning, when
he calls the foul /::ysx, which his interpreters call aus ;
thinking being the only proper a¢t of the mind. But Mr.
Locke endeavours to refute this principle. See THinkine
and Sout.

Lire of Man, vita hominis, confilts of a continued communi-
eation of body and mind ; or in operations, to which both
the motions of the body and ideas of the mind contribute.

Thus, ¢ gr. the mind now thinking of fomething, on
occafion of that thought there arifes a certain motion in the
body : and now, again, the body moves firft, which motion
is followed by fome thought of the mind.

In fuch alternate or reciprocal operation does the life of
man confift; confidered, as he is a compound of body and
mind. See Sensation and Motion.

Lis is more particularly ufed for the duration of an ani-
mal’s being ; or the {pace of time that paffeth between its
birth and death. ;

Lire, confidered as an object of Law.
See alfo Homicrpe.

Lire-Anauities, are annuities, the payments of which de-
pend on the continuance of any given life or lives; and they
may be diftinguifhed into annuities to commence immediately,
and annuities to commence at fome future period, or rever-

fionary life-annuities.

The value of a life-annuity is properly the fum that will
be fufficient to enable a feller (allowing for the chances of
mortality) to pay the annuity without lofs; and, fuppofing
money to bear no intereft, it is always equal to the expedation
of the life.

For example : —Obfervations fhew, that according to the
mean probabilities of the duration of human life, the expecfa-
dion of a life aged ten is nearly forty years; or, in other
words, that a fet of lives at this age will, one with another,
enjoy forty years each of exiltence, fome of them enjoying
a duration as much longer as others enjoy a fhorter. It is
obvious, therefore, that fuppofing money to bear no intereft,
4o/. in hand for each life, would be fufficient to enable a
feller to pay to any number of fuch lives 11 per ann. for
their whole duration; or, in other words, that 4o/. is, on
this fuppofition, the value of a life aged ten.

But if any improvement is made of money by putting it
eut to intereft this will be more than the value; Detate it
will be more than fufficient to pay the annuity ; andas much
more than fufficient as the improvement or the intereft is

See Ricuts.

LIF

greater. If, for inftance, any fum now in hand may be fe
improved, by being put out to intereft, at 4 per cent. as to
double itfelf in eighteen years ; the feller of fuch an annuity
will (in confequence of putting out Aalf the purchafe-mone
to intereft) find himfelf, at the end of eighteen years, in pof-
feflion of 42/. or of 20/. more than is fafficient to pay the
remainder of the annuities, though he fhould make no far-
ther improvement of the purchafe-money. If he puts out
the money to higher intereft he will be a greater gainer ; if
to lefs, he will bea lefs gainer: but at any rate of intereft he
muft be a gainer. The truth is, that fuppofing the intereft
to be that jult mentioned, or 4 per cent. and all the improve-
ment poffible made of the money at this intereft, he will find
t7/. tos. 6d. for each annuity (inftead of 40/.) to be fufficient
to enable him to make all his payments. (See the tables at
the end of this article.) But that if he improves the money
at 5 per cent. he will find 15/. to be fufficient.

It may feem to follow from hence, that we have nothing
todo to find the value of a life-annuity, but to find the ex-
pectation of the life, and then to take out of the common
tables the value of an annuity certain for a term of years
equal to the expeétation; and it may appear ftrange that
this fhould not give the true value,

The truth is, that it will give the value greater than it is ;
or that a lefs fum than that found in this way will be fuffi-
cient to pay the annuity. Suppofing the intereft 4 fer cent.
the value of an annuity certain for Sey years is 19/. 16s.
(fee Tab. III. Annurrigs) ; but the value of a life aged
ten, at this rate of intereft, is, as hath been juft faid, no more
than 17/. 10s. 6d. The principal reafon of this is the dif-
ference between the value of forty payments of an annuity
to be made every year regularly one after another, till in
forty years they are all made; and the value of the fame
number of payments to be made at greater diftances of time
from one another, and not to be all made till the end of
feventy or eighty years. In this laft cafe there is more time
given for the improvement of the purchafe-money, and there-
fore a lefs fum will be fufficient to enable a feller to make his
payments, All that is learned from knowing the expectation

f a number of lives, is the mean number of payment:
will be made to each of them, and not the time in which th
will be made. For example :—The expeétation of a
ten being forty years, it follows that to a hundred lives at.
this age, forty payments for each life, or four thoufand in
all, will be made. But, as all the lives will not be extin& in
lefs than feventy or eighty years, many of the payments will
not be made till after the expiration of forty years; and,
therefore, a part of the purchafe-money will be improved
for a longer time than forty years, In general, it may be
obferved that one-half nearly of the payments of a fet of
life-annuities will be made after the expiration of a term of
years equal to the expectations of the lives; and that this
half having a longer time for accumulation than the expeGa-
tions of the lives, the value of the lives mutt be lefs than the
value of annuities to be paid regularly every year for a time
equal to the expetations. Thus 198o/. will, in confequence
of being improved at 4 fer cent. pay a hundred annuities of
1/. for forty years. But a lefs fum (or 1750/.) will pay-a
hundred fuch annuities to a fet of lives whofe common ex-
pe€tation is forty years; becaufe one-half nearly of the pay-
ments will not be made till after the end of forty years, and
fome not till after the end of feventy or eighty years; and
confequently one-half nearly of the purchafe-money will be
improved for more than forty years, and fome of it for more
than feventy or eighty years.

Thefe obfervations demonftrate, that it is a miftake to
reckon the value of a life-annuity the fame either with the
value of an annuity certain for a term of. years equal to the

yi expectation

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

expectation of the life; or with the value of an annuity for a
term certain, equal to that which a life hasan even chance of
exifling. This isan error into which fome have fallen, but
it only proves their utter ignorance of the fubject.

The true method of computing the values of life-annuities
may be explained in the following manner. Let us fuppofe
that the duration of the annuity is to be only one year. That
is, that 1/. is to be paid a year hence, provided ahife now of
a — age fhould be thenin being. Were it certain that this
life would not fail in the year, the value of the annuity would
be the fame with the value of it payable a year hence, or
with the fum which, now put out to intereft, would increafe
to i/, in a year; and this fum, fuppofing interelt at 4 per
cent.is 19s. 3d. See Tab. II. Annuitizs.

But the payment not being to be made, fhould the life
happen to fail in the year, this fum ought to be diminifhed
in proportion to the degree of the uncertainty of the life’s
continuing to exift through the year; and it is eafy to fee
that this wacertainty ar chance is in the proportion of the num-
ber of perfons at that age living at the end of the year, to
the number living at the beginning of it, as fhewn by obferva-
tions. For example :—if it has been found in any fituation
that but half the number of perfons of the given age living
at the beginning of the year, are living at the end of it, the
uncertainty will be as half; and the value juft mentioned
ought to be leffened one-half. If it appears that two-thirds,
or nine-tenths, or ninety-nine hundredths, are living at the
end of the year, the fame value muft be diminifhed only one-
third, one-tenth, orone-hundredth. ‘That is, it will be ne-

2, or 2. Univerfally

10° 100

then, the prefent value of any fum to be paid a year hence,
provided a given life fhould be then exifting, is that fum mul-
tiplied by the value of 1/. payable at the end of the year
(taken out of Tab. II. under the article ANNuiTIEs), and
alfo by the fraétion formed by making the number of the
living at the age of the given life (taken out of the Table of
Obfervations) the denominator, and the number of the living
at the next fucceeding age (or at the end of the year) the
numerator. For example :—let the value be fought of 1/,
payable a year hence, if a child aged ten fhould be then
living, reckoning intereft at 4 fer cent. The value of 1/.
reckoning this intereft, and payable a year hence, is (as hath
been juft faid) 19s. 3d. or (in decimal parts of a pound,)
9615. (See Tab. Il. under the article Annuities.) The
number of the living at the age of ten (in Tab. III. at the
end of this article) is 5675; andat the next fucceeding age
(or eleven) is 5623. It follows, therefore, that according
to this table, out of 5675 living at the age of ten, only 5623
are living at the end of the year: pr, in other words, that
the chance or probability of a life aged ten exifting through

eeflary to multiply it by st

5 3 , which fraction, therefore, multiplied by
+9615, gives fhe Pane fought, or .9526 equal to 19s. o8d.
Again, let us fuppofe that the duration of a life-annuity
of 1/. is to be two years, or that one payment of 1/.is to
be made a year hence, provided a giyen life fhould exift a
year, and a fecond payment of the fame fum at the end of
two years, provided the fame life fhould be in exiftence at
the end of two years. The method of finding the value of
the firft payment has been already explained ; and by the very
fame reafoning it may be eafily difcovered, that the value of
the fecond payment muft be the value of 1/. payable at the
end of two years, dimini/bed in proportion to the uncertainty
that the given life will exift two years; or (which is the
fame) multiplied by the fra€tion formed by making the num-

the year is as

ber of the living at the given age the denominator, and the
number of the living at the next fucceeding age but one, er-
at the end of two years, the numerator.

Thus, Let the value. be required of 1/. payable yearly
for two years, provided a child aged ten fhould live two years,
reckoning interelt at 4 per cent.

The value of the payment at the end of the firft year has
been juft found to be .g526 in decimal parts of a pound, or
19s. okd,

The value of the payment at the end of the fecond year is
the value of 1/. payable two years hence, leflened by the un-
certainty that a life aged ten will live two years; or in the
proportion of the number of the living in the'T'able of Obferva-
tions at the age of twelve to the number of the living at the
age of ten. That is, it is .9245 (the faid value of 1/. pay-
able at the end of two years, taken out of ‘l'able II. under
5573 ,

oO

5675"
9078, equal to 18s. 2d. (See Table III. at the end of this
article.) To this, add the former value, or .g526/. and the
total, or 1.8604/. willbe the value of both payments, or of
an annuity of 1/, on a life aged ten for two years. 7
By proceeding in this way it will appear that the value of

the fame annuity for three years is .8889 x 5573
2 : 7 * 5675

the article Annuities) multiplied by the fraétion r

+ 1.8604.

= 2.725/. and for eighty-fix years (or the whole duration
of life, according to the Table of Obfervations) 17.5238/.
It is evident, that in the fame method the value of an an-
nuity of 1/. on a life at any other age is to be found; and
that fuppofing the annuity any other fum than 4/, its value
will be this fum multiplied by the value of an annuity
of 1/.

The calculations of the values of life-annuities may be
otherwife explained in the following manner. Suppofe a
life-annuity of 1/. payable yearly to every one of 5075 per-
fons, all now aged ten, the firft payment of whichis to be
made ayearhence. it appears from the Northampton Table
of Obfervations (or Table III. under the article Exprcra-
TION), that only 5623 of thefe perfons will be living:at the
end of the year; and confequently, that the money then to
be paid will be only 5623/7. The prefent value, therefore,
of the firft payment of the annuities will be the fum which
being now put out to intereft will increafe in a year to 5623/.
That is, it is 5623/. difcounted for a year, or 5 406/. 14s. 0d.
for this fum added toits intereft for a year (reckoned at 4 per
cent.) will juft make up 5623/. From the fame Table of
Obfervations, it appears farther, that of 5675 perfons livin
at ten years of ace, only 5573 will be living at the end o
two years. ‘The prefent value, therefore, of the /econd pay-
ment of the annuities will be the fum, which being now put
out to compound intereft at 4 per cent. will increafe to 5573/.
in two years. The fumis 5152/. 5s. In like manner 5523,
5473» 5423, &c. being the number living at the end of
three, four, five, &c. years, the value of the third, fourth,
fifth, &c. payments of the annuities will be 5523/. 5473/.
54237. &c. difcounted for three, four, five, &c. years re-
{pectively, and continued to the year in which all the lives
become extinét. The total of all thefe values is 99443/.
which, therefore, is the fum that would be fufficient, if im-
proved at 4 per cent., to make good the payment of an an-
nuity of 1/. for life to every one of 5675 perfons aged ten,
according co the Northampton Table of Obfervations. The
value, therefore, of fuch an annuity payable to only one
of this number, muft be the 5675th part of 99,443/. or 17/.
ios. 6d, :

RA

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

In the Table of Obfervations, from which the examples
here given have been taken, and alfo in the table framed by
Dr. Halley, from the bills of mortality at Breflaw in Silefia,
it may be obferved, that the numbers dying every year out of
a given number born, continue in the middle ttages of life
nearly the fame for many years together. It was this cir-
cumftance that led M. De Moivre to form his hypothefis of an
equal decrement of life through all its flages after ten. In
this hypothefis, the limit or utmoft probable extent of life is
fixed to the age of eighty-fix; and out of any number
living at a given age an equal number is reckoned to die
every year, till at eighty-fix all the lives become extinct.
Thus, for inftance, if there are feventy-fix perfons living at
ten, one of them by this hypothefis will die annually during
the term of feventy-fix years, at the end of which time the
laft furviving life will have failed. Or, in other words,
feventy-five will be living at the end of the firft year, feventy-
four at the end of the fecond year, feventy-three at the end
of the third year, and fo on for feventy-fix years; from
whence it follows that the probability of one perfon’s living

to the end of the firft, fecond, or third year will be a ie
23, &c. refpectively, where it appears that the fra¢tions,
7
and confequently the probabilities they exprefs, decreafe
arithmetically. ‘The number of years which a life wants of
the age of eighty-fix is in this hypothefis called the complement
of the life, and half this complement is always the eapeéation
of the life. That is, according to what has been already
faid, it is the number of years which one with another a fet
of lives at that age will exift; or, as the writers on this fub-
je& fometimes fpeak, it isthe /bare of life due to each of
them.

It is extremely eafy to calculate the values of life-annuities
on‘ this hypothefie. For by what has been juft faid, the
value of an annuity on a life aged ten, is the fum of the feries

15 14 oe

76 xX «9615 + “6 76

= x .05271. — .g615/. — .9245/. — .8889/. &c. and

x .9245 + -8889, &c. continued

to
+0527/. being the values (reckoning intereft at 4 per cent.) of

x/. payable at the end of 1; 2, 3, &c. to 76 years; or, calling
1/, with its intereft fora year, r, and 76, n, the value of the

pf —1l n—2 n—3 I I I
life is ie ae = &e. => — + —4+ —
nr nr + ge re rn
T 2
aiieks (n) — — — —— — Se to ae
nr nr or
I r I I I
shi ree = ene is
r—t mer—t r= r.er—t r—tI
s I :
equal to the perpetuity, and = -——= is equal to
7 eer 1

an annuity certath for 2 years, therefore we have the follow-
ing rule:

“ Find in Table III. under Annuities, the value of an
annuity of 1/. certain for a number of years equal to the
complement. Multiply this value by the serpetuity increafed by
unity, and divide the produ& by the complement. The
quotient {ubtraéted from the perpetuity will be the value.’

The complement in the prefent cafe being 76, the value
of an annuity for 76 years being (fee Tab. III. AnnurTIEs)
23-7311, and the perpetuity 25, the value of a life aged 10,

will come out 16.881. In the fame manner may the value -
of a life at any other age be computed according to this
hypothefis: and thefe values are the fame with thofe in M.
De Moivre’s table of the values of lives.

But it is aneceflary obfervation, that in the firft and laft
ftages of life, this hypothefis differs too much from fa&;
which may be eafily feen, by comparing it with the follow-
ing tables of the probabilities of human life. It had better
therefore be entirely rejected from the doétrine of annuities,
efpecially as we are now furnifhed with corre& tables, deduced
from real obfervations, of the values both of /ingle and joint
lives. The labour and difficulty of forming fuch tables are
alfo greatly leflened by means of an eafy theorem given by
Mr. Simpfon in his book on the Doétrine of Annuities; and
fince by Dr. Price in his Treatife on Reverfionary Payments.
We thall here give the explanation and proof of this theorem
from Mr. Morgan’s Treatife on Annuities and Affurances,
chap. il. § 2. "p. 56.

“‘ Were it certain that a perfon of a given age would live
to the end of a year, the value of an annuity of r/. on fuch
a life would be the prefent fum which would increafe in a
year to the value of a life one year older, together with the
value of the fingle payment of 1/. to be made at the end of
a year ; that is, it would be 1/. together with the value of a
life aged one year older than the given life, multiplied by the
value of 1/. payable at the end of a year. Cail the valueiof
a life one year older than the given hfe N, and the value of

1/. payable at the end of a year = ; then will the value of an
re ;
annuity on the given life, on the fuppofition of a certainty

that it will exift a year, be = + ‘ x N. But the fa

is, that it is wncertain whether the given life will exift to the
end of the year. This laft value, therefore, muft be dimi-
nifhed in the proportion of this uncertainty ; that is, it muft
be multiplied by the probability that the given life will fur-

vive one year, which fuppofing = to exprefs this proba.

bility, will make it = x 1+ N.”
r

The great utility of this theorem will appear from the
following examples. Suppofe the probabilities of life as
they are given in the third of the following tables, or the
tables of obfervations for Northampton, and the rate of in-
tereft 4 per cent., or r = 1.04. By reafoning in the manner
already explained, the value of a life aged 95 will be ex-
prefled by the fingle fraétion } x .g615 = 2403. The
value of a life one year younger, will, by this'theorem, be

Q X 1.04

two years younger, by the fame theorem, willbe

I +.2403 = .5300. The value of a life

16 xX 1.04
X 1° .5300 = .8270/, The value of a life three years

: 16
younger, or at the age of g2, will be tee x
1 + .8270 = 1.1714, If we proceed in this manner, the
value of every younger life will be deduced from that next
preceding ; nor will the number of multiplications neceflary
to determine the values (agreeably to any table of obferva-
tions) of all lives, at all ages, much exceed the number of
thofe which muft otherwife have been ufed for finding the
fingle value of the youngeit life. See Table VI.»
Mr. Morgan, after having given this aecount of the fore-

going

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

going theorem, and explained the method of verifying all
the operations in proceeding by it from one life to another,
applies the theorem to the calculation of the values of joint
lives, and gives a fimilar method of verifying all thote
operations.

But inftead of following him in this, we fhall refume our
account of the general principles on which the values of life-
annuities are calculated, We have already explained thefe,
as far as annuities on fingle lives are concerned. From the
fame principles the method of finding the value of annuities
on the joint continuance of any two lives, may be underftood.
Suppofe the ages of two perfons to be 50 and6o. It
appears in Table III. that of 2557 perfons living at 50,
only 2776 will live to be 513; ory in other words, that the
probability that a perfon at this age will live a year, is

ae. Alfe, it appears from the fame table, that the pro-

aa56
2038
The probability, therefore, that they will doth live a year,
(or the former t> be 51, and the latter 61,) is the produé

bability that a perfon aged 60 will live to 61, is

an 2776 1956 _ 5429856
of thefe two probabilities, or bur x PLT ht PEEL

For it is wel! known, that the probability that any two in-
dependent events will both happen, is always the produé&
ariling from multiplying the probability of one event by the
probability of the other.

In like manner, the probability that the former of thefe
lives will live to be 52, 53, 54, &c. and the latter to be
62, 63, 64, &c. or that they will both live two, three,

2694 1874,

gy Yeah by: the Game, table. 2038

2612 X 1793 2530 X 1712
2857 x 2038 2857 x 2038
reafoning already ufed, thefe probabilities multiplied by the
values (in Table II. Annurries) of 1/. payable at the end
of one, two, three, four, &c. years, will give the prefent
value of the firft, fecond, third, fourth, &c. payments of
an annuity dependent, on the joint continuance of the two
lives; and the fum of thefe produits for one, two, three,
four, &c. years, will be the value of an annuity of 1/. on
the joint continuance of the two lives for one, two, three,
four, &c. years; and if the produé¢ts are continued to the
extremity of the oldeft life, their {um will be the value of an
annuity on the whole duration of the joint lives.

The values of annuities on the joint continuance of three,
or any other number of lives, are found in a fimilar manner.
The feveral fra€tions exprefling the refpeétive probabilities
ot their continuing one, two, three, four, &c. years, being
multiplied into one another, and alfo into 1/. difcounted as
before ; and the fum of the produéts arifing from thefe mul-
tiplications continued to one, two, three, four, &c. years,
or to the extremity of the oldeft of the lives, will be the values
of the annuity for one, two, three, four, &c. years, or for
the whole duration of the joint lives.

With refpe& to annuities on the /onge/t of any number of
lives, the reafoning is not fo fimple. The following ex-
planation, however, of the method of determining their
values, when only two lives are concerned, will be eafily
underftood. Suppofe the ages of the two perfons to be 50
and 603 and for the fake of more perfpicuity, let a, d, c, d,
e, &c. be the number of perfons living in the table at the
age of the younger life, at the beginning of the firft, fecond,
third, &c. years; and, in like manner, let m, a, 0, p, &c.
Le the number of perfons living in the table at the age of

Vou. XX.

Amd according to the

the older life. From what has been already obferved, the
chances of the younger life’s furviving the firft, fecond,

third, &c. year, will be ., <, Z &c.; and the chances

of the older life’s furviving thofe years refpectively will
oe

n .
be —, --, =, &c.3 and the chances that they will noe
m

é

furvive the firft, fecond, third, &c. years, will be r — —,

c d n 0 a
I—-—, I—-—, &e. and 1—- —, 1— —, 1— =, &e,
a a m m m

The chance, therefore, that both will die in the firft year

ite baa. eee ES ee Lin
a m m am

that both will die in the fecond year 1 — a Seite ae 8
a a
c o co
1—— — — + —, and foon for the other years.
a m am

each of thefe expreflions be fubtraéted from unity, we fhall

If

b
have a te 7” — — © for the chance that they will not both
a m am

die, that is, that one or other of them will live to the end
c o o¢

of the firft year, — + — — — for the chance that they
aom am

will not both die in two years, &c. By continuing thefe
exprefflions for as many years as are equal to the difference be-
tween the age of the younger life and of the oldett life in the
table, and multiplying them refpeCtively into 1/. difcounted
for one, two, three, &c. years, we fhall have the whole
value of an annuity on the longeft of the two lives. Let
Temeke

rt! Su
re

I :
—, be 1/. difcounted for one, two, three, &c.
r a

years, and the feries exprefling the annuity will be o +
; ar

c d r " g 2

ai Ge ae ae Eh es Se
bn d

yeep a ae = eat — &c. But the firft
amr amr amr

of thefe feries is the value of an annuity of 1r/. on the
younger life, the fecond the value of the like annuity on the
older life, and the third the value of the fame on the two
joint lives: whence it follows, that if ‘ from the fum of
the values of the two fingle lives we fubtraét the value of
the two joint lives, the remainder will be the value of an an-
nuity on the longeft of the two lives.’’

Example.—Let the ages of the two lives be 20 and 30,
and let interell be reckoned at 4/. pe®cent. he value by
Table VI. of a life of 20 is 16.033, and of a life of 30 is
14.781. The fum of thefe two values is 30.814. The
value of the joint lives by Table IX. is 11.873; and this
value fubtraéted from 30.814, leaves 18.941 for the value
of an annuity on the longeft of the two lives.

This account leads to an eafy explanation of the method
of finding the value of reverfionary life-annuities mentioned
at the beginning of this article, that is, of life-annuities
which are to commence on the furvivorfhip of one or more
lives beyond others. See Reversions and Survivorsutrs.

Problem 1.—To approximate to the value of a given life
according to any given table of obfervations.

Solution —Viake the difference between twice the expecta.

4Y¥ tion

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

tion of the given life by the given table, and 86; and the
value deduced from M. De Moivre’s Table of the values of
lives correfponding to that difference, provided it is not lefs
than ten, will be the value of the life,

Example. —The expectation of a life aged 15 is, by the
Northampton Table. of Obfervations, (or Table IV. under
the article Exrecrarion,) 364. The difference between
twice this number and 86 is 13. And the.value cor-
refponding to the age of 13 in M. De Moivre's Table of
the values of lives {or Table IV.) is 16.604, reckoning
intereft at 4 per cent. ; and this is nearly the value of a life
aged 15, ‘by the Northampton Table.

Scholium.—It muft be remembered that this rule is only an
approximation, and fhould not be ufed except when recourfe
cannot be had to tables giving the values oF lives agreeable
to given obfervations, ‘The method: of calculating fuch
tables has been before particularly explained.

Problem 11.—To determine the value of any two joint
lives by M. De Moivre’s hypothefis, or on the fuppolition
of an equal decrement of life, through all its ftages.

“a—T.m—t

Solution. —T his value is expreffed by the feries igs

2—2.m—2 n—3-m—3

+ .++- (m) fuppofing

amr amr
‘z to be the complement of the younger, and m the comple-
ment of the older life, which Mr. Simpfon has given in his
Treatife on Annuities, and Mr. Morgan in his edition of
Dr. Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments, note L,
appendix, has demonftrated to be = V — Ves

n—m—2V-1 xX a + 2V, V being the perpetuity,
m

and P the value of an annuity certain for m years. From
this theorem may be deduced the following rule. Referve
the difference between the complement of the younge/t life
and the complement of the o/de/f life increafed by unity and
by twice the perpetuity. Multiply this difference by the
value of an annuity certain for a time equal to the comple-
ment of the oldeft life ; and by this complement divide the
produdt, referving the quotient. . From twice the perpetuity
fubtraé the referved quotient, and multiply the remainder
by the perpetuity increafed by unity. ‘This laft produ&
divided by the complement of the youngeit life, and then
fubtraGted from the perpetuity, will be the required value.
Example.—Let the joint lives be ro andas. Their com-
plements by M. De Moivre’s hypothefis are 76 and 71.
The complement of the oldeft life, increafed by unity and
twice the perpetuity, (or twice 25, reckoning intereit at
4. per cent.) is 122; which leflened by 76, the complement
of the youngelt life, leaves 46 for the referved difference.
This difference multiplied by 23.456, (the value of an an-
nuity certain for 71 years, by ‘able III. Annurrtes,)
and the produ divided by 71, (the complement of the
oldeft life, ) gives 15.196, the quotient to be referved ;
which fubtraéted from double the perpetuity (or from 50),
and the remainder (or 34.803) multiplied by the perpetuity
increafed by unity (or by 26), gives go4.8783; which di-
vided by 76 (the complement of the youngeft life), and the
quotient fubtraéted from the perpetuity, we have 13.093
for the value of two joint lives aged 10 to 15, by M. De
Moivre’s hypothefis.

By this rule, Table V. in the following colleétion of
tables, was computed by Dr. Price. (See his Treatife on
Reverfionary Payments.) To this he was induced by the
confideration, that there was uo table extant at that time of

the values of joint lives, except Mr. Simpfon’s for Londox,
(‘Table ITI. in this colleétion,) which being founded on the
{tate of human mortality in one of the worft of all fituations,
or among the inhabitants of London taken in the grofs,
was by no means fitted for general ufe. The truth alfo is,
as hath been before -obferved, that neither do the tables
formed from M. De Moivre’s hypothefis give the values of
fingle and joint lives with the exa€tnefs neceffary to adapt
them properly to general ufe ; nor can it indeed be ever ne-
ceflary to have recourfe to them, as we are now poflefied of
thofe tables, deduced from real obfervations, which are ine

- ferted at the end of this colleétion.

Problem 111—To determine the value of an annuity on a
given life for any number of years.

Solution.—Find the value of a life as many years older
than the given life as are equal to the term for which the
annuity is propofed. Multiply this value by 1/ payable at
the end of this term, and alfo by the probability that the
life will continue fo long. Subtraét the produé from the
prefent value of the life; and the remainder multiplied by
the annuity wiil be the anfwer.

Example.—Let the annuity be 1o/., the rate of intereft
4/. per cent. the age of the given life 30 years, and the
term propofed 15 years. ‘The value of a life aged 45 (or
15 years older than the given life) appears by Table VI.
to be 12.283. The value of 1/7 payable at the end of
15 years (by Table II. under Annuitigs) is 15553, and
the probability that the life will exift fo long’is (by

Table IIT. under the article Exrecration) ae Thefe

three quantities multiplied into each other are equal to
5.051, which being fubtraCted from 14.781, (the prefent
valué of the given life by Table VI.) we have 9.730; and
this remainder multiplied into 10 (the annuity) gives
97-30/. for the value required. .

Problen 1V.—Yo approximate to the value of an annuity
for three joint lives, A, B, and C.

Solution —Let A be the youngeft, and C the oldeft of the
three propofed lives. Take the value of the two joint lives
B and C, and find the age of a fingle life D of the fame
value. Then find the value of the joint lives A and D,
which will be the anfwer.

Example.—Let the three given ages be 20, 30, and 60.
The value, reckoning interelt at 4 per cent., of the two
oldeft joint lives B and C (by Table XIII.) is 7.802, an-
fwering nearly to a fingle hfe D of 65 years (by Table VI);
and the value of the joint lives A and D (by Table XVI.)
is 6.986, which will be the value required. _

This rule was firft given by Mr. Simpfon in his Sele&
Exercifes ; and the following comparifon, taken from Dr.
Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments, will fhew its
correctnefs,

Value by a Value by

rule at 4 Corredt a rule at 4 | Comedt®

| per cent. Value. ge per cent. ee aa

, 10.563 |10.438,10 IO 10) 12.244 112.200
15 25 °35| 9-840] 9.735]20 20 20] 10.504 10.343),
20 30 49) 9-085 | 8.986130 30 30| 9.351] 9.221
39 40-50) 7-051) 7-571] 40 40 40) 7-984) 7.865
40 50 60| 6.046] 5-994]}50 50 50} 6.432] 6.317
50 60 0| 4.238] 4.219]60 60 60] 4.816] 4.755
55.95 75| 3-292} 3-298 72} 3-000} 2.995

2.110) 2.119

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Problem W.—To find’ the value of an annuity on the
fongeit of three lives, A, B, and C.

Solufion.—Let a, 5, c, d, &c. be the number of perfons
living in the table at the age of A, at the beginning of the
firft, fecond, third, &c. years; m, n, 0, p, &c. the fame
numbers at the age of B; and s, ¢, u, w, &c. the like num-
bers at the age of C, the older of the three lives. By rea-
foning as in the cafe of the longett of ¢wo lives, the pro-
bability that A, B, and C, will die in one, two, three, &c.

; : b n i ¢
years, willbe r——- xX F—— X I—— woe T——
m s a
pot en ees
@ u Pp WwW
KX r-— XK E—-meee IH — KI-K EF KI
mt a m
b 2 a bn bt nt bart
& = 1-—- --—--- + — == Sa
m oy am aé ms amé
c Oo z co cu Ou cow
ees Bas sie eke ge ee Be
a m 5 am as ms ams

: : b n é bn bt

refpeCtive remainders, or — + — + — ——— — — —
Acie gctam yas

nt bnt c 0 u co ce on
Bee ih. es pie eee tS ee
ms ams it me Las am as oms
oou b MS
— ..... &c. will exprefs the probability that one or
ams

other of them will live to the end of one, two, three, &c.

years. Thefe fraStions being multiplied into —, —, &c.

b c d n a Pp
We have ey et
ar oar ar nr mr mr
t a w bn
BC Wain lale de raat boon be Tee &ec = _
sr ra) eon amr
co dp bt cu dw nt
amr amr* asr ast asr” msr
ou pw bnt cou dpw
-— - = Spee _ + -——,,, ke.
mir msrs amsr amsr ams

for the value required. Therefore the value of an annnity
on the longeft of the three lives, A, B, and C, is equal to
the “fum of each pair of the two joint lives, fubtrafted
from the fum of the three fingle lives, added.to the value of
the three joint lives.”

Example.— Let the ages of A, B, and C, be 20, 30, and
6o, refpeCtively, and intereft of money 4/. per cent. By
Table IX. the value of the two joint lives A and B is 11.973,
of B and C 7.802, and by Table XIII. of A and C 7.995,
‘The (um of thefe three values is 27.67. By Table VI. the va-
lue of the fingle life of A 1s 16.033, of B 14.781, of C 9.039.
By Problem V. the value of the three joint lives is 6.986.
Thefe four values added together are equal to 46.839;
from which deduGting 27.67, the value of each pair of joint
lives found above, we have 19.169 for the value fought.

Problem V1.—To find the value of an annuity granted
upon three lives, A, B, and C, on condition of its ceafing
as foon as any two of them become extinét.

Solution. —This annuity muft be paid during the three
joint lives, which may be exprefled by A BC; abfo,

during the two joint lives of A and B, after C; during the
two joint lives of A and C, after B; and during the two
joint lives of B and C, after A. ~ Vhefe laft three values are

refpectively equal to AB— ABC, AC—ABC, and
BC—ABC.. (See article Reversions.) Confequently
the whole value will be AB +AC+BC—2ABC;
therefore find the value of each pair of joint lives, viz. of
A and B,. of A and C, and of Band C. Then from the
fum of thefe three values let twice the value of the three
joint lives, A, B, and C, be deducted, and the remainder
will be the anfwer.

' Example—Let the ages of A, B, and C, refpedtively

be 20, 30, and 60. By Tables 1X. and XIII. the value
of the joint lives,

A,B 1
A, C$ will be
Bic :

the fum of which three numbers is 27.670. Moreover, the
value of the three joint lives, A, B, and C, by problem V.
is 6.986; therefore 13.698 is the value required.

See on this fubje& Simpfon’s Doétrine of Life Annuities,
Dr. Price's Treatife on Reverfionary Payments, Mr. Baron
Maferes on Life Annuities, and Mr. Morgan on the Doc-
trine of Life Annuities and Affurances,

own
NMI &

8
ey
38

SMe

\
Tasce I.

Shewing the probabilities of the duration of life, as deduced
by Dr. Halley from obfervations on the bills of mor-
tality at Breflaw in Silefia.

: Perfons

living.

Dec.
of Life.t”
232
222
212
202
192
152
172

162

Perfons

Perfous
living. ‘

living.

yOooo 523
515
507
499
490
481
472
463
454
445
430
427
417
407
397
387
377
367
357
346
335
324
313
302
292
282
272
262
252
242

CO CONTI AIA DADA DAANAAAADAAA A COO

8
8
8
2
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
fe)
10
Io
Io
fe)
Io
10
II
II
II
II
If
10
10
10
10
10
10
10

A. 2

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Tasce II.
Shewing the value of an annuity on one life, according to
the probabilities of life in London, as given in Table I.
under the arvicle ExpecTATION.

Cs o oe shisie Seles ;
Se1S 2/22) |S5|2l 25) .| eel eelee
g} eo) 89) Solel 2c) eel asia 2slee| Ze
p po 2 Pd a eed ha Wisner eee er ead
“VSoleelSel (eel ecl eel (Eel ez1e2
Sele Slee Sil Riss pA Ssln alms
6| 18.8] 16.2] 14.1131] 14.8) 12-9) 11.4956) 10.1] 9-1 8.4
7| 18.9] 16.3] 14-2]32] 14-6 12.7) 11.3157] 9-9 8.9| 8.2
$} 19.0] 16.4] 14.3]33] 14-4] 12-6) la 9-6] 8.7] 8.1
9} 19.0} 16.4) 14-3134] 14-2| 12-4) 11.0159) 9-4 8.6] 8.0
Lo} 19.0} 16.4] 14.3135) 14-1] 12-3) 10.9\60| g-2| 5.4] 7-9
11] 19.0! 16.4] 14-3}36 13.9) 12.1} 10.8}61| 8.9} 8-2] 7-7
12} 18.9] 16.3) 14-2}37| 13-7 11.9} 10.6|62| 8.7 8.1] 7.6
£3) 18.7] 16.2] 14.1}38] 13.5] 11-8] 10.5163] 8.5) 7-9) 7-4
14} 18.5] 16.0] 14.0139] 13-3] 11-6] 10.4164 8.31 7-7| 7-3
15] 18.3] 15.8) 13-9}40 13.2) 11-5 10.3}65| 8.0] 7-5} 7-1
ar Ses Seal | (osc cd
16 18a 15.6 13.7)41| 13-0] 11-4] 10.2}66| 7.8] 7-3} 6-9
17, 17-9) 15-4 13.5]42 12.8] 11.2) 10.1167) 7.6) 7-1] 6.7
18] 17.6] 15.2) 13.4143] 12-6] 11-1] 19.0168] 7-4] 6-9 6.6
19] 17-4] 15.0) 13-2}44/ 12.5) 11-0) 9.9}59] 7-1 6.7} 6.4
20] 17.2| 14-8! 13.0845] 12.3] 10.8] 9.8170) 6.9) 6-5} 6.2
17.01 14.7| 12.9]46] 12-1] 10.7] 9.7}71| 6-7| 6-3) 6.
16.8) 14.5| 12.7}47| 12-9] 10.5] 9.5l72] 6.5] 6-1} 5.
16.5] 14.3] 12-€145] £1.8] 10.4) 9.4173) 6.2] 5-9] 5-
16.3| 14-1] 12.4149] 11.6] 10.2} 9.3}74) 5-9 5.6] 5.
16.1] 14.0] 12.3}50| 11.4] 10.1] 9.2)75| 5-6) 5-4] 5-
.2|. 9-9} 9-0)
12.0}52| 11.0] 9.8) 8.9
.4] 11.8153] 10.7} 9.6} 8.8)
11.7}54| 10-5} 9-4] 8.6
11.6455) 10.3} 9.3] 8.5

Taste III.

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
of any two lives, according to the probabilities of life
in London, as given in Table I. under the article Ex-
PECTATION. :

ee 2) 22} ee]se/2 0] 22
38 =| 2e| 2542 4] 23/2:
Ss Bes ey es Bs) oie
15.) 53
13.9
13.3 |
f 12.6}
: : 9-1 11.9 |10.
40 |10.7; 9.6] 8.6 a5 12x. :
45 |10.0) 9.0] 8.1} 15 | 40 \10.4| 9.4; 8.5
| 5° | 9-3, 8-4) 7-6 45 | 9.6! 8.8; 8.0
55 | §.6) 7.8 | 50 | 8.g| 8.2) 7.5
60 | 7.8) 7.2| 6.6 55 | 8.2] 7-6; 7.0
65 | 6.9) 6.5] 6.1 60' | 7.5] 7-0) 6.5
70 | 6.1] «5.81 5-5 65 | 6.8} 6.4| 6.0

Age of the
youngett.
Value at

+ 3 per cent.
5 per cent.
eldeft.
Value at
Value at

% per cent.
Value at

5 percent.

youngett
| Age of ufe

al SII AAI SII AAS aw
O}/MONOMON[UNOMOMOMO}] MO |

' 3 percent.

|

nr

qm
on
5 abla
of
ee
An

|
|
|

fey IN OVO SS
DHAOok HH

hour: CNX 18601009
Omak OARIAH
igh sbaralht palh co radi oad
Spopoh OH

ao

lony
ee ae

Set i OT a gee
ohofObO+

| nnd H
38 (O00 | ae
Dun
UA DWI OO
0 Aw abOw
PUM ADIA
Sd wwe HR

Po i ome al
te OonoOM
BU AATS
MARANA
et ay eens
AO N Anna eroreee" |
PHU AD) Sw

|

PUL DATS 1 F910
Sb wes Ow DWH ADH

Q-1
8.5
7:9
7-4
6.8
6.2
5-6
4-9

|
|

wm
nA

Dea
~ISI DN
| eee
PU NNN
ak ONO
bp
Oo bua

|
|

MA RON He

SQbobwzwhADwWA
bh Ao b

PUN ADIN HHO

bh

AD ArnI 31H GIO 'O

UU AT BOO O ¢
OM HAI DW

Bp | pun on

Ay KOO
-Rnswothwo
DAA | 90 90
OMNnR AR ©
DAWA 9
Ae AORN O

Taste IV.

Shewing the prefent value of an annuity of 1/7. on a fingle
life, according to M. De Moivre’s hypothetis.

45 per et| 5 per ct.

3 per ct. | 33 perct.| 4 perct. 6 per ct.

19.736
19.868
19.868
19-736) 18.160} 16.791 15.595 | 14.544
19.604 | 18.049 | 16.698 | 15.517! 14.480
19-469 |17-937 (16.604| 15.437 | 14.412

18.160
18.269
18.269

16.791 | 15-595 | 14.544
16.882 | 15.672 | 14.607
16.882 | 15.672 |14.607

12.741
12.691

Age.
8
9
10
Il
12
¥3

| | |} | | EO

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

3 per ct.| 34 perct.| 4 per ct. /4¥ per ct.} 5 per ct.| 6 per ct.

17.823
SH be bee

16.508 | 15.356 | 14.342] 12.639
16.410] 15.273 |14.271| 12.586
17-588 | 16.311 | 15.189 | 14.197 | 12.532
17.467 | 16.209/ 15.102 | 14.123] 12.476
17.344/ 16.105] 15.015 |14.047| 12.419
17.220} 15.999 | 14.923 | 13.970| 12.361
17.093} 15-891] 14.831] 13.891] 12.301

— | —____.

19.331
19.192
19.050
18.905
18.759
13.610
18.458

18.148 | 16.830] 15.669} 14.641 | 13.727 | 12.177
Banal 16.606 15-554/ 14.543 {13-642} 12.112
17-827 | 16.559) 15.437| 14.442 113-555 | 12.045
17-664 | 16.419 | 15.318) 14.340 13.466 | 11.978
17-497 | 16.277) 15-197 | 14.235 |13-375 | 11-908
17.327 | 16.133] 15.073] 14.128 |13.282| 11.837
17-154 15.985 14-946 | 14.018 13.186 | 11.763
16.979 | 15-835 | 14.816) 13.905 | 13.088 | 11.688
16.800 | 15.682 | 14.684] 13.791 | 12.988) 11.610

18.305 16.839 15.55 14.737 113-810 | 12.239

16.620 | 15.526) 14.549] 13.673 |12.855 | 11.530
16.436] 15.367 |14.411|13.553|12.780| 11.449
16.248 | 15.204] 14.270] 13.430| 12.673 | 11.365
16.057 | 15-039 14-126] 13.304 }12.562 | 11.278
15-864} 14.871] 13.979] 13.175 |12.449| 11.189
15.666 | 14.699 | 13-829) 13.044 | 12.333 | 11-098
15.465 | 14.524] 13.676] 12.909 | 12.214] 11.c03
15.260] 14.345 | 13-519] 12.771 | 12.091 {10.907
15-053 | 14.163 | 13-359| 12.630] 11.966] 10.807
14.842 | 13.978 | 13-196] 12.485 | 11.837) 10.704
14.626 | 13.789} 13-028 | 12.337 |11.705 | 10.599
14.407 | 13-596] 12.858] 12.185 |11.570| 10.490
14-185 | 13.399] 12-683 | 12.029 |11.431 | 10.378
13.958 | 13.199] 12 504/11.870|/11.288 | 10.263
13.728 | 12-993 | 12-322) 11.707 11.142 | 10.144

—_— | ———_—_ |_ <_< | —— |__| ——___|

10.636 | 10.181] 9-773] 9-393] 9-036] 8.387
10.325} 9-913] 9-527] 9-166] 8.826] 8.208

6.008| 5.865) 5-728] 5-596| 5-468] 5.228

-| 5 per ct.

— | ee fe

: 5-383 | 5.265 | 5-152 | 4.937
73 5-029! 4.926] 4.826 | 4.636
74 4-666 | 4.576) 4.489 | 4.324
75 4-293 | 4-217 | 4-143 | 4-000
76 3-912 | 3-847 3-664
77 3-520 | 3.467 3-315
78 3-111] 3.076 2.953
79 2.7©7| 2.673 2.578
80 2.284] 2.259 2.188
81 1.886 | 1.867] 1.850] 1.832
82 42 I 1.406} 1.394

2 0.950 | ot
3 0.481

This Table is the fame with M. De Moivre’s Table of
the values of {ingle lives, publifhed in his Treatife on Life
Annuities, and carried as far as the age of 79 to three places
of decimals, by Mr. Dodfon, in his Mathematical Re-
pofitory, vol. ii. p. 169.

Taste V.

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance of
two lives, according to M. De Moivre’s hypothefis.

22/4. SE 32 #8
Io | 15.206 11.855
15 14.878
20 | 14.503
25 | 14.074
30 | 13.585
35°} 43-025
¥O 40 12.381
45 11.644
50 | 10.796
55 9-822
60 8.704
65 | 7-417
feed EE Sigel a
15 | 14-574
20 | 14.225
25 13.822
SON 2 S-459
35 12.824
40 | 12.207
5 | 45. | 41.496
50 + 10.675.
55 9-727
60. 8.632
65 | 7-377
719: 5-932
20 | 13.904
25 | 13.53#-
“20 30 | 13.008.
35° | 42-594:

40 |-12.008

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

e, 2 mt) Pe) al 2. 3 “3 Bs
i] x sé a8 a5 ae 5 s3 365
& & ~ oo eo oo & & ] eg 29
Se ° —s7 aM ae os rs 2 in 2.
» 5 @ a SY ao a) 2 ‘9 <i
5 & Ss & Ss & Sa sO oe =e =e
< < 7 * ey <7 ° ~ “

|

6.351 6.00%

10.207 9-420
9-648 8.880 5-730 5-444
8.879 8.233 4.558 4.653
7:967 | 7-448 st ba
6.882 | 6.495 5-547 | 5-277 | 5-031

4-773 | 4571 | 4-385

4-270 4.104 3-952

13.192
E2794;

Tasz.e VI,

Shewing the value of an annuity on any fingle life, accord-
ing to the probabilities of living at Northampton, as given
in Table III. under the article Expectation. Intereft
reckoned at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 per cent.

| Value at | Value at | Value at } Value at | Value at | Value at
3 per cent.|4 percent.|5 per cent./6 per cent.!7 per cent.|8 per cent,

‘Ages.

mess 10.327| 8.863
ape 13.008 | 11.274 ’
t | 16.021 }13.465 | 11-563 | 10.107} 8.963} $.046
2 | 18.599 | 15-633 | 13-420] 11.724) 10.391] 9.321
3.1 19-575 | 16.462] 14.135 | 12.348] To.941| 9.812
4°| 20.210 | 17.010] 14.613 | 12.769 | 11.315 | 10.147
5 | 20.473 | 17.248] 14.827] 12.962 | 11.489] 10.304
6 | 20.727 | 17.482] 15.041 | 13.156] 11.666) 10.466
7 | 20.853 [17.611] 15.166] 13.275 | 11.777| 10.570
8 ft20.885.| 17.662] 15.226] 13.337 | 11.840] 10.631
9 | 20-812 | 17.625] 15.210] 13.335 | 11-846] 10.641
Io | 20.663 | 17.523 | 15-139] 13-285 | 11-809] 10.614
11 | 20.480 | 17.393 | 15-043 | 13.212| 11.752| 10.569
12 | 20.283 | 17.251 | 14.937 | 13.130] 11.687 | 10.517
13 | 20.081 | 17.103 | 14.526] 13.044 |. 11.618} 10.461
14 | 19.872 | 16.950] 14-710] 12.953| 11-545 | 10.4013
15 | 19.657 | 16.791 | 14-588] 12.857 | 11.467] 10.337
16 | 19.435 | 16.625 | 14.460] 12.755 | 11.384] 10.268
17 | 19.218 | 16.462 | 14.334| 12.655 | 11.302] 10.200
18 | 19-013 | 16.309| 14.217 | 12.562 | 11.226] 10.137
19 | 18.820 | 16.167 | 14.108 12-474 | 11.357 10.051
20 | 18.638 | 16.033] 14.007] 12.395} 11.094] 10.030

15.912] 13.917| 12.329] 11-042} 9.956
15-797 | 13-833 | 12.265 | 10.993] 9-947

23 | 18.148} 15.680] 13.746] 12.200) 10.942] 9.907
24 | 17.983 | 15-560| 13.658] 12.132/ 10.890] 9-865
25 | 17.814] 15.438] 13.567] 12.063 | 10.836] 9.823
26 | 17.642 | 15.312] 13-473] 11.992] 10.780] 9.778
27 | 17.467 | 15.184] 13.377] 13-917} 10-723] 9-732
28 | 17.289 | 15.053} 13.278] 11.841 | 10.663} 9.685
29 | 17.107 | 14.918| 13.177] 11.763] 10.602] 9.635
30 | 16.922 | 14.781 | 13.072] 11.682| 10.539] 9.534
31 | 16.732 | 14.639] 12.965 11.598 | 10.473 9.531
32 | 16.540] 14.495] 12.854] 11.512) 10.404] 9.476
33 | 16-343 | 14-347 | 12-740] 11.423 | 10.333] 9.418
34 | 16.142 | 14.795 | 12.623 | 11.331 | 10.260). 9.359
es 35 | 15/938 | 14.039] 12.502] 1.236} 10,183]. 9.296
36 | 15-729 | 13-889] 12.377] 11.137 | 10-104}. 9.231
37 | 15-515 | 13-716] 12.249] 11.035| 10.021] 9.164
38 | 15-298 | 13-548} 12.116} 10.929} 9-935) 9-093
39 | 15-075 } 13-3751 11.979] 40.819! 9.8451 9.049

Value at
3 per cent.}@ per cent,

14.848
14.620
14.391
14.162
13.929
13.092
13.450
132203
12.951
12.693
12.436
12.183
11.930
11,674
114.14
11,150
10.882
10.611
9.33//
10.058

9:777

1.50%
1.190
0.839
0.536
4.242

, 9.000

Value at

BGG
13.018
72.838
12.657
12.472
12.253
12.089
11.890
11.685
11475
11,264
Il.057
10.849
10.637
10.421
10.201

9-977

9-749

9-516

9-280

6.647

SO bb
Aw OoOn

a fe
a |
SIO RTS OR OOM

i ne]

PHOWo A ARAM DD
me OD ONO

| 1-474

1.171
0.827
0.530
0.240
0.000

Value at

5 per cent.|6 per cent.|7 per cent./8 per cent.

11.837
11.695
IT.551
11.407
11.258
11,105
10.947
10.754
10.616
10.443
10.269
10.097
9-925
9-748
9-567
9.382
9-193
8.999
8.801

Mast O NNN
Ar Ow CO

ie)

Fb An 0 PYisT O HPN Wb

YN NO HD DrnwrHPoOB
COMMIT OW AYN BB OMB BH HANI

ese
BB

Value at

10.705
10.589
10.473
10.356
10.235
10.110
9-980
9-846
9-797
9-563
9-407
9273
9-129
8.980
8.827
§.670
8.509
8.343
8.173
7-999
7.820
7-637
7449
15253
7-052
6.841
6.625
6.405
6.179
5-949
5-710,
5-479
5-241
5.004
4.769
aoe
4-326
4.109
3 884

3-641

3-394
3-156
2.926
2.713
2.551
2.402
2.266
2.138
2.031
1.882
1.689
1.422
1.136
0.806
0.518
0.236
0.000

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Value at

9-752
9-657
9.562
9-466
9-366
9-262
2154
9.04.2
8.925
8.804
§.681

Value at

MMAR AD ANNAN NTT
Ow rnvafwo

Win~TO ORBAN
~sIr ep HPO AvwnT
e)

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance of
two lives, having the fame common age, according to the

Taste VII.

Northampton Table of Obfervations.

Ages
I— 1
2— 2
bin staal
4— 4
589,
6— 6
oat Be,
8— 8
99
10—10
II—11I
I2—I2
13—I3
14—I4
I5—I5
16—16
17—I17
18—r18
I9—19
20—20
91—21
22—22
23—23
24—24
25—25
26—26
27——27
28—28
29—29
30—30
31—31
32—32
BoD
34-34
55-35
36—36
Siem
38—38
39-39
40—40
4AI—4I1
42—42
43—43
44-44
45—45
46-4
47—47
48—48
49—49
5O—50
5i— S51
52—52
Se lw)
54—54
youl by
55—56
Wise y

Value at

3 per cent.

9-491
12.789
14.196
15.181
15.638
16.099
16.375
16.510
16.483

| 16.339

16.142
15.926
15.702
15.470
15.229
14.979
14.737
14.516
14.316
14.133
13.0746
13.830
13.683
13-534
13.383
13:230
13-074
12.915
12.754
12.589
12.422*
12.252

“12.079

11.902
11.722
11.539
11.351
11.160
10.964
10.764.
10.565
10.369
10.175
9-978
9-776
9-571
9-362
9-149
8.931
8.714.
8.507
8.304
8.099
7.891
7.681!
7-470

7.256

Vaiue at

§.251
11.107
12.325
13.185
13-591
14.005
14.224
14-399
14.390
14277
14.133
13.966
13-789
13.604
13.411
13.212
13.019
12.841
12.679
12.535
12.409
12.293
12.179
12.062,
11.044
11.822
11.699
RAIS
TT.445
11313
11.179
11.042
10.902
Lio,
10.612
10.462
10.307
10.149

9-986

9-820

9-054

9-491

9-326

9.160

8.990

8.815

8.637

8.453

8.082
7.Q00
7-723
H-S44
7.362
7-179

6,805

4 per cent.

8.266 °

6.993"

| Value at

5 per cent.

7.287
9-793
10.862

10.034
9-919
9-801
9-680
9:555
9-427

ig
°
=
ey

2)

©oo

Cy ob
NO

NADA QAI SIN coc
nA~I CORBA D

ons won w
rom OW Ab

+

~

Value at
6 per cent.

6.515

8.741

9.689
10.365
10.691
11.031
11.251
11.382
11.404
11.345
11.249
11.139
11.023
10.899
10.767
10.626
10.459
10,305
10.255
10.156
10.074.
10.002

9-928

9-853

9-776

9-697

9-616

iS)

Bw Hw CHR ONMWO WISI
MO MmwWniw bw wv

Qa WO HORA WOO O HWE OA
WO
mun OW O

DD OTT NIST SST ST NT G0 1H CH GO. SP SO f
N
[@)

Vv
Agess | 5 pect
s8—58 | 7-041
59—59 | 6.824
60—60 | 6.605
61—61 | 6.387
62—62 | 6.166
63—63 | 5-938
64—64 | 5.709
6s—6s | 5-471
66—66 | 5.231
67—67 | 4-990
68—68 | 4.747
69—69 | 4-504
7o—70 | 4.261
7I—71 | 4.020
72—72 | 3.781
73-73 | 3-548
14-74 | 3°32
bts) 37 5a4
76—76 | 2.920
77-47 | 2741
78—78 | 2.550

79-79 | 2-338

80—80 } 2.122
81—81 1.917
§2—82] 1.719
83—83 1.538
84—84 | 1.416

85- 85 | 1.309
86—86 1.218

87—87 1.141
8S—88 | 1.103
89—89 | 1.036
go—go | 0.938
gi—91 | 0.769
Q2—92 | 0.591
93-93 | 9-369
iat | | e205
95 ~95 | 0.060
J 96—96 | 0.coo

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
ef two lives, according to the Northampton Table of

Obfervations.

Value at
4 percent.

TasLe VIII.

Value at

5 per cent.

O_o

Difference of age five years.

Vaiue at

T2547
14.461
15.300
15.809
15-974
16.110
16.13%
16.089
15957
15.762

3 per cent.

Value at
4 per cent.

10.741
12.581
13°319
SE OVTB
13-933
14.068
14.11
14.089
13.992
13.841

Value at
5 per cent.

9-479
11.100
165755
12.165
12.315
12.447
12.498

12.492
12.421

12.302

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Value at
6 per cent.

Value at
6 per cent.

8.467

Q-911
10.498
10.869
11.010
11.136
11.192
11.197
II.144
11.048

Ages.
1I—16
12—17
13—18
I14—19
15—z20
16—21
17—22
16—22
19g—24
20—25
21—20
225-27
23—25
24-——29
25-30
26-31
27—32
26-33
290 —34
3°—35
31—36
32—37
33—38
34-39
35—40
30—41
Si Tene
35—43
39—44
40—45
41—46
42—47
43—48
44-49
45 — 50
46—51
47—52
48—53
49—54
HOSED
51—56
52—57
53—58
54—59
55—60
56—61
57—62
58—63
59—04
60— 65
61—66
62—67
63—68
64—69
65—70
66—71
67—72
68—73
69—74
LO 75)
7i—76
12 Va.
73—78

Value at

3 per cent.

15.538
15.308
15.086
14.870
14.660
14.457
14.265
14.082
13.908
13,742
13.584
13-453
13,280
13.124,
12.906
12.805
12.041
12.474
12.304
ep ya
TT.O55
SAIS
11.592
11.404
11.213
II.021
10.828
10.635
10:437
10.236
10.033

9.829
9-624
9-414
9-204
8.997
8.790
8.579
8.366
8.152
7-941
7-730
7-518
7-305,

7.088 ~

6.870
6.651
6.427
6.201
5-970
5-737
5-593
5-205
5-025
4-783

4:540

4.298
4-059
3-825
3-599
3-386
3-376
2.963

Value at
4 per cent.

13.664
13.480
13-303
13-130
12.961
12-799
12.646
12.500
12.361
12.229
12.105
11.987
11.866
11.743
11.618
11.489
onl)
11.225
11.088
10.948
10.805
10.659
10.508
10.354
10.196
10.037

9-877

9-716

9:55°

9-351

Q-210

9-937,

8.862

Value at
5 per cent.

12.158
12.009
11.864
11.723
11.585
11-452
11-327
11-209
11.096
10.989
10.890
10-796
10-699
10-600
10.499
10-396
1c.289
10.181
10-069
peeks
037
ayi6
9:59!
9-463
331
nage
9-062
8.927

8-787.

8.643
8-497
8-350
8 2c0
8.046
7-891
7°737
7-582

Value at
6 per cent,
10.929
10.805
10.685
10.568
ROADS
10.342
10.239
10-140
10.048
9-960
9:879
9-803
9-724
9-643
9-561
9-476
9-389
9289)
9-207
Q-112
9-014
8.913
8 808
8.701
8.589
8.476
8.362
8.246
8.127
8.003
7.878
7-751
7.621
7.488
7°353
(oes
7.084.
6-945
6.852
6.658
6.515
6.371
6.225
6.076
5-924
5-779
5-613
5:450
5.284
5-112
4-938
4.760
4.576
Soo
4-099
4.005
3.811
3.616
3-423
3-236
37950
2.882
2.701

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Ages. Value at Value at Value at Value at NCP Value at Value at Value at Value at
3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 percent. =a 3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent, | 6 percent,
14—79 | 2-743 2.659 2.580 2.511 33—43 | 11.007. | ‘10.027 9-190 8.471
75—80 | 2.526 2.448 2.381 2.323 34—44 | 10.817 9-869 9-058 8.358
76—81 | 2.325 2.258 2.195 2.147 35--45 | 10.622 9-706 8.921 8.242
77—82 | 2-131 2.077 2.013 1.975 36—46 | 10.424 9-540 8.781 8.122
78—83 1.947 1.899 1.838 1.810 37—47 | 10.221 9:370 8.636 7.998
79-84] 1.793 1.751 1.750 1.672 38—48 | 10.014 9-195 8.487 7.370
Bo--85 | 1.645 1.608 1.573 1.539 390—49 | 9-803 g.O15 8.333 7:737
81—86 | 1.511 1.478 1.447 T.417 40—50 | 9-590 8.834 8.177 7-602
82—87 | 1.385 1.356 1.329 1.303 4i—§1 8.658 8.025 7-470
83—88 | 1.284 1.259 1.235 1.212 42—52 17 : 7.875 7-340
84—89 | 1.188 1.164. 1.145 L.124 43—53 5 vs 7.924, 7.208
85—90 | 1.074 1.054 1.033 1.021 44—54 76 Ate 7.569 7-073
86—91 | 0.921 0.902 0.892 0,879 45-55 : ; 7.ALI 6.935
87—92 | 0.756 0.738 0734. 0.725 46—56 : : 7.249 6.793
§8—93 | 0.562 0.554 0.547 0.541 47—57 ; . 7.084 6.648
89—94 | 0-377 |, 0.373 | 0.369 | 0.365 48—58 | 7- +3! 6.915 | 6.498
90-95 | 0.179 0.177 0.175 0.174 49—59 “4 ; 6.344.
9I—96 | 0.000 0.000 0.000 © 000 5o—6o i ! 6.189
51—61 4 is ig 6.035
52—62 5 : 5.880
53—63 3 5-719
Tasie IX. 54-64 196 5-555
Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance of nee ot ; yes
two lives, according to the Northampton Table of Ob- 5 ili ae j waa
fervations. 3568 ai Ricks i
; 59—69 .121 4.883
Difference of age ten years. 60—70 4-680
irae Value at Value at Value at Value at a ures
5 3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 percent. 63— 73 4.066
I—11 | 12.346 | 10.782 9-544 8.547 me hy a
2—12 | 14.239 | 12.438 | 11.010 9.857 Gente 3 es
3—13 | 14.895 | 13.019 | 13.528 | 10.324 6 pay d ane
4—14 | 15.287 | 13.374. | 14-850 | 10.617 ite shes
§—15 | 15-391 | 13-479 | 11-954 | 10:716 6 a ae 3.88%
6—16 | 15.486 | 13.578 | 12.052 | 10.812 cata pees
7—17,| 15.490 | 13-599 | 12-083 | 10.849 Sale e Reece
8—18 | 15.436 | 13.569 -| 12-070 | 10.847 ub 8 aaa
9—19 | 15-316 | 13.482 | 12.006 | 10.799 aa ae
IO—20 | 15.151 13-355 | 11-906 | 10.719 bean 2.085
/ .

20 | 14.074 || 12.2047 | 11.407 || 10.03T
12—22 | 14.795 | ¥3-078 | 11.656 | 10.541

75—85
13—23 | 14.612 | 12.934 | 11.570 | 10-446 76—86
77-87

I4—z2 14.42 12.78 II.450 10.248
4—24 4-424 a 45 34 -8—88

I5—25 | 14.230 | 12.630 | 11.324 | 10.244 Fn Be
16—26 | 14.030 | 12.470 | 1£.193 | 10.135 ia 9

17—27 |,13-832 -| 12.311 | 11.063 | 10.027 ee

18—28 | 13.642 | 12.158 | 10.939 9-924 ea

I9—29 | 13-461 | 12.013 10.920 9-826 82 a

20—30 | 13.286 | 11.873 | 10.707] 9.732 epee

2i—31 | 13.121 | 11,742 | 10.600 | 9.644 Ke oh

22—32 | 12.961 | 11.615 | 10.498 9-561 ed

23—33 | 12.798 | 11.485 | 10.393 9-474 : Z

24—34 | 12.632 | 11.352 | 10.285 9.386

25—35 | 12.463 11.217 10.175 9-295

26—36 | 12.291 11.078 | 10.062 9-201

27—37 | 12.116 | 10.936 9-946 | 9.305

28—38 | 11.937 | 10.791 |, 9-826 9-005 i
29—39 | 11.755 | 10.642 9-703 8.902

30-40 | 11.568 | 10.490 9-576 | 8.795

31—41 | 11.382 | 10.336 9-448 3.688 a

32—42 | 11.195 | 10.182 9.320 8.580

VoL. XX. 4% TARLE

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Tasie X. yee Value at Value at Value at Value at
~ : : ae ° Pp 8 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 per cent.
Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance (BSA hike MG RLS a 2 Ae ks mee: SO,

ou Awa according to the Northampton Table of 56-71 | 5.145 4.995 4.685 4.482
a ee 57—72 | 4-899 | 4.679 | 4.477 | 4-289
vt 58—73 | 4656 | 4.455 | 4-269 | 4.096
Difference of age fifteen years. 59-74 | 4-418 4-234 4-004 3-906 ©
60—75 | 4.189 4.021 3-866 3-721
oe Value at Value at Value at Value at 61—76 3-974 3-521 3-679 3-540
= 3 per cent. | 4 per cent. | 5 percent. | 6 per cent. 62—77 3-760 3.621 3492 3-371
SE ae | See eae eee 63—78 | 3-538 3-414 3-297 3-188
I—16 | 11.864 | 10.406 9-243 8.301 64—79 | 3-393 3.192 3-088 2.990
2—17 | 13.659 11.981 10.642 9-555 65—80 | 3.063 2.965 2.873 2-786
3—18 | 14.277 | 12.0531 | 11.134 9-998 66—81 | 2.833 2.746 2.664 2.587
4—19 | 14.657 12.876 | 11.447 10.284 67—82 | 2.610 2.533 2.461 2-303
5—20 | 14-776 | 12.993 | 11.561 | 10.301 68 -83 | 2.403 2.336 2.272 2-211
6—21 | 14.904 13.121 11.685 10.510 69—84 2.244 2.183 2.126 2.071
7—22 | 14.950 13.178 11.745 10.576 70—85 2.097 2.042 1.991 1-941
8—23 | 14.929 | 13.178 | 11.761 | 10.597 71—86 | 1.963 I.O1d 1.867 1.823
9—24 | 14.834 13.112 Lhe7a5 10.566 72—87 1.838 1-704 1.753 1-713
Io—25 | 14.683 12.998 11.627 10.497 73—88 1.736 1.697 1.660 1.625
Ti1—26 | 14.508 12.861 II.519 10.410 74—89 1.603 1.570 1.538 1-508
12—27 | 14-323 12.715 11.402 10.314 75—9o 1.440 1-413 1.387 1.361
13—28 | 14.132 12.564 11.280 10.215 76—91 1.221 1.200 1.180 1.160
14—29 | 13-936 12.408 11.153 10.110 77—Q2 0.985 0.970 0.955 0-942
I5—30 | 13.734 12.246 12.021 10.001 78—93 0.706 0.697 0.088 0.679
16—31 | 13-527 12.078 10.883 9-886 79—94 0.458 0-453 0.448 0-443
17—32 | 13-320 | I1.QgIr | 10.746 9-771 80—95 | 0.210 0.208 0.206 204
18—33 | 13.121 11.750 10.613 9-660 S1—96 0.000 0.000 Q.000 ~ @.000
I19—34 | 12.930 | 11.595 | 10.486 9-554
20-35 | 12.744 | 11.445 10.363 9-451
21—36 | 12.567 |} 11.302 | 10.246 9-354
22—37 | 12.394 | 11-163 | 10.132 9-260 Taste XI. ‘
23 38 bana oe, bad 3 "5 9-163 Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance:
24—39 | 12.03 10.874 9-895 9-063 f li di he Nurthamptes Dubie uf
25—4o | 11.854 10.725 9-771 8.960 et two lives, according to the Northampton La e
26—41 | 11.670 | 10.574 9-647 8.855 Obfervations.
27—42 | 11.486 | 10.423 9-522 8.751 j
28—43 | 11-302 | 10.272 9-396 8.645 Difference of age tqwenty years,
2Q—44 | 11.114 | 10.117 9-267 8.536
30—45 | 10,923 9-959 9-135 8.424 ae Value at | Valueat | Valueat | Value at
3 1—46 10.728 9-797 8.998 8.309 +o." 3 per cent. | 4 per cent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent,
32—47 | 10.530 9-631 8.858 8.189 SS Se et -“y-
33—48 | 10.327 9-401 8.714 8.066 I—21 | 11.413 | 10.053 8.96% 8.070 |
34—49 | 10.120 9-286 8.565 7-938 2—22 | 13.172 | 11.605 | 10.344 9-313
35-50 | 9-912 g-I10 8.415 ~], 7-Sog 3—23 | 13-794 12.161 10.843 9-764
36—51 | 9.707 8.937 8.267 7-681 4—24 | 14.178 | 12.511 | 11-163, |’ T0o.057
37—52 | 9-503 8.763 8.119 1-553 5—25 | 14.301 12.633 11.281 10.170:
38—53 | 9-296 8.586 7.966 7-421 6—26 | 14.420 | 12.754 | 11.400 | 10.285
39-54 | 9-085 8.406 7.510 7-286 7—27 | 14.451 12.798 | I%452 | 10.341
40—55 | 8.870 8.221 7.651 9.146 8—28 | 14.417 | 12.786 | 11.455 | 10.354
41—56 | 8.655 8.035 7.489 74005 Q—29 | 14.310 | 12.710 | II.401 10.315
42—57 | 8.439 7.848 7.326 6.862 Io—30 | 14.150 | 12.586 11.304 | 10.239
43-58} 8.222 7-660 7.162 6.718 T1—31 | 13.965 | 12.441 11.188 10.144
44—59 | 8.003 7-469 6.994 6.570 12—32 | 13.770 | 12.286 | rr.062 | 10.042
E45—60 | 7-781 7274 6.822 Q.418 13—33 | 13.570 | 12.125 | 10:932 | 9.934
5 40—61 | 7-556 7-076 6.645 6.263 14—34 | 13.363 R.Q5Q =| 10.796 9-822
47—62 7-328 6.875 6.469 6.104 15—35 | 13.351 11.797 10.655 9-703
1 48—63 7.093 6.667 6.283 5-937 16—36 | 12.932 11.009 10.507 9-579
49-64 | 6.854 6.454 6.093 57097 8 17—37 |\12.714 | 11.430 | 10.353: 0.454
so—65 | 6.611 6.236 5.897 5-590 18—38 | 12.502 11.257 10.214 9-333
51-66] 6.369 6.019 5-701 5-412 ¥Q—29 | 12.207 13.089 | 10.074 9-215
52—67 | 6.127 5-801 5-504 5 +233 20—40 | 12.096 | 10.924 9-937 9-100
53-68 | 5.884 5.580 5-303 5.050 21—41 | £1.906 10.768 9.809 8.992
i s4—69 | 5.638 #357 5-100 4-864 22—42 | 11.723 | 10.619 9.085 8.889
5S—701 $9391 4 5.132 1 4.893 | 4-674 2343 | 11-540 1 10.470 | 9.562 | 8.785

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Value at Value at Value at Value at Taste XII.

3 per cent. | 4 per cent. 5 per cent. | 6 per cent.

Ages.
vil Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
Sapa dy, | 8.6 of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of
paged (it seat, | TORS? 9-435 athe Obfervations.

25—45 | 11.164 | 10.160 9-304 8.569

26—46 | 10.970 | 10.000 g-170 8.455
27—47 | 10.773 9-836 9:032 8.338
28—48 | 10.572 9-667 8.890 8.217

0 EE a

Difference of age twenty-five years.

- © A va Value at Value at Value at Value at
stig’ Lou ied seat aes Ages. 3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent.
ales poet Bodo oe ish 1—26 | 11.037 9:770 8.742 7.897
325? pect 8.806 pa ; - 688 2—27 | 12.722 11.264 | 10.080 9-104
3353 9+359 8.629 aee ste 3—28 | 13-307 | 11.790 | 10.555 9-537
3454 oar : a 305 nae 4—29 | 13.661 12.116 | 10.855 9-813
sine R986 or : éqo ere 5—30 | 13-762 | 12.220 |-10.959 9-913

es 8.699 8.076 dy Nott 6—31 | 13.859 | 12.322 | 11.062 | 10.015
4 ee 7.854 sa60 6.894 7—32 | 13.87% 12.350 | 11.500 | 10.060
ae alld 689 aoe Ginga 8—33 | 13-820 | 12.323 | 11.090 | 10.061
oF 'bo cake iat rate ee 9—34 | 13-698 | 12.234 | 11.024 | 10.012
tee as ie 6.828 balsa 1O-—35 | 13.525 | 12.098 | 10.916 9-925
tis, Te i 6 6éo eh T1—36 | 13.328 | 11.941 | 10.788 9.820
Sasa, 7°5 7 ‘ 851 Gide Be 12-37 | 13-120 | 11.773 | 10.651 9-707
0 it aaa aren : te Pee 13—35 | 12.906 | 11.600 | 10.509 9-588
Te6h irae, 61463 6 mA wae 14—39 | 12.686 | 11-420 | 10.360 9-464
pa 6.602 6iat -8o4 5.588 15—40 | 12.459 | 11.234 | 10.205 9-333
Reeeh | Giats 6054 mca Loves 16—41 oie 1 pe mers ea
48—68 | 6.096 5.774 5-481 5.213 cs rene 136) aa 3.938
9—69 | 5.839 5-541 5-268 5.019 = vse) 7 9 8.8
paste ao "506 rious Les; 19—44 | 11.574 10.502 9-592 814
ee a Aa oBH4 Sat 4636 20—45 | 11.367 | 10.330 9-448 8.692
Were es sae Ne i peer 21I—46 | 11.167 | 10.165 9-310 8.574
a aad as He 4 ae Aiea 22—47 | 10.969 | 10.001 9-173 8.458
53—73 a - ee teuy Ler 23—48 | 10.768 9-833 9-031 8.338
5474 45 5 4 ae oper ee 24—49 | 10.562 9-661 8.886 8.214
Feat +3 . ik tie sO 25—5o 10.356 ae 8.739 poe
ie aie: 361 3.633 eee 26—51 | 10.154 9-31 8.505 7-9
peas | 3.682 poe a igae. 3.308 27—52 | 9-952 9-148 8.451 7.842
Sey eo Cae a 28—53 | 9-748 | 8.975 | 8.304 | 7-716
| aah ie 3-092 2.992 2.899 See | He 8.799 8.153 2586
61—81 2.964 2.870 2.982 2.699 3953 | 9:32 aoe 7-299 7-453
62—82 | 2.739 2.656 2.578 2.504 he Bae 8.436 nee 7-316
63—83 | 2.530 2.457 2.387 2.321 Sued pad ALS Wes is
64—84.| 2.371 2.305 2.242 2.182 335 S. 77 “806 ah ie oe
65—85 | 2.22 2.163 2.107 2.053 yee! ze Ps th Tae8 6. 5
66—86 | 2.089 24035 1-984 1.936 wate raat ae 5908 pes
67—87 | 1.963 chee 1.870 1.826 37—62 | 7.765 7.265 6.819 | 6.418

68—88 | 1.860 1.817 1.977 1.737 eed
69—89 1.722 1-685 ee 1.616 soba Litas 6828 cS uae
Lea 1345 392 et Pret 40—65 7.030 6.614 6.240 5-901
Sees Ngee | eee | cee: | | oa 41—66 | 6.776 | 6.388 | 6.037 | 5.718
72—92 | 1.044 1.02 1.012 0.997 qlee ees ete, nae Tir

7-525 7.053 6.631 6.252

73—93 | 9-743 2-733 pales py 43—68 | 6.266 5-929 5-622 5-343
ee) catty susie | Stee oeres 4469 | 6.008 | 5.606 | Sgr | 5.150
Lats: 0-0CO . 0.000 0.000 ©.000 45719 5-749 pad eo 4-953

46—71 | 5-488 | 5.222 | 4.978 | 4.753

47—72 | 5-228 | 4.983 | 4.758 | 4-551
48—73 | 4970 |. 4-746 | 4.539 | 4-348
49—74 | 49716, | 4511 | 4.322 | 4.146
F 50-75 | 4472 | 4.255 4-112 3-951
51—76 | 4.245 | 4-074 | 3-916 | 3.768
52—77 | 4.019 33564 3-720 3.586
53—78 | 3-787, | 3-648 } 3.518 | 3.396
54-79 | 3-540 | 3-416 | 3.299 | 3.189
55—80 | 3.291 3-180 3.076 2.978
56—81 | 3.051 2.953 2.861% 2.774

4Z 2

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Value at Value at Value at Value at
3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent.

Value at Value at Value at | Value at
3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent.

Ages.

— -| —_——_—_—-

SS

57—S82 | 2.820 2.733 2.651 2.574 7-177 6.747- 6.360 6.010
58—83 | 2.608 2.530 2.457 2.388 6.922 6.520 6.156 5.827
s9—S4] 2-446 2.376 2.310 2.247 6.663 | 6.288 5-948 5-639

6o0—85 2-297 20234 2.174 2.118
61—S86 | 2.162 1.105 2.051 2.000
62—87 | 2.036 1.985 1.937 1.891
63—88 | 1.932 1.886 1.843 1.802
64—S9 | 1-790 1.751 1.714 1.678
65—90 | 1.006 1.575 1.544 1.515
66—91 1.354 1.330 1.307 1.285

6.401 6.052 5-735 5.440
6.137 5.813 5-518 5-249

58 5-571 | 5.298 | 5.047
5-605 | 5.329 | 5.076 | 4.844
5-341 | 5-087 | 4.854 | 4-640
5-081 4.848 4-034 4-436
4.826 4-613 417 4.235

67—92 | 1.083 1.067 1.050 1.035 4.580 4.386 4.206 *| 4.040
68—93 | 0770 0.760 0.750 0.740 4.348 4.171 4.006 | - 3.853
69—94 | 0-497 0.491 0.485 0.480 4-115 3.954 3.805 3-666
7O—95 | 0.227 0.224 0.222 0.220 3.875 3-731 3-596 3-469

7I—96 | 0.000 ©.000 0.000 0.000 3-619 3.490 3-369 3-256
3.362 3.247 3-140 3-039
2 uy 3-015 2.920 2.829
2.882 2.792 2.707 “2.627

There X11. 5 2.665 2.585 2.510 | {2.438 -

3 c 2.501 2.428 2.360 2.295

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance 55 2.349 2.284 2.222 2.164
of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of c6—86 |+ 2.211 2.153 2.097 2.044
Obfervations, 2.082 2.030 1.980 1.932

: 1.975 1.928, 1.883 1.841

Difference of age thirty years. 1.828 1.788 1752 bef ka

1.641 1.608 1.577 1.547
1.382 1.358 1.334 1.311

Aa Value at Value at Value at Value at 3 2
ges 3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent. 2 1.105 1.088 BOs 1-055
ee ee ene t 3 | 0.785 | 0.774 0.764 0.754,
I—31 | 10.605 9-438 8.483 7-691 ; 0.506 0.500 0.494 0.489
2—32 | 12.203 10. 865 9.767 8.855 5—95 | 0-230 0.228 0.226 0.224,
3—33 12.743 11.355 10.213 9.263 0.050 0.000 0.000 0.000
4—34 | 13.061 11-651 10.488 9.518
§—35 | 13-136 411.732 0.572 9-602
6—36 | 13.207 | 11.812 | Io. 701K 9-687
737 | 13:495., | 11-819 | 10.676" 1+ 9.775 Taste XIV.
8—38 | 13.122 | 11.772 | 10.648 9-701
9—39 | 12.981 | 11-665 | 10.565 9-637 Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
IO—40 | 12.791 11.513 10.442 9-537 of twe lives, according to the Northampton Table of
II—4I | 12.580 | 11.342 | 10.302 9-420 Obfervations.
T2—42 | 12.363 | 11.165 | 10.156 y.298 ;
13—43 | 12.144 | 10.985 | 10.co7 9-173 Difference of age thirty-five years.
I4—44 | 13.918 | 10.799 9-852 g-042 -
15—45 | 11.087 10.607 9-690 8.905 Value at Value at Value at Value at
16—46 I 1.448 10. 408 Q 522 8.762 a 3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent, | © per cent,
17—47 | 11.210 {| 10.208 9-353 8.617 S| | ——— +
18—48 1 10.975 | 10.011 9-186 8.473 1—36 | 10.104 9-047 8.173 7-442
19—49 | 10.746 9-818 9.021 8.332 2—37 | 11.600 10.392, ] 9-390 8.551. -
20—50 | 10.523 | 9.630 8.861 8.105 3—35 | 12.087 10.838 9-800 8.928
2I—5I | 10.313 9-454 8.712 8.c67 4—39 | 12-362 11.097 | 30.043 9-157
22—52 | 10.111 9-284 8.568 7 -O44 5—40 | 12.405 | 11.150 | 20.102 9-219
23—53 | 9-905 g-11I 8.421 7.818 6—41 | 12.446 | 11.203 10.163 | 9.283
24—54 | 9.696 8.934 8.270 7-688 7—42 | 12.412 II.190 | 10.165 , -296
25—55 9.494 8.754. 8.116 Woo es NS NS Sl pe! Be 9 11.130 10.124 9.270
26—56 | 9.269 8.570 7.958 7.419 Q9—44 | 12.174 | I1.012 | 10.031 9-197
27—57 + 9-051 8.383 7-197 7-279 10—45 | 11.976 | 10.851 9-900 9-088
28—58 | 8.830 8.193 7.632 7.135 11—46 | 11.756 | 10.697 9-774 8.962
29—59 | 8.605 | 7-999 | 7-464 | 6.988 12—47 | 11.525 | 10.481 ee 8.827
30—60 | 8.378 7-802 7-292 6.837 1348 |-11.288 | 10,234 425" 8.686
31—61 | 8.147 7-601 7.116 6.682 14—49 | 11.045 | 10.080 9-252 8.538
32—62 | 7-914 | 7-397 | 6.937 | 6.524 15—50 | 10.799 | 9-872 | 9.076 | 8.386
33—63 | 7.673 7-186 6.750 6.359 16—51 | 10.554 9-665 8.899 8.234
34—64 | 7-429 6.971 | 6.559 6.189 17—§2 | 10.313 9-461 8.724 8.023

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at
j 3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. 6 per cent. 3 per cent. | 4 per cent. | 5 percent. | G per cent,

9-260 8.552 7-934 11.597 | 10.500 9-571 8.778
9-063 8.383 7-788 11.610 | 10.528 9.609 8.823
8.869 8.216 7.643 11.550 | 10.491 9-589 8.515
8.679 8.053 7-502 11.435 | 10.404 9-524 8.767
8.491 7.891 7.362 11.260, | 10.263 9-409 8.673
8.299 7.725 7.218 11.044 | 10.085 9.260 8.548
8.104 7.556 7.070 10.516 9-894 g. 100 8.411
7.906 7.383 6.919 — 10.582 8.934 8.270
7.704 7.207 6.764 10.344 : 8.763 8.123
7.499 7.027 6.605 10.100 2 8.586 7.970
7.286 6.839 6.439 55 9-851 é 8.403 7.512
7.069 6.648 6.265 9-595 8.85 8.214 7.048
6.844 6.447 €.089 9-340 6: 8.024 7-481
6.615 | 6.243 | 5-905 9-089 . 7-335 | 7-316
6.382 6 033 5-747 7.048 7-153
6.146 5-820 5-524 7.403 6.990
5-906 5-603 5-326 7-281 6.530
5-663 5.382 | 5-925 7-100 6.670
5-419 5-159 4-920 6.910 6.503
5-174 | 4.934 | 4-714 6.717 6.331
4.930 4.710 4-507 6.5155 6.151

4-488 4301 6.309 5-966

4.272 4-101 6.098 5-776

4.069 3-912 : 5-883

3-865 3.722 :

3-655 | 3-525 .

3-428 3-312 :

S07 37095 56 Az

2.973 2.881 52235

2-756 2.673 4-973

2.554 2.481 4720

2.400 24334 4-481

2.258 2.198 4-242

2.131 2.077 3-996

2.012 1.963 3°734

1.914 1.870 3-469

1.778 1.740 3-216

1.601 1.570 2.973

1.353 1.330 2.750

1.085 1.069 2.581

0.773 0.763 2.424

0.499 0.494. 2.282

0.228 0.226 2.148

0.000 0.090 2.036

9°

TABLE XV.

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of
Obfervations.

Difference of. age forty years.

Value at Value at Value at Value at
Ages. 3 per cent. } 4 per cent. | 5 per cent. | 6 per cent.

I—41 | 9.523 8.585 7.800 7-135
2—42 | 10.997 9-839 8 942 8.182
3—43 | 11.343 | 310.242 9-315 8.528
. 4—44 1 11.578 | 10.468 9-531 8.733

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Taste XVI. Taste XVII.

‘Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
of two lives, according to the Northampton Table o of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of
Obfervations. Obfervations,

Difference of age forty-five years. 5 Difference of age fifty years.

. Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at
SPS: 8 per cent. | 4 per cent. | 5 per cent. | 6 percent. 3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 per cent.
1—46 | 8.888 8.071 7°379 6.787 8.171 id 6.885 6.370
2—47 | 10.147 Q:221 8.435 7.760 9.300 8. 7.848 7.264
3. 48 | 10.515, 9-566 8.759 8.063 9-611 28 8.128 7+52y
4—49 | 10.697 9-744. 8.932 8.230 —. 9-751 : 8.269 7.668
5—50 | 10.679 9:742 8.941 8.248 9-707 : 8.256 7.665
6-51 | 10.664 9-745 8.956 8 271 9-659 F 8.241 7.662
7—52 | 10.586 9.690 8.919 8.248 9-549 8.176 7.612
8—53 | 10.458 9-591 8.841 8.188 9-395 A 8.073 7.527
9—54 | 10.276 9-442 8.718 8.085 g- 191 R 7.927 74403
1o—55 | 10.055 | 9.256 | 8.560 | 7.951 8.952 : 7-750 | 7-250
11—56 | 9-814 9.052 8.386 7.801 8.696 A 70557 7.081
12—57 | 9-566 8.839 8.203 7.043 8.433 é 7-357 6.905
13—58 | 9.312 8.622 8.015 7.479 8.161 R 7.147 6.719 -
14-59 | 9:053 | 8399 | 7-821 | 7-310 7-884 : 6.931 | 6.527
I5—60 | 8.790 8.170 7.622 7-135 7.597 : 6.705 6.325
16—61 8.521 72035 764.16 6.953 7.304 i 6.472 6.115
17—62 | 8.252 7700 7.208 6770 7.012 ; 6.236 5-903
18—63 | 7-981 7.462 6.998 6.583 6.721 i 6.001 5-689
19—64 | 7-714 7.226 6.789 6.396 6.434 F 5-766 5-476
20—65 | 7-444 6.986 6.576 6.205 6-149 82 5+532 5-262
21—66 | 7-177 6.749 6.364 6.015 5-870 > 5-300 5-050
22—67 | 6.911 6.512 6.151 5.524 5+595 : 5.070 4.840
23—68 | 6.643 6.271 5-934 5.628 5-323 : 4.541
4-69 | 6.372 6.027 5-713 5-427 5-056 82 4.615
25—70.| 6.099 | 5-780 | 5-489 | 5-223 4°799 . 4-396
6—71 | 5-826 5-532 5-263 5-016 4556 ‘ 4.188
27—72 | 5-554 | 5-283 | 5-035 | 4-807 4313 3-979
8-73 | 5.284 5036 4.808 4-597 4.064 f 3-762
29—74 | 5-019 | 4-792 | 4-583 | 45399 3-798 : 3-528
30—75 | 4.764 | 44557 | 4-365 | 4-188 3°530 . 3-290
31—76 |» 4.523 | 4-335 | 4-160 | 3-907 3-274 ‘ 3-060
32-77 | 4.282 | 4-111 | 3.952 | 3-804 3-027 Hf 2.838
33—78 | 4-035 | 3-881 | 3-737 | 3-602 2.800 : 2.632
34—79 | 3-771 3-633 | 3-505 3-384 2.627 é 2.476
35—80 | 3-506 | 3-383 | 3.268 | 3.160 2.468 2.331
36—81 | 3.251% 3-142 3-040 2.9044 2.323 . 2.200
37—82 | 3-005 2.909 2.818 2.733 2.187 A 2.077
38—83 | 2.779 | 2-694 | 2.613 | 2.537 2.072 ‘ 1.974
39—84 | 2-607 24530 2.457 2.388 1.915 ‘ 1.832
40—85 2.448 2.379 Danie 2.251 1.713 - 1.646
41—86 | 2.304 2-241 2.182 2.126 1.439 ed 1.388
42—87 2.168 2.113 2.060 2.009 6 3 I.111
43—88 | 2.055 2.006 1.959 1-Q14 . 0.790
44—89 1.Qo1 1.859 7.818 1.779 r 0.509
45—90 | 1-702 1.668 1.635 1,604 ; 0.232
46—9I 1.431 1.405 1.380 1.356 7 ; 0.000
47—92 1.140 1.122 1.105 1.089

LIFE-ANNUITIES.
Tasre XVIII. Taste XIX.

Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance
of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of of two lives, according to the Northampton Table of
Obfervations. Obfervations.

Difference of age fifty-five years. Difference of age fixty years.

Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at Value at ;
3 percent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 per cent. 3 per cent. | 4 per cent. | 5 per cent. |. 6 per cent.
7.412 6.843 6.346 5-911 6.571 6.123 5-725 5-372
8.392 7-756 7-199 6.709 7-391 6.894 6.452 6.059
8.630 7-986 7-421 6.922 7-545 7.048 6.605 6.209
8.712 8.075 7.514 7.017 7-502 7.076 6.641 6.251
8.629 8.011 7-406 6.982 7-429 6.963 6.546 6.171
8.542 7-044 7.415 6.945 7-290 6.846 6.447 6.087
8.400 7.828 7-319 6.865 7.104 6.684 6.306 5-963
8.214 7.669 7.184 6.750 6.884 6.490 6.134 5-811
7-984 7-470 7-010 6.598 6.628 6.262 5-929 5-626
7.718 7-236 6.803 6.414 6.347 6.008 5-700 5-418
7-437 | 6.987 | 6.581 | 6.215 6.056 | 5-744 | 5-460 | 5-199
7-549 6.730 6.351 6.009 5-763 5-478 5-216 4.976
6.857 6.468 6.116 5-796 5-473 5-212 4-972 4.751
6.562 6.202 5-876 5-578 5-188 4.950 4-731 4.528
6.264 | 5-933 | 5-631 | 5-355 4-911 | 4-695 | 4-495, | 4-310
5-964 5-660 5-382 5-127 4.649 4-452 4-270 4-109F
5-667 | 5-389 | 5-133 | 4-899 4-388 | 4-210 | 4045 | 3-892
5-378 | 5-123 | 4-889 | 4.673 4-12 3-964 | 3-815 | 3-677
5-098 | 4-866 | 4.651 | 4-453 3-846 | 3-704 | 357% | 3-447
4-831 4-619 4.424 4-242 3-569 3-443 3°325 3-214,
4-583 | 4.391 | 4.212 | 4.046 3-307, | 3-195*| 3-091 | 2-992
4.339 4-164 4.001 3-850 3-057 2.958 2.865 asa
4.087 | 3.930 | 3.783 3-646. 2.828 2.740 | 2.957 2.579
3-820 | 3-679 | 3-548° | 3-424 2.653 | 2.574 | 2-499 | 2-429:
3-550 3-425 3-308 3-198 2.492 2.421 2.354 2.290
3-292 3-181 3-077 2-979 2.346 2.282 2.221 2.163
3-043 2.945 2.853 2.765 2.208 2.151 2.096 2.044.
2.815 2.728 2.646 2.568 2.091 2.041 1-992 1.946
2.641 2.563 2.489 2.418 1.933 1.889 1.848 %808
2.481 2.411 2.344 2.280 1.729 1.694 1.660 1.628
2.336 2.2792 2.212 20154 1.451 1.425 1.400 1.376
2.198 2.142 2.088 2.036 1.155 1.137 I.119 In 102
2.083 2.033 1.985 1-939: 0.817 0.806 0-795 0.785
1.925 1.882 1.841 1-802 0.524 0.518 0.512 0.506
t.723 1.688 1.654 1-622 0.238 0.235 0.233 0.231
1.446 1.429 ¥.395 1.371 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

1.152 1.134 1.116 | 1-099
0.815 0.804 0-793 0-783
Onng Seal O:5 0% O-GO5 Taste XX.

0.237
0.000

0.235
0.000

0.233
0.000

0.231
0.QCc0

Value at |. Value at |

Shewing- the value of an annuity on the joint continuance’

of two: lives, according to the Northampton Table of:
Obfervations.

Difference of age fixty-five years.

Ase | Valne at Value at Value at |< Value at
EPS: | 3 percent, | 4 percent. | 5 per cent. 6 per cent. J.

1-66 | 5-633 | 5.205 | 4.906 | 4.728
2—67 | 6.266 5.896 5-569 5:27
3—68 6.330 5.965 5-641 5-352
4—69 | 6.277 5-924 5-611 5-332
5—70| 6.102 5-768 5-472 57209

,O—71 | 5.925 5.610 5-331: 5-084

2 7-72 | 5-714 | 5.418 | 5.157 | 4-929

LIFE-ANNUITIES.

Lire-Annuities, payable half-yearly. Thefe are more va-

Age. | ,veneat | Mauckt T Nasent T vest | taable than panies payable yeulyy op the twa fk
Peo; is ee a pry > lowing accounts. Tirft, pee riae in this , ae
An 4, 48 2 a6 7e2 one-half of every payment half a year fooner ; and, fecondly,
ards eae : obs pas : pies he has the dhniiee of receiving one half-year's payment more
orelone 4.962 4.725 4.522 4-350 than if he had been paid yearly. Mr. Simpfon, in his Sele&
11—76 geroy | 4487 4.301 4.148 Exercifes, p. 283, obferves, that the value of thefe two ad-
12—77 4-449 4.368 4.195 3-943 vaonss put together (let the rate of intereft and the num-
13—78 | 4.185 4022 3.871 3-729 ber of lives on which the annuity depends be what they will)
14—79 3-904 3-759 3.624 3-497 will always amount to 4 of a*year’s purchafe ; and.that if
15—80 | 3.621 3.492 3-372 3-250 the payments are to be made quarterly, thefe advantages
16-81 | 3.348 3.235 3.128 3-028 will be always worth 3 of a year's purchafe. But Dr.
17—82 | 3.087 2.987 2.893 2.804 Price, in an effay in the Philofophical TranfaCtions, vol. lxvi.
18—83 | 2.849 2.760 2.677 2.598 parti. p. 109. has flated the differences of value between
19—84 | 2.668 2.589 2.513 2.442 life-annuities, as they are made payable yearly, half-yearly,
20-85 | 2.503 2.431 2.364 2.299 or quarterly, with more precifion; and from his pies
ar— 86 | 2.354 2.290 2.22 2.171 tions it appears, that a_fifth of a year’s purchafe is generally
22—-87 | 2.216 2.158 2.104 2.051 an addition more than fufficient to the yearly value of an
23-88 | 2.099 2048 1.999 1.953 annuity, in order to obtain its value, payable half-yearly ;
24-89 | 1.939 1.895 1.854 1.814 aud three-tenths of a year’s purchafe, in order to obtain its
25-90 | 1-734 1.699 1.605 1.633 value, payable quarterly. ;
26-91 | 1.455 1.429 I.404 1.379 Dr. Price has given the following fhort and eafy theorems
27-92 1.158 1.140 T.122 1.105 for finding in all cafes thefe differences of value. f
28—93 | 0.819 0.808 0.797 0.786 Let r be (not 1/. with its intereft, but merely ) the in-
29-94 | O1525 0.519 0.513 0.507 tereft of 1/. for a year, x the coxplement of a given life ;
30—95 | 0.238 0.236 0.234 0.231 y> 4, gq, m, the values refpeétively of an annuity certain for
31—96 | 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 z years, payable yearly, half-yearly, quarterly, or mo-

mently (fee the article Annuirizs); P the perpetuity ;
Y the prefent value of an annuity on a life, whofe comple-
ment is 7, payable yearly ; H the value of the fame annuity
Taste XXI. payable half-yearly ; Q the value of the fame annuity pay-

‘Shewing the value of an annuity on the joint continuance able quarterly ; and M its value payable Sosy 4

of two lives, accprding to the Northampton Table of Then, Y= P — Leg xy

Obfervations. rn
ca
Difference of age /eventy years. Se ee
: HM = Pe xh
Aes, Value at Value at Value at Value at nr
x 3 per cent. | 4 percent. | 5 percent. | 6 per cent. r
———| — -—- -—| — - - ee es
THe) 4 Ort 4.380 4.169 3-976 4
2—92.| 5.061 4.814 4.558 4-380 Q=P- BET.
SpasSnl 5-057 4811 4-505 4.389
4-74 | 4953 | 4.726 | 4.516 | 4.323 No ee
i715 4768 4557 4.362 4.181 nr
ie 4599 4-403 428d oune Example.—Let the life fuppofed be of the age of 36.
= _ i ape errs fais 3-999 The complement of fuch a life is (by what has been already
nie : 21 bs: a g nas faid) 50, according to M. De Moivre’s hypothefis; there-
ora a a 3°93 eS fore, n will be 50. Let the rate of intereit be 4 per cent.,
oy: 3: a ouee 3°393 donee or r= 10.04, P = 25, Y = 21-482 (fee Table IIT) Ans
oe 2 nae aves 2 5 2 es NuITIES), 4 = 21.549 (by the theorems given under An-
AE 82 aye 5,279 2024 2.033 NUITIES), g = 21.582, by .the fame theorems, and m =
ak a 2-794 agR0 2,028 21.616. Therefore
Mae 2.703 eae 2.545 2.472 zi ; ee
E505 | 29535) 2.402 2.393 2.327 = 25 — —— 482 = 13.8
16—86.| 2.380 2315 2.253 2.194 Amp 5Q X 0.04 ae: oe
17—87 | 2.235 27 2.121 2.069 1.02
18—88 | 2.112 2.061 2.012 1.965 H = 25 — ———— x 21.949 = 14.010
19—89 | 1.948 1.904 1.862 1.822 a eer
20—90 | 1.739 1.704 | 1.670 1.638 an 1.01 ad
2I—9I | 1-459 1.432 1.407 1.382 2 a5 = 50 X O.04 X 21.582 = 14.101
22—9g2 1.160 1.142 1.1247} 1.107 616
23—93 | 0.820 0.809 0.798 0.788 pt 21.01 pee
24—G4 | 0.526 0.520 0.514 0.508 M = 25 — Go x04 14-191
25—95 | 0.238 236 2 3232
BGah | xi Bs +. a pap pee Thefe theorems, though founded en the hypothefis of an

equal decrement of life, give the differences between the
4 yearly,

LIF

yearly, half-yearly, and quarterly values, almoft exactly the
fame, whether thofe values be deduced from real obfervations
or from this hypothefis.

For determining the differences between the values of
annuities on two joint lives, when payable half-yearly,
quarterly, or momently, Mr. Morgan, in the 6th edition of
Dr. Price’s Treatife on Reverfionary Payments, (note L, ap-
pendix,) has given the following theorems. Let 4, g, m;
denote the fame quantities as above for ¢ years. Let n be
the complement of the younger, and ¢ the complement of
the older life. Let r alfo be the intereft of 1/. for a year,
and V the perpetuity: then will the value of the annuity be

i eS] Sees ’ :
——2 x n—t—4-—2V nid + 2V, or V—

ie Se Vv
—i—4-—2V xi + 2V, or ¥ aes

Meet — 2 xX = + 2V, according as it is payable

half-yearly, quarterly, or momently.

Thus, if the ages of the two lives be 20 and 36 years,
the value of the annuity at 4/. fer cent., when ‘payable
yearly, may be found by the theorem in the preceding ar-
ticle to be equal to 11.2273; andits value, when payable
either half-yearly, quarterly, or momently, may be found
by thefe theorems to be either 11.427, 11.565, or 11.629.
Uf the ages of both lives be 36, thefe values refpectively
will be 10.394, 10.600, 10.703, and 10.808. It may be
obferved, that the differences between the values of two.
joint lives are always greater than the differences between

the values of the fingle lives, when payable at fhorter in- -

tervals than a year; and therefore, that the addition, in this
cafe, to be made to the value of an annuity on the longeft of
two lives will be lefs than the addition to be made either to
the joint or fingle lives. :

Lire-Anauities fecured by land, differ from other life-an-

nuities only in the fingle circumftance, that the annuitant, ~

whenever he dies, is entitled toa payment for the time which
has lapfed between the payment lait due, and the moment of
his death; whereas other annuities fappofe nothing due for
this time. In order to obtain the value of fuch an annuity,

pi

—

= mutt be added to the expreffion in the firft theorem, if it
1

is payable yearly ; = muft be added to the expreflion in the

fecond theorem, if it is payable half-yearly ; and 2 mut

Bn
be added to the expreffion in the third theorem, if the an-

nuity is payable quarterly. For fince — is the probability

that a life, whofe complement is x, fails in any year of its
duration, and it is an equal chance whether more or lefs than
half the yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly payment is due at
the death of the anstuitant, it follows that the additional
value of the annuity will be either x2 x ef ane x=
7 rT 2 n z

: h I
x Seei eh oe,
2 n

5 according as the fame is pay-

able either yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly. See Dr.
Price’s Effay; before quoted.’ *

The value, therefore, in the laft example, of an annuity
payable yearly on a life aged 36, being 13.829; its value,
_ VoL. XX. : ;

LIF

if fecured by land, or to be enjoyed to the lait momeut

48 F
of life, will be 13.829 + ak = 14.043; if fecured by

land, and payable half-yearly, its value will be 14.010 +
se = 14.1173 if fecured by land, and payable quar-

21.582

terly, its value will be 14.101 + tan 14-155.

Lirs-Annuities, in the contemplation of Law, are in
fome cafes fold and purchafed in an improvident manner, and
with great privacy; and therefore, in.order to throw fome
check on tranfaétions of this kind, the ftatute 17 Geo. IIT.
c. 26. has direéted, that upon the fale of any life-annuity of
more than the value of 10/. per annum, (unlefs on a fufficient
pledge of lands in fee-fimple, or ftock in the public funds, )
the true confideration, which fhall be in money only, fhall be
fet forth and defcribed in the fecurity itfelf; anda memo-
rial of the date of the fecurity, of the names of the parties,
cefui que trufls, coflui que vies, and witnefles, and of the
confideration money, fhall, within 21 days after its execution,
be inrolled in the court of chancery, elfe the fecurity hall
be nulland void; and, in cafe of collufive practices refpect-
ing the confideration, the court, in which any action is
brought, or judgment obtained upon fuch collufive fecurity,
may order the fame to be annulled; andthe judgment, if
any, to be vacated ; and alfo all contra¢ts for the purchafe of
annuities from infants fhall remain utterly void, and be in-
capable of confirmation after fuch infants arrive to the age
of maturity. By 29 Geo. III. c. 41. § 27, and other atts
that refpect life-annuities, oath of an annuitant’s life may be
made before a juftice of the peace, who fhall give a certificate
thereof, without fee or ftamp-duty, in order to entitle fuck
perfon to receive his annuity.

Lire-Boat. See Boar.

Lire, Complement of. See COMPLEMENT.

Lire Effates, in Law, are fuch eftates of freehold as are
only for life. (See Estate.) Of thefe fome are conventional,
and others merely /ega/. Eftates for life of the firft kind,
exprefsly created by deed or grant, are wherea leafe is made
of lands or tenements to a man to hold for the term of his
own life, or that of any other perfon, or.for more lives thar
one; inany of which cafes he is flyled tenant for life; only
when he holds the eftate by the life of another, he is ufually
called tenant pur autre vie. Thefe eftates for life are like in-
heritances, of a feodal nature; and for fome time were the
higheft eftate that any man could have in a feud, which was
not in its original hereditary. They are given or conferred
by the fame feodal rights and folemnities, the fame invelti-
ture or livery of feifin, as fees thernfelves are ; and they are
held by fealty, if demanded, and fuch conventional rents and
fervices, as the lord or leflor, and his tenant or leffee, have
agreed on. Eftates for life may be created, not only by
exprefs words, but alfo by a general grant, without
defining or limiting any fpecific eftate. As if we grant
to A.B. the manor of Dale, this makes him tenant for
life. (Co. Litt. 41.) Such eftates for life will, generally
fpeaking, endure as long a8 the life for which they are
granted ; but there are fome eftates for life, which may de-
termine upon future contingencies, before the life for which
they are created expires; as an eftate granted to a woman
during her widow-hood, or to a man till he be promoted to
a benefice. Thefe, while they fubfift, are reckoned eitates
for life ; becaufe the time for which they will endure being
uncertain, they may by poflibility laft for life, if the con-
tingencies upon which they determine do not fooner happen.
5A The

‘

LIF

The insidents to an eftate for life are principally the fol-
Jowing ; and they are applicable not only to that {pecies of
tenants for life which are exprefsly created by, deed, but
alfo to thofe which are created by aét or operation of law.
1. Everytenant for life, unlefs reftrained by covenant or
agreement, may of common right take upon the land demifed
to him reafonable eftovers, or botes. (Co. Litt. 43.) But
he is not permitted to cut down timber or do other wafte
upon the premifes. (Id. 53.) 2, Tenant for life, or his
reprefentatives, fhall not be prejudiced by any fudden deter-
mination of his eftate, becaufe fuch a determination is con-
tingent and uneertain. (Ibid. 55.) The advantages alfo
of emblements are particularly extended to the parochial
clergy by tat. 28 Hen. VIII. c. rr. 3. “Another incident
to eltates for life relates to the under-tenants,. or leffees.
For they have the fame, nay greater indulgences than their
leffors, the original tenants for life.

The fecond eftate for life is of the /egal kind, as contra-
diftinguifhed from conventional; viz. that of tenant “ in
tail after poffibility of iffue extin@.”” This happens where
one is tenant in fpecial tail, and a perfon, from whofe body
the iffue was to f{pring, dies without iffue ; or, having left
iffue, that iffue becomes extinét; in either of thefe cafes,
the furviving tenant in fpecial tail becomes tenant: in tail
after poffibility of iffue extin@. This eftate mutt be
created by the a€&t of God: that is, by the death of that

erfon out of whofe body the iffue was to {pring ; for no
imitation, conveyance, or other human a¢t can make it. A
poflibility of iffue is always fuppofed to exift in law, unlefs
extinguifhed by the death of the parties; even though the
donees be each of them roo years old. (Litt. § 34. Co.
Litt. 28.) This eftate is of an amphibious nature, par-
taking partly of an eftate-tail, and partly of an eftate for
life. In'truth, the tenant is only tenant for life, but with many
of the privileces of a tenant in tail, as, not to be punifhable
for wafte, &c. (Co. Litt. 27.) ; or, he is tenant in tail,
with many of the reftriftions of a tenant for life ; as, to
forfeit his eftate if he alienes it in fee-fimple (Ibid. 28.) ;
whereas fuch alienation by tenant in tail, though voidable by
the iffue, is no forfeiture of the eftate to the reverfioner ;
who is net concerned in intereit, till all poffibility of iffue
be extinct. But, in general, the law looks upon this eflate
as equivalent to an eftate for life only; and, as fuch, will
permit this tenant to exchange his eltate with a tenant for
life: which exchange can only be made of eftates that are
equal in their nature. (Blackft. Com. b.ii.) See Lrasz
“and TENANT.

Lire, Expe@ation of. See ExPEcTATION.

Gu Infurance or Affurance on. See ASSURANCES 6n
ives.

Lirs-everlafting, a’name by which the ilichry/um, or gnapha-
lium of botanical writers, is fometimes called. See CunWwEED.

Lire Guards. See Guarns.

Lire Preferver, againft drowning. Many different arti-
eles under this denomination have been made, particularly
within thefe few years, by Collins, Spencer, Daniels, and
others. But we believe they have all been copied, ina
greater or lefs degree, from an apparatus con{ftruted by
John Bentley, efq. about the year 1797. It is however
remarkable, that although he exhibited it im public feveral
times, fome very important parts'of it feem to have efcaped
their notice, or at leaft their application of them to: their
own purpofes, ‘The following is his account of it.

The human body in moft inftances is of the fame fpecific
gravity as water ; therefore, any fubftance which is lighter
than water, being attached to the body, muft caufe it to
float. ‘The fituation belt adapted for fixing it ig round thie

" x

LIF

body, immediately under the arms; and as it is defirable
to be able to keep the head, neck, fhoulders, and arms above
water without any exertion, the article ufed mutt difplace a,
bulk of water equal in weight to thofe parts. The next ~
thing to be attended to, is to enable a perfon who cannot
{wim to make progrefs through the water. The handsand
feet are too narrow to accomplith this without a knowledge
of the art of fwimming, therefore the fingers and feet mult
be artificially webbed. Thus the whole apparatus, which
he calls a nautilus, confifts of three diftin€t parts, and are to
be thus conttruéted. :

The éuoyant is made of copper, in the form of a tube,
to fit the round of the ‘body, about fix inches diame-
ter, the feam brazed with hard folder. It fhould be made
in three lengths, the ends quite flat, to fit each other
exadily, fo that, when put together, they form a ring or
belt. ‘Fhis is in cafe of accident happening to one part by
leaking, that it may not extend to the other two, which will
be fufficient to prevent finking. Each of thefe parts is fewed
up in baize, with three {trong tapes near the end of each
piece, by which all of them are fecurely tied together. A
flexible pipe, of the thicknefs of a quill, is inferted in each
piece, from the upper fide to the bottom, fo that if any
leakage happens, the water is readily drawn out by the
mouth and difcharged. The buoyant, thus prepared, mutt
be fecurely tied with ftrong tapes, croffed round and over
the fhoulders, to prevent it getting down. {t cannot get
over thearms. Whenit is thus fixed, the body will, by its.
own gravity, be ereét in the water, with the feet down-.
wards, and will always retain this pofition unlefs force is ap--
plied to alter it, and which it will again recover when the
force ceafes to a&t. ‘The fecond part, which is for the
hands, is a pair of ciled filk gloves, which, after being made
inthe ufual way, the fingers are opened to their full extent
breadthways, and a piece of the fame material fewed over
them on the under fide. Tapes are fewed at the top to.
tie them round the wrilt. .

The third part, being for the feet, is made thus: take a:
piece of half-inch wainfcot or mahogany, 11 inches longs.
and roinches wide. Cut it longitudinally into three pieces,,
two of them 33 inches broad, and the other 24 inches,
Faften them well together with two pair of brafs hinges, and.
rule joints to fall and rife like a two-leaved table, the narrow
piece being in the middle. On the under-fide of the middle-
piece, in the centre, a wooden turn buckle mutt be ferewed, to
prevent the fide-pieces from falling down, when walking to
or irom the water. ‘T'wo wooden’ {tops «are £6. fixed upon
this piece as to prevent the fides, when down, coming to a
right angle with che middie-pieco, that the rifing and falling
may be duly performed with the action of the feet. To
the upper fide of the-middle-piece,.a common leather fhee,
(to fit the perfon} muit be faftened on with two, {crews
through the fole, and’ near each end of this middle-piece
two {mall holes are made with a centre-bit, through which-
good tapes-are paffed, to tie round the inftep and over the
foot. A pair of thefé muft of courfé be provided, anda
perfon thus-equipped, being perfeGtly. buoyant in-water, and ~
web-footed and web-fingered, will be able to outfwim any
other:perfan, and.may exilt in the-water as long as cold and’
hunger will pexmit. ’

By increafing the dimenfion of the buoyant; a proportions. _
ate quantity of provifions, or any other article, may be car-
ried. Theinventor has wrote a letter, and otherwife amufed
himfelf'on the fea; with this apparatus, and believes he could
crofs from Dever to Calais im perfect fafety. Itis very con~
venient for croffing deep rivers, Where there are neither
boats nor bridges.. It is procured at little expenee, very

portable,

LIG

portable, and put onin one minute. Perfons provided withit,
and being fhipwrecked near the coaft, would feldom be lott.

Lire-Rent, in Law, arent which a man receives for a
term’ of ‘life, or for fuftentation of it.. Skene.

LIFFAMATULA, in Geography, an ifland in thé
Fait Indian fea, 25 miles long and fix broad. S. Tat2°:;
E. long. 126° 18).

LIFFEY, ariver of Ireland, which rifes in the north-
weitern mountains of the county of Wicklow, and winding
through the county of Kildare, it pafles through the city of
Dublin, and flows into Dublin bay. It derives its chief im-
portance from the greatnefs of the city fituated on its

banks.
’ . LIFFORD, the county-town of the county of Done-
gal, Ireland, a very {mall place, and at one extremity of that
Jarge county, but fixed upon to accommodate the judges
and gentlemen of the bar: one mile W. from Strabane,
and 101 N.W. by N. from Dublin.

LIFFRE, a town of France, in the department of the
Ile and Vilaine, and chief place of acanton, in the diftri&
of Rennes; g miles N.E. of Rennes. The place contains
2096, and the canton 8372 inhabitants, on a territory of
205 kiliometres, in 7 communes.

LIFTING-Preces, in a clock, are thofe parts which
lift up and unlock the detents in the clock part.

LIFTS, ina Ship, ropes belonging to the yard-arms of
all yards. Their ufe is to {top the yard-arms, i. ¢. to make
the end of the yards hang higher or lower, as o¢cafion ferves.
The top-fail lifts ferve as fheets for the top-gallant yards, as
well as for lifts to the top-fail yards. The haling of thefe
ropes is called topping the lifis: thus they fay, ee a flar-
an or top a port, i. e. hale upon the ftarboard or arboard

ira

The lifts for the fprit-fail-yard are called fanding lifts.

LIGAMENT, in its general fenfe, denotes any thing
that ties or binds one part to another.

In which fenfe the ancients applied the word to membranes,
Skin, flefh, veins, and arteries ; as being common ligaments.

LicAMENT, in its more proper fignification, denotes a
white, tough, folid, inflexible part, ferving to inclofe, and
keep together the junctures of the body.

It has no confpicuous cavities, nor has it any fenfe, left it
fhould fuffer on the moving of the bones. Itis found very
different, according to the different parts where it is ufed.
It is harder than a membrane, yet fofter than a cartilage :
its principal ufe is to gird and ftrengthen the junctures, to
prevent the diflocation of the bones, and even to falten them
together, when they have no articulation, It alfo ferves as
a covering to the tendons to feparate them from the mufcles,
and to hold up the fufpended entrails, left their weight
fhould throw them down. Such are the kgaments of the
liver, the bladder, and matrix.

_ Ligaments are of different fubftances ; fome hard, others
foft, membranous, nervous, and cartilaginous; as alfo of
different figures and fituations : fome arife from bones, others
from cartilages, and others from membranes.

LIGAMENTUM, in Anatomy, a ligament or part con-
necting organs together, and limiting their refpeétive mo-
tions. In its moft proper fenfe it denotes the fibrous bodies
by which the bones are united at their articulations (fee
Jor) ; but it is often applied to parts of an entirely dif-
ferent kind, as to the membranous folds which attach va-
rious organs in the cheft and abdomen. ~

Licamentum Aprulare, isa name given to different fibrous
organs about, the wrift and foot, which confine the tendons
of the extenfor and flexor mufcies in their fituation. For an
account of the annular ligament of the carpus, fee Extre-

LIG

urrres, The annular ligament of the fore-arm, which con~
fines the extenfor tendons, is defcribed in the articles
Exrensor communis digitorum, and Fascia. The defcrip-
tion of the annular ligaments of the cord will be found under
Fascia.

Licamentum Arteriofum, is the fibrous cord conneCting
together the trunks of the pulmonary artery and the aorta,
confilting of the remains of the canalis arteriofus of the
fetus. See Emprvo.

Ligamentum Ciliare, in the eye, is the white union of
the fclerotica and choroid coats. See Eyx.

Ligamenta Coli. See INrEesTINE.

Licamentum Denticulatum, in the {pinal marrow.
BRAIN.

Licamentum Nuche. See Heap.

Licamentom Fallopii, or Poupart's Ligament. See Os-
Liquus externus abdominis.

LicaMentum Latum, or Sufpenforium Hepatis, lig. coro-
narium hepatis, et ligamenta lateralia hepatis. See Liver.

Licamentum Latum Uteri, et lig. rotundum uteri. See
the defcription of the uterus in the article GenERATION.

Licamentum Teres of the hip-joint. See ExTREMITIES.

LIGAN, in Law, denotes a wreck conlifting of goods
funk in the fea, but tied to a cork or buoy, in order to be
found again. Over thefe, as well as flotfam and jetfam,
the high-admiral hath jurifdi¢tion, as they are in and upon
the fea. 5 Rep. 106.

LIGANI, in Geography, a town of Turkifh Armenia ;
30 miles E. of Ifpira.

LIGARDES, a town of France, in the department of
the Gers ; 7 miles N.E. of Condom.

LIGATURE, among My/tic Divines, fignifies a total
fufpenfion of the fuperior faculties, or intelleétual powers of
the foul. They pretend, that when the foul is arrived at a
perfe& contemplation, fhe remains deprived of all her ope-
rations, and ceafes to act in order to be more ready and pre-
pared to receive the impulfe and communications of divine
grace. This ‘paffive fate of thefe contemplative people
they call their /igature.

Licature is alfo ufed for a ftate of impotency, in re-
{peét to venery, pretended to be caufed by fome charm, or
witchcraft.

Kempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature, or knot-
ting, in ufe among the people of Maffacar, Java, Malaya,
Siam, &c. By this charm, or fpell, a man binds up a wo-
man, and a woman a man, fo as to put it out of their power
to have to do with any other perfon ; the man being thereby
rendered impotent to any other woman, and all other mea
impotent with refpeét to the woman.

Some of their philofophers pretend that this ligature may
be effeéted by the fhutting of a lock, the drawing of a knot,
or the fticking of a knife in the wall, at the point of time
wherein the prieft is joining a couple together ; and that a
ligature, thus effected, may be diffolved, by the fpoufe’s
urining througha ring. This piece of {uperttition is faid to’
obtain alfo among the Chriftians of the Eaft.

The fame author tells us, that during the ceremony of
marriage in Ruffia, he obferved an old fellow lurking behind
the church-door, and mumbling over a {tring of words ; and,
at the fame time, cutting a long rod, which he held under his
arm, into pieces ; which, it feems, is a common practice at
the marriages of great perfons, and done with defizn to clude
and counter-work any other perfon, that might poffibly be
inducing the ligature.

The fecret of inducing a ligature is delivered by the fame
author, as he was taught it on the fpot by one of their adepts;
which, being a curiotity, we fhali not {cruple to add in his

5A 2 own

See

LIG

own words ; not daring to make it fpeak Englifh. Puella
amafium, vel conjux maritum ligaturus, ab{terget a concubitus
a&tu, priapum, indufio—ut feminis quantum poteft excipiet.
Hoe probe convolutum fub limine domus fuze in terram
fepeliat. Ibi quamdiu fepultum reliquerit, tamdiu ejus
hafta in nullius preterquam fui (fafcinantis) fervitium obe-
diet, et prius ab hoc nexu non liberabitur quam ex clauttro
liminis liberetur ipfum linteum: vite verfa, vir leéti fociam
ligaturus, menftruatum ab eo linteum comburit ; ex cine-
ribus cum propria urina fubaétis, efformato figuram priapi,
vel, {i cineres icuncule fingende non fufliciant, eofdem fubi-
gito cum parte terre, quam recens perminxerit. Formatam
iconem caute exficcato, ficcamque affervato loco ficco, ne
humorem contrahat. Quamdiu fic fervaveris, omnes artus,

dum ad fcopam focie collimaverint, momento contabefcent :.

ipfe vero dominus. Abrunum hunc fuum prius humeétato,
quamdiu fic manebit, tamdiu fufpenfo nexu priapus ipfi
parebit, quin & alios quotquot foemina properantes admi-
ferit.”

M. Marfhal mentions another ridiculous form of ligature,
which he received from a Bramin at Hindooftan: « If,”
fays he, ‘the little worm in the wood lukerara kara be cut
into two, and the one part ftirs, and the other not, if the
ftirring part be bruifed, and given with half a beetle to a
man, and the other half to a woman, the charmowill keep
each from ever having to do with any other perfon.’” Phil.
Tranf. No. 268.

Licature, Ligatura, in the Italian Mufic, fignifies a tying
or binding together of notes.

Hence fyncopes are often called ligatures, becaufe they
are made by the ligature of many notes. There is another
fort of ligatures for breves, when there are many of thefe
on different lines, or in different fpaces, to be fung to one
fyllable. ;

To underftand this, it muft be obferved, that only breves
are capable of this fpecies of ligature, becaufe their figure
admits of their being placed fo clofe together, as to feem
one charaéter only, though placed on different degres, unlefs
there be occafion to place a femicircle either above or below
them, to fhew that they are tied. This kind of ligature
regards common time only. Breves again muft be confi-
dered as fimple, as having a tail, and as being of different
colours. Firlt, if they be fimple 4 and afcend, they con-
tain their natural quantity, i.e. each two femi-breves, as in
example A. But if they defcend, then each is equivalent
to four femi-breves, if only two follow one another, asin B,
If there are three or four following ones, the firft and jaft
contain each four femi-breves, and thofe in the middle but
two, as in C.

_ Secondly, if they have tails H, and the tail be turned
upwards, the breves contain only one meafure, as well
afcending.as defcending. ‘See Ex. D. But ifit be marked
downwards, the breve then contains it8 natural quantity.
See Ex. E. This fpecies of ligature was invented only
becaufe the minim, being-round, could not be ufed in this

manner. And the femicircle was not at that time in ufe.

-. It may. be here remarked, that ordinarily the firit breve
jalone of every ligature has a tail, and that ufually placed on
ahe left fide. Lattly,, if they be of different colours, 7. e. if
the firft be white, or open in the middle, and the fecond black,

LIG

the firft contains a femi-breve, and the feeond a pointed mi-
nim. Example F.

Thefe are the principal ligatures, befides which there are
many others, for which fee CuaracTer, See alfo Leca-
TURA.

Licatures, among Printers, are types confifting of two
letters or characters joined together, as @, &, f, ff, f. The
old editions of Greek authors are extremely full of liga-
tures ; the ligatures of Stephens are, by much, the molt
beautiful.

Some editions have been lately printed without any liga>
tures at all; and there was a defign to explode them quite
out of printing, Had this fucceeded, the fineft ancient edi-
tions‘would, in time, have grown ufelefs ; and the reading
of old manufcripts would have been rendered almoft imprac-
ticable to the learned themfelves.

LicaturE, in Surgery, is the only means to be depended
upon for putting a permanent ftop to all bleedings from
arteries of confiderable fize. In ordinary cafes, the mouth
of the bleeding veffel being expofed, is taken hold of with
the tenaculum, or forceps, and tied, In fome inflances, the
artery being only punétured, and not cut through, nor
brought into view, the furgeon has firft to cut down to the
wounded portion of tke veffel, and then pafs a double liga-
ture under it by means of an aneurif{m-needle, or an eye-
probe. The latter inftrument, having fulfilled its office, is
to be removed by dividing the double ligature with a pair
of fciffors. One part of the ligature is then to be applied
round the artery in a firm knot above the opening from
which the blood iffues, and the other below it. In cafes of
aneurifm, the ligature is introduced under the artery in a
very fimilar way. ;

Whoever is acquainted with the hiftory of furgery, mutt
be fully fenfible of the immenfe advantage which the mo-
derns have over the ancients in the familiar employment of
ligatures for the ftoppage of hemorrhage. But, althongh
many years have elapfed fince this important improvement in
practice began, it was not till very lately that feveral moft
interefting circumftances, relative to the ufe of the ligature).
were brought to light. For this elucidation of a difficult,
though highly momentous, fubjeét to the praétical furgeon,
we are indebted to the judgment, accuracy, and talents of
Dr. J. F. D. Jones, whofe Treatife on Hemorrhage de-
mands the earneft attention of every enlightened pra¢titioner.
Before this work appeared, fcarcely any furgeon had a jut
conception of the manner in which ligatures effected the
fuppreflion of hemorrhage ; nor were the principles on
which they ought to be made and applied properly under-
ftood. One of the firft and moft material effects of a liga-
ture applied to an artery, is to produce a divifion of the
middle and internal coats of the veffel. This fact was com-
municated to Dr: Jones by Mr. Thomfon of Edinburgh,
and is alleged to have been known to the celebrated M.
Default of Paris. The inner coats of the artery, thus cut
through by the preffure of the ligature, are in the fitteft
ftate for inflaming and effufing coagulable lymph, and, in
fhort, for undergoing that procefs, by which the permanent
clofure of the vefiel 1s to be accompanied. Hence, liga-
tures fhould not be thick, irregular, and clumfy ; but a

LIG

ih, firm, and round; and they fhould be applied with
tightnefs, as it is of confequence that they divide the inner
coats of the artery, and the fear of their cutting the veflel
quite through is deftitute of foundation. Thefe, however,
and numerous other particulars, having been explained in a
previous part of this Cyclopedia, we mutt avoid unneceflary
repetition, by referring the reader to the article Hemor-
RHAGE.

LIGEANCE, Liceant1, in Law, is the true and faith-
ful obedience of a fubje& to his fovereign ; and is alfo applied
to the dominion or territory of the hege lord: thus chil-
dren are faid to be born in or out of the ligeance of the
king, &c. Stat..25 Edw. ILI. See Autecrance and
Licce.

LIGHT, that fenfation occafioned in the mind by the
view of luminous bodies; or that property in bodies,
whereby they are fitted to excite thofe fenfations in us.

Licur is alfo ufed to denote a certain ation of the lumi-
nous body, on a medium between it and the eye; by means
of which, fome fuppofe the one to act on the other. This
they call fecondary, or derivative light: to diftinguifh it
from that of luminous bodies, which is called primary, or
innate.

Ariftotle explains the nature of light, by fuppofing fome
bodies to be tranfparent, as air, water, ice, &c.; but fince,
in the night-time, we do not fee any thing through thofe bo-
dies, he fays, they are only tranfparent potentially ; where-
as, in the day, they become really and aétually tranf{parent :
and fince it is light alone that can reduce that power into aét,
he defines light to be the a& of a tranfparent body, con-
fidered as fuch. He adds, that light is not fire, nor is it
any thing bodily radiating from the luminous body, and
tranfmitted through the tranfparent one; but the mere
prefence of fire, or fome other luminous body, at the tranf-
parent one..

This is Ariftotle’s doGrine of light, which his followers

miftaking, have charged on him another, very different ;.

making light and colours to be qualities of the luminous
and coloured bodies themfelves, and in ali refpects like
thofe fenfations which they occafton in us: adding, that
things lucid, or coloured, could not produce any fenfation
in us, unlefs they had fomething fimilar in themfelves, fince

nihil dat quod in fe non babet.

But the fophifm is apparent ; for we find, that a‘needle,.

in pricking thg flefh, gives us pain, which nobody ever
imagined to exiftin the needle. But that it is not neceflary
there fhould be any fimilitude between the quality of the
obje&, and the fenfation it produces, appears itill more evi-
dent from a glafs prifm, which is found to exhibit blue, yel-
low, red, and other colours extremely vivid; and yet no

- body will fay there is any thing in the glafs prifms like to.
thofe fenfations.

The Cartefians have refined confiderably on this notion ;
and own that light, as it exilts in the luminous body, -is
nothing but a power or faculty of exciting in us a very clear
and vivid fenfation ; adding, that what is required to the
perception of light, is, that we be fo formed, as to be ca-
pable of fuch fenfations ; that in the hidden pores of tranf-
parent bodies, there be a certain fubtile matter, which, by
reafon of its exceeding fmallnefs, may penetrate even glafs,
and yet be ftrong enough to fhake certain capillaments at
the bottom of the eye; and laftly, that this matter be
impelled by the luminous body, fo as to move the organ of
fight.

ePrimary light, therefore, they. fay, confifts in a certain
motion of the particles of the luminous body, whereby they
are enabled to propel, every way,.the materia fubtilis,

LIG

pry, in the pores of tranfparent bodies ; and fecondary
or derivative light, in a conatus to motion, or an inclination
of that matter to recede from the centre of the luminous
body in right lines. :

Father Malebranche explains the nature of light, froma
fuppofed analogy between it and found.

Thus he fuppofes all the parts of a luminous body are in
a rapid motion, which, by very quick pulfes, is conftantly
comprefling the fubtile matter between the luminous body
and the eye, and excites vibrations of preffion. As thefe
vibrations are greater, the body appears more luminous ;
and as they are more quick, or more flow, the body is of this
or that colour.

This hypothefis, how ingenious foever, is now defervedly
difcarded, fince the great difcoveries made by fir Ifaac New-
ton on the nature of light.. The primary light they talk
of, we now know, confifts wholly in a certain motion of
the particles of the lucid body, whereby they do not propel
any fictitious matter, fuppofed to be lodged in the hidden
pores of tranfparent bodies ; but throw off from the lumi-
nous body certain very {mall particles, which are emitted-
every way with great force; and the fecondary or deri--
vative light confiits not in a.conatus, but a real motion of
thefe particles, receding every way from the luminous body,
in right lines, and that with an incredible velocity.

The mott diftinguifhing property ef light is that by which
it renders objeéts vifible by {ome power, which transfers -
their exterior figure to the retina of the eye.

We obtain light from three diftinét fources, which will di-
vide our f{ubjeét into three heads ; namely, folar light, light
of combuttion,.and phofphorefcent light.

Very little was known of the nature and properties of
light before the experimental refearches: of Newton; and
it is remarkable that at this time fo little fhould have been
added to the labours of that acute philofopher. It is dtrange, -
that after the evidence of his-experiments tliere could have
been two opinions refpeting the nature of light. Hnuy-
gens fuppofed the phenomena of light to be caufed by an-
undulatory motion, excited in a {uppofed fubtile and. elaftic
medium, pervading all {pace: that'thefe waves or pulfes
are propagated, firft at the luminous body,.fuch as the
fun ‘or a candle, and tranfmitted in all direétions.. The
impreflion made by thefe waves upon the eye is the caufe
of vifion. This do@trine has fince been taken up by Euler,
who,;.with much zeal asd mathematical labour, ,{upported it
to his death. Newton, however, had given an hypothefis,
fupported by clear and itriking experiments; and at the
fame time had pointed out infurmountable objeétions to the
undulatory hypothefis, fo that the labour and great ta-
lents of Euler were exhaufted to little purpofe.

Sir Ifaac Newton argued, with great propriety, that the -
undulatory motion was inconfiftent with the phenomena of
light.. The paflage of light would not be confined to
ftraight lines, but might, hke found, be: corveyed through
crooked tubes, which is contrary to the faét.

Befides, if light confifted in a mere preflion, or’ pulfe, it
would be propagated to all diftanees in the fame mftant of
time ; the contrary of which appears from the phenomena
of the eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites, which we fhall prefently
mention,

We fhall therefore, with Newton, confider light as-a ma--
terial agent, moving with an inimenfe velocity from the
point where it is liberated. If its motionbe in free fpace,
it moves in ftraight lines in the form of -radii, and would
continue for ever in the fame direétion, if not changed in its
courfe by the attraction of other matter. Light, therefore,
like ele&tricity and caloric, appears in a high degree to be

t 7 repellent

LIGHT.

repellent of itfelf, although it poffeffes attraction for pon-
derable matter. Indeed, it is to this great repulfion of the
particles of light that we are to attribute its progreffive
velocity, which, therefore, is as the force by which its par-
ticles are feparated.

The {mall extent of the limits of vifion upon the furface
of our globe does not enable us to appreciate the velocity
with which light moves.

Roemer, a Danifh philofopher, at length found the means
of determining this point by the difference of time in the
eclipfes of Jupiter’s fatellites,, when the earth was on the
fame, or on the contrary fide of the fun, with that planet.
The immertions of thefe fatellites, as the earth approaches
towards Jupiter, are found to anticipate fomewhat on the
true time, and to commence fooner; and again, as the
earth retires from Jupiter, their emerfions, which alone in
that cafe can be obferved, happen later and later, or lofe
time ; deviating thus, very confiderably on either fide, from
the true time marked by the tables.

This was firlt obferved by M. Roemer, and fince by
other altronomers ; the reafon of which is not owing to any
eccentricity; but apparently follows from this circum-
ftance, that the light of the fun, reflected from the fatel-
lites, has farther to travel, before it reaches the eye, in the
one cafe than in the other, by a {pace equal to the diameter
-of the earth’s annual orbit.

The obfervations, whence.this conclufion was deduced,
were made at the obfervatory belouging to the Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences at Paris, from 1670 to 1675: the prin-
cipal fa&t was, that the firft fatellite fometimes emerged
exattly at the times calculated by the tables, and fometimes
not, infomuch that the greateft variation was about four-
teen minutes. The particular obfervation that was the moft
itriking, was the emerfion of this fatellite obferved at Paris,
Noy. 9, 1676, ten minutes later than it had been obferved
in the month of Auguit, when the earth was much nearer
to Jupiter. Hence Caflini and Roemer both concluded,
that this circumftance depended on the diftance of Jupiter
with refpeét to the earth; and that in order to account for
it, they mult fuppofe that the light was about fourteen mi-
nutes in croffing.the earth’s orbit. :

But tle conclufion was afterwards abandoned and attacked
by Monfieur Caflini. M. Roemer’s opinion found an able
advocate in Dr. Halley; who removed Caflini’s difficulty,
aad left M. Roemer’s conclufion in its full force. Ina
memoir prefented to the academy in 1707, Monfieur Maraldi
endeavoured to give a new force to Caflini’s arguments ; but
Monfieur Roemer’s doG@rine found a new defender in Mr.
Pound. See Phil. Tranf. N?.136. Phil. Tranf. Abr. by
Lowth, vol. i. p. 409, 422. S’Grav. Phyf, Elem. N° 2636,
feq.

It has been fince found, that when the earth is between
the fun and Jupiter, his fatellites are eclipfed about eight
minutes fooner than they could be according to the tables,
and that when the earth is nearly in the oppofite point of its
orbit, thefe eclipfes happen about eight minutes later than
the tables predi@ them. Hence it is undeniably certain,
that the motion of light is not inftantaneous, fince it takes
about 16£, (or 1610"). minutes, of time to go through a
{pace equal to the diameter of the carth’s orbit, which is at
Jealt 190 millions of miles in length; and confequently the
particles of light fly about 191919 or 200000 miles every
{econd of time, which is.near a million of miles {wifter than
the motion of a cannon-ball. And.as Kkeht is 164 minutes in
travelling acrofs the earth’s orbit, it mult be 84 (or 8! 5")
misutes in comtng from the fun to us; therefore, if the fun
avere annihilated, we fhould fee him for 84 minutes after ;

and if he were again created, he would be 8% (or 8! 5!) mi-
nutes old before we could fee him. In order to explain this
progreflive motion of light, let A and B, Plate 1X. Optics,
jig. 1, be the earth in two different parts of its orbit, whofe
diftance from each other is 95 millions of miles, equal to the
earth's diltance from the fun S.

{t is plain, that if the motion of light were inftantaneous,
the fatellite r would appear to enter into Jupiter’s fhadow
F F, at the fame moment of time to a fpetator in A, as
to another in B. But it is now well known that the immer-
fion of the fatellite into the fhadow is feen 84 (or 8! 5") mi-
nutes fooner when the earth is at B, than when it is at A.
As the earth moves from D to C, through the fide A B of
its orbit, it is conftantly meeting the light of Jupiter’s fatel-
lites fooner, which occafions an apparent acceleration of their
eclipfes ; and as it moves through the other half H_ of its
orbit, from C to D, it is receding from their light, which
occalions an apparent retardation of their eclipfes, becaufe
their light is then longer before it overtakes the earth. ‘That
thefe accelerations and retardations are not occafioned by
any inequality arifing from the motions of the fatellites in
eccentric orbits is plain, becaufe it affects them all alike, in
whatever parts of their orbits they are eclipfed. Befides,
they go’ often round their orbits-every year, and their me-
tions are no way commenfurate to the earth’s. Therefore a
phenomenon not to be accounted for from the real motions
of the fatellites, but fo eafily deducible from the motion of
the earth, and fo anfwerable to it, muft be allowed to refult
from it. And this affords one very good proof of the earth’s
annual motion. See the fequel of this article.

We fhall here obferve, that the firft perfon, who con-
ceived the thought of meafuring the velocity of light was
Galileo, who has given a particular defcription of his con-
trivance for this purpofe, in his Treatife on Mechanics,
p-39- He had two men with lights, one of whom was to
obferve when the other uncovered his light, and to exhibit
his own the moment that he perceived it: the experiment
was tried, as may naturally be imagined, without fuccels, at
the diftance of one mile; but the members of the academy
Del Cimento refumed the experiment, and placed the ob-
fervers, to as little purpofe, at the diftance of two miles.
However, the method ufed by M. Roemer, already men-
tioned, was the only one adequate to the difcovery of the
velocity of light. f

Onr excellent aftronomer, Dr. Bradley, has found nearly
the fame velocity of light, from his accurate obfervations,.
and moit ingenious theory, to account for fome apparent
motions in the fixed {tars. Phil. Tranf. N°? 406, or Abridg.
vol. vi. p.150. And fora fummary account of thefe ob-
fervations, &c. fee EAntu and Srar.

To underftand this, it mut be premifed, that the fixed
{tars are luminous bodies, and at reft, with refpeét to our
planetary fyftem, from. which they are vaitly remote. «In
this fyftem alfo the earth is conlidered as one of the planets,
and moving about the fun.

Suppofe the fun reprefented in 5S, (Plate IX. Optics,
figs 2+) and that the circle ABCD reprefents the path of
the earth, or the ecliptic. At the centre S fuppofe a per-
pendicular § P raifed to the plane of the ecliptic, and that
this perpendicular paffes through any fixed itar. If a
f{peGtator were placed in S, he would fee the ftar in the
fame perpendicular ; but if the fpectator pafles over the
circle A BCD, the diameter of which is fuppoted to bear
a fenfible though fmall proportion to the dittance of the
itar, it will be perceived to change its fituation in the hea-
vens. For a {pectator in A would fee the ftar in the line
A Pa; in C he would fee the fame itar in the line CPc5

and

LIGHT.

and fo in any other point of his progrefs ; whence it follows,
that the ftar would feem to defcribe a circle in the’ heavens
reprefented by adcd. If the diltance of the ftar was fo
very great, that in refpeét of it the diameter of the earth’s
orbit A C might be efteemed a point ; in this cafe, the fore-
faid circle would be entirely infenfible ; all the lines drawn
from the points of the orbit to the ftar might pafs for per-
pendiculars to the plane of the ecliptic, and in appearance
would correfpond to the fame point in the heavens with the
perpendicular in S, in which point the ftar would always
appear, if its light could reach us in an inftant. But if
in this cafe, where the {tar is fo remote, the light is fuppofed
to be propagated from the ftar with a certain velocity, at
the fame time that the earth proceeds in its orbit, the {tar
will be feen in an oblique direétion to the plane of the orbit;
becaufe of the motion compounded of the motion of light,
and that of the fpectator.

Suppofe the light to move in the line E G ( fg. 3.) mak-
ing an angle with the line F G, in which the’ fpectator is
carried along ; whom we fhall conceive placed in F. Let
the velocity of the {petator be to. the velocity of the light,
as FG to EG. While the fpeCtator moves along F G,
the light does the fame along EG; and the particle of
light, which is in E when the {pedtator is.in F, enters the
eye only when he arrives at G. Now the direction of the
light, with refpec to the eye, makes with the line F G the
angle EF G. For if we conceive the line-F E. drawn, and
to be carried with a parallel metion along with the eye, fo
that in refpe& thereof it be at reft, while this continues
moving, the light will reach the eye in the direction of the
faid line ; for when the eye fhall bein f the middle point
between F and G, the transferred line, will cut E G in its
middle point g, to. which-the particle of light has reached,
and which is likewife the middle point of the transferred

line fe; wherefore the particle of light, which was in E,. »

in the extremity of the line E F, arrives at, and. will. enter
the eye in the direCtion ¢ g. :
Let the angle EGF ( fg: 4.) be a right one, and E G'to
FG as the velocity of the light to the velocity of the
earth in its orbit ; then E F G will be the angle, which the
ray of light entering the eye, makes with the plane in-which
the earth moves round the fun.
If the earth be in B (fg. 5.) it moves in the: direction
of the tangent to its orbit in this point ; that is, if we fup-
- pofe the- {peétator in the fun, the direétion: of the: earth’s
motion: is parallel to SC; and making- the angle aS C
equal- to the angle EG F in the former figure, the line
Sa will reprefent the line in which the {pe€tator-would fee
the ftar.
In the fame-manner when tlie earth is in D, the fpetator
in the fun will fee the ftar in Sc, the angles PSc and PSa@
. being equal; and the line S a or Sc; by its revolution about

PS; would’ defcribe a cone, whofe bafe in: the heavens.

would be a circle reprefenting the apparent path of the ftar
through a. whole year. Let us fuppofe this circle to. be

abcd, as in-fig. 5.. ©

When the ftar is not in:the perpendicular to the plane of:

the ecliptic, but the line PS. (fg. 6.) is inclined to that
plane, the lines which determine the apparent motion of the
Htar in the heayens- will form cones, as in the cafes already
explained ;, only, they would be oblique, and ia both cafes
the apparent path.of the {tar in the heavens would be deter-
mined as.above :_ but in this laft cafe it would be an ellipfis,
the greater diameter of which would be equal io the dia-
meter of the circle abcd of the former figures; fo that
knowing this ellipfis, the circle might eafily be found which

the ftar would defcribe, if placed in the perpendicular to the
plane of the ecliptic.

The only way to determine, whether the ftars defcribe
fuch ellipfes, is by obfervations ; in making which there are
great difficulties, which, however, Dr. Bradley has with in-
comparable induttry furmounted.

Nothing can immediately be determined concerning the
forefaid elliptic motion. The diftance of the ftar from the
pole of the world mult be meafured at different times of the
year, and from the different diitances the elliptic motion is
to be determined by calculation, allowing for the motion of
the pole itfelf during the {pace of time between the obferva-
tions; for the pole moves in a lefler circle, one degree of
which it pafles over in feventy-two years.

Dr. Bradley, making all neceffary allowances, obferved
feveral ftars at different times of the year, whereby he im-
mediately difcovered, that their diftances from the pole of
the world varied; and was convinced that this variation
could not be attributed to the nutation of. the pole; for he
examined two ftars at equal diftances from the pole,. but fo
oppofite, that the one ought to have receded from the pole
as much as the other. acceded to it,. if the motion. was in the
pole itfelf. But this did not fall out fo ; for the change of
the one {tar was double of. that of, the other;. a proper al-
lowance being always made for the pole’s motion arifing
from the above revolution. However, this indefatigable
obferver inferred fronr his obfervations, that the ftars in cer-
tain times receded from, and acceded to, the pole of the
world with a motion entirely analogous to that which is per-
formed in.an.ellipfis;.and.alfo.that they, move in fuch curves,
for each of which the motion in the fame little circle, as
abcd ( fig. 6.) anfwers, when:the ftars are referred to the
perpendicular in S to the plane of the ecliptic ; and the dia-
meter of. this, minute circle for them-all is 40'4.

It is plain from obferyations, to which of the above men-
tioned caufes we are to afcribe the motion of the ftar.. For
ifthe firft.takes place, the ftar would be carried from ato c,
while the earth paffed over the part A BC of its orbit ;.
but this, being contrary to obfervation, cannot.be the true
caufe. But this change in the fituation of the ftar. takes
place.according to the obfervations, while the earth defcribes
the part BC D of its orbit, which. is juft what the fecond
caufe requires.

If both the caufes took. place at the fame time, the are
defcribed by the earth.would differ from that indicated by
either of them ;, befides, this concurrence. of. the caufes is
contrary to the obfervations ; uulefs,. perhaps, it may be
thought reafonable to. attribute, a little influence to the firft
caufe ; but fo very {mall a portion, as not to be fenfibly per-
ceived in the obfervations..

Dr. Bradley himfelf confidered this matter in the follow-
ing manner:. he imagined CA (Plate 1X. Opticsy fig. 7.)
to be a. ray of light falling perpendicularly upos.the line
BD ; that, if the eye is at reit at» A, the obje@ muft ap-
pear in the direction A C, whether light.be. propagated in
time orin aninftant. Butif the eye is moving from Btowerds
A, and light is propagated in time, .with a velocity that is
to. the velocity of the eye as CAto B.A, then light, mov-.
ing from C to A, whilit the eye moves from B to Ay that
particle of it by which the objeét will be difcerned. when
the eye.comes to A, is at C, when. the eye is: at B.
Joining the points B, C, he fuppofed the line C Bto bea
tube, inclined to the line BD in the angle D.BC, of fuch
adiameter as to admit but one particle.of light. Then it
was eafy to conceive,.that the particle of light at C, by-
which the objet mult be feen, when the eye, as it moves
along, arrives at. A, would pafs through the tube BC, if

abe

LYE @Frw®.

it is inclined to B D in the angle D BC, and accompanies
theeye in its motion from B to A; and that it could not
come to the eye placed behind fuch a tube, if it had any other
inclination to the line BD. If, inftead of fuppofing C B
fo fmall a tube, we imagine it to be the axis of a larger;
then, for the fame reafon, the particle of light at C would not
pafs through that axis, ‘unlefs it is inclined to B D in the
angle CBD. In like manner, if the eye move the con-
trary way, from D towards A, with the fame velocity, then
the tube mutt be inclined in the angle BDC. Although,
therefore, the true or veal place of an objeét is perpendicu-
lar to the line in which the eye is moving, yet the wifible
place will not be fo, fince that, no doubt, muft be in the
direGtion of the tube; but the difference between the true
and apparent place will be, ceteris paribus, greater or lefs,
according to the different proportion between the velocity of
light and that of the eye. So that if we could fuppofe that
light was propagated in an inftant, then there would be no
difference between the real and vifible place of an objeé&, al-
though the eye were in motion ; for in that cafe, A C being
infinite with refpe& to A B, the angle A CB, the difference
between the real and vifible place, vanifhes. But if light
be propagated in time, it is evident, from the foregoing con-
fiderations, that there will be always a difference between
the true and vifible place of an obje@, unlefs the eye is mov-
ing either direGtly towards or from the obje&. And in
all cafes the fine of the difference between the real and
vifible place of the obje& will be to the fine of the vifible
inclination of the objeét to the line in which the eye is
moving, as the velocity of the eye is to the velocity of
light.

He ther fhews that if the earth revolve round the fun’

annually, and the velocity of light be to the velocity of the
earth’s motion in its orbit, as one theufand to one, that a
ftar really placedin the very pole of theecliptic, would, to

aneye carried along with the earth, feem to change its ©

place continually ; and negleGting the fmall difference on
the account of the earth’s diurnal revolution on its axis,
would feem to defcribe a circle round that pole every way
diftant from it 3'£3 fo that its longitude would be varied
through all the points of the ecliptic every year, but its
latitude would always remain the fame. Its right afceffion
would alfo change, and its declination, according to the
different fituation of the fun with refpeét to the equinottial
points, and its apparent diftance from the north pole of the
equator, would be 7! lefs at the autumnal than at the vernal
equinox.

The greateft alteration of the place of a ftar in the pole
of the ecliptic, or which, in effé&, amounts to the fame
thing, the proportion between the velocity of the light and
the earth’s motion in its orbit being known, it will not be
difficult, he obferves, to find what would be the difference,
upon this account, between the true and apparent place
of any other ftar at any time; and, on the contrary, the
difference ‘between the true and apparent place being given,
the proportion between the velocity of light and the earth’s
motion in its orbit may be found.

From all which the following conclufions may be deduced :
1. That the fecond caufe above-mentioned alone takes place
inthis cafe, viz. that the diftance of the ftars is fo'great,
that the diameter of the earth’s orbit has no fenfible propor-
tion to it. 2. That the angle F E G (fg. 3.) in the above
mentioned triangle, is 20’; or, fince the apparent declina-
tion of the ftar y Draconis, obférved by Dr. Bradley, on
account of the fucceflive propagation of light, would be to
the diameter of the little circle which a ftar would feem to
@efcribe about the pole of the ecliptic'as 39" to 40".4; the

.

half of this is the angle ACB (fg. 7.) whichis equal to
20".2 ; and confequently the ratio of EGtoF G ( fig. 3-)
or of AC to AB ( fig. 7.) or the velocity of the light to
the velocity of the earth in its orbit, as 10210 to.1; whence
it follows, that the light comes from the fun to the earth in
8' 12". This, Dr. Bradley obferves, is very probably
the truth, becaufe it is a medium between 7 and 11,
which’ were the times which it had before been fup-
pofed to take up, according to different obfervations of
the eclipfes of Jupiter's fatellites. Comparing his ob-
fervations on other ftars, he afterwards concluded, that
light is propagated from the fun-to the earth in 8! 13; and
the near agreement of his obfervations induced him to think,
that this fuppofition could not differ fo much asa fecond of
a degree from the truth; fo that the time which light
{pends in pafling from the fun to us may be determined by
thefe obfervations within 5" or ro", which is fuch a degree
of exa¢tnefs. as we can never hope to attain from the eclipfes
of Jupiter’s fatellites. 3. That the light prdceeds with the
fame velocity from all the ftars ; for all have the fame angle
FEG. Whence (if we fuppofe that all the ftars are not
equally diftant from us, as many arguments prove) it will
follow, that the motion of light, all the way it paffes through
the immenfe {pace above our atmofphere, is equable or uni-
form. And fince the different methods of determining the ve-
locity of light thus agree in the refult, it is reafonable to
conclude, not only that the phenomena above recited are
owing to the caufes to which they are afcribed, but alfo that,
in the fame medium, light is propagated with the fame velo-
city after it has been refleCted, as before. 4. Laftly, it mult
be confidered, that very {mall differences cannot be per-
ceived; and nobody will deny, but that in meafuring 2
{mall angle, an error of a fecond may be committed, what-
ever care is ufed to prevent it; and therefore, akhough we
have faid, that the firft caufe is to be rejeéted, we do
not deny that the ftars may poffibly by its influence de-
feribe a minute circle, whofe diameter is 1", or even a little
more. .S’Gravefande’s Phy{. Elem. Math. lib. ii. cap. 1.
p: 708, feq.
Hence it appears, that the fucceflive propagation of light
will caufe. an aberration in the appearances of the ftars,
planets, and comets. (See Angrration.) After Dr. Brad-
ley had difcovered this. caufe of error in the apparent places of
the fixed ftars, M. Clairaut and others invettigated feveral
rules for the computation of this aberration. M. Euler
alfo has given us a paper on this fubject. Mem. Acad.
Scienc. 1756. Mr. Simpfon, in his Effays. Mem, de l’Acad.
de Berlin, tom. il. p. 141, feq. ; j
See remarks on the effect of the aberration of light on the

‘time of the tranfit of Venus over the fun, by Dr. Price, in

Phil. Tranf. vo]. lx. art. 47. p. 536.

For an account of Mr. Melville’s hypothefis of the dif
ferent velocities of differently coloured rays, fee ReFRAN-
GIBILITY.

Whether the light emitted by candles and other luminous
bodies acquires the fame velocity it is difficult to determine.
So far as our knowledge extends on that head, it does not
appear inferior to folar light.

But to return to the hypothefis of preffure, by which fome
have accounted for the propagation of light, it might be
obferved farther, if light were not a body, but confitted in
a mere preffion, or pulfion, it would never be propagated in
right lines, but would be continually infle&ted ad umbram.
Thus fir Ifaac Newton: ‘A preflure ona fluid medium,
i. ¢. amotion propagated by fuch a medium, beyond any ob-
ftacles, which impedes any part of its motion, cannot be
propagated in right lines, but will be always infleéting and

diffufing

LIGHT.

wiffufing itfelf every way, to the quiefcent medium beyond
that obftacle. The power of gravity tends downwards ;
but the preffure of water arifing from it tends every way with
an equable force, and is propagated with equal eafe, and
equal ftrength, in curves, asin ftraight lines. Waves, on
the furface of the water, gliding by the extremes of any
very large obftacle, infleé&t and dilate themfelves, {till diffuf-
ing, gradually, into the quiefcent water beyond that obita-
cle. The waves, pulfes, or vibrations of the air, wherein
found confifts, are manifeftly infletted, though not fo confi-
derably as the waves of water; and founds are propagated
with equal eafe, through crooked tubes, and through ftraight
lines ; but light was never known to move in any curve, nor
- to infle&itfelf ad umbram.”? The rays of light, therefore,
are {mall corpufcles, emitted with exceeding celerity from
the luminous body. As to the force wherewith thefe cor-
pufcles are emitted, fo as to enable them to move at the in-
conceivable rate of 200,0¢0 miles a fecond; the fame great
author obferves; “ Among bodies of the fame kind and
virtue, by how much any one is fmaller, by fo much is its
attra€tive power greater in proportion to its bulk. This
power we find ftronger in {mall magnets, than in large ones,
resard being had to the difference of their weights: and the
reafon is, that the particles of {mall magnets being nearer
each other, more eafily unite their forces intimately together,
and a& conjun@ly. For the fame reafon the rays of light,
being of all other bodies the mott minute, it may be expected
that their attra€tive powers fhould be, of all others,.the
Rtrongeft ; and how {trong in effe&t they are, may be gathered
from the following rules: the attraction ofa ray of light,
according to the quantity of its matter, is to the gravity
which any projected body has, according, likewife, to the
quantity of its matter, in a ratio compounded of the velocity
of the ray of light, to the velocity of that projected body,
and of the bending or curvature of the line which the ra
deferibes in the place of refraction, to the bending of the
eurvature defcribed by that projeGted body ; provided, how-
ever, the inclination of the ray to the refracting furface be
fhe fame with that of the projected body to the horizon.
From which proportion I gather, that the attraction of the
rays of light is above 1,000,000,000,000,000 times greater
than the gravity of bodies on the furface of the earth, in
proportion to the quantity of matter in each, if the light
pafs from the fun to the earth in the {pace of {even minutes.
But now, as jn algebra, where affirmative quantities ceafe,
there negative ones begin; fo in mechanics, where attrac-
* tion ceales, there the repelling power mull fucceed: therefore
a ray of light, as foon as it is calt off from the luminous
body, by the vibrating motion of its. parts, and is got out
of the fphere of its attra¢tion, is propelled with an immenfe
velocity.”” $

The wonderful divifibility of the parts of matter is no-
where more apparent than in the minutenefs of the particles
of light. Dr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of
candle, when converted to light, becomes divided into
269,617,040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed ; at which rate
there mutt iffue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with 39
ciphers more, particles in the fecond of a minute; vaitly
more than a thoufand times a thoufand million times the
number of fands the whole earth can contain ;. reckoning
ten inches to one foot, and that 100 fands are equal to one
inch. See Relig. Philof. vol ii. p. S65. _ :

It muft be acknowledged, that many difficulties and ob-
jections have been urged againft the materiality of light, or the
hypothefis of light’s confiiting of {mall particles emitted from
Juminous bodies ; and that many eminent philofophers, both
foreigners and Englifh, have recurred to the opinion, that

Vou, XX.

light confifts of vibrations propagated from the luminous
body through a fubtile etherial medium.

The ingenious Dr. Franklin, in a letter dated April 23d,
1752, expreffes his diflatisfaction with the doétrine, that
fuppofes particles of matter, called light, continually driven
off from the fun’s furface, with a {wiftnefs fo prodigious.
“Mutt not,” fays he, ‘the fmalleft portion conceivable have,
with fuch a motion, a force exceeding that of a twenty-four
pounder difcharged froma cannon? Mutt nor the fun dimi-
nifh exceedingly by fuch a wafte of matter ; and the planets,
inftead of drawing nearer to him, as fome have feared, recede
to greater diftances through the leflened attra¢tion? Yet.
thefe particles, with this amazing motion, will not drive
before them, or remove, the leait and lighteft duft they
meet with ; and the fun appears to continue of his ancicnt
dimenfioas, and his attendants more in their ancient orbits.’’
Accordingly, he conjectures, that all the phenomena of light
may be more conveniently folved, by fuppofing univerfal
{pace filled with a fubtile elaftic fluid; which, when at reft,
is not vifible, but whofe vibrations affeét that fine fenfe in
the eye, as thofe of air do the groffer organs of the ear: and
that different degrees of the vibration of this medium may
occafion the appearances of different colours. The elaftic
fluid, he fays, is always the fame, and yet weaker and ftronger
{parks differ in apparent colour, fome white, blue, purple,
red ; the ftrongett, white ; the weak ones, red. Franklin's
Exp. and Obf. &e. p. 264, &c. ed. 1769.

The celebrated Mr. Euler (as we have already ob-
ferved), has alfo ftrenuoufly maintained the fame hypo-
thefis, in his Theoria Lucis & Colorum. In the fum-
mary of his arguments againift the common opinion, recited
in Acad. Berl. 1752. p. 271, befides the objections above-
mentioned, he difputes the poffibility, that particles of
matter, allowed to move with the amazing velocity of light,
fhould penetrate tranfparent fubftances with fo much eafe.
In whatever manner they are tranfmitted, thofe bodies muft
have pores, difpofed in right lines, and in all poffible direc-
tions, in order to form-canals for the paflage of the rays:
but fuch a ftru€ture muft take away all folid matter from
thofe bodies, and all coherence among their parts, if they
do contain any folid matter.

Dr. Horfley has taken confiderable pains to obviate the dif-
ficulties fuggefted by Dr. Franklin; and fuppofing that the
diameter of each particle of light does not exceed one mil-
lionth of one millionth of an inch, and that the denfity of each
particle is three times that of iron, that the light of the fun
traverfes the femi-diameter of the orbis magnus in 7’, and that
this femi-diameter is 22919 femi-diameters of the earth, he cal-
culates, that the momentum er force of motion in each par-
ticle of light coming from the fun, is iefs than that in an iron
ball of 3th of an inch diameter, moving at the rate of lefs than
an inch in twelve thoufand millions ot millions of Egyptian
years. Hence, he concludes, that a particle of matter,
which is probably larger than any particle of light, moving
with the velocity of light, has a force of motion, which, in-
flead of exceeding the force of a twenty-four pounder dif.
charged from a cannon, is infinitely lefs than that of the
fmalleft fhot difcharged from a pocket-piltol, or lefs than
any that art can create. Moreover, he thinks it poifible,
that light may be produced by a continual emiffion of matter
from the fun, without any fuch waite of bis fubitance as
fhould fenfibly contraét his dimenfions, or alter the motions
of the planets, within any moderate length of time. Ina
proof of this, he obferves, that it is not neceflary to the
produGtion of any of the phenomena of light, that the ema-
nation from the fun fhould be’continual in a itri mathe-
matical fenfe, or without any interval; and likewife that

5B : part

Lyi G iT.

part of the light which iffues from the fun is continually
returning to him by reflection from the planets, and other
light is continually coming to him from the funs of other
fyltems. He proceeds by calculation to thew, that in
385,130,000 Egyptian years, the fan would lofe +4374 of
his matter, and, therefore, that the gravitation towards the
fun, at any given dittance, would diminith in the fame pro-
portion, But this alteration is much too {mall to difcover
itfelf in the motion of the earth, or of any of the planets.
He alfo computes, that the greateft {troke which the retina
of a common eye fultains, when the eye, in a bright day, is
turned up diretly to the fun, does not exceed that which
an iron fhot, 4th of an inch diameter, would give, moving
only at the rate of 16.16 inches ina year; but the ordinary
ftroke is lefs than the 4) ,th part of this. (Phil. Tranf.
vol. Ix. art. 35. vol. Ixi. part ii. art. 50.) One of the prin-
cipal difficulties attending the hypothefis of the materiality
of light, is the non-interference of its particles with each
other. There is, probably, fays Mr. Melville, Edinb. Eff.
vol. ii. p. 17, &c. no phytical point in the vifible horizon,
that does not fend rays to every other point, unlefs where
opaque bodies interpofe. ‘Light, in its paflage from one
fyftem to another, often pafles through torrents of light
iffuing from other funs and fyftems, without ever interfering,
or being diverted from its courfe either by it, or by the
particles of that elaltic medium, which fome have fuppofed
to be diffufed through all the mundane fpace. In account-
ing for this fact, he fuppofes that the particles of light
mult be incomparably rare, even when they are the moft
denfe ; that is, that the femidiameters of two of the neareft
particles, in the fame, or in different beams, foon after their
emiffion, are incomparably lefs than their diftance from one
another. This confideration obviates the objection urged
by Euler and others againft the materiality of light, from
its influence in difturbing the freedom and perpetuity of
the celeitial motions. Bofcovich and others folve the diffi-
culty concerning the non-interference of the particles of
light, by fuppofing that each particle is endued with an
infuperable impulfive force; but in this cafe, their {pheres
of impulfion would be more liable to interfere, and they
would, on that account, be more likely to difturb one
ancther. This difficulty, attending the fuppofition, that
particles of light move through other light, in all imaginable
dire€tions, without perpetual collifions among the particles,
and continual defle&tions from a reCtilinear courfe, is, in a
great degree, obviated, by an eafy computation of Mr. Can-
ton. He obferves, that it is neceflary to allow only a very
fmall portion of time between the emiffion of every particle,
and the next that follows in the fame direGtion. Suppofe,
for inftance, that one lucid point of the fun’s furface emits
10 particles in one fecond, which are more than fufficient
to give continual light to the eye, without the leaft appear-
ance of intermiffion.; yet ftill the particles of which it con-
fifts will, on account of their great velocity, be more than
a thoufand miles behind one another, and thereby leave room
enough for others to pafs in all direétions. Phil. Tranf,
vol. lviii. art..45. p. 344. ;

If we adopt the conclufions drawn from the chevalier
d’Arcy’s experiments on the duration of the fenfations
excited by light, who {tates it at the feventh part of a
fecond (Hift. Acad. Scienc. 1765, Mem. 2.) we may admit
an interval of more than 20,000 miles between each par-
ticle. Some, in order to anfwer the chief objedtions of this
kind againit the materiality of light, have adopted the hypo-
thefis of M. Befcovich; who advances, in his Theoria
Philofophiz Naturalis, that matter is not impenetrable,
but that it confifts of phyfical points only, endued with

8

powers of attraCtion and repulfion, taking place at different:
diftances ; that is, furrounded with various {pheres of at-
traction and repulfion, in the fame manner as folid matter
is generally fuppofed to be; provided, therefore, that any
body move with a fufficient degree of velocity, or have
fufficient momentum, to overcome any powers of repulfion
it may meet with, it will find no difficulty in makmg its
way through any body whatever; for nothing will interfere
or penetrate one another, but powers, fuch as we know,
do, in faét, exift in the fame place, and counterbalance or
overrule one another. Prieftley’s Hilt. &c. of Light, &c.
p- 391. That light is a real fubltance, notwithftanding the
objections that have been urged againtt this hypothefis, eee
to be eitablifhed by the phenomena of the Bolognian ftone,
and of other fubitances, which poflefs the remarkable pro-~
perty of imbibing light, of retaining it for fome time, and
afterwards of emitting it. See Puosruorus, and the fequel
of this article.

The dotrine of the materiality of light is farther con-
firmed by thofe experiments, which demonftrate, that the
colour and inward texture of fome bodies are changed, in
confequence of their being expofed to the light.

The firft obfervation of this kind appears to have been
made by M. Duhamel, who found that the juice of a
certain fhell-fifh in Provence contra¢ted a fine purple co-
lour when it was expofed to the light of the fun, and that
the ftronger was the light, the more fplendid was the co-
lour. Pieces of cloth dipped in this liquor, and expofed
to the fun, became red, though they were inclofed in glafs ;
but they acquired none of this colour in the fame expofure,
if they were covered with the thinneft plates of metal. It
was afterwards obferved by Beccarius, Com. Bonon. vol. iv.
P- 75, that a quantity of luna cornea, expofed to the rays
of the fun, became of a violet colour, whilft part of the fame
compofition, covered with black paper, remained white.
This effeét was found by M. H. Schulze to depend on the
filver that happened to be in it. (Ac. Cefar. vol.i. p. 528,
&c.) G. Bonzius was thus led to fome fubfequent experi-
ments, which feem to prove that various colours are confis
derably affected by light, exclufive of heat or any thing elfe.
By expofing ribbons of different colours to the rays of the
fun for feveral days in the open air, he found that all, except
the yellow and light green, loft part of their luftre, and
were confiderably faded ; but when the fame ribbons were
expofed to a much greater degree of heat in a dark room,
none of the colours were affected, except that a {mall part
of their luftre was loft ; nor was any fenfible change made
in them after remaining for a confiderable time in a room
that faced the north. By inclofing them in an exhaufted
receiver, he found that the change was not occafioned by
the air; but no change could be produced in them by the
light of torches. Beccarius alfo found by experiments on
paper, and a great variety of fubftances, mineral, vegetable,
and animal, that the light of the fun produced many changes
in the internal ftru€ture of bodies, and that thofe {ubftances
which imbibed light were much injured. The ftronger the
light, and the longer they were expofed to it, the more in-
jury they received ; and the injury thus fuftained was found
to be lafting. Com. Bon. vol. vi. p. 77, &c. See Prieftley’s
Hiftory, p. 378, &c.

Some writers have attempted to prove the materiality of
light, by determining the momentum of their component
particles, or by fhewing that they had a force, fo as, by their
impulfe, to give motion to light bodies. M. Hombergs,
Ac. Par. 1708. H. p. 25, imagined, that he could not only
difperfe pieces of amianthus, and other light fub{tances, by
the impulfe of the folar rays, but alfo that by ronan

them

L i@s T.

them upon the end of a kind of lever, conne&ted with the
{pring of a watch,-he could make it move fenfibly quicker ;
whence, and from other experiments, was inferred the weight
of the particles of light. But M. Du Fay, and M. Mairan,
made other experiments of a more accurate kind, which
exhibited no fuch effects as M. Homberg imagined... How-
ever, Dr. Prieftley informs us, that Mr. Mitchell endea-
voured to afcertain the momentum of light with {till greater
accuracy, and that his,endeavours were not altogether un-
fuccefsful. Having found that the inftrument which he ufed
acquired, from the impulfe of the rays of light, a velocity
of one inch in a fecond, he inferred, that the quantity of
matter contained in the rays falling upon the inftrument
at that time, amounted to no more than one twelve hundred
millionth part of a grain. In the experiment, the light
was collected from a furface of about three fquare feet; and
as this furface reflected only about half what falls upon it,
the quantity of matter contained in the rays of the fun,
incident upon a {quare foot and half of furface in one fe-
cond of time, ought to be no more than the twelve hundred
millionth part of a grain, or upon one fquare foot only,
the eighteen hundred millionth part of a grain. But the
denfity of the rays of light at the furface of the fun is
greater than at the earth, in the proportion of 45000 to 1 ;
there ought, therefore, to iffue from one {quare foot of the
fun’s furface in one fecond of time, in order to fupply the
watte by light, one forty thoufandth part of a grain of
matter ; that is, a little more than two grains a day,ror
about four millions feven hundred and fifty-two thoufand
grains, which is about fix hundred and feventy pounds,
avoirdupois, in fix thoufand years ; a quantity which would
have fhortened the fun’s femi-diameter no more than about
ten feet, if it was formed of matter of the denfity of water
only. Prieftley, ubi fupra, p. 389.

The nature of light has not been fatisfaCtorily afcertained
by any of the experiments and invelltigations of philofe-
phers. Some incline to the Newtonian hypothefis, which
afcribed it to the emiffion of very minute particles from
luminous fubitances, as we have already ftated ; and others

_ to the excitation of an undulatory motion, analogous to that
which conititutes found, in a very rare and elaitic medium,
which pervades the univerfe. There are alfo fome circum-

" ftances which induce thofe who entertain the firft hypothefis,
either to believe, with Newton, that the emanation of the
particles of light is always attended by the undulations of
an etherialt medium, accompanying it in its paflage, or to
fuppofe, with Bofcovich, that the minute particles of light
themfelves receive, at the time of their emiffion, certain ro-
tatory and vibratory motions, which they retain as long as
their projectile motion continues.
tions, however .neceflary they may have been thought for
explaining fome particular phenomena, have never been very
generally underftood or admitted, although no attempt has
been made to accommodate the theory in any other manner
in thefe phenomena. Dr. Young, in his ** Courfe of Lec-
tures on Natural Philofophy, &c.’? has examined in detail
the manner in which the two principal hypothefes refpeGt-
ing light may be applied to its various affeCtions and pro-
perties ; for which we refer to vol. i. p. 458, &c.-to the
fequel of this article, and to other appropriate terms that
occur in the Cyclopedia. ,

The expanfion or extenfion of any portion of light is
inconceivable. Dr. Hook thews it is-as unlimited as the
univerfe ; proving it from the immenfe diftance of fome
of the fixed ftars, the light whereof becomes fenfible to
the eye by means of a telefcope: nor, adds he, are they
only the great bodies of the fun or {tars that-are thus

Thefe additional fuppofi- _

liable to difperfe their light through the valt expanfe of
the univerfe, but the fmalleit {park of a lucid body mutt do
iy fame, even the fmalleft globule ftruck from a fteel by
a flint.

The method of meafuring the intenfity of different lights,
or of the fame light in different circumftances, affords a
curious fubjeé of inveftigation. M. Bouguer purfued it
with particular attention, and defcribed an apparatus which
he has contrived for this purpofe, in his Trairé de Optique,
publifhed in Paris, 1760. Dr. Prieftley (ubi infra) has
given an abridged account of the two methods ufed for this
purpofe by M. Bouguer. The firft of thefe two methods
has been ufed by others fince, and probably before that
time, and particularly by count Rumford. See PHoto-
METER.

It is well known that the aétiom of a ftrong light upon
the eye, and alfo the impreffion which it leaves upon the
eye, makes it infenfible to the effect of a weaker light.
M. Bouguer found, that when one light is fixty-four times
lefs than another, its prefence or abfence will not be per-
ceived ; and, allowing for different effets on different eyes,
he fuppofes that the boundaries, with refpeét to different
perfons, may lie between fixty and eighty. Being unable
to determine the variation of the light of the fun, becaufe
it is too itrong, and that of the ftars, becaufe it is too
weak, at different altitudes, he made his obfervations on the
moon, the diminution of the light being in the fame proportion
in this cafe and in the others, and found that its light at
19° 16/ is to its light at 66? 11', as 1681 to 2500; or the
one is nearly two-thirds of the other. When one limb of
the moon touched the horizon of the fea, its light was two
thoufand times lefs than at the altitude of 66° 11'.' But
this proportion, he fays, is liable to variations, the atmo-
{phere near the furface of the earth varying fo much in its
denfity. Hence he concludes, that, at a medium, light is
diminifhed in the proportion of about 2500 to 1681, in
feavering 7469 toifes of denfe air. He alfo found, that the
centre of the fun is confiderably more Juminous than the
extremities of it ; whereas, both the primary and fecondary
planets are more luminous at their edges than near their
centres. In a comparifon of the light of the fun and moon,
he compared each of them to that of a candle in a dark
room, one in the day time, and the other in the night fol-
lowing, when the moon was at her mean diftance from the
earth, and, after many trials, he concluded, that the light
of the fun is about three hundred thoufand times greater
than that of the moon ; and, therefore, it is no wonder that
philofophers have had fo little fulccefs in their attempts to
colleé& the light of the moon with burning-glaffes ; for the
largeit of them will not increafe the light a thoufund times,

.,Which will ftill leave the light of the moon, in the focus of

the mirror, three hundred times lefs than the intenfity of
the common light of the fun. Dr. Smith, in his Optics,
vol. 1. p. 29, thought that he had proved, from two dif-
ferent confiderations, that the light of the full moon would
be to our day-light as 1 to about gogoo, if no rays were loft
at the moon. His method of calculation follows, as far as
it is juft, fays Mr. Robins, Math. Tracts, vol. ii. p. 225,
direétly from the propofition for the fame purpofe of that
excellent geometer, James Gregory, in his Geom. Par.

. Univerf. p. 144; and the general propofition there men-

tioned for diflinguifhing the proportion between the degrees
of light received from any planet, and from the fun, as
repeated in David Gregory's Aftronomy,.lib. iii. prop. 58.
Mr. Robins remarks, that though his eitimate is founded on
the fuppofition, that the moon reflects all the light it re-
ceives from the fun; yet his argument is drawn from com-

loi paring

LP@H T.

paring the light of the moon feen in the day with the light
of the clouds; that is, is deduced from the’ quantity of
light a€tually refle&ted by the moon. In the firit place he
fuppofes that the moon, enlightened by the fun, is as lu-
minous as the clouds are at a medium. He, therefore,
fuppofed the light of the fun to be equal to that of a whole
hemifphere of clouds, or as many moons as would cover
the furface of the heavens. But upon this it may be ob-
ferved, that the light of the fun fhining perpendicularly
upon any furfaee, would be equal to the light reflected from
the whole hemifphere, if every part of it reflected all the
light that fell upon it ; but the light that would, in fa&, be
received from the whole hemifphere (part of it being re-
ceived obliquely) would be only one-half as much as would
be received from the whole hemifphere, if every part of it
fhone dire&ly upon the furface to be illuminated. In his
Remarks, &c. p. 17, he draws the fame conclufion from
a different method of indution ; but in this cafe alfo-he made
a mittake of one-half, fuppofing all the enlightened hemi-
{phere of the moon to receive the direét rays of the fun;
whereas, in fa&t, no more can be received than would fall
perpendicularly on the fuperficial fe€tion of one great circle,
which is juit one-half of the furface of the hemifphere.
Prieftley, ubi fupra, p. 540, &c.

Mr. Mitchell made this computation in a more eafy and
accurate manner. Confidering the diftance of the moon
from the fun, and that the denfity of the light muft decreafe
in the proportion of the f{quare of that diftance, he calcu-
lated the denfity of the fun's light at that diftance, in pro-
portion to its denfity at the furface of the fun: and in this
manner he found that, if the moon reflected all the light it
receives from the fun, it would be only the 4500o0dth part of
the light we receive from that greater luminary. Admitting,
therefore, with M. Bonguer, that the moon reflects only a
300,000dth part of it, Mr. Mitchell concludes, that it re-
flects no more than betwixt the fixth and feventh part of the
light that falls upon it. Phil. Tranf. vol. lvii. art. 27,
Pp: 234, &c. .

Dr. Pemberton, in his Courfe of Chemiftry, le&. 2.
ftates the greateft light which we can receive from the moon,
when at the full, and neareft to the earth, to exceed the
light of the fun more than 87,000 times, fuppofing that the
moon reflected all the light of the fun which falls upon it ;
but if it refleéts only half the light that falls upon its furface,
which is the moft that can be fuppofed, then the light of the
moon wil! be exceeded by the fun’s light more than 170,000
times: and in the mean diftance of the moon from the earth,
her light will be exceeded by the fun more than 190,000
times.

The mutual a€tion between light and other matter is pro-
duétive of numerous phenomena. Thefe of late have con-
ftituted two diftin@ branches of fcience. ‘The one has for
its object the inveitigation of the phylical properties of light,
for which we are principally indebted to Newton, and which
forms the bafis of the {cience of optics. "The other is con-
fined to the chemical agency of light, refting upon faéts dif-
covered fince the time of that great genius, and which has
hitherto occupied the attention of the chemical philofo-
pher.

When a ray of light falls upon the furface of a body, it
is either refle@ed, abforbed, and extinguifhed, or tranf-
aii And under fome circumftances all thefe effets take
place.

The refle€tion of the ray depends, firft, upon the nature
of the body ; fecondly, upon the ftate and colour of the
furface ; and, thirdly, upon the quantity of the angle of in-
«idence. Under all thefe circumftances, however, the angle

at which the ray is reflected is equal to the angle of inci+
dence. The fame laws, therefore, which govern the colli-
fion between perfe€tly elaftic bodies and abfolutely hard fur-
faces, may be applied to the reflection of light. Of the
different bodies which refle& light, metals poflefs this power
in the greatett degree, and perhaps in proportion to their
denfity and hardnefs. Smooth or polifhed furfaces reflec
more light than rough ones.

Of coloured furfaces the lighteft colours refle& the mols
hence the whiteft metals make the beit reflectors. The or-
der will therefore, in all probability, be as follows, begin~
ning with the belt reflectors, white, yellow, red, blue,
black. The two extremes are very ftriking, in the well-
known experiment of two pieces of cloth, one white and
the other black, laid on the furface of fnow in the fun.
The black piece very foon finks into the fnow, from ab-
forbing a greater quantity of light, which caufes the heat.
The white piece reflects a greater portion, and is longer in
becoming heated. With regard to the quantity of reflec-
tion, as affefted by the angle of the incidence ; it is found
that opaque bodies are more heated as the rays ftrike their
furfaces more perpendicularly, and the quantity of light
which enters tranfparent bodies is as the fame. In both
inftances, therefore, more light enters the bodies, and lefs
is refleéted. In the firlt inftance, the light which is not re-
flected becomes extinguifhed, producing heat; in the fe-
cond it is tranfmitted, ftill retaining the property of light,
Hence, therefore, we ought to conclude that the refleétion.
will be inverfely as the angle of incidence, fuppofing the
angle to be formed by the ray and the furface of the me-
dium.

M. Bouguer has informed us, that the light refleéted from
a furface of mercury, when the angle of incidence was 113°,
was only equal to 4th of the whole ; and he thinks it probable
that no fubitance reflects more. It is certain, however, that po-
lifhed filver reflects much more. The fame philofopher ob-
ferves, that metallic reflectors change lefs. in their power of
refleGtion with the angle of incidence. He made the fol-
lowing experiment with polifhed black marble. At an angle
of 3° 35' with the reflecting furface, .6 were refleGted, the
whole being unity ; at 15’ of incidence, .156 were refleG-
ed; at 30', .o51; and at 80°,.023. The reit of courfe became
extinguifhed, and would heat the marble.

A fimilar diminution of the refleGive power, with the —
angle of incidence, is ob‘erved in tran{parent bodies, by the
fame author. The following Table gives the refults with
water and plate-glafs. S

The Quantity of Light refleéted, the whole
being 1000.

Anégle of Incidence.

From Water. From Plate-Glafs.

LIG

The Quantity of Light reflected, the whole
being 1000.
Angle of Incidence. ols

From Water. From Plate-Glats.

The refleGtions in this inftance are partly made from the
upper, and the reft fromthe under furface. The remainder
of the thoufand parts are tranfmitted, with the exception of
afew, which are in all probability extinguifhed.

That, under certain circumftances, the rays of light are
extinguifhed, even in tranf{parent bodies, is rendered highly
probable by the above inquirer.

Light becomes fo far extin®, by pafling through 679
feet of fea-water, as to render it opaque ; and a length of
feven feet of water has been found to intercept one-half of
the light which enters it.

M. Bouguer tells us, that if our atmofphere were
518,385 toifes in height, we fhould have no light from the
fun, even in his meridian fplendour, It has been efti-
mated, that of the horizontal fun-beams. pafling through
about 200 miles of air, one two-thoufandth part only
reaches us.

Inall the inftances in which light is extinguifhed, it will
doubtlefs be fo found that a certain quantity of heat will be
generated. Sir Haac Newton feems perfectly aware of this
faét. In his time, however, heat was fuppofed to arife
from motion, and hence he concluded that the light, when
it was neither reflected nor tranf{mitted, fo aéted upon the
body it entered, as to put its particles into a vibratory mo-
tion, in which he believed the heat to confit.

Dr. s’Gravefande afferts, a lucid body to be, that which
emits, or gives fire a motion in right lines ; and makes the
difference between light and heat to confift in this, that to
produce the former, the fiery particles muft enter the eye
in a rectilinear motion, which is not required in the latter :
en the contrary, an irregular motion feems more proper for

is, as appears fram the rays coming direétly from the fun to

H T.

the tops of mountains, which have not near that effeét witle
thofe in the valley, agitated with an irregular motion, by
feveral reflections.

Whether or not there be always light, where there is
fire, has been difputed among authors ; as alfo, whether or
not there be any luminous body without heat ; heat being
confidered by them as a motion that may be infinitely di-
minifhed, and light a matter that may be mfinitely rare ; to
which we may add, that no heat is fentible to us, unlefs it be
more intenfe than that of our organs of fenfe. M. De Luc,
in his Lettres Phyfiques et Morales, &c. 1780, obferves,
that the rays of the fun, though not warm in themfelves,,
occafion heat, by giving activity to a fub{tance, which re-
fides in all bodies, and conttitutes a part of their mafs, and
which in certain circumftances is capable of producing heat :
and that in confequence of this influence, this fubftance.
becomes an elaftic or igneous fluid. (See Hear.) Calo-
ric, however, is now confidered material, and a diftin& fluid
from that of light.

Solar heat is at prefent accounted for ina different way to.
that of confidering the heat as extinguifhed light. Dr.
Herfchel has, from a feries of experiments, of which we
fhall foon give an account, concluded, that the rays of ca-
loric, or rays folely producing heat, are emitted from the:
fun, as well as from terreftrial bodies, affording light and
heat: while the rays of light, or fuch as are eflential to
vifion and colour, have not the property of producing heat.
How far this conclufion. is warranted, we fhall have occa-
fion hereafter to confider.

Befides the properties of light to be refleGted and, tranf-
mitted, and that of being abforbed and extinguifhed, we-
are prefented with curious: phenomena, arifing from the at-
tration between this fubftance and other matter, which is
the caufe of the refraction and inflection of light. Whena
ray of light enters any tranfparent medium, in a direGtion
perpendicular to the furface of the fame, the ray will main-
tain its courfe in the fame direétion ; but if the ray of light
make any angle lefs than a right angle with the furface of the
medium, it will not continue in the fame diretion, but will
be drawn towards a {traight line, perpendicular to the fame
furface, and pafling through the medium at the point where
the oblique ray enters. ‘This line, in optical language, is
called the perpendicular. ‘The angle which the incident ra
takes with the perpendicular is called the angle of pas i A
and the angle which the ray makes with the fame perpendi-
cular, after it enters the medium,. is called the angle of ree
jrattion. In all the degrees of obliquity at whicha ray ene
ters any medium, the fine of the angle of incidence has the
fame rati¢ to the fine of the angle of refraGtion..

The refrating power of different tranf{parent bodies is
not dependent upon one property alone ; it appears, how-
ever, to be directly as their dentity, all other things being
equal.

a Falladiniable bodies are found to refra& light much more
than bodies not inflammable, Sir Ifaac Newton divided.
diaphanous bodies into two claffes, each of which refra&
light as their denfity. The firft confifted of the inflammable,
in which it’ was much more than according to the ratio of
their denfity.

The other clafs, which were not inflammable, appeared to
obey the fame law as to. denfity, with the exception of the-
diamond and water. The former of thefe refra&ed in the
compound ratio of inflammability and denfity ; and although.
it was then not known to be inflammable, Newton itrongly
fufpected it to be entirely an inflammable body ;. and that
water which appeared to have an intermediate power be
tween the two clafles, he fuppofed, was partly. inflammable.

thele

LIGHT.

Thefe prophetic obfervations have been verified in the dif-
covery of the diamond being pure carbon, and in the de-
compolition of water.

The late difcoveries of Mr. Davy render it very probable
that all compound bodies are compofed of inflammable
matter and oxygen. Hence it would feem, that the re-
fractive power of bodies is lefs in proportion to the oxygen
they contain. Sir Ifaac Newton fufpected that refraction
was caufed by inflammable matter alone, from which it
would follow, that all diaphanous bodies contained inflam-
mable matter. This, in all probability, is the cafe with the
exception of oxygen. It has, however, been proved by
M. Biot, that the refraétive power of oxygen, although
lefs than any fubftance in proportion to its denfity, is never-
thelefs appreciable. The fame philofopher alfo afcertained
that hydrogen refraé&ts light in a ratio, independent of its
denfity, higher than any other fubftance. f

From the above faéts we may, with fome certainty, con-
clude, that the refraGtive power of bodies, or, in other
words, their attraction for light, is inthe compound ratio
of their inflammability and denfity.

Light is not only attracted in paffing through different
media, conftituting refraGtion, but it is attraéted towards
the fides of bodies by which it paffes, and is then faid to be
infle&ed. When a beam of light is let through a fmall hole
into a dark room, the rays are found to be drawn towards
the fides of the hole, by which means they acquire a cer-
tain degree of divergence. In confequence of this change
in the direGtion of the rays, the fhadows of hairs, and other
flender fubftances held in the beam of light coming through
the aperture, are found to become eularged in proportion
to the diftance of the place on which the fhadow is cait.
See Inriecrion.

From this circumftance fir Ifaac Newton concluded, that
the rays of light mutt have paffed as they are reprefented in
Plate 1X. Optics, fig. 8. in which X reprefents a feétion of
the hair, and AD, BE, &c. rays of light pafling by at
different diftances, and then falling upon the wall QQ.
Since, when the paper which receives the rays is at a great
diftance from the hair, the fhadow is broad, it muft follow,
as he obferves, that the hair ats upon the rays of light at
fome confiderable diftance from it ; the ation being ftrongetft
on thofe rays which are at the leaft diftance, and growing
weaker and weaker on thofe which are farther off, as is re-
prefented in the figure; and from hence it comes to pafs,
that the fhadow of the hair is much broader in proportion
to the diftance of the paper from the hair, when it is nearer
than when it is at a great diftance. It is of no moment,
qwhether the hair be furrounded with air, or with anyother pel-
lucid fubftance. The fhadows of fcratches made in polifhed
plates of glafs, and the veins in the glafs, caft the like broad
fhadows ; fo that the breadth of fhadow muft proceed from
-fome other caufe than the refraction of the air.

The fhadows of all bodies, metals, ftones, glafs, wood,
horn, &c. in this light, were bordered with three parallel
fringes, or bands of coloured light, whereof that which
qwas contiguous to the fhadow was the broadeft and moft
luminous, while that which was the moft remote was the
narrowelt, and fo faint, as not eafily to be vifible. The
firft or innermoft fringe was violet, and deep blue next the
dhadow, light blue, green, and yellow in the middle, and
red without. ‘The fecond fringe was almoft contiguous to
the firft, and the third to the fecond; and both were blue
within, and yellow and red without ;- but their colours were
wery faint, efpecially thofe of the third. The colours,
therefore, proceeded in the following order from the fhadow:
velvet, indigo, pale blue, green, yellow, red; blue, yellow,

red; pale blue, pale yellow, and red. The fhadows made
by feratches and bubbles in polifhed plates of glafs, were
bordered with the like fringes of coloured light. He alfo
obferves, that by looking on the fun through a feather,
or black ribbon, held clofe to the eye, feveral rainbows
will appear, the fhadows which the fibres or threads calt

on the retina being bordered with the like fringes of co-*

lours.

From comparing other experiments, in which a ray of
light was made to pafs through a hole into a darkened
chamber, and then through a hole in a pafte-board, firft by
the edge of a fingle knife, and then by the edges of two
knives placed parallel to one another, fir Ifaac Newton con-
cluded, that the light of the firft fringe pafled by the edge
of the knife at a diftanee greater than the eight hundredth
part of an inch, that the light of the fecond fringe paffed
by the edge of the knife at a greater diltance than the light
of the firft fringe, and that of the third at a greater diftance
than that of the fecond; and that the light, of which the
ftreams, obferved in thefe experiments, confifted, pafled by
the edges of the knives at lefs diltances than that of any
of the fringes.

In another experiment, he placed at the hole a prifm
to refra&t the light, and to form, on the oppofite wall, the
coloured image of the fun; and he found that. the fhadows
of all bodies, held in the coloured light between the prifm
and the wall, were bordered with fringes, of the colour of
that light in which they were held; and comparing the
fringes made in the feveral coloured lights, he found, that
thofe made in the red light were the largeft, thofe made in
the violet the leaft, and thofe made in the green were of a
middle fize. Whence he inferred, that the rays which made
the fringes in the red light, paffed by the hair at a greater
diftance than thofe which made the like fringes in the violet ;
fo that the hair, in caufing thefe fringes, acted alike upon
the red light, or leaft refrangible rays, at a greater dif-
tance, and upon the violet or moft refrangible rays at a‘lefs
diltance, and thereby occafioned fringes of different fizes,
without any change in the colour of any fort of light. It
may, therefore, be concluded, that when the hair in the
firft obfervation was held in the white beams of the fun’s
light, and caft a fhadow, which was bordered with three
fringes of coloured Jight, thoie colours arofe not from any
new modifications impreffed upon the rays of hght by the
hair, but only from the various inflections, whereby the
feveral forts of rays were feparated from one another, which,
before feparation, by the mixture of all their colours, com-
pofed the white beam of the fun’s light ; but when feparated
compofed lights of the feveral colours which they are origi-
nally difpofed to exhibit. But for a fuller account of the
author’s curious experiments, and the conclutions drawn
from them with regard to the infleGion of light, we muft
refer to his well known treatife on Optics, p. 293. &c.

This a&ion of bodies on light is found to exert itfelf at
a fenfible diftance, though it always increafes as the diltance
is diminifhed ; as appears very fenfibly in the paflage of a
ray between the edges of two thin planes at different aper-
tures; in which there is fomething very peculiar; the at-
traction of one edge being increafed as the other is brought
nearer it. The rays of light, in their paflage out of glafs
into vacuum, are not only inflected towards the glafs, but,
if they fall too obliquely, they will revert back again to the
glafs, and be totally reflected.

The caufe of which refleGtion cannot be attributed to any
refiftance of the vacuum, but mult be entirely owing to
fome force or power in the glafs, which attraéts or draws
back the rays as they are pafling into the vacuum, —

this

LIGH T.

this appears farther from hence, ‘that if you wet the pof-
terior furface of the glafs with water, oil, honey, or a fo-
Jution of guickfilver, then the rays which would otherwife
have been reflected, will pafs int. and through that liquor ;
which fhews that the rays are not reflected till they come to
the polterior furface of the glafs, nor even till they begin
to go out of it; for if at their going out, they fall into
any of the forefaid mediums, they will not then be refleéted,
but perfift in their former courfe, the attraction of the
glafs being in this cafe counterbalanced by that of the
liquor.
PBs perimients, fimilar to thofe of fir Ifaac Newton on in-
fieGted light, were profecuted by M. Maraldi, whofe ob-
fervations chiefly refpeét the infleGion of light towards
other bodies, whereby their fhadows are partially illumi-
nated. Ac. Paris, 1723. M. p.159. For an abitraét,
fee Prieftley’s Hiftory, &c. of Light, &c. p. 521, &c.
M. Mairan, without attempting the difcovery of new
facts, endeavoured to explain the old ones, by the hypo-
thefis of an atmofphere furrounding all bodies ; and confe-
quently making two refleGtions and refra¢tions of light that
impinges upon them, one at the furface of the atmofphere,
and the other at that of the body itfelf. This atmoi{phere
he fuppofed to be of a variable denfity, and refra€tive power,
like the air. M.du Tour fucceeded Mairan, and imagined,
that he could account for all the phenomena by the help of
an atmofphere of an uniform denfity, and of a lefs refrac-
tive power than the air, furrounding all bodies. Du Tout
varied the Newtonian experiments, and difcovered in the co-
lours produced by the infleGtion of light more than three
fringes, which he exhibited diftin@ly in the following man-
ner. He took a circular board, ABED ( Plate IX. Optics,
jig. 9.) thirteen inches in diameter, the furface of which was
black, except at the edge, where there was a ring of
white paper, about three lines broad, in order to trace the
circumference of a circle, divided into 360 degrees, begin-
ning at the point A, and reckoning 180 degrees on each
hand to the point E; Band D being each of them placed
at go degrees. A flip of parchment three inches broad,
and difpofed in the form of a hoop, was faftened round the
board, and pierced at the point E with a {quare hole, each
fide being four or five lines, in order to introduce a ray’ of
the fun’s light. Liaftly, in the centre of the board C, and
perpendicular to it, he fixed a pin, about one-third of a
line in diameter.

This hoop being fo difpofed, that a ray of light entering
the dark chamber, through a vertical cleft of two lines and
a half in length, and about as wide asthe diameter of the
pin, went through the hole at E, and pafling parallel to the
plane of the board, projeéted the image of the fun and
fhadow of the pin at A.

In thefe circumftances he obferved, 1ft, that quite round
the concave furface of this hoop, there was a multitude of
coloured {treaks ; but that the {pace m An, of about eighteen
degrees, the middle of which was occupied by the image
of the fun, was covered with a faint light only.

z. The order of the colours in thefe {treaks was generally
fuch, that the moft refrangible rays were the neareit to the
incident ray ECA; fo that, beginning from the point A,
the violet was the firft, and the red the lait colour in each
of the ftreaks. In fome of them, however, the colours
were difpofed in a contrary order.

3. The image of the fun, projeGted on each fide of the
point A, was divided by the fhadow of the pin, which was
bordered by two luminous ftreaks.

4. The coloured ftreaks were narrower in fome parts of

the hoop than others, and generally decreafed in breadth 10
receding from the point A.

5. Among thefe coloured ftreaks, there were fometimes
others which were white, a line, or a line and a half in
breadth, which were always bordered on both fides by a
ftreak of orange colour, at leait when the light of the fun
was intenfe, and the chamber fufficiently dark.

From this experiment he thought it was evident, that the
rays which pafled beyond the pin were not the only ones
that were decompofed ; for that thofe which are refle&ed
back from the pin were decompofed alfo: from which he
concluded that they muft have undergone fome refra&ion.
He alfo thought that thofe which went beyond the pin fuf-
fered a refleGtion, fo that they were all affeéted in a fimilar
manner.

In order to account for thefe faé&ts, our author defcribes
the progrefs of a ray of light through an uniform atmo-
{phere which he fuppofes to furround the pin, and fhews
that the differently refrangible rays will be feparated at
their emergence from it ; but he refers to fome experiments
and obfervations in a future memoir, to demonftrate that all
the coloured ftreaks are produced by rays that are both re-
fle&ed and refracted. Memoires Prefentés, vol. v. p. 636.
641.

From other obfervations, M. Du Tour concludes, that
the refra&ting atmofpheres, furrounding all kinds of bodies,
are of the fame fize; for when he placed a great variety of
fubftances, and of different fizes alfo, he always found the
coloured ftreaks of the fame dimenfions. He alfo obferves,
that this hypothefis contradi@s an obfervation of fir Ifaac
Newton, viz. that thofe rays which pafs the neareft to any
body are moft inflected. Mem. de Mathem. and de Phyi.
vol. v. p. 650, &c. or Prieftley, ubi fupra, p. 531, &c.,

M. Le Cat found that, in fome cafes, objects appear mag-
nified by means of the infleétion of light. Looking at a
diftant fteeple, when a wire ef lefs diameter than the pupil
of his eye was held pretty near to it, and drawing it feve-
ral times betwixt his eye and that objet, he was furprifed
to find that, every time the wire pafled before his pupil, the
fteeple feemed to change its place, and fome hills beyond,
the fteeple feemed to have the fame motion, juft as if a lens
had been drawn betwixt his eyeandthem. This difcovery
led him to feveral others depending upon the infleGtion of
the rays of light. Thus, he magnified {mall objeés, as
the head of a pin, by looking at them through a {mall hole
in a card; fo that the rays which formed the image, mutt
neceflarily pafs fo near the circumference of the hole, as to
be attracted by it: he alfo exhibited other appearances of
a fimilar nature. Traité des Sens, p. 299, &c. Prieftley,.
ubi fupra, p. 537, &c.

Several coincident fa&ts induced fir Ifaac Newton to
believe that refleGtion, refra&ion, and infletion re-
fulted from the fame caufe, namely, attraGion: Of the
two latter of thefe properties refulting from this caufe
there can be little doubt ; but the laws by which the firft is
governed appears to depend rather upon the repulfion than
the attraCtion of the medium. The greateft myftery attend-
ing refleGtion, is in the circumftance of the under furface re-
flecting light equally with the upper furface, This part
certainly goes far to prove, that the reflection of light is not
to be explained by confidering the refle€ting furface asa
hard fubitance, from which the elaftic particles of light are
repelled, particularly fince the refleGtion from the under fur-
face of any medium is in the inverfe ratio of the denfity of
the medium, beyond the reflecting furface, and is greateft
when the furface is bounded by a vacuum.

: Although

LIGHT.

Although fir Ifaac Newton does not attempt to explain
the refleGion from the upper furface by the attraétion of
the medium, he feems to be of opinion, that the light re-
fleed from the under furface is attraéted by the fame me-
dium in a contrary direction.

Hence he concludes, that this refle€tion is lefs as the den-
fity of the under medium is greater, the attraction of the
firit medium being counteraéted by that of the fecond.

This explanation does not appear fatisfactory. If the
yefleGtion of the rays from the under furface depended upon
che attra€tion of the fame medium, it would not produce
the fame phenomena which refult from the reflection at the
upper furface, and which is clearly caufed by fomething like
repulfion. :

When a ray of light falls upon any reflecting furface,
we cannot for a moment fuppofe that any attraétion of the
medium could caufe it to be refleGted, fince the effect pro-
duced can arife only from a repellent force, exerted in a di-
rection perpendicularly from the furface of the body.
And that the elaftic force exifting between the body and
the light is fo perfect, as to make the angle of reflection
equal to the angle of incidence. Newton very properly
argued, that the reflection could not take place from the par-
ticles of light ftriking the hard parts of bodies, on account
of the numerous interitices exifting between their molecules ;
on the contrary, he fuppofed the light which {truck the folid
parts became extinguifhed.

It may here be obferved, that it is equally difficult to ex-
plain the ation of one folid body upon another, as it may
eafily be proved that they do not come into abfolute contact
in any inttance.

When we attempt to unite the furfaces of fra&tured bodies,
we cannot, in moft inftances, bring the parts within the {phere
of attraétion; and even where this can be effeG&ted, as in two
bright furfaces of lead, it may be proved that the parts do
not touch.

It feems difficult to conceive how an atmofphere of hy-
drogen fhould by its preffure fupport a column of mercury,
by the mere action of the folid parts of the two furfaces,
fince every particle of hydrogen would be required to act
upon 2700 particles of mercury.

We may, without much gratuity, confider all folid
bodies as compounded of two {pecies of matter; the one
poffeffing fo great an attraGtion as to bring the particles into
abfolute conta, and the other fo completely repellent of
itfelf, as to be infinitely diffipated, if it were not for its
attraction for matter with which it combined. The former
of thefe properties is peculiar to all ponderable matter, the
latter to the repellent matter denominated light and caloric,
and perhaps eleétricity and magnetifm. Daily experience
fhews, that the conftitution of folid and liquid bodies is de-
pendent upon a certain quantity of caloric, oppofed to the
oppofite and contending force of ‘the attraction of the par-
ticles of the folid body, by which alfo their volumes and
relative gravities are governed. Hence we may expect, that
when the attraétion of the body for caloric is greater than
the repellent force of the caloric, the body will poflefs what
is called a greater capacity for heat, and the reverfe of this
will take place from a contrary change.

Conceiving the above to be the cafe, it will be eafy to
infer, that the furfaces of bodies mutt be furrounded by at-
mofpheres of caloric, and it doubtlefs is by thefe atmo-
fpheres that we are to account for the difficulty of bringing
two furfaces together, and by which we may alfo ex-
plain the aétion of the hydrogenous atmofphere upon the
mercury. May not we, therefore, draw shis general con-

clufion, that thé particles of all folid’ matter can never Ye
brought into contaét, either in their internal arrangement
or on the furfaces; and that the repulfion exifting between
the particles of bodies, whether in the fame or in two dif-
ferent bodies, is folely to be attributed to the repulfion be-.
tween the particles of caloric? And may we not further con-
clude, that the particlés of bodies, in all fituations, and under
all cireumftances, are conftantly exerting an attraétive force
tending to their ultimate contaét ? If it fhould be admitted
that caloric is the caufe of repulfion, elaflicity. muft be
therefore dependent upon its prefence, aéting in a contrary
direétion to the attractive force. Hence it would be very
abfurd to fay that caloric itfelf fhould be elakic, becaufe -
this property depends upon two forces. _When ‘caloric,
therefore, 1s reflected from the furface of a body, we are to
attribute its return to the repullion between itfelf and the
caloric of the body, the folid matter having nothing to
do with the reflection. The rays of caloric, pafling from
one body to another, may, from what has been obferved, be
caufed by the joint action of two forces. The one arifing
from the repulfion of the particles of caloric for each other
at the heated body, and the other from the foliciting force
of the attraction between the caloric and the receiving body.
When, however, the repulfion between the radian* caloric and
the caloric of the receiving body increafes in a greater ratio
than their attraction, the radiant caloric will be reflected.
A contrary effet would caufe them to be abforbed.

When the dire¢tion of the radiant caloric is perpendicular
to the receiving furface, its projectile force confpires in the
greateft degree with the attraction of the body, and lefs
of courfe in proportion to its obliquity. Does not this
agree with the ettablifhed fa&, that the refleGtion of both
light and heat is inverfely as the angle of obliquity the ray
makes with the furface. d

Light and caloric, fo far as their refle@ ion is concerned, are
fo fimilar, that we may with great propriety apply the fame
reafoning to the reflection of light, and the fame abfurdity
would arife in confidering light as confifting of elaftic parti-
cles, becaufe this would imply the exiltence of attraétive
matter in its compofition. When, therefore, light is re-
fleGted, we are to confider with fir Ifaac Newton, that no
aétion takes place between the particles of light and the
folid matter to produce the effect; but; agreeably to our
hypothefis, we muft conclude that the reflection 1s caufed -
by the repulfion between the particles of light and the ca-
loric of the body.

If the refleGion is caufed by the calorific atmofphere on
the furface of the body, we may perceive an ealy way of
explaining why the reflection of light is confined to the fur-
face of bodies, and why the under furface fhould refle& as
much as the upper one.

This hypothelis does not difagree with the faét, of the
reflection being, like the refraction, as the denfity of the
medium, becaufe the increafe of denfity will be attended
with increafe of attraétion between the particles, and it will
be evident, that the denfity of the calorific atmofphere will
us ip the fame proportion, therefore reflection will be as the

enfity. >

What we obferved refpeCting the obliquity of the rays of
caloric, will hold good with refpe& to light. When the
obliquity of rays of light, which fall upon tranfparent
bodies is fuch, that the repullion between the light and the
caloric of the body is greater than the projectile force of
the ray added to the attraction, the medium of the angle of
obliquity is called the angle of total reflection. When the
reflection is from the under furface, the attraction of the

3 medium

L/i-G tT.

medium confpires with the repulfion between the light and
the caloric atmofphere to caufe total reflection, and the
angle of total reflection ought to be rather greater at the
under than the upper furface, which has been faid to be the
cafe; at leaft it has been obferved by Bouguer, that more
light is reflected from the internal than the external furface.
The additional force given by the attraction of the medium
to caufe the internal reflection, will be counteracted by any
other medium beyond this furface, and this accounts for the
tranf{miffion under fuch circumitances. Agreeably to the
eftablifhed notion, therefore, we hold, that refraction and in-
fleGtion are caufed by the attraction exilting between the
light and the body. But it is more confiftent with our
views, to confider reflection and tranfmiffion as being caufed
by the repulfion exilting between the particles of light,
and between light and the calorific atmofphere of the body,
modified and altered under certain circumitances, by the at-
traction between light and the medium.

Were we only acquainted with the fa&, that light was
attracted by ponderable matter, we fhould, from our krow-
ledge of gravity, conclude that the refraétion would be as
the denfity of the medium; and we are not fo much fur-
prifed at the circumttance of light being more attracted by
inflammable than other bodies, when we recollect the great
quantity of light and heat furnifhed by thofe bodies, when
they combine with oxygen; and at the fame time remember
that the attraction of one body for another is as the quantity
with which it can combine.

Some very curious faéts relative to the properties of light
have lately been difcovered by M. Malus. (See Memoires de
Ja Société d’Arcueil, vol. ii. p. 143.) It appears from the
refearches of this philofopher, that light is changed in its
properties by. particular reflection. If, fays he, we take
two plates of glafs, and let two of their furfaces make an
angle of 70° 50’; then imagine a line which fhall bife& this
angle. Any ray of light falling upon one of thefe furfaces,
in a dire@tion parallel to the above bifeéting line, will be re-
fleGted to the other. The light, however, is fo changed in
its properties by the firft reflection, as to be completely un-
fufceptible of being refleCted from the fecond furface ; but
the whole of it will be tranfmitted. This new property of
light has been applied, with fome fuccefs, to explain the
mytterious phenomenon of double images formed by the
Iceland cryftal, calcareous {fpar, &c. If it be afked, how
it happens, fince we afcribe the refie€tion of the rays to the
aGtion of the whole furface of the body-without contaét,
that all the rays are not reflected from every furface; but
while fome are refleéted, others pafs through, and are re-
fracted? The anfwer given by fir Ifaac Newton is as fol-
lows : —Every ray of light, in its paflage through any re-
fraGting furface. is put into a certain tranfient conftitution
or ftate, which in the progrefs of the ray returns at equal
intervals, and difpefes the ray at every return to be ealily
tranfmitted through the next refracting furface, and between
the returns to be eafily reflected by it; which alternation of
reficGtion and tranfmiffion appears to be propagated from
every furface and to all diftances. What kind of aétion or
difpofition this is, and whether it confilts in a circulating or

‘ vibrating motion of the ray, or the medium, or fomewhat
elfe, he does not inquire; but allows thofe who are fond of
hypothefes to fuppofe, that the rays of light, by impinging
on any refleGing or refraéting furface, excite vibrations m
the refleting or refracting medium, and by that means
agitate the folid parts of the body, Thefe vibrations, thus
propagated in the medium, move falter than the rays, fo as
to overtake them; and when any ray is in that part of the
sibration which confpires with its motion, its velocity is in-

Vou. XX.

creafed, fo that it eafily breaks through a refracting furface ;
but when it is in a contrary part of the vibration, which im-
pedes its motion, it is eafily refleéted; and confequently,
that every ray is fucceffively difpofed to be ealily refe&ed,
or tranfmitted by every vibration which overtakes it. The
returns of which difpofition of any ray to be refle@ted, he
calls fits of eafy reflection ; and thofe of its difpofition tb be
tran{mitted, he calls fits of ca/y tranfmiffion ; and the {pace
between the returns, the intervals of the fits. The reafon,
then, why the furfaces of all thick tranfparent bodies refleét
part of the licht incident on them, and refraét the relt, is
that fome rays in their incidence are in fits of eafy reflection,
and others of eafy tranfmiffion. See Reriection, Ru-
FRACTION, and Optics.

Having given fome idea of the nature of light in general,
we fhall next point out the different fources of light; and
under each of thefe heads, detail its more particular pro-
perties as a chemical agent, and its connettion with the
matter of heat. é

Solar Light.—We have already ftated the immenfe velo-
city with which light is emitted from the fun’s body ; and
it will be eafy to conceive that it cannot fuffer any change
in velocity or direétion, till it meets with feme ponderable
matter. In approaching any planetary body, fuch as our
earth, we have reafon to believe that they are mutually at-
tracted. Rays falling perpendicularly upon the aimofphere
are equally attracted on every fide, and come in a ftraight
line to the earth ; while thofe rays which fall obliquely are
bent out of their original direction; and fince the atmo-
{phere is not of uniform denfity, fuch oblique rays will come’
to the earth in curved lines. If our atmofphere were of uni-
form denfity, the refra€tion would not be altered; but the
oblique rays falling upon its furface, would be reflected in a
very great degree; a circumftance which would deprive us
of much of the fun’s light. .No doubt a great quantity of
light becomes extinguifhed in its paflage through the aerial
medium, as we may juitly learn from the difference of in-
tenfity in the light, at different altitudes of the fun; but how
much mutt this lofs of light appear, when we recur to the
ftatement already made, namely, that the whole effe& of the
fun’s light would be loft by paffing through 679 feet of fea-
water, and that the fame effe& would take place by its paf-
fage through 3,110,310 feet of air. ;

The following is a table from M. Bouguer, fhewing the
intenfity of the fun’s light, at different altitudes, and the
thicknefs of air it has to penetrate at each angle.

‘Thicknefs of Air in | Intenfity of Light,

Sun's Altitude. 4
Leb Toifes. | the whole being 10,000.

go” 3Q11 | 8123 ae

70 4162 | 8016

TTD MRE i EP

65 43ts | 7954

Gayoade 4516 | 7866
4776 | 7759

50 ea ag 5104 Re ie

YrGHT.

Thicknefs of Air in
Toifes.

lutenfity of Light,

Sun's Altitude. the whole being 10,000.

», 9539 7454
6086
6813

7784

100930

138823 6

The property of light to be. refraéted had been known
long before the time of Newton ; but this philofopher was
the firft who difcovered that the light of a fun-beam, was not
refraéted uniformly. If light were uniformly refraéted, the
rays which enter any plane furface would retain their re-
lative inclination to each other, while they pafs through the
diaphanous medium ; and the fame after their emergence, if
the furface were a plain. Sir Ifaac Newton, however, has
proved, by a feries of elegant experiments, ftrengthened by

able reafoning, that the different parts of a folar beam ate
not refracted in the fame degree. He caufed a beam of light
to pafs through a {mall hole in the window-fhutter of a dark
room, making the pencil of rays to fall upon one fide of a
triangular prifm. Thefe rays were fo refraéted’as to come
out at another fide of the prifm. 'Thefe emergent rays,
however, were not parallel as they entered the other fide ;
but each made a certain angle with the other, in confequence
of fome being more bent or refraéted than the other. The
image, or fpetrum, formed by thefe rays upon a fheet of
white paper, inftead of being round, which would have re-
fulted from uniform refraétion, was of an oblong fhape.
Thofe rays which had been the leaft refraéted occupied one
end of the fpeétrum; and thofe moft refraéted, the other.
The former tinged the paper of a red colour, the latter a
violet colour ; the intermediate rays exhibiting different co-
lours, which were in the following order: red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.

In order to fhew that each of thefe rays had fpecific
properties, not depending upon the medium they pafled
through, he caufed them to pafs through a fecond prifm,
fometimes together, and fometimes feparately ; but he always
found them to retain their original properties.

By means of two contiguous fpeétrums, he canfed a ray
of one colour in the one to unite with a different colour in’
the other, and produced different compound colours. The
yellow of one with the red of the other produced orange,
which had, the appearance of the primitive orange ray, and
differed from it only in being decompolable into its original,
elements. : fees

He afcertained by direét experiment, that thofe rays”
which were moft refrangible were alfo mot reflexible. In
confequence of this property, he could refle& the different |
coloured rays feparately. He caufed the light to fall upon
a prifm, fo laid upon a fimilar prifm as to conftitute a pa-
rallelopiped, fo that the rays were parallel at their emer-
gence ; but upon turning the two prifms round their com-
mon centre, the light became refleted from the upper
contiguous furface, and all the rays in their turns arrived at
the angle of total refleGion. But he obferved that thofe
which had been moft refra&ted were firft reflected ; the leaft
refrangible being the laft. . '

Thefe valuable faéts were ufed by this able philofopher to
explain the colours of natural bodies. He has fhewn that
colour is not a fpecific property of bodies, but is caufed by
the different rays of light being refleGted from the furface of
the body ; the reft of the rays pafling into, or through the
body. Since’ the time of this philofopher, it has been ob-
jected, that the feven colours above mentioned are not pri-.
mitive. It feems very obvious that there can be only three.
primitive colours, namely, red, yellow, and blue; fince all
the colours can be made by means of thefe. It has lately
been advanced by Prieur, that the primitive colours are
violet, green, and red: that the yellow is’ formed’ with red.
and green, the latter being in excefs; and that when the red
is in excefs, they form orange; the green and violet form
blue. : .

The colours excited by the different refrangible rays do’
not appear to determine what are the primitive colours,
fince we find that different rays are capable of producing.
the fame colour, as'a mixture of the yellow with the red
produces orange. And it mutt be admitted, that the violet,
rays excite, in fome degree, the idea of red along with the
blue ; as in the green, the yellow and blue may be dif-
cerned, but none of the red. whi

When the different coloured rays are mixed togethers
either by recompofition, or by getting each colour rom a

feparate

LIGHT.

feparate fpeétrum, the refult will be white light. Hence
fir Ifaac Newton concluded, that when the rays are pro-
mifcuoufly refle&ted from any furface it will appear white.
It was found by fir Ifaac Newton, and has fince been con-
firmed by the experiments of Dr. Herfchel, that the dif-
ferent coloured rays have not by any means the fame illu-
minating power. ‘he violet rays appear to have the leat
luminous effeét, the indigo more, the blue a little more,
the green very great, between the green and the yellow the
greateft of all, the yellow the fame as the green, and the red
lefs than the yellow. When the folar rays are paffed through
a convex lens, or reflected from aconcave, a very intenfe
heat is produced by the concentration of the rays. Count
Rumford has fhewn, that when the rays of the fun are
made to pafs through a certain aperture, and fall apon
any fubftance to be heated, while the fame area of light
is made to pafs through a lens, in the focus of which the
fame quantity of matter is to be heated, they become heated
in the fame time to the fame degree. Nothing is better
known, in fhort, than that the rays of the fun are capable
of exciting fenfible heat. Newton, and the philofophers of
his age, accounted for heat by the motion excited in the
parts of the body by the agitating power of the abforbed
light. Melville fuppofed that the heat was expelled from
the terreftrial matter by the light. At prefent, it is ge-
nerally admitted, on the ftrength of fome valuable experi-
ments made by Dr. Herfchel, that the rays of light and
caloric are feparately emitted from the fan, the luminous
rays producing light, and the calorific, heat,

This philofopher introduced a beam of light into a dark
room, which was decompofed by a prifm, and then expofed
avery fenfible thermometer to all the rays in fucceflion, and
obferved the heights to which it rofe in a given time.
He thus determined, that the heating power of the red to that
of the green rays was 23 to 1, and 34 to 1 in red to violet.

On repeating thefe experiments, he found that the
greateft quantity of calorific rays were even beyond the
coloured fpeCtrum at about 4 an inch. from the commence-
ment of the red rays. Ata greater diftance from this
point it began to diminifh, but was very perceptible even at
the diftance of 14 inch,

It will appear from what has been ftated, that thefe ca-
lorific rays are lefs refrangible than the rays of light ;
hence the calorific focus will fall beyond that of the lumi-
nous. Dr. Herfchel made an experiment to verify this in-
ference, but did not come at any thing very conclufive.
He afterwards made experiments to colle& thefe invifible
calorific rays, and caufed them to att independently of. the
light, by which he concludes, that they are fufficient to
account for all the effeéts produced by the folar rays in
exciting heat ; that they are capable of pafling through
glafs, and of being refracted and reflected, after they
have been finally detached from the folar beam.

If we are to confider thefe invifible rays as being truly
the fame with artificial heat, emanated from terreftrial bo-
dies, under the temperature of 800° of Fahrenheit, fome
of the experiments of Dr. Herfchel are ftrongly ‘at va-
riance with fome of the experiments of Mr. Lefley, de-
tailed in his work, entitled « An Enquiry into the Nature of
Heat,’? efpecially fo far as relates to the tran{miffion of
heat through tranfparent bodies. It appears from the fats
given by Mr. Lefley, that the heat of 212° of Fahrenheit
is not tranfmitted by glafs in the radiant form, but is firft
abforbed by the glafs, and radiated afrefh from its oppofite
furface. He was led to this conclufion by the faét, that
more heat pafled through white paper than the glafs.
And what ill more confirms this idea, he found equally as
much heat. paffed through two plates of tin, one fide of

each being blacked, and the other polifhed. When the
bright fides were placed together, and the black outwards,
it tranfmitted as much as the glafs; but when the black
fides were together, and the bright fides outward, there was
no perceptible quantity pafled fae

That culinary heat does not pafs direétly through glafs,
may be tried by holding a pane of glafs hefore a heated
body, and alternately holding the hand on each fide the glafs.
After fome time, however, the glafs gives heat to the hand,
proving that the heat has been tranfmitted ; but -this will be
found to refult from a fecond radiation, and would have
been more abundant, if a plate of metal, painted black, had
been in the place of the glafs.

The heat from the fun’s rays is not fo affeAed. It re-
quires no perceptible time to pafs through feveral thick
prifms of glafs, and when we hold a convex’ lens in the
fun’s beams, we have inftantaneous heat produced upon any
opaque body in its focus.

We have not yet fufficient ground to eftablifh the iden-
tity of light and heat; but if Dr. Herfchel’s experiments
be correét, we muft either conclude that the folar calorific
rays are of a different nature from the invifiblerays, or that
folar light is converted into caloric from heated bodies.
The fame philofopher, however, has made the fame ex-
periments with invifible culinary heat, and with fimilar
refults. How fhall we reconcile the feeming contradic-
tions? Dr. Herfchel ufed two thermometers, one of which
was his ftandard. Mr. Lefley ufed the differential ther-
mometer, an elegant inftrument, invented by himfelf. Dr.
Herfchel began his experiments with a red-hot cylinder;
and continued them till it became invifibly cold. *Mr.
Lefley ufed a cannifter filled with boiling water. A more
particular fet of experiments is {till wanting to clear up
this myfterious fubjeé. ;

Dr. Herfchel has alfo given us fome ufeful experimental
faéts on the relative quantities of light and heat tranfmitted
by different fub{tances. .The following Table fhews the
quantity of light and heat, ftopped by colourlefs and
tranfparent folid fubitances. ,

Taste I,
Stops of 1000 Parts
Subftances. es
Heat Light
Blueifh white glafs - - 250 80
White flint ditto - - gI 34.
Green crown ditto - - 259 203
Coach ditto - - - 214. 168
Iceland cryftal = - - - 244 150
Talc : 2 ein [le £36 go
Calcinable talc - - | 184 | 288
Taste II. :
Shewing the quantity of light and heat {topped by coloured
fub{tances.
Stops out of 1000.
Subftances. = E
Heat. |, Light.
es a ———__| ions!
Very dark red glafs - Sls Bao (Act 999.
Dark red A ’ - | 666 | 999.4,
Orange - - - 614 779
Yellow - - Ne 333 819
Pale green - - - 633-111 535
Dark ditto - - - 849 | 949

LIV@ Hu.

Stops out of 1000.

Tata
769
684
801

Subfiances.
Heat.

Blueith ditto
Pale blue
Dark ditto
Indigo
Pale indigo
Purple
Violet

768
812
362
633
452
583
489

999 16
77
993
955

Taste IIL. :

Shewing the ftopping property of what Dr. Herfchel calls
{cattering fubftances.

Stops out of 1000.

Subftances,
Heat. Light.
Rough crown glafs - - 464 854.
Rough coach ditto . - 571 879
Doubly rough - hak 667 932
Second doubly rough s+ - 935 946
The two firft together - . 698 969
The two next together - - 800 979
The four firft together == - 854 995
Olive colour burnt in - - 839 984
Calcined talc - - - 867 996
White paper - - - 850 994
White linen - - - gto 952
White Perfian - : 780 915
Black muflin - - - 714 937

Taste IV.

Shewing the ftoppage out of 1000 of the prifmatic red rays,
and the invilible rays.

Subftances.

Blueifh white glafs

Flint glafs =

Crown glafs e

Coach glafs =

Iceland cryital

Calcinable tale

Dark red glafs

Orange =

Yellow =

Pale green

Dark green

Blueifh green

Pale blue

Dark blue

Indigo

Pale indigo

Purple -

Violet - -
Crown glafs, one fide rough
Coach glafs, ditto =
Crown glafs, both fides rough
Coach glafs, ditto =
Calcined talc = =

TABLe V.
Shewing the floppage of rays of flame, fire, and’ invifible
rays from a ftove.

SubfRances.

Flame.
; Blueifh white glafs - - | 625
j Flint glafs - - - | 595
Crown glafs - - - | 636
‘Coach glafs - - - - | 458
Iceland cry ttal - - - | 510
Talc - - - hy al REA
Very dark red glaf: - - | 636
Dark red - Poy hires oe | 526
Orange - - - - | 560
Yellow - - - - | 523
Pale green 2 rs A 500
Dark green - - - | 739
Blueifh green - - - | 652
Pale blue - - - | 609
Dark blue - - - 610
Indigo - - - - | 679
Pale indigo - - - | 571
Purple - - - | 520
Violet - ° - | 500
Crown glafs, one fide rough - | 942
Coach glafs, ditto - - | 667
Crown glafs, both fides rough = =| 615
Coach glafs, ditto = = 680
The two laft but two, together - | 720
The two lait together - - | 667
The four laft together - - | 870
Olive colour, burnt in glafs - | 792
White paper - - - | 792
White linen - - - | 690
White Perfian a - Sl 508
Black muflin - - - [1565

The experiments in the firft, fecond, and third tables,
were made by letting the fun’s rays a& dire&tly upon one
thermometer, while the fame light a€ted upon another after
pafling the different fubitances. "The numbers in the tables
are the ratios of the differences of the degrees of each, after
being adted-upon for a given time. Table 1V. was made in
the fame way, the red rays and the invifible rays being each
feparated by the prifm, making two fets of experiments.
In each of thefe, the red, or the inyifible, acted on one ther-
mometer, and onthe other through each of the fubftances.

Table V. is formed from three fets- of experiments,
made at different times, by caufing, in the firft, the rays of
the flame of a candle to att upon one thermometer direétly,
and upon the other: through the fubitances. In the fecond
fet the rays of a common fire were ufed; and in the third,
the invifible rays of an iron ftove. See Phil. Tranf. for
1800.

An abundance of ufeful knowledge is to be derived
from thefe refearches, which may be of the utmoft imp >rt-
ance to fociety, as well as in giving aid to different branches
of {cience.

In delicate experiments of this kind, the thermometer
feems to be the moft important of the apparatus. The
fmallnefs of the feale, and the want of fentibility in thofe
ufed by our ingenious experimenter, were certainly very
objectionable, when compared with the differential thermo-
meter of Lefley. A repetition of thefe experiments, prac

ui

L PG’E.Y.

fuch an advantage, is highly to be recommended. We have
already pointed out fome contradictions between thefe and
Lefley’s experiments.

By comparing the effeét of the fubftances upon the folar
invifible rays in Table IV., and upon the invilible rays from
the iron ftove in Table V., we are led to fome very fingular
conclufions. It appears, for inftance, that flint-glafs {tops
none of the invifible rays of the {fpeétrum, although the fame
fub{tarce ftops 143 out of 1000 of the red rays, gi of 1000
of dire& folar heat, 34 of the dire& light. Hence it would
feem that calorific rays mixed with the luminous, muift con-
ftitute the gt of 1000, fince all the invifible rays pafs
through. We mutt from thefe data conclude, that either
the light of the folar {pectrum produces heat, or that the
calorific part in the coloured rays 1s of a different nature from
the invifible calorific rays. If the latter be admitted, we
have as much reafon to conlider the folar beam as conlifting
of different kinds of heat, as well as of light.

Thefe anomalies are {till increafed, when we turn to
Table V., where we find that the fame flint-glafs ftops out
of 1000 rays 730 invilible rays from a ftove, which would
feem to eitablifh that this calorific matter is ftill different from
' both the v:fible and invifible caloric of the fun ; and in the
experiments of Mr. Lefley, caloric appears to poffefs ftill
very different properties. x

We here fee fo much myftery and contradition, that we
mutt wait for more particular refearch. It is unlike the
fimplicity of nature; the fault mult, therefore, reft with the
philofophers.

Sir Ifaac Newton, on finding fo many different {pecies of
light, was unwilling to make fo many duids, but fuppofed
they differed in the fize of their particles; the largeft being
the leaft refrangible, and the fmalleft the moft. ‘The fame
thing would take place from the fame particles moving with
different velocities; the moft refrangible moving with the
leaft, and the leaft refrangible with the greateft velocity.

We have already ftated.a fact difcovered recently by
Malus, that light acquires new properties by a peculiar re-
fleGtion. Does it then appear impoflible that it fhould not
be changed in pafling through diaphanous media ? May not
that which moves with the greateft velocity have a greater
portion converted into heat ; or, in other words, may not
this converfion be as the velocity? This idea is flrength-
ened, from the circumitance of calorific rays being found
throughout the fpectrum. The greatelt objections raifed to
this idea of ‘light and heat being excited by the fame rays
moving with different velocities, are founded on the facts
of combined light ia phof{phorefcent bodies; and in the che-
mical effe&ts which were thought to be peculiar to light. In
our next fubject, however, we fhall thew that all the chemi-
cal effects producible by light can be produced by heat.

Belides the properties of the {olar beams to produce heat
and light, we find it to have other properties equally im-
portant to the animated world, This is moft confpicuous
m the economy of vegetables. It has been many times
proved, that vegetables, growing without light, would not,
in the firft place, have more tendency to grow upwards
than in any other direGtion. ‘This arifes from an evident at-
traction exilting between light and living vegetables: This
fact is familiar to thofe who have placed trees in windows.
It is obfervable, that they always lean towards the light.
The fame effet would doubtlefs take place, if one fide of
a vegetable were fhaded in the open air. The attraction of
light is probably not the fame for different vegetables ; by
which we may account for the different forms of trees.
‘This is rendered plaufible, when we contra{t the {preading

branches of the oak with the towering branches of the
poplar.

Experience has long ago eftablifhed, that vegetables be-
come de(titute of {mell and colour, and lofe much of their
combuttibility, by growing in the dark. We find in Dr.
Black’s leétures, an account given by the celebrated Dr. Ro-
binfon of Edinburgh In the drain of a coal-work under
ground, he accidentally laid his hand upona very luxuriant
plant, with large indented foliage, and perfe@ly white. He
had not feen any thing like it, nor could any one inform him
what it was. He had the plant with a fod brought into the
open air in the light. Ina little time the leaves withered,
and foon after new leaves began tofpring up, of a green
colour, and of a different fhape from that of the old ones.
On rubbinz one of the leaves between his fingers, he found
that it had the {mell of common tanfy, and ultimately proved
to be that plant, which had been fo changed by growing in
the dark. Indeed it was recollected that fome foil had been
taken into the drain from a neighbouring garden, fome time
before it was found fo altered. ;

This effeét of light is not lefs con{picuous in the growth
of celery. By covering it with earth, the light is fhut out,
which would very foon turn it green, and make its flavour.
fo {trong as to render it unfit to be eaten, at the fame
time that it would render it more fibrous and tenacious.

From the circumttance of light giving odour and inflam-
mability to vegetables, and fince thefe properties are molt
common to bodies containing hydrogen, it would appear
that light was effential to the production of hydrogen, per-
haps by expelling oxygen ; and hence it would alfo appear
that hydrogen is neceflary to the colour of vegetables. It
has been afferted by Humboldt, that he found vegetables
growing in the dark mine, having their natural colour, but
thefe plants were inveloped by hydrogen.

Light is found to produce various chemical changes upon
bodies. When the oxyd of filver is precipitated from nitric
acid by muriatic acid, the infoluble muriat is at firit white,
and if kept in the dark at the common temperature, would
doubtlefs remain fo for an- indefinite leneth of time. If,
however, it be expofed to the light fora little time, it be~
gins to aflume a purple colour, and ultimately becomes
black. This effect takes place more rapidly according to the
intenfity of the light. Hence it has been propoted to mea-
{ure the intenfity of light by the time of its changing. At
inftrument has been invented for this purpofe by Mr.
Lefley. See Puoromerer.

The general effect of ligitt, as a chemical agent, appears
to confilt in difengaging the oxygen, or an acid from bodies
which it effe‘is, no doubt, by leflening the affinity of the
bafe for oxygen, or the faline bafe for the acid. Hence,
we find light is capable of decompoting thofe oxyds and
falts, in which the oxygen or acid is held by a weak afhi-
nity. It therefore detaches oxygen from the oxyds of gold,
platina, filver, and the peroxyd of lead: alfo from nitric
and liquid oxymuriatic acid. Dr. Herfchel, in his experi-
ments upon light, finding that the’ folar fpectrum had dif-
ferent illuminating powers in different parts, conjectured
that the power of the fun?s light to effe&t chemical changes,
might principally belong to fome particular part of the
{pectrum, and it appears that this ingenious hint has been
confirmed by experiments made by Dr. Woollaiton, and
alfo by Ritter. It appears that the invifible rays have no
action upon the muriat of filver, the red rays a little more,
and fo on, increafing to the utmoft boundary of the violet,
ray ; but the maximum of effe€t was found at fome diltance
beyond the violet, It appears, therefore, from this ea

: act,

LIGHT.

faét, that the folar beam confifts of rays which have three +

diftin& effects, one producing ight, another heat, and a
third producing neither, but which effeé the greatefl che-
mical changes in the leaft time.

Some experiments lately made by Guy Luflac and The-
nard, and detailed in their work entitled ** Recherches
Phyfiques-Chimiques,” vol. ii. p. 186, go far to prove that
the chemical changes produced by the folar rays are not de-
pendent upon any fpecific property of light, as they have
produced iimilar effeéts by heat alone. Dry oxymuriatic
acid gas was not decompofed by light nor heat. Liquid
oxymuriatic acid was decompofed by a light not flrong, and
by a heat equal to obfcure red. Nitric acid by the fame
heat. Oxymuriatic acid gas mixed with hydrogen by light,
and by heat equal to 125° to 160° centigrade. The fame
was decompoled flowly by diffufe light, but {carcely any at
lefs than 120° centigrade. The firft oxyd of mercury was
converted into the fecond oxyd, and running mercury by
diffufe hght ; and the fame by heat. ‘The peroxyd of lead
was changed into the red oxyd, oxygen gas being difen-
gaged by a vivid light; and the fame was produced by a
gentle heat. The oxyds of filver and platina were decom-
pofed by light and by a gentle heat.

They next expofed vegetable colours to the ation of light
as well as heat. j

A vegetable rofe-colour from faffron became white in a
{hort time by light ; and the fame by expofure for an hour
to 160° cent.

Log-wood dye was changed to dark red by light, and by
expofure 14 hour to 180° cent.

Brazil-wood dye became white by light, and by 180° of
heat, for two hours.

The orange colour of Indian faffron became a dull red by
light.” The fame was produced by 200° of heat, for an
hour and a half.

Yellow colour, from woad, was changed to ochre colour
by light, and by 210° of heat applied for two hours and a
half.

In all the effeéts of light we have hitherto enumerated, al-

though we have fhewn that a mutual attraction exifts between ~

light and other matter, we have not adverted to its remaining
in bodies from which it may be eliminated without change.
Several bodies appear, however, to poffefs the property in a
remarkable degree. Indeed, according to experiments of
father Beccaria, almoft any fubftance expofed to the light
‘of the fun for a certain time, appeared luminous when
broaght into a dark room. This he found to be the cafe,
when he made his own hand the fubje& of experiment.
This property is foon gone in moft bodies ; but is rettored
by frefh expofure to light. The fub{tance moft remarkable
for retaining this quality is Canton’s phofphorus, which
confifts of fulphur and lime. It is prepared by ftratifying
oyfter-fhells with fulphur in a crucible, and expofing them
‘ to the heat of a brifk common fire. The lime of the hells
becomes impregnated with the fulphur, and they are then
broken to pieces, and kept for ufe ina ftopped phial. This
fub{tance has the property of fhining in the’ dark, after ex-
pofure to the fun’s light, for a fhort time. Its brightnefs
1s fuch, as to point out the hour of the night. If it be
kept in the dark, however, fora certain length of time, it
becomes: lefs bright; and ultimately lofes its fhining pro-
perty ; which it re-acquires by expofure to the light. This
light is not dependent upon any combuttion, fince it pof-
feffes this property without oxygen, and is not increafed by
its prefence. Heat caufes it to fhine brighter ; but it gives
out its light fooner, which is only reftored by new. light.

‘is by far the moft brilliant by this treatment.

Canton; the ingenious difcoverer of this fubftance, intro)
duced equal quantities of it into two glafs globes, and ex~_
pofed them to the fun equally, to give them their greateft
luminous power. They were then taken into a dark room,
when they were equally luminous. One of them was now »
placed in boiling water, by which means it became much
brighter, but it ceafed to be luminous in ten minutes 5 while
the other continued to fhine for two hours after. After
the latter, however, had ceafed to fhine, it became luminous
by the application of heat. It appears, by the account of
this author, when it had ceafed to fhine at one temperature,
it always gave out light in a greater, even to the point of
ignition ; but never after at the fame, or a lower tempe-
rature, till it had been expofed anew to the fun’s light.

Thefe curious faéts, on a firlt view, feem to prove that
the light of this fubftance is derived from the fun’s rays,
which enters into combination with yas eliminated in
the dark. This fuppofition, however, dered impro- ,
bable by other fa&ts. When it has ceafed to fhine, its pro-
perty is reftored’ by any of the cojoured rays of the folar
{peétrum. It ought, therefore, to emit that particular light
only.to which it has been expofed, but contrary to this,
under all circumftances, it gives out the fame coloured light,
which is generally white.

It feems more agreeable to the phenomena to Suppofe,
that the'influence of the! light upon this fubf{tance confifts
in exciting fome chemical aétion in the body, which cannot.
be produced by heat, or, perhaps, the phenomena may be_
electrical, fince we find that the ele€tric fpark, as well as
light, is capable of giving it its luminous property- ie

A great variety of fubftances have the property of giving ©
out light by different treatment, fome by heat, others by
rubbing, and by percuffion. Mott of the earthy falts have
the property of fhining in the dark, by being laid upon an .
iron plate, heated. a little fhort of ignition. Fluat of lime
The fame is
vifible, though in a lefs degree, in-all the carbonats of lime,
and in carbonats and fulphat of barytes, and alfo carbonat
of ftrontian, —

Several of the gems have the property of fhining by rub-
bing. Quartz pebbles, rubbed brifkly together, in the dark,
give brilliant flafhes, accompanied by a peculiar odour not
unlike that produced by the wheels, of a carriage grinding
upon ftones. The tourmalin alfo gives out light by rubbing.
The fhining property of this clafs of bodies is the fame in
vacuo, and any of the gafes. The caufe of thefe ap-
pearances is not even gueffed at: they do not acquire thefe
properties from the fun’s light, like the phofphorus of
Canton. A:

We are in poffeffion of a number of curious facts relative
to phofphorefcence of animal and vegetable fub{tances., —
Canton has furnifhed a number of interefting experiments
upon fifh and the flefh of animals; and the fubie®t has fince-
been inveftigated and extended by Dr. Hulme. The Heth,
of animals, particularly veal, at a certain period after death,
begins to be luminous, and continues fo for fome time. The
light is extinguifhed: when the meat has arrived at a certain
{tate of putrefaGtion. This property, however, is more;
conf{picuous in fith, and fea-fith more than that of frefh-water,
A. feries of experiments is given by Dr. Hulme in the
Philofophical Tranfactions for 1800, page 161. f

He generally took about four drachms of the fubftance of
different kinds of fifh,. This he put into a three-ounce phial,
to which he introduced twe drachms of fulphat of magnefia,|
diffolved in .two ounces of cold {pring-water, but occa-
fionally he ufed other falts. ; ai

Two

LIGHT.

~ Two drachms of the fleth of the herring were put into the
folution of fulphat of magnefia, _On the fecond evening he
perceived a ring of light round the top of the liquid, but it
was dark below. On fhaking the phial, the whole became
beautifully luminous, and remained in that ftate. On the
third night the light had again rifen to the top ; but the
ring was not fo bright as on the preceding night, nor was
it fo bright after fhaking as on the firft occafion. In an-
other experiment, the light difappeared entirely on the third
night. The fame experiment was made with fea-water,
On the fecond night the liquid was dark ; on the third
lucid ; on the fourth very luminous ; on the fifth it began to
decline ; on the fixth it became lefs; and on the feventh
quite gone. At this period, neither the fifh nor the liquid
had any fmell of putrefcence. The fame took place in a
fecond experi In another experiment, he nfed four
drachms of the 1 the herring, two drachms of fulphat
of magnefia, and twe ounces of water, as before. On the
fecond night, on fhaking the phial, the liquid was luminous ;
it remained fo on the third and fourth ; and on the fifth was
extinét. In the fame experiment, with fulphat of foda, the
effect was lefs, but it was greater with fea-water. Similar
appearances took place by a fimilar treatment of the
mackarel, :

. He next fufpended in a room the herring and the mackarel.

On the fecond night the fkinny fide became lunfinous; on
the third night both fides of the whole were exceedingly lumi-
nous. Dr. Hulme obferves, that the foft roe of both thefe
fifth afforded the moit lisht. At the time thefe fifh became
very luminous, Dr. Hulme f{craped off fome of the iuminous
matter, which he named hetring’s light, or mackare! light.
This fub{tance he introduced to different folutions of falts.

The folutions ufed were fulphats of magnefia and foda;
muriat and phofphat of foda; nitrat of potafh; Rochelle
falt ; tartrat of foda; and fea-water. He alfo ufed folu-
tions of honey and fugar: the quantity of water in each
was two ounces; the quantity of each fubftance diffolved
in the fame was two drachms, with the exception of the
nitre, and muriat of foda, the former being half a drachm,
and the latter a drachm.

The herring or mackarel light being introduced to the folu-

tion of fulphat of magnefia, rendered the whole mafs of liquid
very luminous, and continued for 24 hours. All the above
folutions became !uminous by adding the fame lucid matter.
The phofphat and muriat of foda appear to have been
better than the reft. The light with fea-water was more
permanent, being luminous for feveral days. After the
above luminous matter had ceafed to fhine, the light was
in fome degree revived by motion. What is very remark-
able in theie experiments, is the circumi{tance, that when the
folutions were made {tronger to a certain extent, the light
became {uddenly extinguifhed, but was always reftored by
dilution with water.

_The light is alfo extinguifhed by water, lime-water, water
impregnated with carbonic acid, or with fulphuretted hy-
drogen, alcohol, alkalies, and acids.

In all the above experiments the light is not attended with
the leaft elevation of temperature.

By expofing this luminous matter to a certain degree of
cold the light is extinguifhed ; but is reftored with the re-
turn of temperature. “A moderate heat caufes it to.be more
bright ; but the heat of boiling water entirely extinguifhes
it, and deitioys the property. According.to another fet
of experiments by Dr. Hulme, in the Phil. Tranf. for 1801,
page 483, it appears, that thele fubftances do not fhine
brighter in oxygen than atmofpheric‘air. In nitrogen gas

10

they do not begin to fhine ; although, after the fhining has
commenced, they continue to fhine in this gas for a limited
time; the prefence of oxygen appears to be effential in
firt producing this property. Dr. Hulme found, that
when two herrings were expofed, with their fides touching,
the unexpofed parts remained dark : he found the effect pro-
duced by covering any part with ftrong brown paper.

In hydrogen gas the frefh fifh begins to fhine ; and,
if begun, it is very foon extinguifhed: it recovers its pro-
perty, however, by re-expofure to the air of the atmofphere.
By repeated and alternate expofure to thefe gafes, the light
is loft and regained a number of times. This light is alfo
extinguifhed by nitrous, carbonic acid, and fulphuretted
hydrogen gafes. This phofphorefcence is extinguifhed in
vacuo; but is reftored by letting in the air. he glow-
worm and rotten wood were found to poffefs fimilar pro-
perties: they were fimilarly acted upon by the different
gafes, by cold, and by moderate heat. The light of the
fhining matter from the fifh was extinguifhed by a heat
from 96° to 100° of Fahrenheit : the temperature of 110°
impaired, but did not ‘extinguifh the rotten wood: the
temperature of 114° increafed the brilliancy of the glow-
worm ; but the temperature of 212° extinguifhed both.

Tt appears that rotten wood, like the fifh, does not give
out light till it has been expofed for fome tfme to the air ;
it retains its luminous property immerfed in fpring-water,
or diftilled-water, and alfo in linfeed oil; it is, however,
extinguifhed by acids, by alcohol, and, perhaps, by alkalies.
The luminous matter of the glow-worm is a liauid fecreted
and retained in the lower part of the abdomen. If the
fluid be fqueezed out, it ftill retains its fhining property, -

’ and may be {pread upon the palm of the hand ; but it foon

in this {tate difappears.

This property is obferved in fome other infetts, parti-
cularly the lantern-fly of the Weft Indies.

The light of a great number of thefe’artificial and natural
pyrophori doves not appear to depend in the leait upon the
prefence of oxygen. Of this kind are phofphorus of Canton,
the different earthy falts which fhine by the application of
heat, and fome other minerals which fhine by friction and
attrition. Thofe of which we have la{t treated require
the prefence of oxygen, at leaft to acquire the property of
fhining. This circumftance renders the fuppofition of Dr.
Hulme rather improbable, namely, that the light is a com-
ponent part of the body from which it is illuminated. ‘The
only thing which the fa@s above given can be allowed to
have eftablifhed, is that, during a certain ftate of the animal
fubltance, between death and aétual putrefation, fome
procefs is carried on in the prefence of oxygen, by which
light is evolved ; and that during the'time the fubftance is in
vacuo, or in fome gas which is deftitute of oxygen, this pro-
cefs is fufpended, and by the prefence of other fubftances to-
tally (topped. The fact of its continuing to fhine in nitrogen,
might arife from the prefence of a fmall portion of oxygen.
It appears, from the circumftance of its fhining in atmofphe-
ric air, as much as in oxygen, that very little oxygen is ne-
ceflary. Forfterafferts that the glow-worm fhines brighter
in oxygen, but the oxygen does not appear perceptibly im-
paired. ‘This thews, that although oxygen is neceflary, the
quantity required is very fmall, ;

It has been too common for chemifts to draw the fol-
lowing conclufion, that when light, or light and heat toge-
ther, are evolved, that it mutt either have arifen from com-
buftion, or that the light is a component part of the body
from which it is difengaged. As, for inftance, becaufe

Canton’s phofphorus fhines without the prefence of i
e

LIGHT.

the light is called light of combination ; and Dr. Hulme has,
with lefs foundation, drawn the fame conclufion. Intflead of
faying that light and heat are produéts of combination, from
the union of oxygen with inflammable matter, we fhould
fay that it is the refult of rapid chemical combination, when
the bodies have great aflinity for each other.

We have feveral facts which confirm this idea. . When
{trong mineral acids combine with pure potafh, lime, or
magnefia, much heat and fome light are emitted. The fame
thing is alfo obferved in flacking of lime. In an expe-
riment, made by a fociety of chemilts, it appears, that
when a mixture of fulphur and copper filings is expofed
to a red heat, ina glafs tube, the oxygen being excluded,
the two fubltances fuddenly combine, attended with the
difengagement of light. In thofe chemical changes where
heat and light are difengaged, the following law will obtain.
The change of temperature will be as the difference be-
tween the f{pecific heat of the compound body, and half
the fum of the f{pecific heat of the bodies before combina-
tion; while the intenfity of the light and heat will be in-
verfely as the time in which this change has been taking
place.

We fhall here leave the fubjeét of phofphorefcent light, to
give fome account of that produced by combuttion ; in
treating which, we fhall-find our progrefs much facilitated,
by confidering combuftion as dependent on the above law,
rather than upon the laws of combultion, as laid down by
Lavoifier, who was of opinion, that the light and- heat
furnifhed by combultion were entirely derived from the
oxygen. If, as we have fuppofed, the quantity of heat be
greater, as the {pecilic heat of the refulting compound is
lefs than the mean of the bodies before combination, we
ought to have heat evolved whenever fuch change can be
proved ; and by afcertaining, before hand, the fpecific heat
of the compound, and of the elements, the quantity of
heat may be known. Experience has already given great
itrength to this notion. The intenfity of the light and
heat, however, during thefe changes, will not depend
upon the abfolute quantity evolved, but upon the rapidity
of the evolution; and, if we are not greatly deceived,
the quantity of light will always be as the rapidity of com-
bultion. In the flow combuflion of hydrogen gas, the
hight is not’great, but the whole heat #s greater than that af-
forded by any other combuttible body. On the other hand,
the abfolute quantity of heat afforded by the combuftion of
phofphorus, is much lefs than that evolved by burning an
equal weight of hydrogen; but the quantity of light
given by the former, much exceeds that of the latter. The
intenfity of light, however, will alfo be inverfely as the fpace
which it occupies, and hence it will be as the {pecific gravity
ef the combultible body. We may cherefore conclude, that
the quantity of light afforded by combuttion will be as the
rapidity of combuition, which will be as the affinity of the
body for oxygen, as the denfity of the burning body, and
inverfely as the cohefion of the body. The difference of
cohefion between charcoal and the diamond accounts for
the relative combultibility of thefe two bodies. For this
reafon, foft iron wire ought to afford more vivid combuftion
in oxygen than fteel wire.

In order to obtain a relative idea of the value of different
combultible bodies, ufed for procuring artificial light, we
fhall detail fome ingenious experiments made by Dr. Henry,
and publifhed in Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. xi. p. 65.

Dr, Henry, with a view to afcertain the relative value of
the .combuftible gafes, made fome trials with hydrogen, car-
buretted hydrogen, and carbonic oxyd. Thefe he found

did but afford a very inferior light, compared with the {plen-
did light given by the gas afforded by the deftruétive dittil-
lation of pit-coal, which is equal to the light given by the
fineft fpermaceti oil. The following table points out the
refult of his experiments, and clearly fhews the caufe of the
fuperior property of coal gas to produce light.

Meafures of oxyyen
gas required to fatu-|Meafures of carbonic
rateoue hundred mea- jacid produced.

fures of each.

Kind of Gas.

Pure hydrogen 50 to 54 None

Gas from moift coal

Do. Wood (oak)

Do. dried peat |

Do. from cannel coal

Do. Lamp oil

Do. Wax

Pure olefiant gas

The firft column contains the different gafes, 100 mea-

fures of each being ufed in each experiment. The fecond,
the meafures of oxygen which were confumed, while each
of the 100 meafures were burning. The third, the quantity
in meafures of carbonic acid, which refulted from the com-
buftion, Itis a fact, already afcertained, that every meafure
of carbonic acid gas has refulted from a meafure of oxygen ;
confequently, the quantity of oxygen confumed in its
formation is equal in meafure to the numbers in the third
column ; the excefs of oxygen, therefore, appearing in the
fecond. By fubtraéting the number in the third from that.
in the fecond, it will give the quantity of oxygen which
has combined with the hydrogen in each of the gafes.
This excefs of oxygen, in the fecond column, will combine
withtwo meafures of hydrogen, to form water. In order
to form fome idea of the relative value of thefe combuftible
gafes, we will compare the firft, whichis pure hydrogen, and
the lait, cr the pure olefiant gas, which has the greateit efficacy
in producing light. The 50 meafures of oxygen in the firit
combine with 100 of hydrogen, and fince no carbonic acid >
is produced, this is the whole effect. In the laft experiment,
179 of carbonic acid is formed at the expence of 179 mea-
fures of oxygen, and about ths its weight of carbon,
which would alone have furnifhed confiderable fight. Since,
however, 284 meafures of oxygen are expended, we have
254 — 179 = 105 meafures of oxygen, which would require
200 meafures of hydrogen, If, therefore, hydrogen and
carbon were equally efficacious as combuitible bodies in
producing light, the quantity of light in one, to that in the
other, would be as 210 + 2 x 179: 100, or as 25 to
nearly. The ratio of the f{pecific gravities of thele gafes is
as go to 8 nearly ; therefore, multiplying thefe ratios, we get
270 to 8, or 34to 1 nearly, for the relative intenfity of
the light of each.

Thefe different eafes are here fuppofed by Dr. Henry to
be mixtures of feveral gafes, the compofition of which is
known, and all confifting of different proportions of hydro-
gen and carbon, with the exception ef the carbonic oryes

whic

LIGHT

Which contains oxygen. Now, fetting afide the latter gas,
which being partly faturated, the reft will be in their effect
to produce light, as the quantity of carbon they contain ; not
that carbon is more effective than hydrogen, but becaufe
the fpecific gravity of the gas is increafed by the carbon.
Since, therefore, the olefiant gas contains the molt, and is of
the greatelt {pecific gravity in confequence, thofe gafes which
contain the greatelt quantity of olefiant gas, mult be the belt
for producing light by combuttion. Now, it may be feen in
the table, that the gafes obtained from lamp oil and wax
are the next to the olefiant gas in their effect of giving light ;
and henee we may conclude that thofe gafes contain a large
proportion of olefiant gas, and of courfe {vem well fitted for
producing artificial light. If we may judge by analogy, we
‘may expect that the {permaceti fat will ftand as high as the
oil, and the bef t ay, perhaps, be the next in order.
During the b thefe fubitances, the vapour which,
when kindled, contlitutes the flame, may confit of a great
proportion of the olefiant gas. In the burning of all fatty
iubftances, however, there is a great redundancy of carbon,
which flies off with the gafeous produéts in the form of
fmoke, and which is burnt inthe Argandlamp. The above
faéts will furnifh an elegant and fimple method of appreti-
ating the relative value of the different combuttible bodies
to produce light. See Gas-ticuts, Lamp, and Com-
BUSTION.

The light which is furnifhed by combuftion, and commonly
called artificial light, is confidered by moft philofophers as
being a component part of the bodies employed in the com-
buftion. Even in the Simple procefs of heating a body red-
hot, it is faid that the body at that temperature begins to give
out light. It is rather curious, that all bodies fhould give
out light at the fame temperature, which is faid to be about
800° Fah. It would appear, from a fa& given by the late
Mr. Wedgewood, that the emanating medium is heat or light,
according tothe denfity of the body from which it is ema-
nated. ‘The heated air is fo hot, as to make a thin flip of
gold appear red-hot, although the aerial medium did not be-
come luminous. ‘Terreftrial light, as it appears to poffefs
mott of the properties of folar light, like it, can be tranfmitted
and refraéted by tranfparent bodies, and it ftri€ly refem-
bles it in being reflected by the fame bodies. It is faid, how-
ever, to contain a different proportion of the coloured rays
from that of folar light, being defettive in the blue, and re-
dundant in the red rays.

Doétor Herfchel has made a number of experiments upon
terreftrial heat, in order to compare it with the heat furnifhed
by the fun; but he feems to have taken it for granted, that the
folar light and the artificial do not differ, although his ex-
periments prove, that terreftrial heat and folar heat differ
effentially. Artificial heat does not pafs through glafs,
while the folar calorific rays pafs eafily through the fubitance
of a prifm, and afterwards through a convex lens.

It has beea found that artificial light has fome chemical
properties. The Abbé Teffier found that the green colour of
vegetables is produced by the light of alamp. This fact has
been confirmed by Decaadolle.

Licut, for the Properties of refle@ed, fee REFLECTION,
Mirgor, &e. :

Licnr, for the Properties, Sc. of vefraded, fee Rurrac-
TION, Lens, &c. Ff

Lieut, for the Do@rine of the Colours of, fee CoLour,
Rerracrion, and REFRANGIBILITY.

Licut, for the Manner in avhich it affe@s our Senfes, and
bow it contributes to Vifion, fee Vision.

Lieut from Diamonds and other Bodies. See Licut,

jupra, Diamonp, Exzcrricity, and Puospuorus.

Vor. XX,

Lieut, Exhibition of, by living Animals. This fingular pre-
perty belongs only to creatures of afimple ftru@ture. It ap-
pears to refide only in certain {pecies of the four lah claffes as
eltablifhed by modern naturaliits, viz. mollufca, infedls, worms,
and xoophytes. ;

The mollufea and worms contain each but a fingle fpecies,
which has been afcertained to fhew light; for the account
of certain fpecies of /epas, murex, and chama yielding light,
does not feem to reft upon any good authority, and the ftoric$
told by Brugueire and by Flaugergues of earth-werms
being luminous, are improbable in themfelves, even if they
were not contrary to common obfervation. See Journal
@’Hiftoire Naturelle, tom. ii., and Journal de Phyfique,
tom. xvi.

The examples of luminous {pecies are more numerous
amongft in/eés than in any other clafs. They are to be
found in the following genera; elater, lampyris, fulgora, pau-
fus, feolopendra, cancer, lynceus, and limulus. q '

There are alfo many luminous zoophytes, particularly in
the genus Medu/a, and in the new genus Beroe. vt

Some writers have attributed the property of fhining
while alive to certain fi/hes ; but, as it would appear, upon
very queftionable grounds. In a voyage from France to
Cayenne, Mr. Bajon faw in the fea a number of lumirous
points which fhone when ftruck, and another appearance of
pale flames, about three feet below the furface of the water.
He likewife obferved in the migration of the dorado and
other: fifhes, that their bodies were ftudded with fimilar
luminous points., Upon examination he difcovered thofe to
be minute {pheres which adhered to the furface of the fifh.
Thefe were moft probably the {mall {pecies of luminous
medufa. We fhall hereafter notice that Bajon’s obfervations
therefore fhewed no property of fhining in the fifh them-
felves. :

Godeheu de Riville ftates in a paper he fent to the Aca-
demy of Seiences, that he found in the Scomber pelamis, on
opening it alive, an oil which was extremely luminous. Ft
fhould- be obferved, that Riville was prepoflefied with the
opinion of all the luminous appearances of the fea being
occafioned by a peculiar oily fluid: other parts of his Me-
moir fhew inaccuracy of information ; and it may be added,
that if the oil of fifhes were ufually luminous, as fuppofed.
by Riville, it would be a fa& very generally known.

We fhall now proceed to confider the luminous property
in thofe animals which have, been afcertained to pofleis it:
Afterwards we fhall defcribe the peculiar organs from which
the light is known in certain fpecies to emanate ; and lafily,
we fhall examine the opinions that have been entertained re-
{peéting the nature and origin of animal light, )

The fpecies of Pholas, defcribed by Pliny under the
name of Daéylus, has long been known to poflefs remark-
able powers of evolving hight, It is recorded by Pliny,
that every part of this auimal’s fabftance is charged with a
fluid, which, like liquid phofphorus, renders any object
luminous with whic’ it comes into contaét.

Reaumur has confirmed the obfervations of Pliny; he
found alfo that the’water coatained in the fhell of the dac-
dylus, and other fluids in which the animal might be im-
merfed, acquired the property of fhining, and after touching
the éreature, the hands communicated to common water a
milky or pale phofphoric appearance. Reaumur obferved
that the light was moft vivid when the d2@y/us was frefh; it
afterwards gradually declined until it became extiné. He
dried the entire animal, which deprived it of all power
of fhining, but this was reftored in a weaker degree even
after four or five days, by moiltening it either with freih or
falt water. So far from the procefs of diffolution being at

50 aly

LIGHT.

all neceffary to the luminous ‘appearance of the dadylus,
Reaumur found that it was deftroyed by putting putrid indi-
viduals amongft thofe which had been recently taken. Mem,
de l’Acad. des Sc. de Paris, 1712.

There are three luminous f{pecies of e/ater; the noéi-
Jucus, phofphoreus, and ignitus. The firft of thefe fhines fo
brilliantly, that before the arrival of the Spaniards in South
America, it is faid many tribes of Indians ufed no other
light for tranfaéting their ordinary bufinefs ; and at prefent
the women wear the infect at night as an ornament in their
head-drefs. Dr. Patrick Brown, in his Hiftory of Jamaica,
fays, the elater no@ilucus is feldom met with during the
day, it being then torpid; it flies by might, at which time
it emits an unfteady light, having alternate moments of
darknefs, He obferved, alfo, that the extin&tion of the light
depended upon the will of the animal.

It is well known, that in the ¢claters the licht proceeds
from the fmooth yellow fpots fituated upon the corcelet ;
but Dr. Brown feems to think that all the internal fubftance
is equally luminous, and that the yellow {pots appear fo in
a greater degree than the other parts, in confequence. of the
tranfparency of the fhell at thefe places favouring the tranf-
miffion of the light. He fays, in forcing the rmgs that
cover the different parts of the body a little afunder, you
may obferve the fame light to iffue from all the entrails
indifcriminately. The internal parts of infeéts are fo tranf-
parent, and would permit fo much light to pafs through
them from the proper organs, that Brown might readily
have taken up the above opinion without its being well
founded. Thus we have obferved, on opening the glow-
worm at the back in. the dark, that the light fhone through
all the inteftinal parts.

There is fome obfcurity in the accounts of naturalifts
with refpect to the elater phofphoreus: Degeer diftinguifhes
it from the noéilucus, on account of the yellow {pots being
vifible on both the upper and lower fides of the corcelet ;
but we have found that this is to be obferved in the latter
{pecies alfo. The principal, and perhaps the only real dif-
FY ge of the pho/phoreus, is its {maller fize than the nodi-

ucus. ;

The later ignitus of Fabricius is confiderably fmaller than
the preceding fpecies, and is fufliciently charaGterifed by
having the margins of the corcelet yellow, in place of the
two yellow fpots.

The genus Lampyris contains many fpecies which emit
light ; of thefe we may mention the Z. nodiluca, or common
glow-worm ; L. fplenditlula, of which Degeer confiders the
noGiluca as a variety ; the LZ. ignita, L. phofphorea, L. niti-
dula, L. lucida, L. italica, L. japonica, and L. penfylvanica,
which laft appears to be the Pyralis minor of Brown. Pro-
bably other f{pecies of Jampyris’ might be enumerated
amongft thofe that have the property of fhining ; but as
the light of all the /ampyrides appears to’ be produced nearly
in the fame manner, it is not fo neceflary to our purpofe,
to fix with precifion the number of the luminous fpecies.

The /ampyrides, like the elaters, have the power of regulat-
ing at pleaiure the degree of their light, or of fufpending it
altogether. The colour of the light depends upon its
ftrength ;-when very weak it is of a faint emerald colour,
pt in its moft vivid flate it is a bright yellow or orange
colour.

The glow-qworms of this country are only luminous in the
feafon for procreation, which lafts during the fummer months;
when the females are impregnated, and have depofited their
eggs, they fhine no longer, This circumftance has autho-
rifed the common opinion, that the exhibition of light is
snade for the purpofe of guiding or inviting the male infec.

The glow-worms molt frequently affemble in numbers
upon dry banks, or under hedges on the fides of unfre-
quented roads; they are rarely {een on public roads or in.
fields. They do not difplay their light upon all nights
alike ; fcarcely one of them will be feen for feveral, nights
together, and then, as it were by common confent, they ap-
pear with great {plendour for a few nights, after which they
again retire. Their difappearance probably depends upon
their meeting with the male infe&, for we have not obferved
that the ftate of the weather has any influence upon them.
They commonly begin to fhine before it is quite dark, and
extinguifh their light fome time before the approach of day. .
It is remarkable with what regularity their inflin@ guides
them in this particular ; we have kept them the whole day in
darknefs, without their fhewing any defire to move or ex-
pofe their light, yet in the evening, although purpofely
placed near burning candles, they cr out and fhone
with brilliancy.

The light of the glow-worm is always molt vivid when the
creature is in motion; it may alfo be excited or encreafed
by turaing the infect on its back, or otherwife teazing it.
But the luminous appearance is interrupted at all times by
fhort and irregular periods of either diminifhed light or total
darknefs ; ufually, however, there are two {mali {pots on
the laft ring of the abdomen, which retain their light whillt
the other luminous rings ceafe to fhine.

The Jampyris italica has been obferved, like the nodiluca,
to have the power of modifying its light; it is, however,
rendered more brilliant at each motion of its wings. Mem.
de PAcad.-des Sc. 1766. 5

The pyralis minor of Brown exhibits a vacillating light 5
fometimes ftronger, fometitnes weaker, and at times dying
wholly away. The light is always renewed in a few
feconds, the obfcure intervals being of fhorter continuance
than the moments of illumination, which the creature feems
able to command at pleafure. Every part of the abdomen
appears to yield light m this infe&t, which is flronger and
more conftant than what is emitted by the elater nodiilucus.
Brown's Hiitory of Jamaica. ’ ‘

It has been afferted, that the larva and chryfalis of the
Jampyrides are luminous. Degeer mentions, that the larva of
the /ampyris italica has been miftaken by Linnzus for the’
perfect female mfeé&. #

M. Gueneau de Montbiellard not only ftates the larva
and chryfalis of the glow-worm to be phofphorefcent, but
that the eggs alfo for two, three, five, or more days after
they are expelled from the female, emit light without inter-
miffion or decreafe, and that for an equal time their light
declines until it becomes extin¢t. He obferves, that it is:
not néceflary for the egos to be fecundated, but thofe which
fhone longeft produced the larvé. In one inftance he did
not find the eggs to be luminous ; on another occafion, fome
eggs, which were laid on the 12th of June, fhewed a degree
of light, even on the 28th of July. Memoire fur la Lampyre.
Acad. de Dijon.

We have very frequently-had great numbers of the eggs
of the glow-worm in our pofleffion, but we never faw them
in a luminous itate, except upom one occafion, when they
{hone unremittingly for feveral days together, as deferibed
by Montbiellard; the fac is, therefore, the more remarkable,
on account of the rarity of its occurrence.

Befides the fpecies of fu/gora, in which the luminous
faculty has been noticed, there are probably feveral others,
if we may judge by analogy of ftructure, that alfo poflefs
it. The individuals moft diftinguithed for this, property, are
the /anternaria, candelaria, and pyrorhynchus. ‘

The fulgora lanternaria difplays a very brilliant fparkling

2 light,

LIGHT.

Night, which is only feen during the night when the infeét is
in motion. Madam Merian having once collected a number
of this fpecies, fhe enclofed them ina box, without being
aware of their luminous property. Being one night attracted
by the‘noife that proceeded from the box, fhe opened it, and,
to her great furprife, found every infect in motion, and yield-
ing a ftrong light. Merian Surin.

Cuvier feems to entertain fome doubts of the luminous
property of the /anternaria. He fays, in his Tableau Elemen-
taire de |’Hiftoire Naturelle, fome voyagers have afferted,
that the projeétion from the head of the infe& emits a vivid
light, but it appears, at leaft, that this does not exift at all
times.

The fulzgora candelaria has been obferved to throw out
flafhes of light, which are fucceeded by moments of ob-
{curity. #

The fulgora pyrorhynchus has been reported to fhed a ra-
diant light.

With refpeé to the luminous property of the other ful-

gora, we are not in poffeffion of any particulars.
. The paufus /pherocerus has been difcovered to yield light
by Dr. Afzelius. On going to look at his {pecimen one
evening, he fays, he happened to ftand between the light
and the box in which it was contained, fo that his fhadow
fell upon the infe& ; he obferved, to his great aftonifhment,
the globes of the antennz, like two lanterns, f{preading a
dim phofphoric light. He examined the infeé& feveral times
during that night, when the fame appearance {till prefented
itfelf; he was, however, difappointed in not having the op-
portunity of making further obfervations upon the animal,
as it was fo much exhaufted it died before morning, and he
was not able to procure another fpecimen. Linnzan Tranf-
ations, vol. iv.

The fcolopendra elefriea is an infe& frequently found in
this country, but is not obferved to be luminous at all times.
Degeer faid he never faw it emit light, which was probably
wing to the animal being only luminous under particular
circumftances. It would appear that this fpecies is inca-
pable of fhining unlefs after expofure to folar light. In fe-
veral experiments that were made upon the /colopendra

JeArica, it was found, that the creature could net be ex-
cited to fhine after it had remained all day in a dark fitua-
tion, but a fhort expofure to the light appeared to- be fuffi:
cient to reftore the luminous property.

The light produced by the /colopendra eleGrica has a dull
phofphoric appearance ; it is a momentary emanation, which
only takes place when the creature is difturbed or preffed.

The /colopendra phofphorea is but imperfectly known; in
the edition of the Syitema Nature, publifhed in 1767, Lin-
nzus ftates, that this infe@‘is an inhabitant of Afia; that it
yields, during the night, a light refembling that of the gloqw-
avorm, and that it is caught by falling from the fy on fhips
in the Indian and AZthiopian feas, 100 miles from the con-
tinent. Linnzus quotes as his authority, Car. Gueit. Eke-
berg, who, he fays, faw, defcribed, and delineated the animal.

Ekeberg was a Swede, and the captain of an Ealt India-
man. He made fourteen voyages, but, as far as we can
learn, never publifhed his difcovery of the /colopendra phof-
phorea, and as we have no fubfequent accounts of this infeé
by other voyagers, its real characters, and perhaps exiftence,
mutt remain doubtful.

The cancer fulgens was difcovered by fir Jofeph Banks,
during his firit voyage with captain Cook, in the paffage
from Madeira to Rio de Janeiro. He obferved, that its
whole body was illuminated, and produced very vivid flathes
of light, Phil. Tranf. 1810, part ii.

Ifablitzl relates, that a cable being on one occafion drawn
up from the fea, it was found to exhibit light, and, upon
clofer infpe€tion, it was perceived to be covered with the
cancer pulex. THablitzlap. Pall. n, nord. Beytr. 4. p. 396.

Thules and Bernard, of the academy of Verfailles, alfo
reported, that they met with the cancer pulew entirely lymi-
nous,

In different fyftems of natural hiftory, the property of
fhining is attributed to this {pecies of cancer, probably only
on the above authorities. The accuracy of the aflertion
might perhaps be itill called in queftion, as the cancer puleg
being frequently under our eyes, its luminous property, if it
exifted, could hardly efcape more general obfervation.

In 1754, Godeheu de Riville difcovered a luminous tefta-
ccous infect on the coaft of Malabar, which appears to be-
long to that divifion of the Linnzan genus, monoculus, called
by Maller Jynecus.

Riville, perceiving the fea around his fhip to emit a very
brilliant light, procured fome of the water and ftrained it ;
after which it ceafed to fhine, but the cloth was covered
with luminous fpecks, that refembled in form and magnitude
the ova of fifth ; on being examined in the light with a mag
nifying glafs, they were difcovered to have an internal mo-
tion ; fome that were fet at liberty in the water were feen to
{wim with great rapidity like water fleas. Riville feized one
of thefe with a pair of forceps, which caufed it to thed 2
luminous liquor of a blue colour, that illuminated the water
to the diftance of two or three lines.

Some of thefe animals were put into frefh water, which
they furvived only a few feconds, and defcended, ftruggling,
to the bottom of the veffel; many of them rendered much
luminous fluid while dying.

Riville deferibes this creature as being enclofed in a thell
refembling an almond, fplit along the fide, and notched at
the upper end, which is fo tranfparent that all the internal
parts are feen through it. The infe@ has four jointed an-
tennz, furnifhed at their extremities with long fete. There
are two feet armed. with hooks; and below thefe, a thick
foot terminating in feveral claws. The vifcera are contained
in a round fac; and at the lower part of the fhell there is
found a number of azure-coloured. globules, which Riyille
confidered as refervoirs of the luminous fluid, becanfe they
became of a dull yeliow colour when the animal was about to
die; but they are more probably the ova, which are alfo
vifible in this fituation in other teftaceous infegts.

The luminous liquor fhed by the. animal, does not, Riville
fays, mix with water, but floats on the furface like globules
of oil. By ftraining fome water from which the animals
had been removed, fimilar globules were left in a diftin@
form upon the cloth. From thefe circumftances, he was
difpofed to believe that the globules he faw were really of an
oily nature: which opinion he was in a great meafure in-
duced to adopt, from a preconceived theory, that all the
luminous appearances of animals depend upon the occafional
prefence of an oily fluid. Memoire fur la Mer lumineufe.
Mem. Etrang. de Acad. des Scien. tom, iii.

A few years ago, captain Horfburg prefented fir Jofeph
Banks with feme notes on the juminous appearance of the
fea, and a drawing of a phofphorefcent marine infeét, which
have been publifhed in a paper of. Mr. Macartney’s com-
municated to the Royal Society in 1810.

Captain Horfburg remarks, that the luminous*ftate of
the fea between the tropics is generally accompanied with
the appearance of a great number of marine animals, of
various kinds, upon the furface of the water; to many of
which he does not, however, attribute the property of

5D2z fhining.

LIGHT.

nfhining. At other times, when the water which gave out
light was examined, it appeared only to contain fmail par-
ticles of a dufky ftraw colour, which diflolved under the
flighteft touch of the finger. .

Captain Horfburg likewife obferves, that in Bombay,
during the hot weather in the months of May and June, he
has frequently feemthe edges of the fea much illuminated
by minute fparkling points. Thefe, whilit in the water,
always avoided feizure, by moving away from the hand, fo
that it was with difficulty he procured any of them. Upon
two occafions he fucceeded in deteGting the animals that
caufed the light of the fea. At fun-rile, on April rath,
1798, in the Arabian fea, he perceived feveral luminous
{pots in the water, which conceiving to be animals, he went
jn the boat, and with fome difficulty caught one. This in-
fe&, he fays, refembled the wood-loufe in appearance, and
was about one-third of an inch in length, When viewed
with the microfcope, it feemed to be formed by feétions of
athin cruftaceous nature. During the time any fluid re-
mained in the animal, it fhone brilliantly like the fire-fly.

In the month of June of the fame year, he picked up an
infe& on a fandy beach, which gave light. This was alfo
covered with a thin fhell, but was of a different fhape and a
larger fize than the animal taken in the Arabian fea.

Mr. Macartney entertains no doubt that both thefe in-
fe&s were monoculi. The firit he refers to the genus Li-
mulus of Miiller, and gives it the {pecilic name of Nodilucus.
See Phil. Tranfa&. 1810, part ii.

The light of the fea has been moft frequently afcribed to
the prefence of a minute {pecies of worm, the nereis noéfiluca
of Linneus, even by thofe who did not pretend to have feen
the animal.

This creature was firft defcribed under the name of Juc-
tioletta marina, in a{mall pamphlet publifhed by Dr. Vianelli
at Venice, in 1749. He found about thirty of them on the
leaf of an alga, taken up from the lake of Chioggia. By
fhaking the leaf, he fucceeded in procuring one of thefe on
a piece of white paper. To the naked eye it appeared, in
form and magnitude, like the half of the hair of the eye-lid.
It had a yellow colour, and was formed of very tender fub-
fiance. When it was examined under the microfcope, he
difcovered that it had the figure of a worm, and confilted of
joints or fegments. It had two antenne; a number of fe-
taceous proceffes along each fide of the body, which he ¢on-
fidered as fins; and under thefe, other twilted proceffes
analogous to feet. Nuove Scoperte Intorno le Luci not-
turne dell? Acqua marina fatte da Guefeppe Vianelli.

Vianelli’s obfervations were repeated foon after by Gri-
felini. He procured fome of thefe animals upon the fea-
weed, on which they are ufually found; and having

laced one of them in-fome water, between two concave
glaffes, he fubjected it to microfcopic examination with the
higheft magnifying powers: by which means, all the parts
of the worm were very evident. He defcribes the head as
having two fhort antenna, and a horn-fhaped procefs be-
tween thefe, and two dark coloured eyes. The lateral pro-
ceffes, ke fays, form tranfparent cafes, which terminate in
a denticulated manner, and contain each a tuft of hair.
The other proceffes.are alfo tranfparent, extenfile, and fome-
times entwined together.

He obferved that the light is fhed at all feafons, but is
mott {triking. and moi frequently feen in fummer, When
the wind is about to change from the S.E. into the E., the
light is increafed ; and in the dark winter nights which fue-
ceeda warm, fun, the luminous appearance is produced asin
fummer,

Grifelini further mentions the fhining of another marive
iufe€t, which appears to be the rome difcovered by Ri-
ville. Obfervations de Francois Grifelini fur ja Scolopendre
marine luifante, Venife 1750.

The fame animal has likewife been defcribed and figured®
by Adier, under the name of the nereis phofphorans. His.
defcription coincides with that of Grifelin. He ftates that
this fpecies is found in the African and Indian oceans, but
that it is rarely met within the Northern feas. Amocznitates.
Academice Carol. Linne. 7

The nereis noéiluca was feen by the abbé, Nollet, M. Ri-
gaud, and Fougeroux de Bondaroy. The latter, however,.
deicribes it to be the fize of the head of a {mall pin. He
fays it increafes, diminifhes, or extinguifhes its light at
pleafure, which commonly iffues from the pofterior part of.
the body; but when fully illuminat d, the head only is
opaque. The colour of the light is blueifh. When
fqueezed, it fheds a train of luminous fluid; which appears
ance is alfo feen, in a degree, when it is agitated in the
water. He mentions having obferved two fizes of the ani-
mal, but cannot determine whether thefe are different Agesy,
fexes, or fpecies. Mem. de l’Acad. des Scien. 1767.

The abbe. Dicquemare ftates, that-he faw the luminous.
animals difcovered by Vianelli; that he exhibited them to-
his pupils during his leétures, and délineated them: at
fame time. Thefe drawings he fent to Rigaud, w -
turned for anfwer, that the defigns were precifely the fame
of thofe which he had himfelf executed. Journal. de Phy-.
fique, tom. vi.

Spallanzani alfo afferted that he had feen the nereis nofis-
luca.

After fuch a ftriking concurrence of teflimony, we cannot
prefume to doubt the exiltence of this fpecies of luminous
animal: but we are led to think that it never. vifits the coafts
of this country ; as in numerous examinations-we have made
of fea-water in a luminous ftate, we have not met with it.
Judging from our own experience, and comparing it with
the obfervations of others, we are led to conclude that the
nercis nofiluca is, generally fpeaking, a rare fpecies, and
that the light of the fea is moft frequently oceafioned by
medufe. >)

The largeft and moft fplendid of the luminous medufz is
the gellucens, which was difcovered by fir Jofeph Banks, in
the firlt voyage of captain Cook. It was taken up from the:
fea, at the fame time with the cancer fulgens already men-
tioned, in the paflage from Madeira to Rio de Janeiro.
This f{pecies meafures fix inches acrofs the crown or umbella,,
which is marked by a number of opaque lines that pafs off
from the centre to the circumference. The edge of the um-
bella is divided into a number of lobules, which fucceed:
each other, one large and two fmall ones alternately. From:
within the margin of the, umbella there is fufpended a.
number of long cord-fhaped tentacula. The central part of
the animal is opaque, and furnifhes four thick irregularly
fhaped proceffes, which hang down in the midit of the ten-.
tacula.

The medufa pellucens throws out flafhes of light during its:
contractions. which are fo vivid as to affe&t the fight of the
beholders. When the water in which thefe animals, and,
fome of the cancer fulgens, were contained, was emptied out
of a bucket, it appeared like a ftream of fire, ar fuied gold.
Phil. Tranf. 1810, part ii.

The medufa nodiilucais deferibed by Forfkal; as meafuring.
about three inches in diameter, and about one anda half inch:
in depth. Its furface is convex, of a reddifh glafs colour,
with brown fpots.. The margin is notched into 16 a

The

LieGcH Tt

The central part, containing the vitcera, hangs down for fome
way, and is furrounded by eight fomewhat broad tentacula.
Forfkal, Deferiptiones Animalium.

This {pecies is reported to be extremely luminous, particu-
Tarly round the margin.

Forfkal has defcribed alfo a fpecies of luminous animal
under the name of medufa denfa. It appears to be a beroe,
and correfponds molt nearly with the medufa pileus of
Gmelin.

A luminous fpecies of medufa was difcovered by Spallan-
zaniin the ftrait‘of Meffina. Its form is convex, with a fim-
Briated margin. There are four thick tentacula, and eight
which are long and flender. Thefe are each hollow. In
the concavity of the umbella there are four {mall groups of
Yong thin bodies, entwined together like inteftines, and ad-
hering to an entangled mafs of {mall tubes of a filver colour,
that are extremely tranfparent and elaltic. At the internal
edge of the cavity of the umbella there ts a thin mufcular

lamina. The purfe communicates with four lateral orifices, ,

and has am aperture befides. Spallanzani reprefents this
fpecies as being exceedingly luminous. He fays it fhines
like a torch, and is vifible 35 feet below the furface of the
water. The light is variable ; fometimes it continues for a
quarter or half an hoyy, or longer ; at others it becomes fud:

denly extin@, and re-appears after a confiderable interval..

He fuppofes that the ceffation of the light depends upon the
animal being at perfect reft. Memoria fopra le medufe fof-

foriche. Mem. della Soc. Ital. tomo vii.. and Spallanzani’s.

Travels in the T'wo Sicilies.

Spallanzani further fates, that he difcovered in that part
of the fea next the eaftern coaft of Genoa, in addition to the
nereis no&tiluca, five other fpecies of fea glow-worms; as he
calls them, two of which he met with again in returning from
Meffina to Lipari. He propofed to give a defcription of
thefe animals in his Voyage to Conftantinople, which book, as
far as we can learn, was never publifhed:. We mutt, how-
ever, confefs, that Spallanzani’s known fondnefs for the
wonderful, would lead: us to receive thefe difcoveries with
fome degree of diltruft, particularly as they have not been
confirmed by the obfervations of others.

One of the molt brilliant of the whole tribe of luminous:

-ereatures has been lately difcovered by Mr. Peron in the
Atlantic ocean. Mott naturalifts would, from the general

appearanceand ftructure ofthe animal, confider it asa {pecies-

of beroe, but Peron has created a new genus, of which this
ig the only fpecies yet: difcovered, and which he calls the
Pyrefoma atlanticum, The animal has an elongated and nearly
cylindrical‘figure, truncated at one extremity, and rather
conical at the other. The body is hollow, and does not
contain any organ, except a very delicate net-work of veffels,
which is {pread over the internal furface ofthe cavity. The
circular aperture, or mouth,. is furrounded internally by a
number of tubercles. The external furface is ftudded with
fome’ thick clongated* tubercles, and others of a {maller
fize. "They are the principal feat of the light, and fhine
like polifhied diamonds.. The interior of the fubftance of the
body contains a number of: {mall elongated glands, which are
alfo more luminous than the tranfparent part.

The colour of this animal when at reit, or after death, is

an opalein yellow mixed with a difagreeable green ; but
during the contractions of its body, the creature appears, as
it were, to kindle, and becomes inflantly of the red colour
of fufed iron ;- it afterwards paffes through different tints, as
aurora, orange, green, and azure blue, according. to- the
firength of its illumination.

The pyrefoma, when at the fame depth in the fea, gives the
appearance of a red-hot bullet, but when floating on the

furface of the waves, refembles a cylinder of incandefcent
iron, It was obferved to perform regular and alternate
motions of contra¢tion and dilatation. ‘The light is evolved
during the contractile motions, and thefe may be excited ir-
regularly, by touching the animal, or merely by agitating
the water in which it is contained. The pyre/oma, like all the
other luminous marine animals, exhibits no» light after
death.

Mr. Peron only met with this {peciés in a certain latitudey,
and obferves that the mollufca and zoophytes, which are
found at great depths in the fea, or at great diftances from
any fhore, always inhabit particular. regions: of- the ocean,,
out of which they are very rarely. met with.. Annales du
Been d’Hiftoire Naturelle. Mem, par Peron. 24 Cae

ier.

The pennatula phofphorea is well known to exhibit light,.
which, Dr. Shaw ttates in his Hiltory of Algiers, is fo
ftrong, that it direéts the fifhermem in their occupation.

The luminous effeét is coniined to the plumule of the
pennatula, or that part which is inhabited. by the polyps..
Spal!anzani, ina letter to Bonnet, ftates thatthe light is only.
emitted when the fea pin is in motion,,and that there is a.
mucous luminous-{ubftance furnifhed. by the polyps, which-
is foluble in water, and becomes mixed with the fea-water,.
that is admitted into the pin by means of a hole fituated at.
the extremity of its ftalk. (Mem. Soc. Ital. tomoii.) Other
{pecies of pennatula are faid to be luminous, particularly the:
grifea, argentea, and grandis.» ‘The light exhibited by the laft.
is reported to be an afh colour.

In a paper upon luminous animals comnmnicated by-Mr..
Macartney to the Royal Society in 1810, he gives.an ac--
count of three {pecies he difcovered on our own coafts. One.
is a beroe not defcribed by authors. Another agrees fo.
nearly with the medufa hemifpherica, that he conceives it to be
the fame, or at leaft a variety of it. The third isa minute
fpecies of medu/a, which he believes to be the luminous animal.
fo often feen by navigators, although it has. never been-dif-
tingly examined.or defersbed.

Mr. Macartney firft met with thefe animals:in the: month.
of. O&ober 1804, at Herne bay, a fmall. watering place-
upon the northern coaft of Kent. Having obferved.the fea-
to be extremely luminous for feveral nights, he had: a-con-
fiderable quantity of the water taken up. When-perfe@ly.
at reft,.no light was emitted, but on the flighteft agitation of.
the veffelin which the water was contained,_a btilliaut fcin--
tillation. was. perceived, particularly towards. the furface ; -
and when the veffel was fuddenly fttuck,. a flafh .of light
iffued from the top of the water, in confequence of :fo.many
points fhining at the fame moment... When-any of thefe
{parkling points were removed from the waterythey no longer-
yielded any light. They-were-fo tranfparent, that in the atr~
they appeared like globules of ;water.. ‘Chey were more
minute than the head of the {maHeft pin... Upon the flighteft
touch, they broke and.vanifhed from the fight. Having
firained a quantity of the himinous water, a.great number of
thefe tran{parent ‘corpufcles were obtained upon the cloth, .
and the water which had been: ftrained,.did not afterwards ~
exhibit the leat light. . He then put fome fea-water that had
been rendered particularly clear; by repeated filtrations, into
alarge glafs,.and having floated in it a fine cloth, on which -
he had, previoufly collected a.number of luminous points,
feveral. of them were liberated, and became diftin&ly vifible
in their natural element, by placing the glafs before a piece
of dark coloured papez.. They were obferved to have a ten-
dency to.come to the furface of the water, and after the glafs.
was fet by for fome time, they were found congregated to- ~
gether, and when thus collected ina body, they hada dufky

8. Straw

LIGHT.

ftraw colour, although individually they were fo tranfparent,
as to be perfectly invifible, except under particular circum-
ftances. Their fubftance was indeed fo extremely tender and
delicate, that they did not become opaque in diftilled vinegar
or alcohol, until immerfed in thefe liquors for a confiderable
time.

On examining thefe minute globules with the microfcope,
he found that they were not quite perfect {pheres, but had an
irregular depreffion on one fide, which was formed of an
opaque fubftance, that projected alittle way inwards, pro-
ducing fuch an appearance as would arife from tying the
neck of around bag, and turning it into the body.

The motions of thefe creatures in the water were flow and
graceful, and not accompanied by any vifible contraction of
their bodies. After death they always fubfided to the
bottom of the veffel.

From the fparkling light afforded by this fpecies, he has
giyen it the name of medu/fa /cintillans.

The night following that, on which he difcovered the pre-
ceding animal, he caught the two other luminous {pecies.
One cf thefe he has called beroe fulgens.

This moft elegant creature is of a colour changing between
purple, violet, and pale blue; the body is truncated before,
and pointed behind; but the form is difficult to affign, as it
is varied by partial contractions, at the animal’s pleafure.
He has reprefented the two extremes of form that this crea-
ture affumes: the firft is fomewhat that of a cucumber,
which, as being the one it takes when at reft, fhould perhaps
be confidered as its proper fhape: the other refembles a pear,
and is the figure it has in the moft contraéted ftate. The
body is hollow, or forms internally an infundibular cavity,
which has a wide opening before, and appears alfo to have
afmall aperture, pofteriorly through which it difcharges its
excrement. The pofterior two-thirds of the body are orna-
mented with eight longitudinal ciliated ribs, the procefles
of which are kept in fuch a rapid rotatory motion, while the
animal is {wimming, that they appear like the continual paf-
fage of a fluid along the ribs. The ciliated ribs have been
deicribed by profeflor Mitchell, as arteries, in a luminous
beroe, which probably was no other than the fpecies we are
now {peaking of.

When the beroe fulgens fwam gently near the furface of
the water, its whole body became occafionally illuminated in
a flight degree; during its contraGtions, a ftronger light
ifued from the ribs, and when a fudden fhock was commu-
nicated to the water, in which feveral of thefe animals were
placed, a vivid flafh was thrown out. When the body was
broken, the fragments continued luminous for fome feconds,
and being rubbed on the hand, left a light like that of phof-
phorus ; this however, as well as every other mode of
emitting light, ceafed after the death of the animal.

The hemi/pherieal fpecies of medufa had a very faint purple
colour. The largeft individuals meafured about three
quarters of an inch in diameter. The margin of the umbella
was undivided, and furrounded internally by a row of pale
brown {pots, and numerous {mall twifted tentacula: four
opaque lines croffed in an arched manner from the circum-
ference, towards the centre of the animal; an opaque irre-
gular-fhaped procefs hung down from the middle of the
uimbella ; when this part was examined with a lens of high
powers, it was difcovered to be inclofed ina fheath in which
it moved, and that the extremity of the procefs was divided
into four tentacula, covered with little cups or fuckers,
like thofe on the tentacula of the cuttle fifh.

This fpecies of medu/a bears a ftriking refemblance to the
figures of the médu/a hemi/pherica, pabtifhed by Gronovius
aod Muller ; indeed it differs as little from thefe figures, as

they do from each other. Its luminous property, however,
was not obferved by thefe naturalifts, which is the more ex~
traordinary, as Muller examined it at night, and fays it is
fo tranfparent, that it can only be feen with the light of a
lamp. Ifit fhould be ftill confidered as a diftingt {pecies, or
as a variety of the Aemi/pherica, Mr. Macartney propofes to
call it the medu/a lucida.

In this fpecies, the central part and the fpot round the
margin, are commonly feen to fhine on lifting the animal out
of the water into the air, prefenting the appearance of an il-
luminated wheel, and when it is expofed to the ufual per-
cuffion of the water, the tranfparent parts of its body are
alone luminous.

In the month of September 1805, Mr. Macartney had
again frequent opportunities of witnefling the luminous ap-
pearance of the fea at Herne bay, and of making obferva-
tions upon the animals which occafion it. He found that
they always retreated from the furface of the water, as foon
as the moon rofe, and that expofure to the day light took
away their property of fhining, which was revived by placing

* them for fome time in a dark fituation.

In that feafon he had two opportunities of feeing an exe
tended illumination of the fea, produced by the above ani-
mals. The firit night he faw this fingular phenomenon
was extremely dark, many of the medufa jcintillans, and
medufa kemifpherica had been obferved at low water, but on
the return of the tide they had fuddenly difappeared. On
looking towards the fea, he was aftonifhed to perceive a
flahh of light, about fix yards broad, extend from the fhore,
for apparently the diftanee of a mile and a half along the
furface of the water. The fecond time that he faw this
fort of light\proceed from the fea, it did not take the fame
form, but was diffufed over the furface of the waves next
the fhore, and was fo ftrong, that he could for the moment
diftinGily fee his fervant, who ftood at alittle diftance from
him ; who alfo perceived it, and called out to him at the in-
ftant. On both thefe oceafions the flath was vifible for about
four or five feconds, and although he watched ‘for a cone
fiderable time, it was not repeated.

A diffufed luminous appearance of the fea, in fome
refpeéts different from this, has been defcribed by feveral
navigators.

Godeheu de Riville faw the fea affume the appearance of
a plain of {now on the coait of Malabar. Mem. Etrang. de
l’Acad. des Sc. tom, in.

Captain Newland, ina paper publifhed in the Journal de
Phyfique, ftates that he has feen the fea appear like milk for
a fewnights. Cook and Peroufe alfo ob{erved it to be a
ftraw colour.

Father Bourzes, in his voyage to India in 1704, faw what
he called luminous vortices in the fea, which he faid ap-
peared and difappeared fuddenly at certain periods, like
flafhes of lichtning.

Captain Horfburg, in the notes he gave to fir Jofeph
Banka, fays there is a peculiar phenomenon fometimes feen
within a few degrees diftance of the ‘coaft of Malabar,
during the rainy monfoon, which he had an opportunity of
obferving. At midnight the weather was cloudy, and the
fea was particularly dark, when fuddenly it changed to a
white flaming colour all around, This bore no refemblance
to the {parkling or glowing appearance he had obferved on
other occafions in feas near the equator, but was a re-
gular white colour, like milk, and did not continue more

,than ten minutes. A fimilar phenomenon, he fays, is fre-
quently feen in the Banda fea, and is very alarming to
thofe who have never perceived or heard of {uch an appear-

ance before. t
Thie

LIGHT.

‘This fingular phenomenon appears to be explained by
fome obfervations communicated to Mr. Macartney by Mr.
Langflaff. In going from New Holland to China, about
half an hour after funfet, every perfon on board wae afto-
nifhed by a milky appearance of the fea: the fhip feemed
to be furrounded by ice covered with fnow. Some of the
company fuppofed they were in foundings, and that a coral
bottom gave this curious reflection, but on founding with
zo fathoms of line no bottom was met with. A bucket of
water being hauled up, Mr. Langftaff examined it in the
dark, and difcovered a great number of globular bodies,
each about the fize of a pin’s head, linked together. The
chains thus formed did not exceed three inches in length,
and emitted a pale phofphoric light. By introducing his
hand into the water, Mr. Langtlaff raifed upon it feveral
chains of the luminous globules, which were feparated by
opening the fingers, but readily re-united on being brought
again into contaét, like globules of quickfilver. The glo-
bules were fo tranfparent, that they could not be perceived
when the hand was taken into the light.

This extraordinary appearance of the fea was vifible for
two nights. As foon as the moon exerted her influence,
. the fea changed to its natural dark colour, and exhibited
diftin& glittering points, as at other times.

This account of Mr. Langtftaff is very important, as it
proves that the diffufed light of the fea is produced by an
affemblage of minute medu/e on the furface of the water.

In June 1806, at Margate, Mr. Macartney collected a
great number of the {mall /uminons medufe. A bucket of
the water being fet by for fome time, the animals fought
the furface, and kept up a continual fparkling, which was
occafioned by the motions of individuals, as the water was
perfeétly at reft. A fmall quantity of the luminous water
was put into a glafs jar, and on ftanding fome time, the
medufz collected at the top of the jar, and formed a gela-
tinous mafs, one inch and a half thick, and of a reddifh
or mud colour, leaving the water underneath perfectly
clear.

_In order to afcertain if thefe animals would materially
alter their fize, or aflume the figure of any other known
fpecies of medufa, Mr. Macartney kept them alive for 25
days, by carefully changing the water in which they were
placed; during which time, although they appeared as
vigorous as when firft taken, their form was not in the
flighteft degree altered, and their fize but little increafed.
This experiment confirmed his opinion of their being a dif-
tin& fpecies, as the young aélinie and medufe exhibit the
form of the parent in a much fhorter period than the
above. ;

In September 1806, he took at Sandgate alfo a number
of the beroe fulgens : they were of various dimenfions, from
the full fize down to that of the medufa /cintillans ; they
could, however, be clearly diftinguifhed from the latter fpe-
cies by their figure.

In April t809, Mr. Macartney caught a number of the
beroe fulgens in the fea at Haftings; they were of various
fizes, from about the half of an inch m length, to the bulk
of the head of a large pin. Many of them adhered to-
gether in the fea; fome of the larger fort were covered
with {mall ones, which fell off when the animals were hand-
led, and by a perfon unaccuftomed to obferve thefe crea-
tures, would have been taken for a phofphoric fubitance.
On putting a number of them into a glafs, containing clear
fea-water, they ftill fhewed a difpofition to congregate upon
the furface. It was obferved that when they adhered to-

ether, they fhewed no contractile motion in any part of
their body, which explains the caufe of the pale or white

colour of the diffufed light of the ocean, The flathes of
light which Mr. Macartney faw come from tne fea at
Herne bay, were probably produced by a fudden and ge-
neral effort of the medu/e to feparate from each other, and
defcend in the water.

The medufa fcintillans almoft conftantly exiits in the dif-
ferent branches of Milford haven tkat are called pills. Mr,
Macartney fometimes found thefe animals colleéted in fuch
vaft numbers in thofe fituations, that they bore a confider-
able proportion to the volume of the water in which they
were contained; thus, froma gallon of fea-water in a lu-
minous ftate, he ftrained above a pint of thefe medu/z. The
fea under fuch circumftances yields more fupport in {wim-
ming, and the water taftes more difagreeably than ufual ;
probably the difference of denfity, that has been remarked at
different times in the water of the fea, may be referred to
this caufe.

Mr. Macartney concludes that the medufa /cintillans is the
ufual caufe of the luminous appearance of the fea, not only
around this country, but in other latitudes. Belides the
places already mentioned, he has found this {pecies on dif-
ferent parts of the coafts of Suffex, at Tenby, and in
the bays of Dublin and Carlingford in Ireland. Many
writers, he obferves, have miftaken this fpecies of medufa
for the ‘nereis no@iluca, and fome navigators have actually
defcribed the medu/fa fcintillans. without being aware of its
nature. Mr. Bajon, during his voyage from Franceto Cayenne,
colleGed many luminous points in the fea, which he fays,
when examined by a lens, were found to be minute {pheres.
They difappeared in the air: Dr. Le Roy, in failing from
Naples to France, obferved the fparkling appearance of the
fea which is ufually produced by the medu/a /cintillans. By
filtering the water, he feparated luminous particles from it,
which he preferved in fpirits of wine: they were, he fays,
like the head of a pin, and did not at all refemble the zercis
noGiluca, defcribed by Vianelli; their colour approached a
yellow-brown, and their fubftance was extremely tender
and fragile. Notwithftanding this ftriking refemblance. to
the medufa feintillans, Le Roy, in confequence of a precon-
ceived theory, did not fuppofe what he faw, were animals,
but particles of an oily or bituminous nature. Obferv. fur
un lumiere produite par l’Eau de la Mer. Mem. Etrang.
des Sc.

The minute globules feen by Mr, Langftaff in the Indian
ocean, in all probability, were the {cintillating fpecies of
medufa; on his feeing fome of thefe animals that had been
preferved in {pirits, he entertained the fame opinion.

Profeffor Mitchell, of New York, found the luminous
appearance on the coaft of America, to be occafioned by
minute animals, that, from his defcription, plainly belonged
to this {pecies cf medu/a, notwithftanding which, he fup-
pofed them to be a number of the nereis no@iluca. Phil.
Mae. vol. x. p. 20. i

The /uminous animaleule, difcovered by Forfter off the
Cape of Good Hope, in his voyage round the werld, bears
fo trong a refemblance te the medufa fcintillans, that there is
every reafon for believing them the fame. He defcribes his
animalcule as being alittle gelatinous globule, lefs than the
head of a pin; tran{parent, but a little brownifh in its co-
lour ; and of fo foft a texture, that it was deltroyed by the
flighteft touch. On being highly magnified, he perceived
on one fide a depreflion, in which there was a tube that
pafled into the body,, and communicated with four or five
inteftinal facs.

Many writers have afcribed the light of the fea to otlier
caufes than luminous animals. Martin fuppofes it to be
occafioned by putrefaction; Silberfchlag believed it to be

phofphoric 5

LIGHT.

phofphoric : /profeffor J. Mayer conjectured, that the fur-
face of the fea imbibed light, which it afterwards dif-
charged. Bajon and Gentil thought the light of the fea
was eleGtric, becaufe it was excited by friction. Tortter
conceived that it was fometimes eleétric, fometimes caufed
from putrefaGtion, and at others by the prefence of living
animals. Fougeroux de Bondaroy believed that it .cante
fometimes fron: eleétric fires, but more frequently from the
putrefaction of marine animals and plants. ,

It is unneceffary to enter into a difcuflion of the above opi-
nions: their authors have not attempted to fupport them by
any argument or experiments; they merely gave them as
fpeculations. It is {ufficient to ftate, that they are contra-
died by all the bett obfervations upon the fubjeét.

The only animals which are known to poflefs, diftin&t or-
_gans for the production of light are, the luminous fpecies of
lampyris, elater, fulgora, and paufus. Of thefe Mr. Ma-
-cartney has given the following defcription.

Thelight of the Jampyrides is known to proceed: from
fome. of the laft-rings ot the abdomen, which, when not il-
-luminated, are of a pale yellow colour. Upon the internal
-furface of thefe rings, there is {pread a layer of a peculiar
foft yellow fubftance, which has been compared to pate, but
«by examination with a lens, I found it to be organized like
-the common interilitial fubftance of the inieét’s body, ex-
reept that it is of a clofer texture, and a paler yellow co-
Jour. This fubftance does not entirely cover the inner
furface of the rings, being more or lefs deficient along their
edges, where it prefents an irregular waving outline. I have
-obferved in the glow-worm, that it is abforbed, and its
place fupplied by common interftitial fubftance, after the
feafon for giving light is patt. ‘ ,

The fegments of the abdomen, behind which this peculiar
fubftance is fituated, are thin and tranfparent, in order to ex-
-pofe the internal illumination.

The number of luminous rings varies in different fpecies
of /ampyris, and, as it weuld feem, at different periods in the
fame individual.

Befides the luminous -fubftance above defcribed, I have

.difcovered in the :common glow-worm, on the inner fide of
the laft abdominal ring, two bodies, whicli to the naked
eye appear more minute than the head of the fmalleft pin.
“They are lodged in two flight depreffions, formed in the
fheil of the riag, which is at thefe points particularly tranf-
parent. Gn examining thefe bodies under the microfcope,
I found that they were facs containing a foft yellow fub-
-ftance, of a more.clofe and homogeneous texture, than that
avhich lines the inner furface of the rings. The membrane
forming the facs appeared to be of two layers, each of
which is compofed by a tranfparent filvery fibre, in the fame
manner as the internal membrane of the ref{piratory tubes of
infeéts,.except that, in this cafe, the fibre paffes ina fpiral,
inftead of a circular direGtion. This membrane, although
{fo delicately.conftrued, is fo elaftic as to preferve its form
after the fac is ruptured, and the contents difcharged.

The light that proceeds from thefe facs is lefs under the
ccontroul of the infe&t, than that of the luminous fubltance
{pread on the rings: it is rarely ever entirely extinguifhed in
the feafon that the glow-worm gives light, even during the
‘day ; and when ail the other rings are dark, thefe facs.often
fhine brightly.

The circumftance of there being points, which give a
‘more permanent light than the other parts of the luminous
rings of the abdomen, has been noticed before by the Comte
<G. de Razoumoufki. He flates the number of thefe luminous
“points to vary from two to five. Mem de la Soc, de Lau-
stanne, tom..1.

I muft however remark, that I never faw more*than twe
of thefe luminous points, which were always upon the lak -
ring of the body, and that the figures which accompany the
memoir of the Comte de Razoumoufki, bear fearcely any
refemblance to the infect they are intended to reprefent,
from which we may fairly fufpect him of inaccuracy in other
particulars.

As far as my obfervation has extended, the {mall facs of
luminous {ubftances are not found in any {pecies of Jampyrisy.
except the glow-qorm of this country. ‘Thunburg mentions
that the dampyris japonica has two velicles on the tail, which
afford light. ‘tn

The organs for the production of light in the genus elater
are fituated in the corcelet ; thefe likewife confilt of a pecu-
liar yellow fubttance, placed behind tranfparent parts of the
fhell, which fuffer the natural colour of this fubliance to be
feen through them in the day, and when illuminated, give
paflage to the light. :

On diffe€ting the organs of light in the elater noGilucus, 1
found that there ‘is a foft yellow fubftance, of an oval figure,
lodged in the concavity of the yellow fpots of the corcelet,
which parts are particularly thin and tranfparent in this
fpecies. ‘This fubftance is fo remarkably clofe in its ftruc-
ture, that at firft view it appears like an inorganic mafs, but
with a lens it is readily perceived to be compofed of a
great number of very minute parts or lobules clofely preffed
together. Around thefe oval matfles, the interititial fub-
ftance of the corcelet is arranged in a radiated manner, and
the portion of the fhell that immediately covers the irra-
diated fubftance is in.a certain degree tranfparent, but lefs
fo than that which lies over the oval mafles ; it is therefore
probable, that the interttitial fubftance in this fituation may
be endowed with the property of fhining. A fafciculus of
the mufcles of the corcelet arifes in the interior of the oval
mafles of the luminous fubftance, but not apparently with
any defign, as it contributes, with the adjacent fafciculi, to
move the anterior feet.

In the e/ater ignitus, the mafles of luminous fubftance are
extremely irregular in their figure: they are fituared nearly
at the pofterior angles of the corcelet, and are more leofe
in their texture than the oval maffes of thewodilucus, re-
fembling rather, in compofition, the inter{titial fubftance
which furrounds thefe maffes in that fpecies. The thell of
the corcelet is fomewhat thinner, and more tranfparent
along both fides of the margin, than at other places, but
it is not, as in the nodilucus, elevated, and peculiarly clear
and thin immediately, over the feat of the luminous organ ;
confequently, the light emitted by the clater ignitus cannot
be very brilliant.

I have not been-able to procure any f{pecimen of the eater
phofphorea, but from the accounts of naturalifts, it appears
to refemble in every refpeé the e/ater nodiilucus.

I have had an opportunity of examining, preferved in a
moift way, two fpecies of fulyora, the candelaria and lanter-
naria. The light in this genus has been obferved to iffue
from the remarkable probofcis on the fore part of the head.
This part has always been defcribed by authors as hollow
or empty, which ‘I have found to be perfectly correé&t ; and
what is more extraordinary, that the cavity communicates
freely with the external air, by means of a chink or narrow
aperture, placed an.each fide of the root of the probofcis,
This projection is covered internally by a membrane, between
which and the horny part or fhell, there appears to be inter-
pated a pale reddifh coloured foft fubtlance, that is arranged
in the candelaria in broad lines or ftripes; but it is fo thin,
that I could not diftinétly examine its ftruGure, or abfo-
Jutely determine, whether it fhould be confidered as a Lauer

nce

LIGHT.

lance intended to furnith the light of thefe infe&ts, or the
pigment upon which the colour of the probofcis depends.

The globes of the antennx conftitute the organs of light
in the paufus /pherocerus. Dr. Afzelius, who difcovered the
luminous property in this {pecies, compares them to lanterns
{preading a dim phofphoric light. (Linn. Tranf. vol. iv.)
The rarity of the infect put it out of my power to examine
its {tructure, but from the form and {fituation of its organs
of light, it is mott probable they are conttructed like thofe
of the fulgore.

It has been conje&ured by Carradori and others, that the
lampyrides were enabled to moderate or extinguifh their light,
by retraéting the luminous fub{tance under a membrane ;
but neither in them, nor any of the other luminous infects,
have I found an apparatus of this fort. ‘The fubftance
furnifhing the light, is uniformly applied to corre{ponding
tranfparent parts of the fhell of the infeét from whence it is
not moved; indeed a membrane, if it did exilt, would have
but little effect in obfcuring the light, and never could ferye
to extinguifh it. The regulation of the kind and degree of
the luminous appearance, does not depend upon any vifible
mechanifm, but, like the production of the light itfelf, is
accomplifhed by fome inferutable change in the luminous
matter, which in fome animals is a fimple operation of or-
ganic life, and in others is fubje¢t to the will.

It is worthy of remark, that in all the diffeétions I have
made of luminous infects, I did not find that the organs
of light were better, or differently fupplied with either
nerves or air tubes, than the other parts of the body. The
power of emitting light likewife exills in many creatures
which want nerves, a circumftance ftroagly marking a dif-
ference between animal light and animal electricity. Phil.
‘Tranf. 1810, part il.

With the exception of the animals above-mentioned,
the exhibition of light depends upon the prefence of a fluid
matter.

Inthe pholas da@ylus, the luminous fluid is particularly
evident, and in vait quantity.

The fhining of the /colopendra eleGrica is obferved to be
accompanied by the appearance of an effufion of a luminous
fluid upon the furface of the animal, more particularly
about the head, which may be received upon the hand, or
ether bodies brought into contact with the infe& at the
moment, and thefe exhibit a phofphoric light for a few
feconds afterwards. ‘This fluid, however, it is impoflible
to difcoyer in the form of moifture, even upon the clearett
glafs, although examined immediately with the moft feru-
pulous attention by a lens; it muit therefore be extremely
attenuated,

The fame appearance has been obferved during the illumi-
nation of the nereis nodiluca by Fougeroux de Bondaroy.
Mem. de I’ Acad. des Sc. 1767.

. The animal difcoyered by Ruville fhed a blue liquor,
which illuminated the water for a diftance of two or three
fines. Mem. Etrang, de |’Acad des Sc. tom. ii.

Spallanzani relates, that the medu/f2 which he examined,
communicated the property of fhining to water, milk, and
other fuids, op being rubbed or {queezed in them. Spal-
hanzani’s Travels in the Two Sicilies, vol. iv.

The luminous fluid is in fome initances confined to par-
ticular parts of the body, and in others is: diffufed through-
out the whole fubitance of the animal.

In the /colopendra eleGrica, it appears to refide immediately
under the integuments. In the Jynceus difcovered by Ri-
yille, it is contained in the ovary. Mr. Macartney believes
that every part of the body of the medufe is furnifhed with
this fluid, as there is ng past that is not feen illuminated

Vou, XX.

under different circumftances, but Spallanzani affirms that
it is only found in the large tentacula, the edges of the um-
bella, and the purfe or central mafs; which he proved, he
fays, by detaching thefe parts fucceflively, when they {hone
vividly, while the reft of the body neither gave light nor
communicated any luminous appearance .to water. Memoria
fopra le medufe fosforiche. Mem. della Soc. Ital. tom, vii.

Spallanzani difcovered a mucous luminous fluid in the
plumule of the pennatula phofphorea. Mem della Soc. Ital.
tom. ii.

The phenomenon of animal light has been attempted to
be explained in different ways. By many perfons it was for-
merly aferibed to a putrefa&tive procefs, but fince the
modern theories of combuition begame known, it has been
generally believed to depend upon an actual inflammation
of the luminous fubltance, fimilar to the flow combuftion of
phofphorus. Others have accounted for the luminous effeét,
by fuppofing the matter of light to be accumulated, and
rendered latent under particular circumflances, and after-
wards evelved in a fenfible form. ‘

The opinion of the light of living animals being the confe~
quence of putrefaction, is evidently abfurd, and contra-
dictory to all obfervation on the fubject. It has been proved
by the experiments of Dr. Hulme and others, that even the
luminous appearances of dead animals are exhibited only
during the firlt ftages of the diffolution of the body, and
that no light is emitted after putrefaétion has really com-
menced,

Spallanzani, who’was the moft itrenuous advocate for
the phafphorefcent nature of animal light, ftated that glow-
worms fhone more brilliantly when put into oxygen gas ;
that their light gradually difappeared in hydrogen or in
azotic gas, and was initantly extinguifhed in fixed air; that
it was alfo loft by cold, and revived by the application of a
warm temperature. He conjeCtured that the luminous mat-
ter of thefe infects was compofed of hydrogen and carbo-
gated hydrogen gas.

Forlter relates, in the Lichtenberg Magazine for 1783,
that on putting a lampyris /plendidula into oxygen gas, it
gave as much light as four of the fame f{pecies in commos
au. :

Carradori has made fome experiments upon the lucctole,
(lampyris italica) which led him to deny its phofphorefcence,
He found that the luminous portion of the belly of the in-
fect fhone in vacuum, in oil, in water, and different liquids,
and under different circum{tances, where it was excluded
from all communication with oxygen gas. He accounts for
the refult of Forfter’s experiment, by fuppofing, that the
worm fhone mere vividly, becaufe it was more animated in
oxygen gas than in common air,

Carradori adopts on this fubject, the doétrine of Brugna-
telli, and afcribes the luminous appearances of animals to
the condenfation and extrication of light in particular
organs, which had previoufly exifted in combination with
the fub{tance of their bodies, He fuppofes the light to be
originally derived from the food, or the atmofpheric air
taken into the body; in fhort, that certain animals haye

the peculiar property of gradually imbibing light from

foreign bodies, and of afterwards fecreting it in a feniible
form, Annal di Chimica. tom, xii. 1797. -

The following experiments, which were lately made upon
this fubject by Mr. Macartney, would lead to different con-
clufions than thofe of the preceding authors.

Experiment 1.—A glow-svorm was put into a glafs of
water, in which it lived nearly two hours, and continued to
emit light as ufual, until it died, when the luminous ap-
pearance entirely ceafed,

sE Experimmt

LIG

Experiment 2.—The luminous fubltance was extracted
from the before-mentioned glow-worm, and from others
killed in different ways, but it afforded no light.

Experiment 3—The facs containing the luminous matter
were cut from the bellies of living glow-worms, and fhone
uninterruptedly for feveral hours in the atmofphere, and
after their light became extinét, it was revived -by being
moiftened with water; fome of thefe were put into water
in the firft inftance, in which they continued to fhine un-
remittingly for forty-eight hours.

Experiment 4.—The luminous fubftance of a ghqw-worm
was expofed to a degree of heat which would have been
fufficient to inflame phofphorus, without increafing the
brilliancy of its light ; and farther,. it could not be made to
burn by being applied to a red-hot iron, or to the flame of
a candle. é'

Experiment 5.—A delicate thermometer was introduced
amongit fome living g/ow-qorms, during the time they gave
out much light: the temperature of the room being 69",
the inftrument rofe to 75°, 76°, and 77°, according to cir-
cumitances, as the warmth was reflected from the hand, or
diffipated by the worm crawling over cold fubftances. The
luminous portion of the tail, when very brilliant, appeared
to raife the thermometer ,more quickly than the other parts
of the body; but it was not invariably the cafe. When
fhining ftrongly, the lumineus rings appeared to communi-
cate the fenfation of warmth to the hand; but this was pro-
bably a deception, as the aétual degree of heat was not
fufficient for fuch an effect. It fhould however be men-
tioned, that in Templar’s obfervations on the glow-qorm, he
faid his feelings deceived him, if he did not experience fome
heat from the fhining of the infe@. Phil. Tranf. N° 72.

Experiment 6.—To afcertain how far the evolution of heat,’
during the thining of glow-qworms, depended upon the life of
the animals, the luminous portion of the tail was cut off
from feveral living worms: if the thermometer was applied
to them immediately, it was raifed by them one or two de-
grees; but after thefe parts-were dead, although they con-
tinued to emit light, they produced no effe& whatever upon
the inftrument. i

Experiment 7.—Some hemifpherical medufe were put intoa
fpoon, containing a fmall quantity of fea-water, and held
over a burning candle. As foon as the water became
heated, the meduf appeared like illuminated wheels, the
fpots at the margin and centre alone emitting light ; in which
manner they fhone vividly and permanently for about twenty
feconds, when they fhrunk and died, after which they were
no longer luminous.

Experiment 8.—Some of the fame fpecies were put into
fpirits: a {trong and unremitting light was inftantly given
out, which iffued from the central and marginal parts, as in
the preceding experiment, and continued until they died.

Experiment 9.—Some of the /cintillating and hemifpherical
{pecies of medu/a, contained in a {mall glafs jar, were intro-
duced into the receiver of an air-pump, and the air being
exhaufted, they fhone as ufual when fhaken: if any difference
could be perceived, the light was more eafily excited, and
continued longer in vacuum.

Experiment 10.—A medufa hemifpherica was placed in a
{mall glafs difh, containing a quantity of water, merely fuf-
ficient to allow the animal to preferve its figure: being in-
fulated, it was elefrifed, and fparks drawn from it, which
had not the flighteft effet. The experiment was repeated
feveral times with different individuals, but without exciting
the animals to throw out hght.

Experiment 11.—Some hemifpherical medufe were placed
in contact with the two ends of an interrupted chain, and

HT
flight electric fhocks paffed through them. During the

very moment of their receiving the fhock, no light was
vifible ; but immediately afterwards the medu/e fhone like
illuminated wheels, which appearance remained for fome
feconds.. Upon the clofeft infpeétion with a magnifying
glafs, no contraétile motion could be perceived to accom-
pany the exhibition of the light. The application of elec-
tricity, in this inftance, feems to have acted merely as a
{trong mechanic fhock. :

It feems proved by the foregoing experiments, that fo far
from the luminous fubftance being of a phofphorefcent na-.
ture, it fometimes fhews the ftrongeft and moft conftant
light, when excluded from oxygen gas; that it, in no cir-
cumftances, undergoes any procefs like combuttion, but is
atually incapable of being inflamed; that the increafe of
heat, during the fhining of glow-qworms, is an accompani-
ment, and not an effect of the phenomenon, and depends
upon the excited ftate of the infect; and, Jaftly, that heat
and eleétricity increafe the exhibition of light, merely by
operating like other flimuli upon the vital properties of the
animal. Phil. Tranf. 1810, part u. :

In addition to thefe opinions, we may mention ‘that pro-
feffor Davy has found that the light of the glow. cvorm is not
rendered more brilliant in oxygen, or in oxygenated muriatic _
gas, than in common air; and that it is not fenfibly dis
minifhed in hydrogen gas.

We may further add, that Spallanzani’s experiments of
diffufing the luminous liquor of the medu/a in water, milky
and other fluids, are in dire contradi€tion of his own
theory, as is alfo the extin¢tion of the light of thefe mixtures
by the application of a high degree of heat. :

If the light emitted by animals were derived from their
food, or the air they refpire, as fuppofed by Carradori, the
phenomenon fhould be increafed or diminifhed, according to
the quantity of food or air that the creatures confume. But
we do not find this to be the cafe; for in thofe fituations
where they are fometimes found to be moft luminous, they
are deprived, in a great meafure, of thefe aflumed fources of
their light. ;

In faét, the luminous exhibitions of living animals are not
only independent of all foreign light, but are frequently
deftroyed by the latter. The fhining of the medu/e was al-. ”
ways feund by Mr. Macartney to ceafe wpon the rifing of
the moon, or at the approach of day; and when out of the
fea, he never could excite them to threw out light until
they had been kept for fome time in the dark: all the lu-
minous infe@ts likewife fecrete themfelves as much as poffible-
during the day-time, and go abroad’only at might. It is. -
true that the /colopendra electrica will not thine, unlefs it has”
been previoufly expofed to folar light; but it is to be ob-
ferved that it fhone as brilliantly and as frequently, after.
being kept a ‘hort time in a light fituation, as when left un-_
covered the whole day. The circumftance of the /co/a~
pendra requiring expofure previous to its giving out light,
is very unaccountable, as the infect, when left ‘to itfelf, al-
ways feeks as much a8 poflible concealment during the day :
indeed it is the opinion of fome naturaliits, that it is killed
by the light of the fun. ne .

We fhall terminate this article with the following conclu-
fions, drawn by Mr. Macartney from his own obfervations,
and from a careful review of all that had been written on
the fubject. “iia ,

‘The property of emitting light is confined to animals of
the fimpleft organization, the greater number of which ate
inhabitants of the fea. The luminous property is not cen=
ftant, but in general exifts only at certain periods, and in
particular ftates of the anima.’s body. ‘The power of fhew-

3 ing

LIGHT.

ing light refides in a peculiar fubftance or fluid, which is
fometimes fituated in a particular organ, and at others dif-
fufed throughout the animal’s body. ‘The light is differ-
ently regulated, when the luminous matter exilts in the
living body, and when it is abftra@ed from it. In the firft
eafe, it is intermitting, or alternated with periods of dark-
nefs; is commonly produced or increafed by a mufcular
effort ; and is fometimes abfolutely dependent upon the will
.of the animal. In the fecond cafe, the luminous appearance
is ufually permanent until it becomes extinét, after which it
may be reitored directly by friction, concuffion, and the ap-
plication of warmth; which laft caufes operate on the lu-
minous matter (while in the living body) only indire@ly,
\ by exciting the animal. The luminous matter, in all fitua-
tions, fo far from poffeffing phofphoric properties, is in-
combuitible, and lofes the quality of emitting light, by
being dried, or much heated. The exhibition of light,
however long it may be*continued, caufes no diminution of
the bulk of the luminous matter. It does not require the
ete of pure air, and is not extinguifhed by other
es.
: The luminous appearance of living animals is not ex-
hauited by long continuance, or frequent repetitions, nor
accumulated by expofure to natural light: it is, therefore,
not dependent upon any foreign fource, but inheres as a
property, ina peculiarly organized animal fubftance or fluid,
and is regulated by the fame laws which govern all the other
funétions of living beings. i

The light of the fea is always produced by living animals,
and molt frequently by the prefence of the medufa fcintillans.
When great numbers of this f{pecies approach the furface,
they fometimes coalefce together, and caufe that fhowy or
milky appearance of the fea, which is fo alarming to navi-
gators. Thefe animals, when congregated on the furface
of the water, can produce a flath of light, fomewhat like an
eleGtric corrufeation. When the luminous medufe are very
numerous, as frequently happens in confined bays, they
form a confiderable portion of the mafs of the fea, at which
times they render the water heavier, and more naufeous to
the talte : it is therefore advifeable to always ftrain fea-water
before it is drunk.

The luminous property does not appear to have any con-
nection with the economy of the animals that poflefs it,
except in the flying infeéts, which by that means difcover
each other at night, for the purpofe of fexual congrefs.

In the plates for illuttrating the prefent fubject in this
dictionary, the reader will only find figures of thofe luminous
animals which are not generally contained in books on natural
hiltory, or which are neceflary for the explanation of lately
difcovered facts. ;

Fig. 1. is the nereis no@iluca, difcovered by Vianelli, of
the natural fize.

Fig. 2. fhews the fame animal greatly magnified :~a is the
Ahead, furnifhed with two fhort antenne anda horn-like pro-
cefs; 4,5, the two eyes; c,c,c, fome of the lateral twilted
procefles proceeding from the fegments of the body ; d, d, d,
fome of the other lateral procefles that contain the tufts. .

Fig. 3. is the cruflaceaus infed, difcovered by Riville: a is
the tran{parent fhell, through which the internal parts of the
animal are vilible; 2, the fac containing the intettines; c,
one of the four-jointed fetaceous antenne ; d, the two feet
armed with hooks; ¢, the foot which terminates in claws ;

J; the ova, which’ Riville miftook for globules containing a
luminous oily fluid. ;

Fig. 4. exhibits the cancer fulgens, difcavered by fir Jofeph
Banks. It is given of the natural fize,

Fig. 5. reprefents the /inulus noGilucus, difcovered by
captain Horfburg, greatly magnified.

Fig. 6. is the medufa pellucens, difcovered
Banks, fhewn lefs than the natural fize.

Hig. 7. is the pyrefoma atlanticum, lately difcovered and
defcribed by Peron.

Fig. 8. thews the medufa lucida, defcribed by Mr. Ma-
cartney, of the largeit fize he met with,

Fig. 9. is the beroe fulgens, difcovered by Mr, Macartney.
It is reprefented of the ufual fize, and in the elongated form
the creature affumes when in the aét of {wimming.- On the
pofterior part are {een the ciliated ribs, which conftitute its
inftruments of locomotion,

Fig. 10. fhews the medu/u fcintillans, difcovered by Mr.
Macartney, as it appears to the naked eye.

Fig. 11. is the fame highly magnified, by which the
Opaque parts upon the fide and in the centre of the animal
are made apparent.

Fig. 12. is the animalcule, difcovered by Mr. Forfter, of
the fize it appears to the naked eye.

Fig. 13. exhibits a microfcopic view of the fame ani-
malcule.

Fig. 14. is an enlarged view of the inferior furface of the .
abdomen in the lampyris lucida, after the integuments had
been removed, as delineated by Mr. Macartney: a, a, ay ree
prefent the three maffes of luminous fulftance, which are
applied to the three lait rings of the abdomen; 3, 4, 6, the
arrangement of the cellular or interftitial fub{tance on the
other abdominal rings, which gives the pale colour to the
whole belly of this infect.

Fig. 15. reprefents the common glow-worm, with the
lower portion of the back cut away, to expofe the facs of
luminous matter in fitu on the laft ring of the belly: a in-
dicates the fac of one fide; the inteftine is feen to lie be=
tween them.

Fig. 16. is one of the light facs of the glow-qorm, taken
out and prodigioufly magnified, in order to fhew its ftruc-
ture, as defcribed by Mr. Macartney : a, the external part
of the fac, which is compofed of the interweaving of a {piral
fibre ; 4, the luminous fubftance feen-at one end, when the
fac has been ruptured to expofe its contents.

Fig. 17. is the elater nofilucus, with the thell of the corce-
let removed on one fide, by which the organ of light, de-
{cribed by Mr. Macartney, is uncovered; a, the yellow
tranfparent fpot of the corcelet; 4, the oyal mafs of-lu-
minous fubflance furrounded by an irradiation of the inter-
{titial fubltance ; c, the ends of the mufcles which are on the
infide of the corcelet.

Fig. 18. fhews the luminous apparatus of the ¢e/ater nodi-
lucus, confiderably magnified: a, the radiated appearance of
the interltitial fubftance around the oval mafs of luminous
fubftance : this mafsis feen to confit of a number of {mallér
parts; 4 fhews the arrangement of the interflitial {ubftance,
when it pafles down between the mufcles; c, the ends of
the mufcles of the back; d, the thell of the corcelet.

Fig. 19. is the elater ignitus : a indicates the yellow part
of the corcelet ; 4 {hews the {mail mafs of luminous fubftance
in this {pecies, the fhell being removed.

Lieut is alfo ufed to fignify the difpofition of obje@s
with regard to the receiving of light.

Thus we fay, a painting is feen in its proper light, when
its fituation, with regard to the light, is the fame with that
for which it was painted.

Lieut, in Agriculture and Gardening. Experience has
fhewn its infinite fervice to the growth of vegetables, con-
tributing exceedingly to facilitate their vegetation, and in-

; 5sE 2 creale

by fir Jofeph

LIGHT.

ereafe their perfection and duration ; as it is obvious moft
plants are conliderably more profperous, and attain their
perfeétion ina free expofure, fully open to the light and air,
than in fhady places ;. the fame is obferved of fruits. Thofe
growing in a fituation full to the light of the fun, are in
general more large and fair, ripening fooner, and more per-
feéily, as to beauty and richnefs of flavour, than fuch as
grow inthe fhade; thefe reafons fhould therefore determine
us to cultivate molt of the principal plants and fruits in
fituations open as much as poffible to the full light and in-
fluence of the fun ; though upon particular occafions, and
in the heat of fummer, fhady places may be neceffary for
fome forts of plants, though not where fhaded and dar-
kened by fpreading trees, &c, but a border opes above to
the full light, and only fhaded from the immediate rays of
the fun. For the general crops, a perfectly open, funny,
light fituation, free from the fhade of {preading trees, is al-
ways the molt proper.

And its utility is very evident, from plants growing in
garden-frames, green-houfes, &c. in winter ; when, in time
of fevere weather, covers or fhutters have been continued
long over the glafles, fo as to exclude the rays of light, they
become fickly, grow pale, and affume an unhealthy ap-
pearance fora long time ; the leaves often decaying or drop-
ping off; and frequently, when the covers are continued
very long without the admiffion of light, the whole plant in
many forts gradually dwindles and perifhes. Great atten-
tion is of courfe requilite in this cafe, when, from the feve-
rity of the weather, the ufe of other covers befides the glaffes
is neceflary, to take every opportunity of a favourable day,
or even an hour or two of aday, to admit the light as fully
as poflible. The fame is alfo the cafe with plants in early
hot-beds, fuch as cucumbers, melons, &c. which, early
in the year, require a covering of mats over the elaffes
every night; as when thefe additional covers are applied too
foon in the afternoon, and continued late in the morning, fo
as to keep the plants long in .darknefs, it is highly difad-
vantageous to their growth, caufing them to grow weak,
pale, and fickly. :

As light is, therefore, fo beneficial to plants in general,
it fhould be increafed as much as poflible to thofe in frames,
green-houfes, ftoves, &c. In thefe fituations it may be
ufeful to paint the infide of all fuch departments white, to
reflect the rays of light as muchas poffible, and particularly
in the nights, and in the day time, when the feverity of the
feafon requires covers or fhutters to be placed over the glafles
or other conveniences where plants are kept.

The author of Phytologia remarks, that the conteft for
light, as well as for air, which is fo vilible in the growth of
vegetables, fhews the former to be of great confequence to
their exiltence, as well as the latter. ‘hus many flowers
follow the fun during the courfe of the day, by the nutation
of the italks, not by the rotation of them, as obferved in the
fun-flower by Dr. Hales ; and the leaves of all plants endea-
vour to turn their upper furface to the light, which is their
refpiratory organ, or lungs. The great ufe of all plants
turning the upper furfaces of their leaves to the light is thus,
he thinks, intelligible ; the water perfpired from thofe fur-
faces is, he conceives, hyper-oxygenated; and, as it efcapes
from the fharp edges.ot the mooths of the perfpiring vef-
fels, when aéted upon by the fun’s light, gives out oxygen ;
which oxygen, thus liberated from the perfpired water, and
added to that of the common atmofphere, prefents to the
refpiratory terminations of the pulmonary arteries on the
upper furfaces of leaves an atmofphere more replete with vital
au. This neceffity of light to the refpiration of vegetables

is fo great, that there ts reafon to believe that many plants de
not refpire during the night, but exift ina torpid ftate, like |
the winter fleeping infeé&ts. Thus the mimofa, fenfitive-plant,
and many others, clofe the upper furfaces of their oppofite
leaves together during the night, and thus preclude them
both from the air and light ; and the internal furfaces of in-
numerable flowers, which are their refpiratory organs, are
clofed during the night, and thus unexpofed both to light
and air. It is, however, obferved, that the fungi, which
are termed vegetables, becaufe they are fixed to the earth,
orto the ftones, trees, or timber, where they are found,
can exitt without light or much air; as appears in the
truffle, which never appears above ground, and by other
fungi, which grow in dark cellars ; and in efculent mufhrooms,
which are cultivated beneath beds of ttraw. The etiolation,
or blanching of vegetables, depends upon the keeping of
the light from them.

It is further noticed that the element of light, as well as
that of heat, is neceflary to vegetation. In this climate they
both feem, in general, to be injurious only by their defect,
and feldom by their excefs. But as light acts as a ftimulus on
the more irritative or fenfitive parts of plants, which appears
by the expanfion of many flowers, and of fome leaves, when
the fun fhines on them; and by the nutation of the whole
flower, as of the fun-flower (helianthus), and by the bend-
ing of the fummits of all plants confined in houfes towards
the light ; there may be difeafes owing to the excefs of this
ftimulus, which have not been attended to; to prevent
which the flowers of tragopogon {falfaf, and of other plants,
clofe about noon. Other unobferved difeafes may be owing
to a defeét of the ftimulus of light ; as a mimo/a, fenfitive
plant, which had been confined ina dark room, did not open
its foliage, though late in the day, till many minutes after
it was expofed to the light. ‘I'he excefs of light has nor,
however, been obferved to be attended by vegetable difeafes
in thefe more northern latitudes fo much as in others.

Lieut, inthe Manege. A horfe is faid to be light, in
French ua cheval feger, that is, a {wift, nimble runner. We
likewife calla horfe light that is well made, though he is
neither {wift nor active : for in this lalt-expreflion we conli-
der only the fhape and make of a horfe, without regard to
his qualities. .

Light upon the hand ; a horfe is faidto be fuch, that has a
good tra¢table mouth, and does not reit too heavy upon the
bit.

AA coach-horfe is faid to be light, when he ftirs nimbly,
and dreads the whip ; or when he has a light trot.

Licur-ellied. A horfe is thus called that commonly has
flat, narrow, contracted fides, which make the flank tura
up like that of a grey-hound. ;

Licut-hand. See Hann.

Liat, in Painting, refers only to thofe effeéts which light
(properly fo called) produces upon the furfaces of natural
objects ; as exhibited by its reflection from them to the eye
of an obferver.

With regard to that art, light may be confidered in two
difinet points of view ; viz. as to the natural and the artifi-
cial effects arifing from it. * Vhe former is fimply the effect
produced upon the objects in a picture, by the direétion in
which it is introduced ; which being onee chofen, becomes a
politive rule ; and from which no variation can be allowed.
The latter is ideal, and requires only to be probable or pofli-
ble. It relates to the quantity of light employed to illultrate
the character of a fubjeét, and depends entirely upon the
tafte of the artift; who, by the ufe of ideal fhadows and
fictitious lights, may effeét a diminution or augmentation ta

d any

LIGH FP.

any proportion he pleafes. Thefe, together with light and
dark colours, form the bafis of chiaro-feuros one of the
grand fundamental principles of painting, of which we have
already treated under the article Crarr-onscure.

As light, when acting upon fubftantial forms, is always
accompanied by fhadow, and as they are neceflary adjuncts
to each other, we fhall here unite them, and treat of them
together. Itis by the contraft of each to the other, that
the effe€&t of either is produced by colours ; and however
paradoxical it may appear, it 1s neverthelefs true, that light
in the art of painting is not more neceflary to produce
fhadow, than fhade is for the production of light. The co-
lours which give the appearance of the former, obtain that
efe& only. when furrounded with darker ones, which contti-
tute fhade ; without the latter, they would appear nothing
more than an uninterefting mafs of one plain tone, without
any degree of the quality which is termed luminous; but
contrafted by their oppofites in tone, they become brilliant’;
and when form is fuperadded, obtain the character of
light. The fame, though in the contrary degree, is the
effe& of dark hues, which, without the contraft of lighter
ones, produce only a heavy, dull, vnmeaning mafs, that
merits not the appellation of fhade, till oppofed by other
tones, and rounded into form by the affiltance of light.

The management of light and fhade is the moit import-
ant of the practical parts of the art ; fince, without the true
arrangement of them, vain mult be every effort of the
painter to produce a juit refemblance of thofe things which
nature offers to our view, and which are the immediate ob-
je@ts of .his ftudy. Outline is but as the fection of a
body; and colour, a fimple, unvaried colour added to it,
would ftill in no-wife increafe its value as the reprefentative
of a fubftancé ; but let light and fhade be fuperadded, and
duly difpofed, and what was a flat furface becomes appa-
rently a rounded one, is relieved from its ground, and ap.
pears to ftart from the canvas.

The fources of light are in fact but two; viz. the fun
and fire: but to the painter a variety of modifications of thefe
two take place, and become equally feparate fources, with
diftin& qualities, both asto power and colour. Such, for
inftance, are the moon’s refleCting power ; that of the at-
mofphere when the fun is hid ; and lkewife the illumination
proceeding from a window into a room. ‘The effects pro-
duced by each of thefe differ fo widely from thofe of the
two former, that we may fairly fay there are five general
fources of light, at leaft, applicable to the purpofes of
painting. Of that proceeding direét from the fun in full
blaze, it can only be obferved, that, except for land{cape,
its ufe is confined in the art ; being too powerful, and pro-
ducing fhadows ‘too harfh, for the more interetting and
agreeable fubjects of fancy or hiftory. The fofter illumi-
nation refleded from thofe parts of the atmofphere oppofed
to the fun, is ufually and reafonably preferréd ; or that which
the heavens yield when the fource of its light is hid in clouds,
though not when it is too much loft in the gloom of tempett
for then the lights and fhadows become too indiftinct
and confufed. The open light of the air has another cha-
racter diftin& from the two juft mentioned: whichis, when
the fun is but faintly obfcured by thick clouds, through
which its rays penetrate with diminifhed luitre, bur ftill in
dire& lines. In this cafe the light, though direct and cauf-
ing fhadows the fame in form as when its fource is unobferved,
is yet but weak and foft; and the fhadows it produces
being effeéted by the general light of the atmofphere, are
tender in their outline and tone. When the reflected light
proceeding from the northern parts of the atmofphere is ad-

mitted through a window into a room, it aflumesa mid-way
charaéter. For while the light is weaker, and confequently
fofter than fun-fhine ; the fhadows, owing to the {mallnefs
of the aperture, become diftinét but not harfh ; and their
diltin&nefs is heightened by the room whercin is the window,
(swvhich may be confidered as an original fource,) receiving
only a partial quantity of light, and confequently little or
no refleétion takes place, except from furrounding and con-
tiguous ebjeéts upon each other : whereas, when a figure is
fo placed in open air as to receive the light reflected from the
fky, it partakes of it in every direétion, and therefore has
little or,no fhadow ; for there will be few parts where fome
rays of light will not, under fuch circumitances, find ad-
miflion.

Wher the light proceeds direét from the fun, it is ufual,
though not itri¢tly correét, to confider its rays as parallel,
and confequently no enlargement or diminution takes place
in lengthened fhadows. But, in reality, its diltance, which
diminithes its fize apparently, added to the effect of peripec-
tive, produces a real variation in fhadows of objeéts whofe
magnitude is at all confiderable. This is always the cafe
when the fource of light is larger or fmaller than the illu-
mined body. In the former cafe, the fhadow of a fufpend-
ed ball would diminifh to a point ; as that of the earth does
from the light of the fun: and in the latter it would dilate as
it was extended, and project a fhadow ata certain dutance,
large in proportion to the comparative f{mallnefs of the lu-
minous body; as of the flame of a candle, for initance,
compared to a tennis-ball.

Shadows by day-light feldom become totally obfcure : an
objeét mutt be placed in a fituation where it could receive
very little indeed of that peculiar illumination, without hav-
ing fome reflections falling into its fhades, and confequently
yielding fome vifible effet ef the forms on which they fell.
But by fire and candle-light, owing to the confined iffue of
their rays, forms hid in the fhadows they projeét are often
totally loft: neverthelefs, thefe fhadows are not blacknefs,
but darknefs, of a colour whofe hue depends upon that of
the larger mafs of furrounding bodies... Under ‘many cir-
cumitances they receive reflections, and have a confequent
degree of colour in the bodies that lie within their range.

There are two caufes which operate to weaken and eyen
deilroy the force of refleétedlight. The one is the diftance
at which the reflecting object is fituated from the luminary ;
the other, the diftance of the fame from the obferver. When
thefe two circumitances combine, the effect of light and
fhade is very weak.

To comprehend the principle upon which the illumina-
tion and confequent fhadows of objects are produced, and
to imitate them the moft effectually, the painter mutt recol-
le&, that light, whencefoever it iffues, proceeds rectili-
neally from its fource to the furface which intercepts it ; and
is reflected in the fame way, at an eqnal angle withthe plane
of that furface, but in an inverfe direction. In the language
of optics, the angle of refletion is. equal to the angle of inci-
dence. ‘has is the fimple but general rule, which is intalli-
bly to guide the artilt through all the difficulties of light
and fhade in painting: whether arifing from direct er re-
flected illumination, this one principle holds equally good in
all ; but the lines whieh it forms in the fhadows, ere fub-
jet to the variations produced by perfpeétive on all folid bo-
dies whereon light can act.

The moft important application of this rele the artift will
find to be, in fixing upen the precife point where he fhould
difpofe of his moft brilliant hues; or what are technically
termed his high lights ; which are, in reality, thofe parts o&

his

LiG kT.

his objects, where, if the furface be a polifhed one, the’
image of the luminary is reflected; and is of courfe that
one which, to the eye of an obferver,:is moft illuminated,
Thefe reflections will always be found to take place only on
that point from whence a line drawn to the‘luminary, and
another to the eye of the arti(t, form angles equal to each
ether with the plane of the furface of the illuminated object.
For though it may not in reality be the precife fpot where
the greateft humber of rays of light are intercepted by that
body, yet it is effeCtually fo to him whofe eye can only re-
ceive thofe which are thrown off in refleGtion towards him.
It may be obferved as a confequence of this rule,,that the
extreme edge of a rounded body can fearcely ever be its
brighte% part ; it will, as it recedes from the obferver, lofe
to him its luftre, and melt into the ground or objeé& behind
it; or, if relieved by a flat obje% equally white with itfelf,
a dark line will be feen to mark its boundary, in whatever
fituation the fource of light may be, within a right angle
with a line drawn from the objec to an obferver ; or fome-
what beyond that, to nearly 135 degrees.

It is fcarcely neceffary here to fpeak of the refraGtion of
light from its original courfe, when pafling through various
fubitances, as glafs or water; except to deprecate payins
any attention to it in-a picture where any effential form is
broken in upon by it; or choofing fuch fubjeéts, where de-
viation from general rules ferve rather to“confound than to
fatisfy the common underitanding of mankind. Thefe co-
pying the pofitive truth would create confufion, it is moft
juit, at lealt moft wfeful, to vary from it: as in painting the
portrait of a man with fpeétacles on. What _artift in his
fenfes, and who had a true perception of the real obje& of
art, would think of painting exa&ly that which prefents
itfelf to his view, a politive deformity, eyes mifplaced, and
of monftrous form; for fuch they are when feen through
the glafles. Such procedure would totally defeat the ob-
ject of portraiture ; for it would be hardly poffible to make
a likenefs of the perfon, with fuch a variation from the pofi-
tive form of his face. F

The dire€tion in which the light falls upon the objeéts
introduced into a picture, and which we propofed at the
beginning of this article as one of the points of view in
which to confider the fubje¢t, is of very great importance on
many accounts, and calls for the molt attentive confideration
of the artift before he begins to colour his pi€ture, and even
in the compofition of his forms. If, without previous atten-
tion to this, he proceeds to execute his compofition, and
complete the developement of his ideas, he would be for-
tunate if he did not find in his progrefs, that the neceffity he
was under of making fhadows to bring out his forms, very
frequently deftroyed his general fhapes, which previoufly ap-
peared well when in lines only. A due attention to this, in
the firit inflance, would frequently fuggeft ideas of forms,
and afhft him in filling his canvas agreeably, and in exprefs-
ing the chara¢ter of his fubje€&ts appropriately. It is, how-
ever, utterly impollible to give précife rules upon this fubje&
in hiftorical pamtings, as it depends fo entirely upon the na-
ture of the iubjects, and the local fituations of the actors
introduced. One general rule only may be given, vix. that
the difpofition of the figures fhould be fuch,* with regard to
the fource of light, as to produce ample maffes of light and
fhadow: either of the one or the other predominant, ac-
cordingly as the fubject is grave or gay. If the fubje& be
of one fingle figure, then it is requifite (and more eafily to
be managed) that care be taken that the light falls upon it
in fuch a manner as accords with the aétion, and produces
no unpleafant fhapes, For great grace may be added to

figures by light and fhade when agreeably difpofed ; and on
the contrary, an unfortunate difpofal of them may diminith
the effect, if not totally deftroy the moft beautifully drawn
figure imaginable. ’

In portraiture, fomething more precife may be faid upon
this fubje&t. Its objeét is to convey a refemblance of a
perfon in the moft agreeable manner, generally {peaking ;
yet therein much muft remain which the rules cannot attach
to, particularly where the objeét is to convey chara¢ter
ftrongly, and not merely to render the picture agreeable. _
In the latter cafe, if a perfon be fo placed with regard to the
window or luminary, that the light falls upon him at an
angle of about 45 dex., end the greater part of the face be
expofed to it, the purpofe will be anfwered. A» ftill more
acute angle will give greater relievo, but the effeét will not
be fo pleafing. Whether the face fhould be turned direfily
facing the light, or fo as to receive it partially, mutt entirely
depend upon the character of the features. If large, they”
will bear a full light ; if of a fmaller and more delicate na-
ture, a little inclination from the light will give more force
and variety. But where the objeét is to convey charagter
{trongly, to the difregard of pofitive beauty, there the cha-
racter only is the guide, and every angle of illumina-
tion, with any turn towards or from it, may effect the ob-
ject, according to the ftamp which nature has laid upon the
face to be painted.

The angle of 45 deg. or thereabouts, is alfo the beft for
the general illumination of a picture while the artift is em-
ployed upon it, with fuch an inclination from the fource of
light, that no reflection of it is prefented to his eye.» He
will, in this fituation of his work to the light, be leatt in his’
own way, and fee the whole of it together moft effectually ;
but this is an obje& of lefler moment ; a good artilt need not
wait to have his pi€ture precifely in the very beft fituation,
to enable him to perform his tafk with pleafure or effect.
Indeed he cannot always have it fo, particularly when en-
gaged in adorning walls and ceilings, &c. :

With regard to the fecond divifion of our fubje&, or the
quantity of light proper to be introduced into a picture,
which is a matter that lies entirely at the difcretion of the
artilt, we mutt principaliy refer our readers to what has
been faid under the articles CLAIR-oBSCURE, and Errecrt,
in Painting ; more particularly the latter, where we have
fhewn that various matters have adopted as various quantities,
and fhade them all agreeable. The fubjeé, the place, and
the time, muft govern this point, and the talte of the artift
muft lead him to decide the matter for himfelf; his only
guide is, the moft natural, and at the fame time the moit
effective, illuftration of his fubject.

Another point for confideration, is the tone of colour
which fhould be-given to the light. Of this, alfo, we have
treated under the words Errecr, in Painting, and HAnMony
in the fame art, and need only {tate here, tnat whatever hue
is adopted, the fame fhould range through the whole picture,
except when two kinds of light are introduced, as day-light
and candle-light. In that cafe the former will be of a cold
colour ; and in fituations where fhadows from the candle falk
over parts illumined by the day, thofe parts, if the object be
white, will appear of a light blue, as may be feen when
candles are lighted and placed on a table-cloth, where rays
of twilight can reach, The warm colour thrown off by the
flame of the candle, imparts its nature to whatever it ilu-
mines, and as it is nearly yellow, it renders white and yellow
very nearly alike in hue, and makes green appear biue, and
purple nearly fo. This renders it a difficult matter to paint
by candle-light for a day-light exhibition. The _artift si

rely

L hGH oT.

rely very much upon his judgment and previous knowledge
of his colours who attempts it, or all the delicate admixture
of teints and hues will efcape him. Rubens has very fre-
quently fuceeeded in the admixture of lights, and in one
picture particularly, his beautitul work of “St. Roch inter-
ceding for the unhappy Sufferers from the Plague.” And
Titian has rendered moft beautifully the effect of three
lights, viz. thofe of the day, of fire, and of candle, in his
grand work of «The Martyrdom of St. Lawrence ;” and
has contrived to produce one harmonious tone over the whole,
while each part is charaCteriftically maintained.

Lieut, in Sea Language, is ufed in contradiftinG&tion to
Jaden. A fhip is accordingly called light, either when fhe
has no cargo, or when fhe is not fufficiently ballafted.

Lieut is alfo ufed for the luminous body that emits it.
There are various kinds of lights; genera/ lights, as the air ;
particular lights, as a fire, a candle, and even the fun.

Licuts, in Architecture, denote doors, windows, -and other
places, through which the air and light have a paflage.

In the Pantheon, all the light comes from on high ; it has
no lights. but in the dome.

Licurs, in Gardening, a term applied to the moveable
glazed fafhes which cover garden and other frames ; and
which, according to the number of lights, or feparate move-*
able glaffes, are denominated one-light, two light, and three-
light frames ; thefe being the moft general different fizes of
this fort of frame. See Frame and Garpen-Frame.

Licurs, Feaft of. See DepicaTion.

Licuts, Stopping, of a houfe, is a nuifance; but {topping
a profpect is not, being only matter of delight, not of ne-
ceffity. If aman has a vacant piece of ground, and builds
thereupon a houfe, with good lights, which he fells or lets
to another ; and afterwards builds upon ground contiguous,
or lets the fame to another perfon, who builds thereupon to .
the nuifance of the lights of the firft houfe; the leflee of
the firft houfe may have an aétion of the cafe againft fuch
builder, &c. And though formerly they were to be lights:
of an ancient meffuage, that is now altered.

Licur-horfe, an ancient term in our Englifh cuftoms, fig-
nifying an ordinary cavalier, or horfeman lightly armed, and
fo as to enter a corps or regiment ; in oppofition to the men
at arms, who were heavily accoutred, and armed at alli
points. See Cayatry and Horse.

END OF VOL. XX.

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